Bodies)

EMBODIED SOULS, ENSOULED BODIES
AN EXERCISE IN CHRISTOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE

MIND/BODY DEBATE

with special reference to Karl Barths Church Dogmatics III/2

________________

A Thesis

Submitted to the Faculty of

St. Marys College

University of St. Andrews

St. Andrews, Scotland

________________

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy in Theology

________________

By

Marc Cortez

2006

Copyright

In submitting this thesis to the University of St Andrews I understand that I am
giving permission for it to be made available for use in accordance with the
regulations of the University Library for the time being in force, subject to any
copyright vested in the work not being affected thereby. I also understand that the
title and abstract will be published, and that a copy of the work may be made and
supplied to any bona fide library or research worker.

Date ______________ Signature of Candidate ___________________________
Abstract

Contemporary developments in cognitive neuroscience are having a profound impact on
the philosophy of mind as philosophers work to understand the implications of these
advances for appreciating what it means to be a human person. At the same time, a recent
consensus has formed among contemporary theologians around the thesis that Jesus
Christ is the revelation of what it means to be truly human. Unfortunately, very few
thinkers have made any concerted effort to bring these two developments into dialogue
with one another. This study addresses this lack by drawing on the anthropological
insights of Karl Barth and bringing them to bear on certain aspects of the contemporary
discussions regarding the mind/brain relationship.

The thesis thus comprises two major sections. The first develops an understanding of
Karl Barths theological anthropology focusing on three major facets: (1) the centrality
of Jesus Christ for any real understanding of human persons; (2) the resources that such a
christologically determined view of human nature has for engaging in interdisciplinary
discourse; and (3) the ontological implications of this approach for understanding the
mind/body relationship. The second part of the study then draws on this theological
foundation to consider the implications that understanding human nature christologically
has for analyzing and assessing several prominent ways of explaining the mind/body
relationship.

This study, then, is an exercise in understanding the nature of a christocentric
anthropology and its implications for understanding human ontology. While it will
devote significant attention to the theology of Karl Barth and various contemporary
philosophers of mind, its fundamental aim is to draw together these apparently disparate
fields of inquiry by engaging both theology and philosophy in a vital dialogue on the
nature of the human person as revealed in the person and work of Jesus Christ.
ii
Declarations

I, Marc Cortez, hereby certify that this thesis, which is approximately 90,000 words in
length, has been written by me, that it is the record of work carried out by me and that it
has not been submitted in any previous application for a higher degree.


I was admitted as a research student in October, 2004 and as a candidate
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in November 2005; the higher study for which
this is a record was carried out in the University of St Andrews between 2004 and 2006.


I hereby certify that the candidate has fulfilled the conditions of the Resolution and
Regulations appropriate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of St
Andrews and that the candidate is qualified to submit this thesis in application for that
degree.

Date ______________ Signature of Supervisor __________________________

iii
Table of Contents

COPYRIGHT......................................................................................................................................... I
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................................... II
DECLARATIONS ................................................................................................................................ III
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................IV
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION: RECENTERING THEOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY........ 1
1. WHO ARE WE?: THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL QUESTION AND THE ONTOLOGY OF HUMAN
BEINGS........................................................................................................................................... 1
2. ECCE HOMO: RECENTERING THEOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY................................................... 3
2.1. The Christocentric Turn in Theological Anthropology................................................... 3
2.2. The Christocentric Turn and the Mind/Body Debate...................................................... 5
3. WHO IS HE?: THE CENTRALITY OF JESUS CHRIST IN THE THEOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY OF
KARL BARTH ................................................................................................................................. 8
4. THE MIND/BRAIN DEBATE TODAY, A WIDE OPEN FIELD? .......................................................... 11
5. AN EXERCISE IN CHRISTOCENTRIC ANTHROPOLOGY................................................................... 13
CHAPTER 2FROM CHRISTOLOGY TO ANTHROPOLOGY: THE ONTOLOGICAL
DETERMINATION OF HUMANITY IN KARL BARTHS THEOLOGICAL
ANTHROPOLOGY .................................................................................................................................. 18
1. CHRISTOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY: THE CHRISTOCENTRIC SHAPE OF BARTHS
THEOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY.................................................................................................. 18
2. THE THEANTHROPOLOGICAL TWIST IN BARTHS DOCTRINE OF CREATION ................................. 20
3. THE ONTOLOGICAL DETERMINATION OF HUMAN PERSONS IN JESUS CHRIST.............................. 24
3.1. Grounded in the Decree: The Subject and Object of the Eternal Decree of
Election......................................................................................................................... 25
3.2. Continuing in Sin: The Covenantal Faithfulness of Christ as the Guarantor of
Human Nature............................................................................................................... 29
3.3. Confronted by the Other: The Summons to Being......................................................... 32
4. THE METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK FOR A CHRISTOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY ...................... 34
4.1. Like Us, But Different: Jesus Unique Relation to the Father ...................................... 34
4.2. The Starting Point, But Not the Ending Point: The Impossibility of Reducing
Anthropology to Christology......................................................................................... 37
5. THE CRITERIA OF A CHRISTOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY.............................................................. 39
5.1. Christological Discernment: The Person and Work of Jesus Christ as the
Framework for Theological Anthropology ................................................................... 39
5.2. Anthropological Inference: Moving from Christology to Anthropology....................... 42
6. CONCLUSION: THE ASSUMPTION OF ASSUMPTIONS ..................................................................... 44
CHAPTER 3CONVERSING WITH THE ENEMY? THE PHENOMENA OF THE
HUMAN AND THE NATURE OF A CHRISTOLOGICALLY DETERMINED DIALOGUE.... 46
1. ENGAGING THE PERSISTENT RIVALS OF A CHRISTOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY............................ 46
2. THE RADICALLY CHRISTOCENTRIC NATURE OF KARL BARTHS THEOLOGY ............................ 47
2.1. Clarifying the Center: The Ambiguity of the Term Christocentric............................. 47
2.2. Determining Karl Barths Brand of Christocentrism ................................................... 51
2.3. A Properly Delimited Christocentrism: The Adequacy of the Christocentric
Label ............................................................................................................................. 62
3. SEEING THE HUMAN, IN PART: THE PHENOMENA OF THE HUMAN............................................... 63
3.1. Science and Speculation: The Impossibility of Other Vantage Points on the True
Human........................................................................................................................... 64
3.2. The Phenomena of the Human vs. the Symptoms of Real Humanity............................. 66
3.3. Partial Perspectives: The Limitations of a Phenomenological Viewpoint.................... 68
4. JOINING THE DIALOGUE: KARL BARTH AT THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL ROUNDTABLE .................... 70
4.1. Biology, Moral Agency, and Existential Subjectivity: The Conversation Partners ...... 71
4.2. Seeing the Phenomena: The Affirming Conversation ................................................... 73
4.3. Veiling the Phenomena: The Critical Conversation ..................................................... 74
5. DIALOGUE VS. MONOLOGUE: WE ARE TALKING BUT IS ANYONE LISTENING?............................ 79
6. CONCLUSION: OPEN AND CLOSEDA PROPERLY DELIMITED CONVERSATION .......................... 83
iv
CHAPTER 4CHRIST, SPIRIT, AND COVENANT: A MODEL FOR HUMAN
ONTOLOGY.............................................................................................................................................. 86
1. WHOLENESS, DUALITY, AND ORDER: THE TERMS OF BARTHS CONCRETE ONTOLOGY.............. 86
2. THE WHAT, HOW, AND WHY OF BARTHS CONCRETE ONTOLOGY ................................................ 90
2.1. The Significance of the Who? Question for Human Ontology.................................. 90
2.2. What Are We? Wholeness, Duality, and Order in Human Nature................................ 92
2.3. The Pneumatological How: The Holy Spirit and Human Ontology............................ 105
2.4. Covenentally Constituted: The Why of Human Ontology ........................................... 110
3. CHRISTOLOGY AND ONTOLOGY: A CHRISTOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK FOR A THEORETICAL
ONTOLOGY ................................................................................................................................ 113
3.1. The Ontological Criteria of Barths Christological Ontology. ................................... 114
3.2. The Framing of a Theoretical Ontology ..................................................................... 121
4. CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................................. 123
CHAPTER 5PHYSICALISM, BUT NOT REDUCTIONISM: CHRISTOLOGICAL
ADEQUACY AND NONREDUCTIVE FORMS OF PHYSICALISM........................................... 125
1. THE PROSPECT OF A CHRISTOLOGICALLY ADEQUATE PHYSICALIST ONTOLOGY....................... 125
2. WHAT IS NONREDUCTIVE PHYSICALISM? ................................................................................... 126
2.1. The First Principle of Nonreductive Physicalism: Epistemological Nonreduction .... 129
2.2. The Second Principle of Nonreductive Physicalism: Physical Monism...................... 131
2.3. The Third Principle of Nonreductive Physicalism: Causal Efficacy of the Mental .... 138
2.4. The Fourth Principle of Nonreductive Physicalism: Asymmetric Psychophysical
Dependence................................................................................................................. 139
3. CHRISTOLOGY AND COHERENCE: THE VIABILITY OF NONREDUCTIVE FORMS OF
PHYSICALISM............................................................................................................................. 145
3.1. Descartes Revenge: The Problem of Mental Causation............................................ 146
3.2. Experiencing Subjectivity: The Problem of Phenomenal Consciousness ................... 159
3.3. I Am I, But Am I the Same I that I Was Yesterday?: The Problem of Personal
Identity ........................................................................................................................ 167
4. IS THERE HOPE FOR NONREDUCTIVE FORMS OF PHYSICALISM: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS .... 176
CHAPTER 6ACROSS THE CARTESIAN DIVIDE: CHRISTOLOGICAL ADEQUACY
AND HOLISTIC FORMS OF DUALISM........................................................................................... 178
1. MOVING BEYOND THE CARTESIAN CRITIQUE: CONTEMPORARY SUBSTANCE DUALISM............ 178
2. WHAT IS HOLISTIC DUALISM? ................................................................................................... 181
2.1. Understanding the Cartesian Divide .......................................................................... 181
2.2. Understanding the Holistic Alternative ...................................................................... 189
3. CHRISTOLOGY AND COHERENCE: THE VIABILITY OF HOLISTIC FORMS OF DUALISM................ 194
3.1. Making Things Happen: The Problem of Mental Causation (Again) ......................... 194
3.2. Chunks of Matter: The Problem of Personal Embodiment ......................................... 206
3.3. Living Eternally: The Problem of an Immortal Substance.......................................... 213
4. IS THERE HOPE FOR HOLISTIC FORMS OF SUBSTANCE DUALISM?: PROBLEMS AND
PROSPECTS................................................................................................................................. 214
CHAPTER 7CONCLUSION: SHARPENING OUR CHRISTOLOGICAL VISION.............. 216
1. MAKING THE CHRISTOCENTRIC TURN ....................................................................................... 216
2. CLARIFYING CHRISTOCENTRIC ANTHROPOLOGY....................................................................... 216
3. A CHRISTOLOGICAL VIEW OF AN ONTOLOGICAL PANORAMA ................................................... 218
4. EXTENDING OUR CHRISTOLOGICAL VISION............................................................................... 220

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................. 222
v

Chapter 1
Introduction:
Recentering Theological Anthropology

1. Who Are We?: The Anthropological Question and the Ontology of Human Beings

What is man that you are mindful of him,
And the son of man that you care for him? (Ps. 8:3, ESV)

On five different occasions the biblical authors raise this fundamental query,
what we might call the anthropological question (see also Job 7:17; 15:14; Psa. 144:3;
Heb. 2:6). In so doing, they participate in humanitys ongoing pursuit to answer such
basic questions as: Who are we? What are we? What are we supposed to be doing? Who
are we in relation to everything else? This is a pursuit with decisive implications:

So much depends on our conception of human nature: for
individuals, the meaning and purpose of our lives, what we ought to
do or strive for, what we may hope to achieve or to become; for
human societies, what vision of human community we may hope to
work toward and what sort of social changes we should make. Our
answers to all these huge questions depend on whether we think there
is some 'true' or 'innate' nature of human beings. If so, what is it?
(Stevenson and Haberman 1998:3)

Although the anthropological question thus seems a simple query, it is one with the
greatest philosophical [and theological] ramifications (R. Taylor 1983:8).
Located within this broader pursuit for anthropological insight, a long tradition of
inquiry has sought to understand the ontological constitution of human persons. Thinkers
of all disciplines have striven to determine the proper way to construe the nature and
number of the composite elements (e.g., mental, physical, spiritual, etc.) of a human
beingi.e., a single, physical substance (physicalism), a single, non-physical substance
1
(idealism), or two distinct substances (dualism).
1
While this debate, often referred to as
the mind/brain or body/soul debate,
2
has a long and storied history, the implications
raised by recent scientific and philosophical developments have given the ontological
debate a vitality and a focus that has seldom been seen before (Jeeves 2004b:vii). Indeed,
in the latter part of the twentieth century the achievements of the brain sciences (e.g.,
neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, cognitive science, etc.)
3
and the rapid rise of
philosophy of mind to a place of prominence among the philosophical disciplines
4
were
so remarkable that the 1990s were officially declared the Decade of the Brain
5
and the
2000s have subsequently been dubbed the Decade of the Mind (e.g., Borenstein 2001).
Thus, according to Joel Green, quantum leaps in our understanding of the brain in the
last three decades are rewriting our understanding of who we are (2005:6).
The tremendous possibilities, challenges, and potential liabilities generated by
these and other late-twentieth century advances like human cloning have caused
contemporary thinkers to ask the anthropological question with renewed urgency
(Price 2002:1-2). Spanning multiple disciplines, these implications encompass a wide
range of issuese.g., determining the relationships and distinctions that obtain between
humans, other animals, and machines; understanding human agency, moral
responsibility, and free will; making sense of our traditional affirmations of human

1
As we will see with respect to physicalism and dualism, there are a variety of different ways in
which each of these can be formulated.
2
Since a large portion of this thesis focuses on contemporary philosophy of mind, I will tend to
use the more common (in that field) mind/body label rather than the more theologically oriented body/soul.
For more on the shift from soul-talk to mind-talk, see Jeeves 2004c.
3
We will briefly survey some of these developments in chapter 6. For useful summaries see
Jeeves 1998, 2004c.
4
Although philosophical thinking about the nature of the human person and, more specifically,
humanitys mental aspects can be traced back to the dim recesses of ancient philosophy (cf. Humphrey
1999; Crane and Patterson 2000; Wright and Potter 2000; MacDonald 2003), Jaegwon Kim points out that
modern philosophy of mind really begins with the publication of seminal essays by U. T. Place (1956),
Hebert Feigl (1958), and J. J. C. Smart (1959) (1998a:3-4). He does recognize that the origins of 20
th

century philosophy of mind could be identified with earlier studies by C. D. Broad (1925) and Gilbert Ryle
(1948), but he argues that neither was responsible for the shape of the modern debate in the way that these
three essays were.
5
In 1990 the U. S. Congress, followed by President George Bush, made this an official
designation in an effort to enhance public awareness of the benefits to be derived from brain research (cf.
House Joint Resolution 174 and Presidential Proclamation 6158).
2
dignity and value; and responding rightly to the rapid technological advances on display
in areas like human cloning and artificial intelligence. In addition, we must recognize
that the way in which we formulate our understanding of human ontology bears directly
on a variety of theological questions: What does it mean to say that humans are created
in the image of God? What does it mean to be saved? What is the nature and locus of sin
in human life? How does ones neurophysiological makeup affect her spiritual growth
and well-being? What role does physicality play in worship and prayer? What happens to
the human person after death? Philosophical, ethical, and theological questions such as
these indicate the seriousness with which we should approach the task of developing a
proper understanding of what it means to be a human person.
As we will see in the later chapters of this study, however, the tremendous
complexity of both the relevant problems and the proposed solutions comprises a serious
obstacle to providing an adequate account of human ontology. Indeed, the debate has
raged for so long and the various arguments are, at times, so convoluted that one
wonders whether any attempt to provide such an account is hopelessly ambitious
(Polkinghorne 1994:10). Consequently, rather than attempt to unravel this labyrinthine
debate in all of its philosophical, theological, historical, and scientific complexity, this
study will explore the possibility of approaching the issue from a decidedly different
direction.

2. Ecce Homo: Recentering Theological Anthropology
2.1. The Christocentric Turn in Theological Anthropology
Although we have seen that the biblical authors were keenly interested in the
anthropological question, it is important to realize that they did not regard this as an
unanswered question. Instead, these authors consistently placed the anthropological
question within a theological framework that provided the basis for its answer (cf. Miller
2004). The Old Testament authors thus ask, What is man that you magnify him? (7:17),
What is man that you take thought of him? (Ps. 8:3), What is man that you take
knowledge of him? (Ps. 144:3).
6
At each point, then, the very nature of the question
points the reader toward humanitys covenantal relationship with its Creator. For these

6
Even Job 7:17, where the theological reference point is not immediately stated, asks the question
within the overall context of humanitys relation to God and Gods righteous requirements.
3
biblical authors, humanity is not an undefined term awaiting conceptual clarity. Instead,
it refers to a creature clearly defined and delineated by its standing in relation to God.
7
This covenantal answer to the anthropological question receives even sharper
focus in the New Testament. In Hebrews 2:6, the focal point for the question is not
humanity in general but the person of Jesus Christ.
8
Paul also grounds an understanding
of humanity in Jesus. Although Genesis 1:28 identifies all human persons as being
created in the image of God, Paul makes it clear that Jesus alone is the proper image of
God (2 Cor. 4:4; Col. 1:15); other humans share in the expression of that image only
insofar as they are united with Christ and transformed into his image (Rom. 8:29; 1 Cor.
15:49; 2 Cor. 3:18).
9

The significance of this christological shift in understanding the human person
cannot be overstated. Indeed, a growing number of Christian theologians locate
modernitys inability to understand human nature in the fundamentally misguided
attempt to derive a complete picture of the human person independently of the
perspective provided by the person of Jesus Christ. Such an attempt is necessarily
flawed, according to these theologians, because only Jesus Christ reveals who and what
human persons truly are. Thus, Ray Anderson argues, only the humanity of
Christ...discloses the radical form of true humanity (1982:19). Others similarly contend
that Jesus is the mystery of man (Zizioulas 1975:433), true humanity (Sherlock
1996:18), the archetype of humanity (Nellas 1987:33), and the revelation of what
human nature is intended to be (Erickson 1998:532). Indeed, this commitment to a
Christological perspective (Grenz 2004:626) on the human person has become so
pervasive that theologians can speak of a broad theological consensus (McFarland
2001:6) and a shared conviction (A. Torrance 2004:208) regarding the centrality of
Jesus Christ in any attempt to understand the nature of human persons.

7
We will discuss the covenantal determination of humanity more fully in chapter 2.
8
Barth thus argues that What is man? is a question that ultimately has a christological answer
(1956, III/2, 20). Throughout this study, all page numbers will be understood to refer to volume III/2,
unless otherwise indicated. All other references to the Church Dogmatics will be by volume and part
number (e.g., IV/1).
9
Although Paul can speak in Col. 3:10 of human persons being renewed into the image of their
creator, it is clear from other passages (cf. esp. Col. 1:15) that Paul views Jesus as the one in whom the
imago is fully realized. Consequently, others come to image God mediately through participation in him.
4
Consequently, according to these theologians failing to view humanity from this
christological vantage point can only result in a distorted picture. But, as Wolfhart
Pannenberg argues, this is precisely the error of most contributions to modern
anthropology (1985:15; cf. also Loder 1994). Similarly, John Haldane observes the
rarity of any significant encounter between theology and philosophy of mind; a state he
regards as unfortunate given the potential such a conversation would have for
enlightening our understanding of human persons (1991). Robert Jenson contends that
the difficulties we have with such basic concepts as death, consciousness, freedom, and
even reality itself stem from a failure to understand them from the perspective provided
by the Trinity and the incarnation (2003). Indeed, John Macquarrie (1979) and Thomas
Morris (1984) have separately argued that many modern thinkers are guilty of inverting
the process entirely; instead of understanding the human person in light of the
incarnation, they attempt to understand the incarnation in light of a non-christological
picture of the human person. Such an approach can only distort our view of both Jesus
and human persons in general.

2.2. The Christocentric Turn and the Mind/Body Debate
Despite the widespread consensus on the determinative significance of the
incarnation for understanding the human person and the tremendous impact of recent
scientific and philosophical investigations into the nature of the brain and the mind, it is
striking that contemporary theologians have made relatively little effort to understand the
latter development in light of the former.
10
That is, while contemporary theological
anthropology is marked in many ways by a commitment to viewing the human person
christologically, the same cannot be said for its considerations of human ontology.
Although one finds occasional assertions to the effect that Christology, especially a
particular view of the incarnation, supports some anthropological ontology,
11
one rarely
encounters any sustained attempt to think through the implications of this christological

10
This is particularly surprising given that many of those who are actively involved in the
mind/body discussion are keenly aware of the theological issues involved.
11
For example, some dualists argue that the incarnation provides implicit support for substance
dualism (e.g., Taliaferro 1994:242-243; Goetz 2005:33-34) while others argue the same for physicalism
(e.g., Thatcher 1987:183-184).
5
framework for understanding human ontology.
12
Indeed, some theologians seem more
concerned with moving in the opposite direction. For example, Nancey Murphy has
recently noted that positions on the mind/brain discussion may have implications for
thinking about the person of Christ (1998a:23), but she never reverses the directionality
of her query to consider the implications of Christology for her understanding of the
mind/brain relationship. If Jesus Christ is the revelation of true humanity, however,
would it not seem reasonable to consider every aspect of human existence, including
human ontology, in light of his person and work?
We can certainly attribute this lack of christological reflection on the mind/body
discussion to a number of different factors. For our purposes, however, three stand out as
the most significant. First, although we have seen that contemporary theologians are fond
of stating that Jesus Christ is the revelation of true humanity, one finds little sustained
reflection on why this is the case, what it means for understanding human persons, and
how one goes about drawing anthropological conclusions from this christological starting
point.
13
Rather, such affirmations are often isolated from these methodological
considerations. But, without a more robust framework for understanding the ground and
methodology of a christocentric anthropology, it becomes very unclear how one should
approach any anthropological issue, let alone one as convoluted and controversial and
the mind/body debate.
Secondly, many theologians seem implicitly to limit the scope of the
christological perspective. This is seen most clearly in the tendency to limit
christological reflection on the human person to what Jesus reveals as the exemplar of
true human living. While this exemplarist strategy has some biblical support (e.g., 1 Pet.
2:21) and a long history in both theology (e.g., Thomas Kempis The Imitation of
Christ) and popular Christianity (witness the What Would Jesus Do? phenomenon), it

12
Thus, for example, even a theologian like Ray Anderson, who is firmly committed to a
christological approach to theological anthropology and is well aware of the significance of the
contemporary mind/body discussion, makes little attempt to approach the mind/body or body/soul issue
christologically (cf. R. Anderson 1982).
13
These issues often receive more sustained attention from those who are critical of the
christocentric perspective than those who espouse it (e.g., Berkouwer 1962; TeSelle 1975; Knitter 1983; E.
Johnson 1991; Shults 2003; cf. also the essays in Vander Goot 1981).
6
seems a remarkably limited lens through which to view humanity christologically.
14
If
Jesus is the manifestation of true humanity, it would seem reasonable to consider the
implications that Christology has for the full range of human existence.
15
Even when a
more robust appreciation of the christological perspective is embraced, however, one
finds that its scope is often limited to ostensibly theological loci (e.g., soteriology,
ecclesiology, etc.) to the neglect of such issues as the nature of human consciousness, the
relationship of the mind to the brain, psychophysical determinism, and other concerns
raised by philosophers of mind.
And third, many philosophers and theologians would probably suspect any
attempt to approach the mind/body discussion from a christological perspective as an
illegitimate intrusion of theology into the domain of science and philosophy.
16

According to this objection, such an approach would require an unacceptable move
toward making Christology the point of departure for interpreting the data of the
neurosciences and for arbitrating philosophical debates. For many thinkers, this is a role
that theology cannot play without instantiating a theological ghetto, isolated from all
other forms of discourse by its totalizing theological framework (Trigg 1998). In the
course of this study, however, we will see that this perception is a result of
misunderstanding the nature of the christocentric perspective. Indeed, we will discover
that the christological perspective is well-suited to engaging in significant dialogue with

14
Indeed, the exemplarist approach itself is susceptible to critique. As Nellas rightly argues, the
imitatio Christi should be understood primarily in terms of being conformed to Christ (i.e.,
Christification), rather than a merely external imitation (1987:39; cf. also pp. 136-139, 153-154).
Thus, he argues, imitation is more ontological than moral (cf. Schwbel 1991).
15
This is not to say that every detail of true humanity can be positively determined through
christological contemplation. As several theologians have pointed out, the nature of new being has been
decisively but not comprehensively revealed in Jesus Christ (Sherlock 1996; McFarland 2001). As we will
see, a christocentric anthropology begins with Christology but not in such a way as to collapse
anthropology into Christology.
16
Alternately, one might contend that this approach entails an illegitimate reliance on
metaphysical speculation (see Grenz 2005:2) that is inappropriately applied to matters like these.
Budenholzer rightly points out, however, that if the history of modern philosophyhas taught us
anything it is that any understanding of reality has its own scientific presuppositions.It is impossible to
make foundational statements about the nature of physical theory without making statements about the
basic nature of reality, that is, without making metaphysical assertions (2003:63). The question, then, is
not whether metaphysical presuppositions are appropriate in a consideration of human nature, but which
set of metaphysical presuppositions one will adopt and whether one will do so in an intentional manner.
7
other disciplines. There is, therefore, no necessary connection between a christological
approach to anthropological issues and the ghettoizing of theology. If such is the actual
result of any particular theology, then, it stems from an inadequately applied Christology
rather than something inherent to the perspective itself.
Together these three issues suggest that the christocentric approach to theological
anthropology, indeed to reality in general, has not yet been sufficiently filled out and
analyzed (Nellas 1987:27). Any attempt to understand the nature of human ontology
from a christologically determined vantage point will, therefore, need to be grounded on
a more adequately developed methodological framework. It is with these concerns in
mind that we turn to the christological anthropology of Karl Barth.

3. Who is He?: The Centrality of Jesus Christ in the Theological Anthropology of Karl
Barth
Given the concerns mentioned in the previous section, Barths theological
anthropology would seem well (or, possibly, uniquely) qualified to serve as the
touchstone for our study. First, Barths theology is well known for its radically
christocentric orientation (Balthasar 1992:30). That is, he interprets all secular and
worldly relations and realities in terms of Gods self-interpreting Word, Jesus Christ
(ibid.). Barth thus seeks to ensure that his theology is Christologically determined (I/2,
123) throughout. This christological orientation is vividly on display in his consideration
of the human person. For Barth, The nature of the man Jesus alone is the key to the
problem of human nature (III/2 136).
17
Thus, according to Ray Anderson, Karl Barth,
more than any other theologian of the church, including the Reformers, has developed a
comprehensive theological anthropology by beginning with the humanity of Jesus Christ
as both crucified and resurrected (1982:18).
Second, despite (or, more properly, because of) this christological emphasis,
Barth does not fail to attend to the anthropological dimension. Indeed, the third volume
of the Church Dogmatics is primarily devoted to understanding the relationship between
God and humanity, the nature of human persons, and the character of human existence.
The very nature of the anthropological question, however, has to be revised. Barth is
keenly interested in understanding the nature of the human person, but he views this

17
Alan Torrance thus rightly points out the significance of the Who question throughout
Barths theology (1996).
8
pursuit as a primarily christological endeavor. Thus, the anthropological question is
significant, but it is secondary to the christological question: Who is Jesus Christ? Given
this twofold emphasis on the centrality of Jesus Christ and the importance of theological
anthropology, Barth would seem well positioned to serve as a model of the kind of
christologically focused theological anthropology we have been discussing.
Third, unlike many theologians who affirm the christological perspective on the
human person, Barth commits a significant portion of III/2 to considering the
methodological issues involved in such an approach.
18
Barth thus addresses such issues
as the impact of sin on human knowledge, the implications of Christs particularity for
understanding human nature in general, and the significance of Jesus as both fully God
and fully man for drawing conclusions about human persons. In this way Barth raises
and clarifies many of the obstacles that a christocentric anthropology must surmount if it
is to avoid some of the difficulties and excesses to which it can be susceptible.
In addition to thinking through the methodological issues internal to the
christological perspective, Barth also considers the implications that such an approach
has for interdisciplinary dialogue. Although Barths theology has often been criticized at
precisely this point,
19
we will see that he is well aware of both the need for and the
difficulties involved in recognizing and interacting with the insights and perspectives of
other anthropological perspectives.
20
Given the nature of the present project, Barths
willingness to engage the implications of a christocentric anthropology for
interdisciplinary dialogue stands out as particularly useful.
Fifth, as we noted earlier, while many theologians affirm the christological
approach to anthropology, few if any take up the question of human ontology and the
body/soul relationship. Barth, by contrast, devotes an entire section of III/2 to precisely

18
Labeling Barths christocentrism as an approach should not be understood to imply that Barth
believes that there are a number of different ways in which human persons, and reality in general, can be
legitimately understood and that he simply adopts Christology as the clearest or most theologically tenable.
Rather, as we will see in the next chapter, Barth views Christology as the only vantage point from which to
view true human nature.
19
See chapter 3.
20
Of course, as Webster points out, Barth did not consider it the task of church theology to
follow paths other than those indicated by the Christian gospel or to identify common ground between
Christian faith and other views of life (2000b:10). But, this does not mean that Barths theology is
necessarily opposed to an open dialogue with other disciplines when their contributions touch directly on
theological concerns (see esp. III/2, 71-131).
9
this issue.
21
Taking Christ as the starting point, Barth seeks to follow the logic of the
gospel (T. Torrance 1986:294; cf. also Webster 2001b) and to allow that perspective to
determine what theology ought to affirm about human ontology. Consequently, although
we will see that Barth does not approach the mind/body discussion from the perspective
of an ostensive problem in need of a theoretical solution (see chapter 4), Katherine
Sonderegger is right to note that his theological perspective has not blinded him to
modern concerns in the field (2000:64). Barth is, therefore, well aware that his
christological starting point will have considerable implications for understanding the
mind/body question and directly engages many of the pertinent issues.
Finally, not only is this aspect of Barths theology worth studying for its unique
ability to raise a host of methodological and material issues that are pertinent to the
present study, but also because Barths approach to the mind/body question has been a
decidedly underappreciated aspect of his theology.
22
To date there are no English-
language studies of Barths anthropological ontology. Indeed, apart from a few general
surveys, very few works engage 46 in more than a cursory fashion.
23
This is
unfortunate since, as we will see, the themes and ideas expressed in this section have a
significant bearing on Barths understanding of a wide range of theological and
philosophical issues.
24
In this area, then, as in many others, Barth remains a massive

21
Although we will see in chapter four that Barth was not primarily interested in developing a
particular theory of human ontology, the nature and extent of his discussion indicates that he was
concerned to develop a proper (i.e., christologically determined) understanding of the general structure of
human ontology.
22
According to McLean, Barth's anthropology is buried in the doctrine of creation (CD III/2),
and is, therefore, often skipped over in the reader's eagerness to get to the more central doctrine of
reconciliation (CD IV). Thus is overlooked one of the richest discussions of anthropology in the western
theological and philosophical tradition and also, perhaps more importantly, one of Barth's most detailed
expositions of his content and method in relation to a subject available to our common experience and
reflection (1986:115; cf. Price 2002:6).
23
Cf. Soucek 1949; Prenter 1950; Brunner 1951; Ebneter 1952; Friedmann 1972; Frey 1978;
McLean 1975, 1981; Stock 1980; Whitehouse 1981; Krtke 2000. Among more recent studies, Price
covers the mind/body relationship to some extent, but this is clearly peripheral to his main concerns
(2002).
24
The continued underappreciation of Barths contribution to understanding human ontology may
well be the result of significant differences between Barths approach to theology and the analytic tradition
of philosophy that dominates contemporary philosophy of mind. In an insightful autobiographical
comment, Simon states, I am a philosopher, trained in the Anglo-American analytic tradition. That
10
Christian thinker whose contribution to Christian theology is in many respects still
waiting to be received (Webster 2000a:1-2).
Thus, by engaging Barths careful commitment to a christological vantage point
and the implications that it generates for understanding human ontology, Barths
theological anthropology provides a unique opportunity for developing an intriguing
interdisciplinary dialogue.

4. The Mind/Brain Debate Today, A Wide Open Field?
At this point, then, it may be useful to make some brief comments on the current
state of the mind/body debate. As we noted earlier in this chapter, the latter part of the
twentieth century was marked by significant scientific and philosophical developments.
These developments in turn contributed to a decisive shift in the modern understanding
of the human person. While previously, some form of substance dualism had been the
predominant view of human ontology, from the middle part of the twentieth century on,
anthropological ontologies turned in a decidedly physicalist direction (cf. Burge 1992;
Boyd 1998; Kim 1998a, 2004; Haldane 2000). The earliest forms of physicalism
presented a highly reductive view of the human person as something that could be
comprehensively understood within the parameters of the physical sciences alone (see
chapter 5). This reductive stance, however, quickly gave way to more nonreductive
approaches that portrayed the human person as a wholly physical being, but one that
exceeds the conceptual grasp of the physical sciences alone.
25
Despite this trend toward a
less reductive understanding, the ontology of late-twentieth century philosophers of mind
retained their pervasively physicalist character. Indeed, some like Daniel Dennett
concluded that modern science had decisively refuted all forms of substance dualism
such that this was no longer a serious view to contend with (1978).
The end of the ontological debate, however, could not be declared so easily. First,
despite the progress of philosophy of mind and the cognitive sciences throughout the

training is little help, and perhaps a handicap, in developing the amount of sympathy necessary for
understanding the theology of Karl Barth (2004:143). To which, John Webster can only remark, Where I
come from, the analytical philosophers are of a rather more obdurate frame of mind when it comes to
Barth, whom they regard as a joke in several volumes (2004a:159).
25
Of course, reductive approaches did not give way entirely and are still promoted by thinkers
like Paul and Patricia Churchland, Daniel C. Dennett, and Stephen P. Stich, among others.
11
twentieth century and especially in the Decade of the Brain, their accomplishments
should not be overstated. Specifically, while these new disciplines have provided a
wealth of information about the neurological underpinnings of human mentality, we
remain limited in our ability to provide a theoretical framework for interpreting that
information. As Steven Rose notes, we are still data-rich and theory-poor (2004:5). In
other words, we have come to understand much about the nature of the brain, but we still
possess only a very limited knowledge of the mind.
26
We can see this theoretical
limitation at work in the variety of ontological theories claiming the moniker
physicalism and yet differing substantially in how human ontology should be
understoode.g., nonreductive physicalism (Van Gulick), dual-aspect monism (Jeeves),
constitutional materialism (Corcoran), and emergent monism (OConner), as well as the
more reductive forms that continue to have significant supporters (e.g., Dennett,
Churchland, etc.).
Another reason that we should not declare the end of the debate on human
ontology, however, is the simple fact that non-physicalist theories have not gone away.
Shortly after Dennetts declaration of dualisms demise, other thinkers were recognizing
the true complexity of the debate (cf. Kripke 1980; Shoemaker 1984a). The latter part of
the twentieth century saw a variety of philosophers step forward to defend various forms
of substance dualism (e.g., Swinburne, Foster, Robinson, Hywel Lewis, Eccles, Lowe,
and Plantinga). Indeed, the last several decades have witnessed the development, or
rediscovery, of a number of non-physicalist ontologies that continue to resist the
monistic impulse of physicalisme.g., emergent dualism (Hasker), holistic dualism
(Cooper), naturalistic dualism (Chalmers), integrative dualism (Taliaferro), and
Thomistic dualism (Moreland), as well as other ontologies that do not fit easily into the
physicalism/dualism framework like idealism (Foster), pluralism (Cartwright), and
Aristotelian hylomorphism (Nussbaum). The continued vitality of non-physicalist
understandings of the human person strongly suggests that even though a majority of
contemporary philosophers would classify themselves as espousing some form of

26
Indeed, that is precisely why many called for a Decade of the Mind to follow the Decade of
the Brain (cf. Borenstein 2001).
12
physicalism, the mind/body debate is still very much in question (see Corcoran 2001a; J.
Green 2005).
27

5. An Exercise in Christocentric Anthropology
In this study, then, we will use the theological anthropology of Karl Barth as a
springboard for exploring the implications of a christocentric anthropology for
navigating the various theories involved in the contemporary mind/body debate. More
specifically, the following chapters will seek to answer the following questions: What is
a christocentric anthropology and what are its methodological and formal constraints?
What resources does such a theological anthropology have for engaging in
interdisciplinary dialogue? What implications can be drawn from a christological
anthropology for understanding the ontological constitution of human persons? And, do
those implications provide any assistance in understanding the complex array of
proposals on display in contemporary philosophy of mind?
In chapter two, then, we will focus on the formal and methodological parameters
of Barths theological anthropology as expressed primarily in the opening paragraphs of
Church Dogmatics III/2. Tracing Barths discussion will lead to a clearer understanding
of how he determines that theological anthropology is grounded on Christology but in
such a way that the former cannot be reduced to the latter. In this chapter, then, we will
look at the formal and methodological implications raised by Barths understanding of
the relationship between these two doctrinal loci.
Chapter three advances the discussion by considering the extent to which such an
anthropology can engage in interdisciplinary dialogue. Despite the concerns and
objections of many theologians, we will see in this chapter that Barths christocentric
approach to theology does not necessarily preclude such dialogue. Instead, we will see
that it is precisely Barths commitment to his christological perspective that enables the

27
Haldane, however, points out that the debate is far more constricted than is often appreciated.
He asserts, Anyone who reads extensively within contemporary philosophy of mind and reflects upon
what they have been studying should feel the discomfort of intellectual claustrophobia. Notwithstanding
that the subject is widely and actively pursued its content is remarkably confined. The boundaries of
possibility are taken to stand close to one another and the available options are correspondingly few
(1991:92). While this may be true, the divide between physicalist and dualist approaches remains a
contentious one.
13
possibility of a conversation in which the particularity of the various conversation
partners is valued and their insights recognized.
Having established the possibility of interdisciplinary dialogue, chapter four will
lay out the ontological implications of Barths christocentric anthropology that will be
the necessary components of any christologically adequate view of human persons. As
we will see, Barth was well aware that his image of Jesus as the true human should
have direct bearing on our understanding of what the ontology of true humanity entails.
Specifically, his christologically driven analysis of human ontology entails, at least, that
human ontology is characterized by selfhood, phenomenal consciousness, continuous
personal identity, personal agency, mental causation, freedom, embodiment, and
ontological contingence. These commitments will, therefore, serve as the criteria by
which the christological validity of any particular theory of human ontology must be
evaluated.
Finally, the last two chapters will apply these ontological criteria to several
ontological theories that are prominent in contemporary philosophy of mind. First, in
chapter 5, we will consider a variety of proposals that view the human person as a
physical being, but not one that can be reductively understood in terms of the physical
sciences alone. After defining the nature of such physicalist ontologies and surveying
some of the specific proposals that constitute nonreductive versions of physicalism, we
will consider three ways in which these theories could be susceptible to critique from a
christological perspective: mental causation, phenomenal consciousness, and continuity
of personal identity. Chapter six comprises a similar investigation with respect to dualist
ontologies; specifically those that espouse a more holistic approach to the human person
than is traditionally associated with Cartesian dualism. Consequently, the chapter first
explores the more traditional understanding of dualism and then contrasts it with the
more holistic approaches generally espoused by modern dualists. The chapter then
moves into a consideration of three areas of potential critique: mental causation, personal
embodiment, and the contingent status of human persons.
Through the course of these last two chapters, we will see that the christological
perspective and the ontological commitments entailed by a christocentric anthropology
have direct bearing on the questions being asked by contemporary philosophers of mind.
We will not find any knockdown arguments for or against any of the various
14
proposals.
28
We will, however, move the discussion forward in two ways. First, we will
establish on the basis of a christological analysis of human nature the paradigmatic
framework within which any particular anthropological theory must function. Although
the details of this framework will be very familiar to anyone working in philosophy of
mind, indeed, they roughly correspond to what might be considered the common sense
understanding of humanity, we will have established this framework on the firm
theological ground of Jesus person and work. Second, we will identify various strengths
that each of the ontological proposals brings to the table as well as several prominent
weaknesses that must be addressed in future proposals if these are to remain
christologically viable candidates for an anthropological ontology.
Given the wide-ranging nature of this study, we will need to establish carefully
the parameters of the discussion in three areas. First, a large number of studies have been
devoted to the biblical material related to the ontological constitution of the human
person.
29
Although the majority of recent biblical scholars have argued in favor of a
physicalist depiction of the person in the Bible,
30
there is no shortage of scholars
contending for a more dualistic conception (e.g., Osei-Bonsu 1987; Cooper 1998, 2000;
Wright 2003). In this study, however, since our focus will be on drawing christological
implications for human ontology, we will not engage these exegetical debates directly.
Without diminishing the importance of these exegetical discussions, we will concur with
a number of recent scholars that the depth and complexity of the issues involved in the
mind/brain debate are unlikely to be resolved at the level of biblical interpretation
alone.
31

28
Indeed, as Joel Green argues, whether one is thinking, say, of Scripture or human experience,
we find no knockdown arguments favoring one view to the exclusion of another (2005:23).
29
Among the classic older studies are Eichrodt 1951; J. Robinson 1952; Bultmann 1955; Kmmel
1963; R. Jewett 1971; Wolff 1974; and Gundry 1976.
30
In a number of recent articles, Joel Green convincingly demonstrates and exemplifies the
predominantly physicalist orientation of most contemporary biblical scholars (cf. 1998; 2002a; 2002b;
2004a; 2004b); a point that is not disputed by dualist biblical scholars (c.f., Cooper 1988:19).
31
As many theologians have pointed out, the Bible makes no attempt to present a theoretically
rigorous view of human ontology (e.g., Cooper 1982:15; Moreland and Rae 2000:33; L. Baker 2004:336).
But, as Barth rightly notes, Dogmatics must have the freedom to take up questions and concerns which
cannot be answered directly either by individual scriptural phrases or by reference to specific biblical
contexts of thought, and which cannot be those of exegesis, because they arise only in the Church which
listens to the voice of Scripture and teaches on this basis (I/2, 821-822).
15
A second set of parameters must be put into place with respect to Barths own
writings. Given the size, range, and depth of his various books, our study will focus its
attention primarily on Barths extended discussion of theological anthropology in III/2.
This does not mean, of course, that we will ignore Barths other writings.
32
On the
contrary, the various aspects of Barths theology are developed at such depth and
breadth that it is now impossible to give a definitive exposition of any one partwithout
making some reference to almost every other part (Come 1963:71; cf. also Sykes
1979b:2; Hunsinger 1991:28; Jenson 1997:28; Hauerwas 2001:180-181; Webster
2000b). Thus, although our study will focus primarily on III/2, we will find it necessary
to draw on Barths discussions elsewhere in his writings in an effort to present an
adequate understanding of his anthropology.
Finally, the vast quantity of material written on the mind/body relationship in
philosophy, science, and theology would swamp any individual study. Even the material
written just in the last twenty years comprises a daunting mountain of information. The
focus of our discussion in chapters five and six must, therefore, be carefully
circumscribed. To that end, we will limit our discussions to two sets of theories that
together comprise the physicalist and dualist approaches adopted by the majority of
contemporary philosophers, focusing specifically on several key areas in which those
proposals might be seen to be in tension with a christological perspective. We will
address other issues only insofar as it is necessary to clarify the questions and concerns
of our study.
33

Fundamentally, then, this study is an exercise in understanding the nature of a
christocentric anthropology and its implications for understanding human ontology.
Since the approach that has been laid out will require us to devote considerable attention
both to the theology of Karl Barth and to a number of contemporary philosophers of

32
Friedmann rightly warns against the dangerous imbalance often resulting from an undue focus
on just one of Barths many writings (1972:13).
33
Several recent philosophers have questioned the practice of adopting a physicalist/dualist
framework for addressing the mind/body problem and have argued for a form of ontological pluralism that
seeks to transcend the limitations of the dipolar approach (e.g., van Gelder 1998; Cartwright 1999; Gillett
2003). Although this criticism is worth considering, this study adopts the physicalist/dualist framework for
the simple reason that most contemporary philosophers still fall into one of these two categories. This does
not mean, however, that ontologies which do not fit neatly into this dipolar scheme will be ignored. Rather,
we will use this dipolar framework to raise the most fundamental philosophical issues involved in the
development of any ontological theory.
16
mind, this study can be appreciated as contributing (1) to the ongoing project of
understanding Karl Barth by providing an analysis of an underappreciated aspect of his
theology and (2) to contemporary philosophy of mind by clarifying, analyzing, and
evaluating a number of recent proposals regarding the mind/body relationship.
Fundamentally, however, this study aims to draw together these apparently disparate
fields of inquiry by engaging both theology and philosophy in a vital dialogue on the
nature of the human person as revealed in the person and work of Jesus Christ.
17
Chapter 2
From Christology to Anthropology:
The Ontological Determination of Humanity in Karl Barths Theological
Anthropology

1. Christology and Anthropology: The Christocentric Shape of Barths Theological
Anthropology
Barths understanding of humanity in its relation to God has long attracted
attention as one of the most creative, ground-breaking, and influential aspects of his
theology. T. F. Torrance referred to it as in some ways the most arresting aspect of
Barths theology (1990:22) and according to Herbert Hartwell it is revolutionary in
content (1964:123). Barth himself recognized that his theological anthropology
comprised such a serious departure from traditional theology that he thought it deviated
even more than his famous doctrine of predestination (p. ix).
1

The point at which this divergence originates is the consistency with which Barth
carried out his christocentric conviction in developing his theological anthropology. As
Hartwell describes it:

The traditional dogmatic way of thinking is here once more
radically reversed. He does not start from the phenomena of the human in
general as they present themselves to the philosopher or the scientist. He
does not begin, as the anthropology of traditional Christian dogmatics
usually does, with the problem of the constitution of mans being, of
mans existence [Dasein] and nature [Sosein] in order to proceed from
there to the human nature of Jesus Christ in particular. On the contrary, he
derives his concept of man, of real man, from the human nature of the one
particular man Jesus Christ who, because He is shown to be the revealing
Word of God also in respect of the true nature of man, is treated as the
source of our knowledge of man as God created him. (1964:123)

1
We will see, though, that the substantial departure evidenced in his anthropology is grounded in
his unique understanding of election and, thus, the two departures cannot be so neatly distinguished.
18
This summary raises a number of important questions for understanding the
nature of Barths task in III/2. Why does Barth approach anthropology christologically?
Does he understand this methodology exclusively or are there other avenues to
anthropological knowledge? Who is Jesus and what exactly does he reveal about the
human person? How can any particular individual play this constitutive role given the
tremendous diversity of human nature and reality? What is the precise relationship
between Christology and anthropology as theological loci? Is this christological
approach sufficient to engage the difficult questions faced by real people or is it a merely
idealistic system abstracted from everyday realities? Questions like these raise some of
the interesting formal and material issues that need to be answered if we are to appreciate
fully Barths christocentric theology. Although complete answers to these questions lie
beyond the scope of this study, the next two chapters will explore some of the
implications involved as they analyze the manner in which Barth develops and supports
his understanding of human ontology in the context of the anthropological discussions of
III/2.
2

While Barth divided III/2 into five paragraphs, the work actually addresses three
main issues: the method, the form, and the content of a christological anthropology.
3

2
While Barths anthropological discussions are found throughout the Dogmatics (particularly in
the other parts of vol. III as well as IV/1 and IV/2), III/2 can usefully serve as the staging point of any
analysis of his anthropology as the one place where Barth develops it as a doctrinal locus in its own right.
The scope of this work precludes any attempt to address or even to summarize adequately its entire
presentation and all the corresponding difficulties. Indeed, as Soucek noted, the work is so vast, so full of
complex views and illustrations and so subtly shaded, that any attempt to summarise itmust run the risk
of inadequate and inaccurate interpretation in some respect (Soucek 1949:75). But, an understanding of
the method and form of Barths anthropology is absolutely necessary for understanding the content of his
anthropology and thus for any meaningful engagement with his approach to human ontology. So, the next
two chapters will risk the inadequacies that accompany any attempt to summarize Barths theology as
necessary for the discussions that will follow later in the study.
3
There is a danger to characterizing Barths theology in this way if it is understood to indicate a
division rather than a distinction between form and content. As the following discussion should make
clear, an inseparable relationship obtains between the formal elements of Barths theology and more
material considerations. As Stuart McLean observed, for Barth form and content are bound up together
and should be separated only for the purpose of speech. Even then, speech itself must constantly attempt to
reveal that they are together (1981:12; see also Balthasar 1992:47-55 and McCormack 1999:476-477).
The distinction indicated here, then, is not intended to deny this inseparability but rather to recognize that
19
Barth lays out his basic methodological moves in the first paragraph (43), Man as a
Problem of Dogmatics. There he articulates the methodological principles that will
guide the development of the entire work. The form of Barths anthropology is the topic
of the second paragraph (44), Man as the Creature of God. There Barth considers the
person and work of Jesus and the corresponding revelation of the basic criteria for true
humanity. Finally, Barth lays out the content of his anthropology in the final three
paragraphs covering, respectively, humanitys essential relationality (45), the human
person as the soul of her body (46), and the temporality of human existence (47).
4
In order to understand his discussion of human ontology in 46, then, it will be
necessary to appreciate the formal, material, and methodological moves that he makes in
the earlier sections. Consequently, in the next two chapters we will consider (1) the basic
shape and methodology of Barths christological anthropology and (2) the nature of
Barths christocentrism and its relationship to interdisciplinary dialogue.

2. The Theanthropological Twist in Barths Doctrine of Creation
Understanding Barths theological anthropology requires placing it in the context
of his overall doctrine of creation. In his development of this doctrine, Barth argues
counterintuitively that the proper object of a theology of creation cannot be creation
itself. There are three important steps in the way Barth formulates this proposition. First,
he contends that the concept of a creation in itself is an improper abstraction with no
concrete reality since term creation necessarily implies a creator (p. 3). As Barth argued
extensively in III/1, The Work of Creation, all creation receives both its existence and
essence as an absolute gift of God and thus stands in a relationship of absolute
dependence to God and is necessarily determined by His grace (III/1, 15).
5
The

in III/2 Barth addresses primarily formal issues (the methodology and criteria of anthropology) before
moving on to more properly material ones.
4
The discussion of the content of Barths theology in chapter 3 will be limited to Barths
consideration of human ontology in 46. There are a number of other studies of Barths theology that
provide useful insights into his understanding of humanitys essential relationality (e.g., Deddo 1994:183-
222; Price 2002; McLean 1981; and Miell 1989: 541-555) and his arguments for the necessary temporality
of the human person (e.g., Roberts 199; Camfield 1950; Runia 1958; and Jenson 1969).
5
Of course, as Balthasar points out, Barths notion of absolute dependence is markedly
different from Schleiermachers well-known approach (1992:225). And according to Webster this
dependence should not be understood in terms of a continuous creation in which the created realm has no
20
essential relatedness of creation to God means that creation cannot be properly
understood apart from its revelation in the Word since no phenomenological
consideration of creation can reveal this necessary determination (ibid., 3-41).
6
True
knowledge of creationi.e., knowledge of its absolute dependence on the Creatoris,
therefore, an act of faith. Knowledge of God is prior to knowledge of creation: theology
proper before theology of creation.
7
That creation in itself is not the proper focus of a theology of creation, however,
involves a second important point for Barth: in practice the doctrine of creation means
anthropology (p. 3). Barth devoted the second paragraph of III/1 to an extended
discussion of the relationship between creation and covenant. In it, he famously argued
that creation is the external basis of the covenant (III/1, 94), and covenant the internal
basis of creation (ibid., 95). In other words, Gods decision to establish a covenantal
relationship between himself and something other than himself stands as the eternal
ground for the creation and continued existence of all creaturely reality. Creation,
therefore, exists as the corresponding presupposition on the basis of which and the
theatre within which this covenantal relationship becomes a reality (ibid., 96-99).
However, the covenantal love of God, though encompassing all of creation (ibid., pp.
363-364),
8
finds its centre (ibid., 20) and clearest expression in humanity who alone
was created to be Gods true covenantal counterpart (ibid., 184) and thus represents the

substance of its own but as a relationship whereby God evokes and sustains the real existence of the
creature (2001a:61-62).
6
Barth thus argues that even ones knowledge that heaven and earth are created realities is part of
the credo and thus an act of faith (III/1, 3).
7
George Hendry argues that Barth exhibits a dependence on Kants philosophy at this point, but
fails to demonstrate anything more than a formal similarity (1984: 219-220).
8
The rest of creation has its own relationship with the creator but the inner mystery of this
relationship has not been revealed to humans and can only be extrapolated on the basis of the God-human
relationship (III/2, 18). The fact that the Creator-creation relationship is actually manifested
theanthropically, however, means that the doctrine of creation is not lost but is rather established on a solid
basis as a doctrine of man (ibid., 19). Some have indicated that this inversion of the relationship between
the doctrines of creation and anthropology indicates a denigration of creation (cf. C. Green 2004). On the
contrary, however, he strongly affirms that other creatures have their own dignity and right as they exist
in the secret of their own relation to the Creator (ibid., 4). Our approach to creation cannot be
characterized by blindness, indifference, or disparagement in a misguided attempt to abstract humanity
from its essential relationship to creation (ibid.), even as we recognize the distinction between them
revealed through humanitys role as Gods covenantal counterpart.
21
secret of the creature (ibid., 18). The logic of Barths argument is rather simple: if
creation can only be understood on the basis of the covenant and if the covenant centers
on Gods relationship with humanity, then creation can only be understood in terms of
this theanthropic relationship (cf. Barth 1982a:11).
9
This means that, contrary to
common practice, anthropology cannot be approached as a subset of a larger theology of
creation but must rather be its focal point.
10
The theanthropic turn in Barths argument, though, is itself grounded in the third
and most fundamental aspect of his methodology; as a theology of creation is grounded
in theanthropology, so theanthropology is grounded in Christology. As creation cannot
be understood apart from Creator neither can humanity be abstracted from its
relationship to God.
11
For Barth, man must be understood as a being which from the
very outset stands in some kind of relationship to God (p. 72). Similarly he states, The
being of man is from its very origin and basis a being with God, because man is made
and determined for covenant with God (p. 344).
12
This means that humanity is
ontically and therefore noetically dependent on the fact that he is not without God (p.
345).
13
But, as will be addressed later in this chapter, the relationship between God and

9
Webster notes that, although some argue that this theanthropic turn took place late in Barths
theological development, it actually predates the Dogmatics by at least a decade (2001c:58).
10
It is at this point that Barth engages in his famous polemic against cosmological world-views
(III/2, 4-13). He contends that theology is not properly concerned with cosmologies (theories on the
structure and dynamics of the total universe), but with the relationship between humanity and God, which
is the primary theme of Scripture (ibid., 19). Although cosmological accounts are necessary aspects of our
understanding of the world, even the Bible adopted the cosmological beliefs of the surrounding cultures
(ibid., 7-8), theology must critically appropriate such world-views without sanctioning them or becoming
overtly identified with them (ibid., 8-10).
11
Indeed, it is only in encounter with the Word that the human person becomes clear to himself
(I/2, 705).
12
Barths contention that covenantal relationality is of constitutive significance for understanding
human nature plays a prominent role in his understanding of the imago Dei. He argues that humans are
made in the image of God inasmuch as they are beings-in-relationship and therefore model the intra-
relationality of the Triune God (see III/1, 184-191). Humanitys creation as male and female, according to
Barth, is the ultimate demonstration of humanitys relationality (ibid., 288-310; cf. also III/2, 285-324) and
is thus the climax and conclusion of creation (ibid., 288) as the primary model of the covenantal
relationship between God and humanity (ibid., 311-321).
13
The fact that, for Barth, ontic dependence necessitates noetic dependence is one of the key
elements of his theology in general, and thus his anthropology in particular. R. Brown, however, disputes
22
humanity is fully revealed only in the person of Jesus, who is the unique union of true
deity and true humanity.
14
Thus, it is in the person of Jesus Christ alone that God
Himself has revealed the relationship between Creator and creatureits basis, norm and
meaning (III/1, 25). While Barth can affirm that the human person, as Gods
counterpart, is at the heart of the cosmos (ibid., 28), it is ultimately Jesus who is the
full revelation of the God-creature relationship.
15
Jesus alone is the Fulfiller of the
covenant (ibid., 332) and thus the meaning and end of creation (ibid., 377). This
christocentric turn indicates that as creation cannot be understood apart from the
knowledge of the God-creature relationship manifested in humanity, neither can
humanity be understood apart from the God-human relationship manifested in Jesus
Christ. So, for Barth, the man Jesusis the source [Quelle] of our knowledge of the
nature of man [menschlichen Wesens] as created by God (p. 41).
16
This means nothing
more nor less than the founding of anthropology on Christology (p. 44).
17

that there are any good exegetical, logical, or metaphysical reasons for maintaining the necessity of this
connection (1980:533-549). Though he makes some good points suggesting that the connection between
ontic and noetic dependence may not be as strong as Barth believes them to be, Browns argument that this
constitutes a decisive undermining of Barths view on natural theology is less convincing. Even without
basing noetic dependence on ontic dependence, it seems perfectly reasonable to maintain Barths view that
the sovereign freedom and mystery of God necessitate noetic dependency (see II/1, 63-254).
14
Even a brief consideration of the substance of Barths Christology lies outside the scope of this
thesis. I will thus follow Hunsingers account of the basically Chalcedonian nature of Barths Christology
(2000b:131-147). Hunsinger disagrees with studies that find Barths Christology to be essentially
Alexandrian (e.g., Hartwell 1964:78-79; and Waldrop 1984]) or Antiochene (e.g., McIntyre 1966, esp. pp.
154f.). According to Hunsinger, Barth believes that the nature of the incarnation is such that humans
cannot conceptualize both Christs full deity and his full humanity at the same time. Consequently, it
becomes necessary to juxtapose both an Alexandrian and an Antiochene approach in an attempt to do
justice to the Chalcedonian faith.
15
Barth balances the epistemological orientation of this argument by noting that Jesus is also the
ontological ground of creation as its creator and preserver (ibid.).
16
Whether he is the only source of such knowledge is a question that will be addressed in the next
chapter.
17
As Alan Torrance summarizes, If theological anthropology is to be grounded in a proper
understanding of creation, of the relation of the Creator to the creature, and if it is to concern authentic
human existence, it begins neither with the self-understanding of humanity in general nor with generic
accounts reflecting naturalistic observations. Rather, Barth believed, it can begin only with the one who is
truly human, that is, with Jesus Christ, the Second Adam (2004:205-206).
23
3. The Ontological Determination of Human Persons In Jesus Christ
Barths conviction that anthropology must be founded on Christology is clearly
evidenced in III/2 where each section begins with an explicit consideration of Gods self-
revelation in Jesus and its import for anthropology.
18
While the human person might be a
mystery to herself, the Word provides true and reliable insight into her nature and the
reality of her existence. On this basis Barth begins developing the constructive element
of his theological anthropology by stating his central anthropological principle:

The ontological determination [ontologische Bestimmung] of
humanity is grounded in the fact that one man [Menschen] among all
others is the man [der Mensch] Jesus. So long as we select any other
starting point for our study, we shall reach only the phenomena of the
human. We are condemned to abstractions so long as our attention is
riveted as it were on other men, or rather on man in general, as if we
could learn about real man [wirklich Menschen] from a study of man in
general, and in abstraction from the fact that one man among all others is
the man Jesus. In this case we miss the one Archimedean point given us
beyond humanity, and therefore the one possibility of discovering the
ontological determination of man. Theological anthropology has no
choice in this matter. It is not yet or no longer theological anthropology if
it tries to pose and answer the question of the true being of man [des
Menschen Sein und Wesen] from any other angle. (p. 132)

Thus, the question of Psalm 8, What is man? is answered in Christ, and he
alone must be the focus of any attempt to see humanity as it really is, in concreto (p.
41). Human nature, therefore, is not something that can be known as a neutral point
[neutraler Punkt] but rather must be explained by Jesus as it is manifested in his
concrete existence (p. 59).

18
See Shults 2003:120.
24
3.1. Grounded in the Decree: The Subject and Object of the Eternal Decree of
Election
What does it mean to say that the ontological determination of humanity is
grounded in the man Jesus? For Barth this means first that humanity is ontologically
determined by election: the being of man as a being with Jesus rests upon the election
of God (p. 142).
19
To be a man is thus to be with the One who is the true and primary
Elect of God (p. 145).
20
An understanding of the ontological determination of humanity
will therefore require an understanding of Barths doctrine of election.
21

Barth developed his rather unique approach to the doctrine of election primarily
in II/2.
22
His fundamental thesis, according to Bruce McCormack, was that Jesus

19
Berkouwer comments that the epistemological centrality of Christ has been a common
approach to theological anthropology, but that the real turn in Barths anthropology is this turn to the
ontological centrality of Christs humanity (1962:92). He goes on to argue, however, that Barth is not
consistently christological on this point. He contends that Barth grounds his anthropology both on its
ontological determination in Christ and on the idea of its absolute creaturely dependence (ibid., 94-95). But
it is not clear that Barth would be able to distinguish so neatly between creaturely dependence and
christological determination with respect to the human person such that he would perceive them to be
independent grounds for his anthropology. The criticism also fails to realize that Barths christocentrism
requires all anthropological thinking to begin with Christology, not that it must remain there.
20
John Thompson points out that even though Barth understands election christocentrically we
should recognize the significant pneumatological aspects of his presentation as well (1991:34-35).
21
As Ebneter rightly notes, then, Barths anthropological christocentrism cannot be understood in
isolation from his doctrine of election (1952:11). Our task at this point, however, cannot be a detailed
analysis of election itself, as this lies beyond the scope of the study. Rather, we sill simply summarize
Barths understanding of election as a means of understanding how he develops and applies it in III/2. For
more comprehensive discussions of Barths doctrine of election see Cunningham 1995; McCormack
1999:470-493 and 2000:92-110; F. Clark 1984:229-245; Colwell 1989; McDowell 2003a; ONeill
2004:311-326.
22
In the preface to this work, as in III/2, Barth acknowledged that his view of election left the
framework of theological tradition to a far greater extent than the earlier parts of his doctrine of God (II/2,
x). But he felt this was necessary both because of his reading of Scripture (see II/2, 35; cf. also
Cunningham 1995:11) and because he thought that even when earlier theologians acknowledged both the
importance of election and of thinking christologically about election, they failed to carry through this
christological interpretation sufficiently (II/2, 60-76; 147-154). They thus ended up with a doctrine of
predestination that was mired in mystery at both ends: the decretum absolutum of a hidden God and an
unknown and unknowable (humanly speaking) number of elect (II/2, 158-161). On the contrary, he
asserted that a true knowledge of both God and humanity is only possible through the theanthropic
25
Christ is both the Subject of election and its Object, the electing God and the elect
human (2000:93).
23
Affirming Jesus as the Elected meant not only that the man Jesus
had been elected as Messiah and that his election was soteriologically foundational to
that of other human beings, who are also among the elect, but, more importantly, that
Jesus was the sole Object [der Gegesntand] of this good-pleasure (II/2, 104) such that
all others are only elect in so far as they are united in Him and represented by Him
(II/2, 105).
24
So, Jesus Christis not merely one of the elect but the elect of God. From
the very beginning (from eternity itself), as elected man He does not stand alongside the
rest of the elect, but before and above them as the One who is originally and properly the
Elect [der ursprnglich und eignetlich Erwhlte] (II/2, 116). In the strict sense only He
can be understood and described as elected (and rejected). All others are so in Him,
and not as individuals (ibid., 43). By affirming that Jesus is also the Elector (ibid.,
105), Barth argued for the pre-existence of the man Jesus in union with the eternal Logos
and thus as the subject of Gods act of election.
25
Since the man Jesus is the eternal act
of election, he exists in an eternal union with the Logos and as such is the Subject as well
as the Object of election (ibid., 94).
26

relationship grounded in the eternal election of Jesus Christ. Barth thus argued that we cannot know God
properly apart from his eternal decision to relate himself to something external to himself (II/2, 6) and that
Jesus Christ is himself the eternal and irreversible self-determination of this relationship (II/2, 7).
23
See II/2, 9-11; 94-145, esp. 103-105.
24
For Barth, understanding Jesus as the primary object of election was required by the . | au . of
Eph. 1:4 (II/2, 105). So he argues: From the very beginning (from eternity itself), there are no other elect
together with or apart from Him, but, as Eph. 1:4 tells us, only in Him. In Him does not simply mean
with Him, together with Him, in His company. Nor does it mean only through Him, by means of that
which He as elected man can be and do for them. In Him means in His person, in His will, in His own
divine choice, in the basic decision of God which He fulfils over against every man. What singles Him out
from the rest of the elect, and yet also, and for the first time, unites Him with them, is the fact that as
elected man He is also the electing God, electing them in His own humanity (ibid., 116-117).
25
Barth supports the pre-existence of the man Jesus primarily through his exegesis of John 1:1-2
(II/2, 95-99). There he contends that the eue, of v. 2 refers proleptically to the incarnate Word (v. 14)
about whom John testified (v. 15) and that this, therefore, identifies the man Jesus in a pre-nativity union
with the eternally existing Logos (ibid., 98). For a good discussion of some of the objections that have
been raised to Barths understanding of the pre-existence of the man Jesus see J. Thompson 1976:261-264.
26
This is the basis of Barths famous rejection of a Logos asarkos (cf. IV/1, 52-53; see also J.
Thompson 1976:256).
26
Both of these points are important for understanding the constitutive relationship
between Jesus election and the rest of humanity. Jesus is the ontological determination
of humanity because His election includes ours within itself and because ours is
grounded in His. We are elected together with Him in so far as we are elected in Him
(ibid., 120). Thus, the God-human relationship that is determinative for what it means to
be human is eternally grounded in this one man Jesus whom God puts at the head and
in the place of all other men (ibid.).
27
He alone is able to ground humanity in this
relationship and to secure it from surrendering this essential determination.
28
The
ontological decisiveness of Jesus as Elect, however, is itself grounded on his status as the
Elector. That Jesus election is ontologically decisive and not simply the epistemological
manifestation of a general election is established by the fact that He Himself is the One
who elects us (ibid., 115). Without his status as Elector, Barth argued, we would not be
able to maintain the ontological decisiveness of his election:

Now without our first assertion we cannot maintain such a
position. For where can Jesus Christ derive the authority and power to be
Lord and Head of all others, and how can these others be elected in
Him, and how can they see their election in Him the first of the elect, and
how can they find in His election the assurance of their own, if He is only
the object of election and not Himself its Subject. (ibid., 116)

Barth thus concludes that Jesus is the original and all-inclusive election; the
election which is absolutely unique, but that this election is only universally

27
According to Jngel this primal decision constitutes the primal relationship of God to man and
in this primal relationship there takes place the primal history in which God already has a relationship to
man before all creation (2001:88-89; cf. II/2, 12-13).
28
As Barth says elsewhere, In Christian doctrine...we have always to take in blind
seriousnessthat our life is hid with Christ in God. With Christ: never at all apart from him, never at all
independently of him, never at all in and for itself. We as human beings never at all exist in
ourselves.We exist as human beings in Jesus Christ and in him alone.The being and nature of human
beings in and for themselves as independent bearers of and independent predicate, have, by the revelation
of Jesus Christ, become an abstraction which can be destined only to disappear (II/1, 149).
27
meaningful and efficacious, because it is the election of Him who Himself elects (ibid.,
117).
29

To the extent that he is with Jesus and therefore with God, man
himself is a creature elected in the divine election of grace, i.e., elected
along with or into Jesus. He is elected to the extent that he derives from
God, which means concretely that his being rests upon the election of
God, namely, the election of the one man Jesus.He is elected to the
extent that as man he is a creature whom the election of the man
Jesusimmediately concerns. (III/2, 145)

29
A number of concerns have been raised regarding Barths doctrine of election. ONeill usefully
summarizes three of the most common as (1) its Scriptural basis; (2) its universalistic implications; and (3)
concerns about whether it vitiates human history and agency (2004:311). With respect to the first,
Cunningham correctly asserts that at the very least we must recognize that Barths primary concern was to
remain exegetically faithful (1995: cf. esp. p. 9-11). And as John Thompson points out, even if one
disagrees with Barths exegesis, it must be acknowledged that his interpretation is at least exegetically
tenable (1976:266). Regarding universalism, despite Barths strong disavowals of a necessary universalism
in his theology (e.g., II/2, 295, 416-419, 476-477), his theology has been consistently accused of resulting
in just such a position (e.g., Berkouwer 1956:262-296; Brunner 1951:123-135; Ebneter 1952:37-38; and
more recently McGrath 1997:456). A number of studies, however, have argued convincingly that Barths
doctrine of election is quite consistent with his agnostic position on the apokastasis question (cf. esp.,
Bettis 1967:423-436, Colwell 1989:231-269, and ONeill 2004; cf. also T. Torrance 1990:319-320 and
Hartwell 1964:110-112). The final concern involves that of narrowing everything to Christology such
that it vitiates creaturely history and agency of real meaning (Balthasar 1992:242; cf. also Come 1963:152-
157; Willis 1971:236ff.; McGrath 1986:105-106; Muers 1999:268-269; Deegan 1961; and Biggar 1993:5).
Colin Gunton suggests that the problem is an imbalance in Barths theology caused by inadequate
Trinitarian and pneumatological views and a certain level of unsophistication in his development of human
freedom (1989:55ff.; cf. Macken 1990). A number of studies, however, particularly those by John
Webster, have demonstrated rather convincingly that the problems revolve around a failure to appreciate
the dialectic involved in Barths redefinition of human freedom as a determinate correspondence of
freedom for God (see McLean 1981:60-62; McCormack 2000:106; J. Webster 1995; 1998). Several
theologians also argue that this criticism misses Barths understanding of the enhypostatic nature of
humanitys relationship to Jesus; as Jesus human nature exists enhypostatically in union with the Word so
all human nature exists enhypostatically in union with Jesus (e.g., Dalferth 1989:29; Webster 1998:88-89;
I. Davidson, 2001:129-154; and Tanner 2001:56-58). The ontological determination of the human person
in Christ, therefore, does not vitiate human freedom any more than the incarnation vitiates the freedom of
Jesus (see Webster 1989:89 n. 39, for resources on the anhypostatic/enhypostatic formula).
28

The christological orientation of Barths doctrine of election, thus establishes
Jesus election as the ontological determination of all humanity.
In III/2 the ontological decisiveness of Jesus election serves as the cornerstone
for Barths christological anthropology: The formal definition that the being of man
[menschliche Sein] derives from God is given a first and material content when we recall
the gracious divine election of the man Jesus (p. 145). Barth grounds the centrality of
election for theological anthropology on the premise that since Jesus is (1) the primary
object and subject of election, and thus the primary revelation of the relationship
between God and humanity, and (2) Jesus alone has lived a sinless life in response to and
fulfillment of that relationship, then Jesus is the sole revelation and guarantor of human
nature. Having already unpacked the first of these premises to some extent, we shall
move on in the next section to consider the significance of the second.

3.2. Continuing in Sin: The Covenantal Faithfulness of Christ as the Guarantor of
Human Nature
Barths understanding of Christs ontological decisiveness involves more than
just his doctrine of election. Jesus is also ontologically decisive in that his sinless human
nature provides the epistemological and ontological basis for the postlapsarian continuity
of human nature.
Barth is very clear that all humans are sinners and thus stand in contradiction to
their created essence; the human person is a corrupter [Verderber] of his own nature
(p. 26). Humanity, for Barth, is thoroughly sinful in that his thoughts, words and works
are evil and his nature corrupt (p. 28). The perversion and corruption [Verkehrung
und Verderbnis] (p. 26) of sin affects human nature at such a deep level that no aspect of
human existence can escape its influence and it must be addressed in any attempt to
understand humanity: The fact and knowledge of sin are far too important for us to try
to abstract from it in any way.To do so we should have to see human nature very
differently from the way in which it is disclosed to us by the divine revelation (p. 36).
However, Barth is also very clear that despite the overwhelming reality of sin,
Gods gracious love ensures that, despite sin, humans are and will always remain human.
Because human nature has been created by God for relationship with himself, it cannot
be destroyed and made unrealhuman nature is thoroughly corrupt but it cannot be
29
annihilated (p. 27). The gift of humanity cannot be blotted out (III/1, 53) by sin as
though sin were capable of destroying Gods creation and making some new creature.
And therefore

if we are attentive and loyal to the Word of God, we must not
suppose that in describing him as a sinner we have spoken the first and
final word about this real man. For it is not the case that because the
creaturely being of man may be known by us only in its sinful
determination, it is not real and knowable in any other way, as though
human nature had been changed into its opposite, and by sinning man had
in some sense suffered a mutation [umgeschaffen] into a different kind of
creature. (p. 37)

Barth was always careful to affirm that sin is more than a merely accidental
attribute of human nature.
30
For Barth, however, the grace of God always remains the
primary category for understanding humanity; sin is always secondary (p. 32). Though
we must consider humanity in its sinfulness, we must not absolutise sin (p. 37). Gods
gracious love thus ensures that humanity continues to be humanity even after it has fallen
into the self-contradiction [Selbstwiderspruch] (p. 31) of sin.
31
The emphasis on grace for the postlapsarian continuity of human nature,
however, leads ultimately to the incarnate Christ as the ultimate expression of Gods
grace. The continued existence of human nature, despite its pervasive sinfulness, is
grounded in the faithfulness of the man Jesus to the covenantal relationship for which he
has been eternally elect (Ebneter 1952). Regardless of the ramifications of sin, Jesus
remains the one human who has not fallen into the self-contradiction of sin and thus

30
Barth was thus in basic agreement with Matthias Flacius that sin could rightly be viewed as a
substantial rather than merely a merely accidental characteristic of the human person (p. 27). Although we
will see that Barth was careful not to conclude from this that postlapsarian humans were of a different
nature and that sin had thus created a new entity (something that sin is completely unable to do), he
nonetheless wanted to view sin as having serious ontological (rather than merely existential) ramifications
(p. 28; Ebneter 1952).
31
Although Barth affirms the ontological continuity of human nature after the fall, this does not
constitute its epistemological availability and thus cannot be used as the basis of a natural theology. As we
will discuss later in the chapter, the problem of sin constitutes a humanly insurmountable block to human
self-knowledge (cf. pp. 29-41).
30
continues to be rightly related to God as his covenantal partner (i.e., human).
32
He alone
is not a sinner, but the man who honours His creation and election by God, not breaking
but keeping the covenant of grace (p. 48). Thus, Barth argues, human nature in Jesus
is the reason and the just foundation for the mercy in which God has turned to our human
nature (ibid.). This covenantal faithfulness means that Jesus is the only human being in
whom we can see a continuum unbroken by sin, an essence which even sin does not and
cannot change (p. 43).
Christs sinlessness has both epistemological and ontological significance for the
determination of true humanity. Epistemologically, Jesus is the one in whom we see true
humanity unspoiled by sin: Always and in every respect it is primarily and originally in
this man that we see Gods attitude to sinful man to be of such a kind that it maintains
and discloses the interrelation of sin and grace (p. 42). Similarly,

The attitude of God in which the faithfulness of the Creator and
therefore the unchanging relationship of the human being created by Him
are revealed and knowable is quite simply His attitude and relation to the
man Jesus; His election of this man; His becoming and remaining one
with Him. (p. 41)

So, true man, the true nature behind our corrupted nature [die Natur in unserer
Unnatur], is not concealed but revealed in the person of Jesus, and in His nature we
recognise our own, and that of every man (p. 43). The sinlessness of Christ thus
establishes him and the sole source of any real knowledge about the nature of true
humanity.

32
Barth does not see Jesus sinlessness as an ontological difference between his humanity and
ourssuch a difference would mean that he was not human as we arebut rather affirmed that Jesus took
on our human nature as it stands under the contradiction of sin (I/2, 151ff). Nevertheless, Jesus, as
empowered by the Holy Spirit, lived a truly human life in relationship to God as his covenantal partner and
so lived a sinless life, though standing in solidarity with the human race under Gods judgment on sin, (see
J. Thompson 1978:29). Von Balthasar notes that the sinlessness of Jesus thus guarantees human nature an
unbroken continuity and ensures that man does not fall into irredeemable chaos (1992:116). It is,
therefore, the continuity of human nature manifest in the covenantal faithfulness of Jesus Christ that
ensures the continued availability of real human nature for theological consideration.
31
His sinlessness, however, has ontological significance as well. As the
penetrating spearhead [eingedrungene Spitze] of the will of God, Jesus is not only the
one in whom the will of God is already fulfilled and revealed but also the one who
guarantees that there will be a wider fulfilment of the will of God and its final
consummation (ibid.). Jesus became the guarantor of a humanity that is free of the self-
contradiction of sin and is, therefore, secure from non-being [Nichtsein] (p. 144) as it
rests in the ontological determination of Jesus election. He alone is the archetypal man
[der Erste] whom all threatened and enslaved men and creatures must follow. He alone is
the promise for these many, the Head of a whole body (ibid.). Jesus, therefore, does not
simply reveal the will of God and the nature of true humanity but guarantees, despite the
depravations of sin, that these will be realized. In virtue of the exoneration from sin
validly effected in Jesus, we may count on this nature of ours and its innocence as we
could not otherwise do. This judicial pardon gives us the courage and shows us the way
to think about man as God created him. It is the true ground of theological anthropology
(p. 49).

3.3. Confronted by the Other: The Summons to Being
There is one last factor that must be taken into account in understanding the
ontological decisiveness of Jesus Christ for all human beings. Not only is he the
primarily and originally elected human being (p. 42) and the one human being who
maintained the covenantal faithfulness of his relationship to God and thus secured human
nature against the threat of non-being, but he is also the summons by which God
encounters human beings and constitutes them as his covenantal co-partners.
33
Jesus is the incarnation of the Word of God.
34
As such, he is in his very
existence the divine Counterpart [Gegenber] of every man (p. 134) and the
declaration of Gods gracious response to the danger of non-being surrounding humanity

33
To be sure, Barths exposition of the summons and its determinative significance occurs
entirely within his discussion of the content of anthropology and is an issue that he does not at all raise
with respect to its methodological or formal implications. But, given what he says about the summons and
its relationship to election, it seems proper to include a brief discussion of this topic here.
34
Eschewing ensarkos and asarkos language, Barth describes the incarnation in terms of an
analogia relationis: All this is concretely expressed in the fact that the man Jesus is the Word of God; that
He is to the created world and therefore ad extra what the Son of God as the eternal Logos is within the
triune being of God (p. 147).
32
(pp. 148-149). That this One has entered the sphere of humanity means that all humans
are confronted by the divine Other [Gegenber] in an ontologically decisive way (pp.
133-134).
35
Thus, To be a man is to be in the particular sphere of the created world in
which the Word of God is spoken and sounded (p. 149). This means that our
understanding of humanity has to be oriented around the fact that, When we say man
[Mensch] we have to remember above all that there is one man among many who is this
Word, and in respect of the many that it is in their sphere that this Word is to be found
(ibid.). The divine summons that is an inseparable aspect of Jesus existence claims all
humans as the sphere within which all humans are encountered by the divine Other (p.
134). Humanity must, therefore, be defined as the creaturely being which is addressed,
called and summoned by God (p. 149).
For Barth, the ontologically decisive nature of this summons is such that
humanity must be understood from the very beginning as that which has been
summoned:

Man is the being which is addressed in this way by God. He does
not become this being. He does not first have a kind of nature which he is
then addressed by God. He does not have something different and earlier
and more intrinsic, a deeper stratum [tiefere Schicht] or more original
substance of being [ursprngliche Substanz], in which he is without or
prior to the Word of God. He is from the very outset, as we may now say,
in the Word of God. (pp. 149-150)

Humanity cannot be properly understood, then, apart from an understanding of
the subject and content of the divine summons. The subject being God himself
addressing humanity through His Word and the content being the declaration of Gods
graciousness and covenantal faithfulness in his desire to establish a relationship with that
which is other than himself in and through Jesus Christ.
In Barths theology, then, Jesus Christ is of decisive significance as the
determination of all human beings. In this section we have explored the ontological

35
According to Barth, this encounter means that every man in his place and time is changed, i.e.,
he is something other than what he would have been if this One had not been man too (p. 133).
33
decisiveness of Jesus Christ for the human race in Barths theology.
36
He grounds this in
(1) the primordial election of Jesus Christ as both Subject and Object in which other
humans are included insofar as they are in union with him; (2) the covenantal
faithfulness and corresponding sinlessness of Jesus Christ which establishes, both
epistemologically and ontologically, the postlapsarian continuity and security of human
nature; and (3) the summons of the divine Word by which humans are constituted as
humans insofar as they are the recipients of the divine address. Having thus arrived at an
understanding of what it means for Barth that Jesus is the ontological determination of
humanity, it remains in the next section to consider how this proposal shapes Barths
actual approach to theological anthropology.

4. The Methodological Framework for a Christological Anthropology
This christocentric orientation constitutes the basic theological and
methodological presupposition of Barths theological anthropology. But it still remains
to determine the precise nature of Barths anthropological methodology. This section
will thus seek to determine the significance of Barths christocentrism for the actual
construction of his theological anthropology. Since the task of the next chapters will be
to discuss the application of this methodology, this section will merely provide its basic
outlines as a framework for understanding the later discussions.

4.1. Like Us, But Different: Jesus Unique Relation to the Father
Throughout the Dogmatics Barth consistently maintains that Jesus Christ is both
fully divine and fully human.
37
The full and true humanity of Jesus and its ontological
decisiveness for all humans, as we have seen, is the guiding idea of Barths theological
anthropology, the heart of his entire exposition. Methodologically, however, Barth must

36
It should be clear from this discussion that the ontological connection between Jesus and
humanity holds for all human persons and not simply those who are members of the Christian community
(IV/2, 275).
37
Barth has occasionally been understood to mean that Jesus full humanity was a general rather
than a particular human nature (e.g., Muers 1999:265-280). I. Davidson attributes the origin of this
interpretation to F. W. Marquardt, Theologie und Sozialismus. Das Beispiel Karl Barths [Munich: Chr.
Kaiser Verlag, 1972], 265-275), but he contends that Barths depiction of the autonomous character of
Jesus humanity precludes such an interpretation 2001:144-145; cf. also Diem 1976:121-138).
34
address the fact that there can be no question of a direct equation of human nature as we
know it in ourselves with the human nature of Jesus, and therefore of a simple deduction
of anthropology from Christology (p. 47). Although Jesus is fully human, theology
must not fail to appreciate how different are His nature and ours (p. 49).
Barth grounds this difference ultimately in the fact that the human nature of Jesus
is determined by a relation between God and Himself such as has never existed between
God and us, and never will exist (ibid.). It is true that God has eternally chosen to exist
in relationship with human beings and that this relationship is decisive for human nature,
but that relationship is mediated through Jesus such that our fellowship with God utterly
depends on our fellowship with Jesus Christ (ibid.). As discussed earlier, Jesus alone is
primarily and truly the elect of God who fulfills the covenantal relationship to which
all humans have been summoned; thus, If we too are elected, we are only the members
of His body (ibid.). So, Jesus stands in a relationship with God that is completely
unique to him and not shared, except mediately, by any other human being.
Barth traces the difference between Jesus humanity and ours established by this
unique relationship along three lines. Since each of them is based on considerations
addressed in previous sections, we will deal with them rather briefly. First, since our
essential relationship with God, and thus our very nature as humans, is mediated through
Jesus, he stands as the original of which we are merely copies (p. 50).
38
It is with respect

38
Berkouwer objected to Barths presentation of the ontological decisiveness of Jesus on the basis
of the biblical portrayal of the incarnation: The Incarnation is described as consanguinity with us. Barth,
however, formulates the matter in the opposite way, so that Jesus does not participate in our nature, but we
in His (1962:95). He probably raises this objection in light of Barths statement that Jesus does not
partake of humanity but that humanity must partake of him (III/2, 59). But Barth elsewhere states
rather explicitly that the incarnation means first and generally that he became man, true and real man,
participating in the same human essence and existence, the same human nature and form, the same
historicity that we have (I/2, 147). Even after his assertion in III/2 he speaks of Christ assuming human
nature in its historical and sinful existence (IV/2, 25). It thus appears that Barth has no problems speaking
of the Word assuming and participating in our nature. The important point is to realize that Barth
understands human nature primarily in terms of a beings concrete relationship to God (cf. W. Johnson
1997:157). To become human, then, is to enter into the history of Gods covenantal relationship with that
which is other to himself. Barths concern in III/2, however, is to be clear that Jesus cannot be understood
in terms of the specific determinations and features of humanity as though they formed a neutral point
from which we can understand him. Contrarily, he is the one who reveals and explains that those
features constitute the possibility of true humanity. Barth, then, is not denying what he elsewhere affirms
so clearly, i.e., that Jesus assumes true human nature. What he is denying is that this assumption can be
35
to Jesus that the decision was made who and what true man is and he is thus the
prototype [Vorbildlichkeit] of true humanity (ibid.).
39

Second, Jesus humanity is differentiated from ours by virtue of his sinlessness.
Human nature as we know it is characterized by self-contradiction and self-
deception (p. 47) while human nature revealed in Jesus demonstrates the peace and
clarity which are not in ourselves (p. 48). Thus although He becomes what we are, He
does not do what we do and so He is not what we are (ibid.). In the incarnation, the
rent in our human nature is healed and there now remains only the pure and free
humanity of Jesus as our own humanity (ibid.).
The difference signaled by Jesus sinlessness, however, does not signify any
special quality of His humanity by which He is as it were physically incapable of sin (p.
51). He is not protected from sin by virtue of some special capacities or
potentialitiessuch as must make Him a totally different being [andersartigen Wesen]
from us (p. 53).
40
Even in Him human nature would not have been capable of this [sin]
of itself (p. 51). What preserved Jesus in his sinlessness was the eternal mercy of God
which refuses to be limited and suspended, but wills to maintain itself in vulnerable
human nature (ibid.). The difference thus lies not in his human nature but in the fact that
as the Bearer of humanity He was Himself its Lord, the Creator God active within it
(ibid.). His is still the same human nature as ours but it is different from ours in its
sinlessness by virtue of its unique relationship with God (p. 52).
Thirdly, Barth contends that Jesus human nature is different from ours by virtue
of its revelatory function: in Him human nature is not concealed but revealed in its
original and basic form [urbildlichen und ursprnglichen Gestalt] (ibid.). Jesus is the
true Word about man as well as God (ibid.) that becomes available to us, not through
our interpretations, but as He discloses and explains Himself to us in his encounter
with us (p. 53).

construed in such a way that Jesus is understood through an objective and therefore abstract analysis of
human nature.
39
Barths use of prototype language suggests that at this point he is very close to the Eastern
Orthodox depiction of Jesus in terms of an archetype as that which organizes, seals and gives shape to
matter, and which simultaneously attracts it towards itself (Nellas 1987:33).
40
Barth argues that any attempt to view Jesus human nature as constitutionally different from
ours is a docetic position that ultimately denies his true humanity (p. 54).
36
Barth maintains, then, that Jesus human nature is different from human nature as
we know in that he is the sinless prototype who reveals true humanity whereas we are the
sinful copies who hide true humanity in self-contradiction. So, Jesus Christ is man in a
different way from what we are, but we must recognize that He is so in a complete
equality of His manhood with ours (IV/1, 131). The difference does not vitiate the
similarity since he is utterly unlike us as God and utterly like us as man (ibid.).
41
But
this means, All the otherness to be noted here is rooted in the fact that as man He is also
God; his humanity, therefore, has a different status but not a different constitution than
ours (p. 53).

4.2. The Starting Point, But Not the Ending Point: The Impossibility of Reducing
Anthropology to Christology
The similarities and dissimilarities mentioned in the previous section carry
methodological consequences. Positively, the similarities indicate that we can derive an
understanding of true humanity by considering the humanity of Jesus. Since, To be a
man is to belike [Jesus] (p. 145), theologians must concentrate on the one man
Jesus (p. 53), seeking to understand human nature in the light of his reality. Anything
incompatible with this picture is ipso facto non-human (p. 226). This methodology can
easily be traced through the rest of III/2 as Barth begins each section with an explicit
consideration of who Jesus is and the significance that this carries for our knowledge of
human nature.
There is a negative dimension, however, that must also be considered. Since
Jesus humanity is substantially dissimilar to ours by virtue of its unique relationship to
God, it is not possible to move directly from an examination of his nature to truths about

41
Trevor Hart seems to miss Barth on this point when he argues that the primary reason for
Jesus humanity being essentially other than ours is not that it is a snapshot of God, and made-over to
look like God; but rather that it is the firstfruits of a new, redeemed humanity in correspondence with
God (1999:22). If the difference lay solely in the fact that Jesus humanity was a new, redeemed
humanity and ours is not, it would be possible to derive an understanding of true humanity directly from
Christology. But Barth clearly argues that the irremovable difference between the man Jesus and other
humans is primarily and decisively the mystery of His identity with God (III/2, 71). While Jesus is
different from us by virtue of his status as the new human and this difference must be taken into account,
the primary difference that necessitates an indirect inference from Christology to anthropology is his
divine identity.
37
the rest of humanity. There can be no question, therefore, of a direct knowledge of the
nature of man in general from that of the man Jesus (p. 71). So, Barth states explicitly,
Anthropology cannot be Christology, nor Christology anthropology (ibid.).
For Barth, then, anthropology must be founded on Christology but it cannot be
deduced from it directly (p. 512).
42
We must rather infer from His human nature the
character of our own (p. 54) as we seek to know indirectly who and what we are from
the fact that we live in the same world and have the same humanity as this man (pp. 71-
72).
43
This means that Barths anthropological methodology always involves an indirect
extrapolation from Jesus humanity comprising two moments:

in our exposition of the doctrine of man we must always look in the
first instance at the nature of man as it confronts us in the person of
Jesus, and only secondarilyasking and answering from this place
of lightat the nature of man as that of every man and all other men.
(p. 46).

Jesus humanity is different from ours but it is in that very differencei.e., in
virtue of his unique relationship with Godthat the likeness is disclosed thus making
a christological anthropology possible (p. 54).
Barths christological methodology is thus grounded on the humanity of the man
Jesus insofar as it stands in continuity with all other human beings by virtue of their
common human nature and yet in discontinuity by virtue of its unique relationship with

42
Because of Barths emphasis on the methodological implications of Jesus unique humanity,
Gibbs argues that Barths theology should be viewed as having two foci: Christology and anthropology
(1963:132-135). He contends that Barths way of maintaining the unlikeness of Jesus humanity is to note,
through a comparison of human persons with each other, the ways in which Jesus is different from
humanity in general. Thus Barths anthropology must focus on both Jesus and other humans in order to
function effectively. While it is certainly true that Barths methodology requires that attention be paid both
to Jesus and other humans, Gibbs argument downplays the fact that the two moments in Barths
methodology are sequential and hierarchical. The christological move holds ontological, epistemological,
and methodological primacy over the anthropological move and we should, therefore, be very cautious
about picturing them as two foci in the same elliptical system.
43
For Barth, this is less interpretation than revelation: It is not that we interpret Him, but that He
discloses and explains Himself to us, that through and in Himself He manifests His nature to us as our own
true nature (p. 53).
38
God. A properly theological anthropology, therefore, though beginning with a
consideration of Jesus humanity, cannot remain there. In a second move, theological
anthropology must extrapolate from truths so derived to truths about the nature of true
humanity in general.
44
In the final section, we will see how Barth works through these
two moments to establish the basic criteria of a properly theological anthropology.

5. The Criteria of a Christological Anthropology
With 44 Barth moves from the more explicitly methodological concerns of 43
into his exposition of the outline and form of his anthropology. His intent is to develop
the minimal requirements essential in all circumstances for a concept of man which can
be used theologically (p. 72). Given the sinful obscurity of human nature, these minimal
requirements cannot be ascertained through any known and accepted picture of man
(p. 226)
45
but only by our Christological basis (p. 72). Recognizing, however, that the
uniqueness of Jesus humanity necessitates an indirect approach to ascertaining the basic
criteria of humanity in general, he sets his sights on developing a christological
foundation (p. 71) from which he can derive the criteria by which we can pose the
question of the nature of man (p. 72). In this section, we will follow the two moments of
his christological methodology as he first considers the person of Jesus and then infers
from his existence to the existence of human nature in general.

5.1. Christological Discernment: The Person and Work of Jesus Christ as the
Framework for Theological Anthropology
The basic premise by which Barth analyzes Jesus humanity in order to determine
the criteria for a theological anthropology is that the nature of humanity

44
Barths commitment to the primacy of the particular over the general is what Hunsinger refers
to as Barths particularism and notes as one of the fundamental motifs of his theology (1991:32-35; cf.
III/1, 602).
45
Barth thus rejects any of the contemporary non-christological accounts of the human person as
valid pictures from which we can read off that which corresponds and is similar in the man to the
humanity of Jesus (p. 226). Such a methodology would imply that the picture of humanity is the constant
and certain factor against which we juxtapose a variable and uncertain interpretation of Jesus (ibid.). By
contrast, Barth consistently maintains that the humanity revealed in Jesus is the primary text that judges
and invalidates all other pictures (ibid.).
39

is to be observed and established in its history as determined by Him,
in its continuous progress as resolved and executed by Him, through
a series of conditions, actions, experiences, in the recurrence and
confirmation of its identity through all these active modifications of
its being. (p. 55)

So, the question Who is Jesus? (along with the corresponding question What
is humanity?) is best answered by looking at the person of Jesus as revealed in His
work and history (p. 58).
46

For Barth, however, a consideration of Jesus work means specifically his
saving work since the work of Jesus is the work of the Saviour (ibid.). This is because
the scriptural portrayal of Jesus life focuses almost exclusively on its soteriological
dimensions, indicating that his work as Savior comprises the entirety of his existence
(pp. 63-64). He does not deny that other aspects of his human existence including his
inner life (e.g., his thoughts, emotions, desires, etc.) and his physical life (e.g., his
birth, development, everyday activities, etc.) are necessary and important to his humanity
(pp. 328-331). Nonetheless, they can never be an autonomous theme in the New
Testament because they are only disclosed to us through his public activity in his work
as Savior (p. 209).
47
As a result, Barth derives the christological criteria of true humanity

46
Barth is very cautious with the traditional division between Christs person and his work (cf.
pp. 61-62). While he recognizes that the distinction is useful for the purposes of exposition he is
concerned that theology often acts as if this were a real distinction thereby losing the inseparable relation
between them (p. 61).
47
Barth has been repeatedly criticized on this point for so stressing the soteriological work of
Christ that he ignores Jesus human life thus diminishing the validity and significance of everyday
realities. So Baillie famously characterized Barths theology as a Logotheism because he emphasized
primarily the Word of God rather than the the Word made flesh (see Deegan 1961). This same criticism
has been leveled more recently by Ngweshemi who thinks Barth goes so far in this direction that his
theology ultimately leads to a docetic understanding of the incarnation (2002:146; cf. Gunton 1989:60; and
J. Thompson 1978:75). While such criticisms may well have been true of Barths earlier theology (cf.
McCormack 1997:321), they should take into account more carefully Barths later comments on the
significance (albeit of a secondary nature) of the particularities of Jesus human existence (cf. Deegan
1961:125). They also fail to consider Barths understanding of humanity primarily in terms of its
covenantal relationship with God where the particularities of human life (e.g., eating, drinking, sleeping,
40
primarily, if not exclusively, from a consideration of what Jesus work as Savior reveals
about the nature of his humanity.
On this basis, Barth derives six criteria that will comprise the foundation of his
christological anthropology (pp. 68-71:
48

1. Jesus is the one in whose identity with himself we must
recognise at once the identity of God with Himself.
2. Gods presence in union with this man is not an abstract state
but is an action with meaning and purpose directed toward the
salvation of humanity.
3. Gods action toward humanity in union with this man does not
infringe His own sovereignty but is rather an exercise and
demonstration of His sovereignty.
4. Since Gods action in union with this man is an expression of
His divine sovereignty, the man Jesus exists in the Lordship of

sex, religion, thought, emotion, etc.) serve as the field on which human being either takes place or does
not take place as history, as the encounter of I and Thou (III/2, 249). These particularities are important
and may be analyzed in their own right. But they cannot contribute to a definition of true humanity, only to
a definition of the possibility of true humanity. Finally, these criticisms fail to appreciate the significance
of Barths statements about the particularities of humanity as the gift of God which comprises its special
endowment from God with which humanitys election stands in continuity and not contradiction (cf. Barth
1982b:52-54).
On a similar note, John D. Zizioulas questions whether such an exclusively christocentric
orientation can provide any real help for each man in his particular existential situation (1975:440).
While it is true that III/2 focuses primarily on the formal and material development of an account of true
humanity rather than its application to existential realities, we must recognize the close connection
between this account and its ethical application in III/4. Zizioulas is apparently not convinced that Barth
was successful in making this application vitally useful, but we must recognize that existential concerns
are not lacking from Barths anthropology and we should note, along with a number of more recent
studies, the prominent role that such concerns played through Barths theology in his consideration of
ethics (e.g., Biggar 1988; 1993; Webster 1995; 1998).
48
Some recent theologians have argued for a christological approach to anthropology, but one in
which the corresponding anthropological conclusions are remarkably limited (e.g., Watson 1997;
McFarland 2005). This is, however, markedly different from Barths approach, which affirms that
theological anthropology must and can be christologically grounded in a variety of very specific ways.
41
Godin the fulfilment of the divine act of lordship which takes
place in it.
5. As the one who lives within the lordship of God, the man
Jesus is himself the history of Gods gracious action towards
humanity.
6. This man is thus the one who is supremely for God in the
totality of his existence.

These six principles thus form the first moment in Barths christological
methodology: a consideration of the unique humanity of Jesus Christ..
49

5.2. Anthropological Inference: Moving from Christology to Anthropology
Barths christological methodology has now provided the basic criteria by which
an exposition of human nature in general may properly take place. These criteria are thus
the limits within which we shall always have to move in our search for a theological
concept of man (p. 74). So, he is now ready to move into the second moment of his
methodology whereby he seeks to extrapolate from the human nature of Jesus to human
nature in general. In the case of each of these six criteria, he thus moves from the
criterion unique to Jesus human nature to the formulation of a criterion that will be true
of all other humans. Given the prominent role that these criteria of human nature in
general will play in the development of Barths anthropology, his criticism of other
anthropological perspectives, and our own examination of his understanding of human
ontology later in this thesis, it may prove useful to quote these criteria more fully.

49
Unfortunately, Barth opens himself to criticism at this point by insufficiently demonstrating
more clearly the manner in which he derives these principles. It is clear that the principles flow logically
from one to the other and fit coherently within Barths broader theology. It is also clear that Barth feels
them to be biblically justified, although one has to turn elsewhere for the biblical support since he does not
address the biblical texts here. But, it seems reasonable to ask Barth to justify why these principles and not
others have been chosen. That these are significant aspects of Jesus life as revealed through his
soteriological work is indisputable. But, it is not self-evident that these are the only possible principles or
even that they are the best ones for the purposes at hand. Given the foundational role that these principles
will play in the development of Barths anthropology, one would expect a more explicit exposition and
defense of these particular principles.
42

1. If it is the case in relation to the man Jesus that in His humanity
we are confronted immediately and directly with the being of God, then
necessarilyevery man is to be understood, at least mediately and
indirectly, to the extent that he is conditioned by the priority of this man,
in his relationship with God....
2. If it is the case in relation to the man Jesus that the presence and
revelation of God in Him is the history of the deliverance of each and
every man, then necessarilyevery man is a being which is conditioned
by the fact thatevery man as such must exist and have his being in a
history which stands in a clear and recognisable relationship to the divine
deliverance enacted in the man Jesus.
3. If it is the case in relation to the man Jesus that in the divine
action in favour of each and every man in Him it is also a matter of the
freedom, the sovereignty and the glory of God, then necessarilythe
being of every manis not an end in itself, but has its true determination
in the glory of God.
4. If it is the case in relation to the man Jesus that He exists in the
lordship, then necessarilyit must be said of every man that it is
essential to him that as he exists God is over him as his Lord and he
himself stands under the lordship of God the Lord.
50
5. If it is the case in relation to the man Jesus that his being
consists wholly in the history in which God is active as mans Deliverer,
then necessarilythe being of every man must consist in this history. Not
only his actions but his being will consist in his participation in what God

50
The concept of obedience plays a prominent role in Barths understanding of true humanity.
Grounded in the election of Jesus to be the Royal Man (IV/2, 154-264; cf. Jngel 1986:127f.), Barth
understands humanity to be actualized by faith and obedience (McCormack 2000:107) as realized
primarily in prayer (ibid., cf. also Webster 1995:208-212). To some extent, then, Barth can argue that we
choose and realize ourselves in and through our actions (III/4, 13; cf. also W. Johnson 1997:81 and
Sondregger 2000:258-273). But, as Webster argues, we must also realize that Barths understanding of the
determinacy of human nature and agency relativises our acts, preventing them from assuming absolute
status in the definition of personhood (1995:75).
43
does and means for him. His freedom will be his freedom to decide for
God; for what God wills to do and be for him in this history.
6. If the man Jesus is for God, then necessarily, the being of no
other man can be understood apart form the fact that his existence toois
an event in which he renders God service, in which he for his part is for
God. (pp. 73-74)

On the basis of these six criteria we can say that, for Barth, true humanity must
be understood as (1) being constituted by the ontological priority of Jesus in his
relationship with God; (2) being conditioned by the salvation enacted by Jesus; (3)
having his true determination in the glory of God; (4) existing under the Lordship of
God; (5) freely corresponding in his proper action to the divine deliverance; and (6)
freely rendering service to God as a being who is for God.
These six criteria will serve as the standard by which Barth critiques other
approaches to anthropology (44.2) and various ways of construing human ontology
(46). They also constitute the basis upon which Barth develops his understanding of the
human person as the being who exists in relationship with God and his fellow-human
(45) as the soul of his body (46) in his allotted time (47). The extent to which Barth
has been successful in developing a christological anthropology will, therefore, depend
significantly on the extent to which he is successful in applying these six criteria to both
their critical and constructive tasks.

6. Conclusion: The Assumption behind All Assumptions
In III/2, Barth has endeavored to develop an anthropology that is based only on
Christology as the assumption behind all our other assumptions (p. 571). This is not an
assumption that we can make based on our experiences or our recognition of the inherent
liabilities of all other presuppositions, but instead it ought to be clear by now that we
can recognise and accept it and count on it and start from it, only as one which has
already been made for us (ibid.). As the presupposition that has been revealed to us in
the Word, a properly theological anthropology must rest on this presupposition and seek
to develop its account of the human person from that perspective alone.
We have seen how Barth develops his understanding of this presupposition
through his groundbreaking approach to election and his corresponding understanding of
44
the ontological decisiveness of Jesus Christ for all humanity. On this basis, theology can
not help but recognize the need to ground anthropology on Christology and seek
knowledge of ourselves from the one source where true humanity has been revealed.
This does not mean, however, that theology can make a facile move from the
human nature of Christ to the nature of humanity in general. Theology can not resolve
the problems of anthropology merely by introducing the word God into the discussion
and treating it as an Open Sesame to every problem (p. 551). The hard work of
developing a theological account of true humanity lies in the twofold inferential
movement from the person and work of Jesus Christ to general truths of human nature.
Both moments are essential. Lacking either, theological anthropology fails to be properly
theological.
Barth is convinced that this christological approach to the human person not only
reveals the nature of true humanity but also gives rise to a definite anthropology (p.
552). The christological form of Barths argument is not an empty shell that merely
adopts a christological framework within which the theologian can develop largely non-
christological elements. Rather, Barth understands this christological form to be
inseparably related to the christological content of a theological anthropology. The
remaining sections of III/2 bear out this conviction as Barth seeks to develop the content
of his anthropology through a consideration of humanitys essential relatedness with both
God and other human beings, the ontological nature of the human person as one
constituted as the soul of his body by the Spirit, and the necessary temporality of human
life as it has been determined by the eternal God. It remains for us in the next chapters,
then, to consider the extent to which the implications of Barths christocentric
anthropology come to bear on contemporary attempts to understand the human person.

45
Chapter 3
Conversing with the Enemy?
The Phenomena of the Human and the Nature of a Christologically Determined
Dialogue

1. Engaging the Persistent Rivals of a Christological Anthropology
In the previous chapter we explored Barths basic anthropological thesis that as
the ontological determination of humanity (p. 132) Jesus is the source of our
knowledge of the nature of man as created by God (p. 41). This, however, brings to the
forefront of our study the question of the proper source(s) for theological anthropology,
and thus the relationship between theology and the non-theological disciplines.
These other disciplines, for Barth, constitute a very persistent rival for theology
which utilize significantly different methods, sources, and results (p. 21). Aware of the
implications raised by these potential rivals, Barth himself poses the question as to
whether theological anthropology can profit by the methods and results of these
other disciplines (p. 22). He thus devotes an entire section (44.2) entitled The
Phenomena of the Human to summarizing and analyzing the contributions and insights
of various other approaches to understanding the human person.
The question to ask here, then, is whether Barth views these other approaches
merely as rivals against whom a christocentric anthropology can only declare a
decisive No, or whether there remains a possibility for meaningful dialogue. That is,
does Barths christocentric approach entail that a properly theological anthropology must
derive everything that it has to say about the human person from its christological
premises, and that it therefore has very little room for significant dialogue with other
anthropological perspectives? Given Barths christological focus, what can we say about
other attempts to understand the human person?
Given that many non-theological disciplines have devoted considerable attention
to the ontological issues that we will address in the following chapters, the goal of this
chapter will be to come to grips with Barths understanding of what role, if any, the
methods and insights of these other disciplines should play in developing a properly
theological account of the human person. This chapter will thus comprise three main
sections. In the first, we will take a closer look at exactly what it means to refer to Barth
as a christocentric theologian. By clarifying this term in the face of some significant
46
ambiguity, we will come to a better appreciation of his christocentric methodology and
the opportunities for interdisciplinary dialogue that his theology might offer. In the
second section, we will look directly at Barths discussion of the phenomena of the
human, paying particularly close attention to his analyses of non-theological
anthropologies in 44.2. Finally, having viewed how Barth actually interacts with these
other disciplines, we will draw some conclusions regarding the implications of this
paragraph for understanding (1) how Barth actually uses his christological criteria in
interacting with and evaluating the contributions of non-theological anthropologies and
(2) the extent to which Barth is open to dialoging with and learning from these other
disciplines.

2. The Radically Christocentric Nature of Karl Barths Theology
Given the clear emphasis that Barth placed on the centrality of Jesus Christ in
Christian theology, describing him as a christocentric theologian would seem like a
fairly straightforward proposition. To serve usefully as a prominent characterization of a
particular theology, however, as it does with respect to Barths theology, one would
reasonably expect that the term be fairly well defined and understood. But, as J. K.
Riches points out, there is an unfortunate ambiguity inherent in the term, which, unless
clarified, hinders its usefulness as a theological descriptor and, with respect to Barths
theology especially, results in widespread misunderstanding (1972).
Consequently, in this section we will address the nature of the ambiguity that
underlies the application of this term to Barths theology. We will see how any attempt
to identify Barths theology as christocentric must address both the ambiguity of the term
and the specific characteristics of Barths particular form of christocentrism.

2.1. Clarifying the Center: The Ambiguity of the Term Christocentric
As Bruce McCormack points out, understanding any form of christocentrism
requires that we take into account the difference between its formal and material aspects:

Formally, it simply means that a Christology stands at the
approximate centre of a particular theology, giving to it its characteristic
shape and content. That much is true of all so-called 'christocentric
47
theologies'. Materially, however, the meaning of the term can differ
widely for the simple reason that the doctrine of Christ which is placed at
the centre of theology differs form one christocentric' theologian to the
next. (1997:453)

Thus, there may be theologies that could be designated christocentric in a formal
sense that is not reflected in its more material considerations (e.g., Schleiermacher).
1

Equally, there may be multiple theologies with equal right to the christocentric label on
both the formal and material levels but still differing markedly in terms of their material
development. The significance of this can be seen in the fact that christocentric is a term
commonly associated not only with Barths theology, but also that of Ritschl, Harnack,
and Herrmann.
2
In addition to the differences that can arise with respect to formal and
material centricity, one should also note methodological variationse.g., the differences
between a central starting-point that enables one to incorporate other modes of discourse
and a more deterministic center that establishes a definite circumference beyond which
one may not reach. Clearly, then, merely labeling some theological system
christocentric will lead to significant ambiguity unless some attempt is made to clarify
the extent to which it is or is not christocentric with respect to these formal, material, and
methodological issues.
The ambiguity of the term becomes particularly prominent when we consider
some of the different ways in which Barths christocentrism has been interpreted. The

1
As Hunsinger points out, Schleiermachers theology (and arguably that of most 19
th
century
theologians) was formally but not substantively christocentric (2000d:283; see also T. Torrance
1990:35). Balthasar (1992:37) and Johnson (1997:110) also argue that Schleiermachers christocentrism is
undermined by his methodological and material commitment to religious awareness as the basis of
theology.
2
TeSelle largely glosses over the significant differences between these various theologians in his
attempt to characterize 20
th
century christocentric theologians as offshoots of 19
th
century German idealism
(1975). Sykes argues that although there is a formal similarity between the christocentric approaches of
Harnack and Barth, they are distinguished by substantial material differences (1979a:28-29); for a similar
point with respect to Herrmann see Mangina 2004:8-9. Thus, while there is a formal parallel between
Barths christocentrism and that of 18
th
and 19
th
century German theologians, their influence on his
christological concentration should not be overemphasized. Hunsinger convincingly argues that a more
fruitful background for understanding Barths theology and his christocentrism in particular can be found
in the theology of Luther (see 2000d).
48
scope of Barths christocentrism has repeatedly led to charges that Barths theology is
christomonistici.e., a theological system that reduces everything to Christology.
3

Barth, according to this interpretation, focuses so completely on the ontological and
epistemological centrality of Jesus Christ for the entire cosmos that the particularity,
significance, and, ultimately, even the reality of humans and other creaturely beings are
lost as everything is subsumed under the totalism of Barths Christology (Balthasar
1992:242; cf. also Deegan 1961; Come 1963:152-157; Willis 1971:236ff.; McGrath
1986:105-106; Biggar 1993:5; Muers 1999:268-269). Similarly, Barth is critiqued for
developing an isolationist approach to theology (D. Williams 1947:253; Ebneter
1952:36; Crawford 1972:327; Dorrien 1997:338-343; Milbank 1999:2; Webb 1991:504;
Roberts 1991:59-79). From this perspective, Barths christological concentration
involves a methodological christomonism that precludes any significant engagement
with non-theological disciplines (e.g., Cobb 1969).
4
According to Bruce Marshall, then,

3
Such criticisms have not dissipated (e.g., Rosato 1981:145; Thiemann 1981:120; Richmond
1986:404; Roberts 1991; Milbank 1999; and Frei 2005) and remain particularly common among American
evangelicals (e.g., Packer 1975; Muller 1991:130ff.; and G. Lewis 2003).
4
Riches notes that the term christocentric itself has come to be associated with an anti-intellectual
rejection of natural theology and human reason (1972:223-224). Sykes suggests that Barth is at least
partly responsible for such interpretations (1989:7). In a number of places Barth makes comments that
might indicate a real reticence to engage in any such dialogue. As early as I/1, Barth cautions that theology
should restrict itself to its own relevant concerns (I/1, xvi) and refuse to learn anything methodologically
from other disciplines (I/1, 8), as it must retain its autonomy and protect itself from corruption (I/1,
285). Particularly well known along these lines are Barths famous statements regarding the practical non-
existence of a philosophia christiana (I/1, 6), the dispensability of the natural sciences for developing a
theological account of creation (III/1, ix), and the incompatibility of theology with any world-view (cf.
III/1, 340-344; III/2, 4-11; and IV/3.1, 255-256).
Unfortunately, such comments are often abstracted from the rest of Barths theology and, indeed,
from the context in which they were written. Thus, Barths comments in I/1 are interpreted in isolation
from his extensive discussions regarding the close relationship that exists between theology and the non-
theological disciplines (I/1, 5-6, 84, 284), the possibility of revelation coming through any medium (I/1,
55), his rejection of anti-intellectualism (I/1, 200-201), and his assertion of the dignity of other
disciplines as they seek to carry out their own task (I/1, 256). Barths statements must also be understood
in light of his qualified affirmation of the possibility of a philosophia christiana (I/1, 5377-378; cf. Barth
1981:33-38; 1986:27, 32), the validity of future theologians interacting more extensively with the natural
sciences in a theology of creation (III/1, x; cf. Webster 2000a:111), and the impossibility of doing theology
independently of some particular world-view (I/2, 728-729; III/2, 6-8). While this is certainly not sufficient
49
the most common complaint against Barths theology is its apparent isolationismi.e.,
its putative refusal to engage the achievements, needs, and problems of modern or
contemporary culture (1993:445).
5
Thus, Barths theology is routinely interpreted as
involving a christological constriction (Crawford 1972:327) that remains in splendid
isolation from all efforts at human understanding (D. Williams 1947:253) as it seeks to
derive all the presuppositions, grounds, and possibilities of divine and human existence
from the materials of christological history (Crawford 1972:327; cf. Come 1963:140).
6

to establish that Barth was in fact open to interdisciplinary dialogue, it at least suggests that his interpreters
should be careful in appealing to his writings selectively to establish their point.
5
Several scholars indicate that this criticism has been particularly common among Protestant
scholars in the English speaking world (cf. Riches 1972:223-224; Sykes 1989:7, 1979b:12-13; Mangina
2003:437, 2004:ix).
6
Two areas in which this criticism has been particularly prevalent are the use of the natural
sciences and empirical data in theology, theological anthropology in particular, and the relationship
between theology and philosophy. So, Barth is regarded as having little or no interest in the natural
sciences and what they have to say about humanity (Pannenberg 1985:16; McGrath 2001:176; Krtke
2000:159). (McGrath does argue, however, that T. F. Torrances systematic retrieval of Barths theology
with respect to the natural sciences demonstrates that while Barths theology was limited in this regard,
the Barthian heritage has considerable potential as a dialogue partner between Christian theology and the
natural sciences [2001:177]). This seems to raise the possibility of a purely abstract theological
anthropology disengaged from the hard realities of human existence and unable to speak meaningfully to
the significant needs of contemporary society at a time when questions about the human person are
becoming particularly prominent (Krtke 2000:159; Ngweshemi 2002:147). Comparable criticisms have
been raised with respect to Barths understanding of philosophy. Kincade thus accuses him of having a
recalcitrant attitude to philosophy that is characterized by ambivalence and distrust toward all
philosophical contributions (1960:161-169) and that refuses to allow any substantive role to philosophy
within dogmatics (Willis 1971:103-109), resulting in a naive denial of the necessary relationship between
the two. Indeed, Barths understanding of the relationship between theology and philosophy played a
prominent role in the divisions that arose between him and the other dialectical theologians (McCormack
1997:400-410; Ford 1979a:59). His theology is thus derided for its subjectivity (cf. esp. Pannenberg 1991),
its positivistic approach to revelation (see Fisher 1988), and its pervasive irrationalism (e.g., Blanshard
1964; Trigg 1998). Lying at the root of many of these criticisms is Barths well known rejection of natural
theology (see Barth and Brunner 1946; T. Torrance 1947, 1970; R. Brown 1980; ODonovan 1986; Barr
1994; Thiselton 1994; Dorrien 2000; J. Hart 2001; Hauerwas 2001; Holder 2001; McDowell 2002) and his
corresponding refusal to engage in an apologetic defense of theology (McGrath 2001:177; Kincade
1960:162; Crawford 1972:321; for more on Barths rejection of apologetics see Pinnock 1977; Hunsinger
1991; Clausen 1999; Ward 2004).
50
More recently an alternative reading of Barths christocentrism has arisen as
scholars have attempted to understand the relationship between Barths theology and
postmodernism (e.g., Freyer 1991; Andrews 1996; Ward 1993a, 1993b, 1995; W. Lowe
1988, 1993; Smith 1983; W. Johnson 1997; G. Thompson 2001). Rather than
understanding the center of Barths theology as a determinative center that encompasses
all creaturely reality within its totalizing framework, this approach prefers to understand
the center of Barths theology indeterministically. These theologians tend to emphasize
Barths awareness of the necessary finiteness of humanity and human language, and thus
the generally indeterminate nature of theological discourse. According to William Stacy
Johnson, then, there is a strongly theocentric strand to Barths theology that focuses on
the hiddenness and mystery of God (1997:1). Consequently, Barths theology is
understood to be largely nonfoundational and de-centered in the sense that the center
of Baths theology is like the opening at the center of a wheel (ibid., 3-5; cf. I/2, 867).
7
While there may be a measure of truth in each of these different interpretations of
Barths theology, the sheer distance between these proposals suggests that greater clarity
is needed. Thus, McCormack correctly notes, All of this is to say that the customary
description of Barths theology as christocentric has very little explanatory value unless
one goes on to define concretely what christocentrism meant in his case (1997:454).
Well aware of some of these problems, Barth himself rarely used the term (Riches
1972:223), even warning against a theology that is too christocentric (Barth 1991:91). It
would seem, then, that further clarification is necessary before the term christocentric
can be used in a meaningful way to characterize Barths theology.
8

2.2. Determining Karl Barths Brand of Christocentrism
This leads us to the question with which this section is primarily concerned: What
exactly do Barths interpreters mean when they describe him as a christocentric
theologian? To answer this question it will prove helpful to expand on a definition of

7
While this section will make some evaluative comments with respect to such postmodern
readings of Barths christocentrism, it will not attempt a broader evaluation with respect to its adequacy as
a way of understanding Barths theology. For some studies on this topic see Ward 1993a; Thompson and
Mostert 2001.
8
For a broader study of christocentric theologies see Vander Goot 1981.
51
christocentrism offered by Bruce McCormack. According to McCormack, Barths
particular form of christocentrism can be defined as

the attemptto understand every doctrine from a centre in Gods
Self-revelation in Jesus Christ; i.e. from a centre in Gods act of veiling
and unveiling in Christ. Christocentrism, for him, was a
methodological rulein accordance with which one presupposes a
particular understanding of Gods Self-revelation in reflecting upon each
and every other doctrinal topic, and seeks to interpret those topics in the
light of what is already known of Jesus Christ. (1997:454)
9

Three things about this definition stand out as being particularly important for
understanding the unique form of Barths christocentrism: a veiling and unveiling in
Christ, a methodological orientation, and a particular understanding of Gods self-
revelation. In addition, we will need to consider the implications for Barths
christocentrism of his Trinitarian orientation and his emphasis on incorporating both
divine and human realities into any properly Christian theology. These five qualifications
will help us understand more clearly what it means to attribute christocentric to Barths
theology.

2.2.1. (Un)veiling Christocentrism: No Simple Given
First, McCormack notes that Barths christocentrism is one that involves both
veiling and unveiling in Christ. As Barth repeatedly argues, Gods Word is never
merely given, as though it were the possession of human beings and under their control,
but is an event whereby God manifests or unveils himself to human beings while
remaining veiled in the sovereignty and mystery of his being (I/1, 169, 174, 315-325;
II/2, 54-57, 179-203). Though Barth firmly asserts that the incarnate Christ is the
revelation of God in a human being and thus the unveiling of God, he nevertheless denies
that this humanity is intrinsically revelatory, but is so by the gracious act of God (I/1,
173, 323-324; Barth 1991:1, 157). Thus, the incarnation is the supreme manifestation of

9
TeSelle points out that christocentrism can be applied to epistemological, anthropological, or
ontological concerns (1975:1). Barths theology can properly be considered christocentric on all three
points.
52
the deus revelatus who at the same time remains the deus absconditus (I/1, 320ff.). As a
result, Barths christocentrism rejects (1) an entirely apophatic approach to theology that
voids it of any meaningful content (thus denying the unveiling of Gods self-
revelation) and (2) an illegitimate systematization of theology based on some theological
concept from which the rest of the system can be logically deduced (thus denying the
veiling; I/2, 868ff).
Webster argues that it is at this point that [m]uch of the material which seeks to
relate Barth to postmodernism has often lost its way in that it overemphasizes the
negative aspects of this presentation to the detriment of his churchly positivity
(2001a:15). His concern, then, seems to be that many postmodern readings of Barth
focus on the hiddenness of God emphasized by his language of veiling, but are not
adequately balanced by an equal treatment of the givenness and objectivity of God's
freely taking form in the incarnation of the Son, which bestows upon Christian
dogmatics a specific kind of positivity (ibid., 18).
10
Websters criticisms thus point out
the potential for mistake that arises whenever either pole of Barths christocentric
theology, the revelatory veiling or unveiling, are emphasized to the neglect of the other.

2.2.2. Methodological Christocentrism: Moving from Christ to Theology
Secondly, McCormacks definition presents Barths christocentrism as a
methodological rule. This, of course, is not to argue that it is merely a methodological
rule, since, as we have seen, Barth is well aware that this rule is itself based on the
ontological reality of the incarnation and the constitutive nature of Jesus eternal
election. Rather, here we simply acknowledge the significance of the methodological
role that Barths christocentrism plays.

10
Webster thus argues that It is given sums up virtually the whole of what I want to say about Barth's
relation to postmodernism (2001a:19). Although he is even somewhat critical of Johnsons study, suggesting
that he presents a rather strained reading which tends to overemphasize the mystery motif in Barths
theology (ibid., 16), Johnson at least recognizes the importance of affirming its positive dimensions in
addition to its countermelody, i.e., mystery (cf. W. Johnson 1997:1). Any tendency to overemphasize the
latter is probably the result of Johnsons attempt to counter the significantly more common overemphasis
on the all-consuming determinateness of Barths christological concentration. One can rightly question,
however, whether Johnsons use of the terms theocentric and christocentric as the most appropriate for
identifying the hiddennes and givenness of Barths theology.
53
Two important aspects of Barths christocentric methodology require our
attention. First, he argues that the directionality of all theological thinking must move
from Christ to any given theological formulation. Barth recognized that the directionality
of theological thinking has important consequences for the content of our theologies, and
consistently maintained that theological thought must always begin with Christology (cf.
Tanner 2000:11). Secondly, this methodological principle not only affirms the
directionality but the universality of christological thinking. As indicated above, Barth
maintained that properly theological thinking, whether addressing doctrine or some other
mode of discourse, must begin with Christology.
This methodological christocentrism, however, cannot be interpreted as
necessitating the theological isolationism with which Barth is often associated. If one
wants to focus exclusively on the proper point of departure for theology, then it must be
conceded that Barth is christomonistic, but only in this narrow sense. This does not
mean, however, that his theology is methodologically isolated from other disciplines. A
number of useful studies have argued that Barths theology is quite open to interacting
with and learning from a broad spectrum of non-theological disciplines (e.g., Stock 1980;
T. Torrance 1990; Price 2002; McDowell 2003b; Mangina 2003, 2004; Migliore 2004).
11

Indeed, Barths emphasis on the relativity of theology,
12
the importance of fellowship
and solidarity with all people (III/2, 250-274; cf. Biggar 1993:148), the need for
addressing the contemporary situation of the theologian (IV/3.2, 735; Barth 1979:161;
1982b:54),
13
his willingness to consider all people as potential members of the church
(III/4, 484-485; IV/3, 117, 494-496), and his openness to extra-ecclesial revelation (I/1,
54-55; IV/3.2, 38-164)
14
all provide significant resources for supporting interdisciplinary

11
Webster makes a similar argument with respect to Barths openness to historical dialogue
(2004b). Although several have argued that this openness was more of a theoretical than an actual reality
(e.g., Johnson 1997:8-9 Ford 1979b:196), we will see in the next section that his actual practice was more
open than is often acknowledged.
12
According to Barth, all theology is necessarily relativized by its character as a human response
to the sovereign revelation of God (I/1, 11-24) and its temporally limited nature (cf. Frei 1988:84).
13
Barths famous criticism of German theology in the 19
th
early-20
th
century theology as
capitulating to contemporary culture should not be read as indicating that Barth did not recognize
engagement with culture as one of the tasks of theology, but as resisting any move to ground or validate
theology in the ideas, needs, and/or questions of a particular culture (cf. 1982a:17-19). For other studies of
Barths understanding of human culture see Palma 1983; Gorringe 2004; Metzger 2003.
14
Cf. Dorman 1997; J. Thompson 1978:114-115; Sonderegger 1992:82-83; Gill 1986.
54
dialogue.
15
Rather than irrationally isolated from other forms of discourse, his theology
is thus understood as critically open to engaging the ideas and insights of these other
approachesbut always in such a way that the interaction is determined by the
christological perspective (cf. Hartwell 1964:53-58; Freyer 1991; Balthasar 1992:218-
219, 240; McDowell 2003b:45; I. Boyd 2004:26.).
16
Indeed, John McDowell argues that Barths clear affirmation of his
presuppositions and commitments enables a more effective and meaningful engagement
(2003b). After criticizing theologians who view theological conversation either as pre-
determined and closed to insights from other perspectives or as completely open and thus
constituted by the conversation itself, McDowell offers an understanding of conversation
grounded in the particularity of the conversation partners. In such a conversation, the
participants are neither fully constituted by the conversation itself, having identities that
are already established by their historical particularities, but neither are they completely
determined and closed to new insights, as they are willing to entertain the genuinely new
insights and ideas of the other.
17
Conversation, rightly understood, thus involves
difference, and the awareness of difference (ibid., 491).
18
In other words, for a
conversation to be valuable, the participants must understand their own presuppositions
and approach the conversation with something different to contribute: We do not
converse because we share a common foundation, and can trade variations upon that
agreed theme, but because we are different (ibid.)
19

15
As Mangina points out, however, we should be careful about stressing the role of dialogue in
Barths theology to the extent that we neglect his emphasis on the primacy of Scripture and theologys task
as witness (2004:176). We must also heed Barths warnings against theologians yearning for the fleshpots
of Egypt and losing sight of theologys true concern in their aversion to theological solitude and the need
to swim against the stream of fellow theologians and nontheological opinions and methods (1979:118).
16
For studies countering the charges of irrationality, subjectivism, and fideism in Barths
theology see Urban 1964:218-222; Molnar 1995:315-339; Smith 1983, 1984; Dalferth 1989; Mangina
2003, 2004:48-53.
17
In a similar manner, J. Taylor defines dialogue as a sustained conversation between parties
who are not saying the same thing and who recognize and respect the differences, the contradictions and
the mutual exclusions, between their various ways of thinking (1981:212).
18
McDowell thus follows Kenneth Surins criticism of pluralism as a merely cosmetic
commitment to difference which ultimately subsumes all differences in its pursuit of universal
uniformity (see Surin 1990).
19
See also Webster 2001a:24-26.
55
An important part of legitimate conversation, then, is the willingness to argue.
Rather than viewing argument and disagreement as a sign of failure it should instead
be viewed as an indicator of commitment to a conversational process that values the
difference between ones own particular location and that of the other (ibid.).
Based on this understanding of conversation, McDowell argues that, rather than
viewing Barths strong commitment to his christological presuppositions as resulting in
his virtual isolation from other perspectives, it is precisely this awareness of his own
particular identity that enables Barth to engage in meaningful conversation with other
people (ibid.).
20
Denying the factors that shape his commitments would be to renounce
who he is and thus that which can make conversation possible (ibid.). As indicators of
this conversational openness McDowell points to Barths willingness to interact with
specifically extra-ecclesial elements like philosophy and culture (ibid., 494-497).

2.2.3. Particular Christocentrism: No Mere Conceptual Construct
Finally, McCormacks definition stipulates that Barths christocentrism operates
on the basis of a particular understanding of Gods Self-revelation. Barths rejection
of any attempt to ground theology on a particular principle or idea is well known. He
asserted that truth is not

an idea, principle, or system. Nor is it a structure of correct
insights, nor a doctrine, even though this be a correct doctrine of the
being of God, that of man, their normal relationship to one another
and the establishment, restoration and ordering of this relationship.
(IV/3.1, 375)
21

20
From a similar perspective, Grenz calls for a renewed commitment to generous orthodoxy
that seeks to recognize the crucial and legitimate differences and contributions made by alternate
perspectives while at the same time remaining committed to certain theological presuppositions (2000:325-
326).
21
Similarly in III/2, he states, In Jesus God is not just a word or a systematic principle, but the
reality and prima veritas which of itself sets itself at the head of all other thoughts and gives them a
specific direction and content (p. 552). This was the basis of his disagreement with Berkouwers
evaluation of his theology in The Triumph of Grace in the Theology of Karl Barth (1956). Barth objected
to Berkouwers title and subsequent exposition on the basis that he was not concerned here with the
precedence, victory or triumph of a principle, even though this principle be that of grace. We are concerned
56

Barths christological concentration centers theology not on a principle from
which a system can be deduced, according to Eberhard Jngel, but on the concrete
existence of Jesus Christ (1986:128). So Barth understood his christocentrism to center
on an actual encounter with the reality to which theological presentation can only point
(p. 553); which, for Barth meant primarily the divine act of the atonement (ibid.).
22

As with the discussion of veiling and unveiling above, then, the postmodern
interpretation of Barth can, at times, fall short on this point. Although Barth does
describe his theology using his famous metaphor of the opening in the centre of a
wheel (I/2, 867), he does not mean to suggest that this center is indeterminate or without
particular content. Rather he affirms that knowledge of the center can only be provided
through the revelatory event and cannot be possessed by conceptual knowledge (cf. W.
Johnson 1997:11-66).
23
Barths christocentrism thus involves a particular understanding
of Gods self-revelation that reveals the center of theology to be the relationship
between God and man revealed in Jesus Christ through his concrete existence.
Stephen Sykes, however, finds Barths argument inconsistent on this point.
According to him, Barth denies that any central doctrine, concept, or idea lies at the
center of theology; an approach he associates with Barths rejection of neo-Protestant
attempts to define the essentials of Christianity (1979a:25; cf. also Sykes 1988). Thus,
Barths focus is not on the centrality of a doctrine of the Atonement, but the centrality

with the living person of Jesus Christ (IV/3.1, 173). [C]hristological thinking, for Barth, in this sense
is a very different process from deduction from a given principle and he thus contends that theology does
not develop from a Christ-principle, but from Jesus Christ Himself as attested by Holy Scripture (p.
175). Therefore, Barth rejected Berkouwers characterization of his theology on the basis that any principle
used systematically to determine Gods revelation is an illegitimate imposition on the divine freedom.
Cushman describes it as an imposition of man-made constructs on that which transcends man (1981:11).
22
As Barth describes it, the heart of the Churchs dogmaticshas a circumference, the doctrine
of creation and the doctrine of the last things, the redemption and consummation. But the covenant
fulfilled in the atonement is its centre (IV/3.1, 3). This actualistic centering of theology on the atonement
has particular significance for this project as it indicates that theology cannot remain only a doctrine of
God but must involve the relationship between God and man (II/2, 5; cf. Webster 1998:79-80 and
Johnson 1997:13). On this theme Barth is thus very much in line with and perhaps influenced by Eastern
Orthodox anthropologies (cf. Nellas 1987:120).
23
Barth thus contends that the conceptuality of doctrine can participate in the truth of the Word
but that the Word cannot be enclosed or confined in any doctrinenot even the most correct
Christology, since He is the Lord as well as the measure and criterion of all doctrine (IV/3.1, 376).
57
of the act of the Atonement in which God is God (ibid., 40). But Sykes thinks Barth is
unaware that this actualistic center demands a special Christology, which, although it is
comparatively unspecific compared with the degree to which two-nature Christology was
eventually developed in the post-patristic era, is nonetheless identifiably non-Docetic,
non-Ebionistic, and non-Arian (ibid., 41; cf. McGrath 1986:107). Therefore, he argues
that the center of Barths theology is a particular christological doctrine and not merely
the divine act itself. Barths assertions to the contrary are unconvincing rhetoric that
disguise the reality of this conceptual core (ibid., 51). Sykes, by contrast, agrees with
Barths actualism but contends that theologians should explicitly utilize some concept or
idea corresponding to, but in no way replacing the actuality of Gods revelation, which
seeks to render conceptually what is there enacted really at the center of theology (ibid.,
50).
Sykes criticisms, however, should be responded to on three points. First, even
though he acknowledges that Barths concern is primarily with unauthorized
systematization (ibid., 46-48), he unaccountably fails to consider the significance of
Barths understanding of an authorized systematization (cf. I/2, 868ff.). Theology, for
Barth, can be systematic so long as it is an expression of the ratio of its object, i.e., God
revealed through Christ.
24
While Barth rejects any attempt to place a principle or idea at
the center of Christian theology, he fully affirms that the story of Gods encounter with
humanity in the incarnation can and must play this role (cf. Ford 1979a:74). As John
Webster argues, Barths theology is, then, striking above all for its narrative density, its
ceaseless vigilance against conceptual takeover, its refusal to go beyond the simple It
came to pass.... (1995:83-84; see also Webster 2001b:41-43). Because of the absolute
and self-positing character of this divine-human event Barth locates the bridge
between Jesus history and our own not in some cognitive or interpretative or
experiential processes, but in the self-manifestation of the risen Jesus in the power of the
Spirit, as a reality which we can only acknowledge (ibid., 87-88). Thus, Barth is fully
aware that the actualistic center of his theology has its own ratio from which a system
can be developed. Secondly, Sykes fails to bring into the discussion Barths awareness of

24
On the development of Barths use of the ratio concept through his interaction with Anselm see
T. Torrance 1962:182-193.
58
the inseparability of form and content in any discussion of methodology.
25
This
inseparable relationship makes it questionable at best to charge Barth with being
unaware that the formal center of his theology could not be divorced from its material
content. Finally, although Sykes is well aware of Barths concern that any move toward
conceptualizing the center of theology will result in the theologians attempting to control
the object of theologyhe even notes that the history of theology bears out these
concernsbut he casually dismisses Barths actualistic methodology without providing
in his alternative approach any substantive response to this concern (1979a:50-51).
It may be that at times Barth does not differentiate clearly enough between the
illegitimate systematization that seeks to develop an entire theological system on the
basis of an idea or principle with the pragmatic adoption of some given conceptual
perspective that is necessary for any given theological formulation. But Barth clearly
recognizes the legitimacy of this latter move stating that

truth certainly can and should be reflected in such a doctrine, and
secondarily attested in this form. It demands to be taught as such, i.e.,
to be grasped, considered and understood with the greatest possible
consistency, and to be expressed in tolerably correct, clear and
logical thoughts, words and sentences. (IV/3.1, 375-376)

But we must recognize the limitations of these conceptualizations in that even in
the doctrine which is most correct, and most conscientiously attained and fashioned, we
are already or still in the sphere of man and not yet or no longer in that of the truth of
God which encounters him (ibid.; cf. I/2, 731).
Contrary to both Sykes and some postmodern readings of Barth, then, Barth is
fully committed to both the actualistic center of theology and its material particularity.
The two can be differentiated for heuristic reasons but should never be separated as
though they can be independently critiqued.

25
As McLean observed, for Barth form and content are bound up together and should be
separated only for the purpose of speech. Even then, speech itself must constantly attempt to reveal that
they are together (1981:12); see also Balthasar 1992:47-55 and McCormack 1999:476-477.
59
2.2.4. Theocentric Christocentrism: A Trinitarian Orientation
Besides the three principles brought out by McCormacks definition of Barths
christocentrism, two other factors must be recognized. First, it seems that the most likely
reason Barth thought the concept of christocentrism should be used carefully in theology
is because Barths christocentrism was always intended, as Geoffrey Bromiley observes,
to point to (and not away from) the centrality of the triune God (1979:xi; see Barth
1991:91). Similarly, Johnson says,

It is commonplace to interpret Barth as a christocentric theologian.
Yet this simple designation does not end the matter. One cannot
focus on Jesus Christ in himself, according to Barth, without
understanding his life as caught up in a more dynamic Trinitarian
movement of Gods Word and Spirit. (1997:13)
26

Indeed, the significance of the Trinity is reflected in the entire structure of the
Church Dogmatics and its individual expositions.
27
Unlike some contemporary
theologians who seek to place christocentric and theocentric in opposition to one another
(e.g., Knitter 1983), Barth would regard any such move as singularly inappropriate.
Rather, Barth always intended the christocentric orientation of his theology to lead to and

26
Hartwell likewise states: In view of Barths teaching on the Triune God, creation and the Holy
Spirit it may even be doubted whether his theology can be classified as wholly christocentric, seeing that to
both the Father and the Holy Spirit a prominent place is assigned in it (1964:16).
27
At this point one must acknowledge the extensive discussions that have taken place regarding
the adequacy of Barths pneumatology and its implications for understanding his christocentrism. John
Thompson argues that despite the apparent paucity of pneumatological material, the very structure of the
Dogmatics suggests an inherently Trinitarian and, thus, strongly pneumatological orientation (1991:42; cf.
also Hunsinger 2000c:127-142). T. Torrance even goes so far as to say that no one has given the Trinity a
greater role in theology than Barth (1962:176). Others have been more critical citing Barths weaknesses in
Barths theology as underlying apparent weaknesses in his understanding of gender (Rogers 1998:43-82;
2004), human freedom and history (Rosato 1981; Willis 1971; Gunton 1989), and the relationship between
Christs humanity and ours (I. Davidson, 2001) among others. But it should be noted that most of these
arguments have more to do with the manner in which Barth presented his pneumatology and do not in any
way weaken Thompsons point that the structure and intention of Barths theology reflects an inherently
pneumatological interest. In addition, the proposed fifth volume on redemption, which was to have focused
on pneumatological issues, may well have ameliorated some, though not all, of these concerns.
60
support his primarily trinitarian concerns. As John Thompson noted, for Barth,
Christology and Trinity are distinguishable but inseparable (1986a:13). A
christocentric theology that was in tension with, let alone in opposition to, its trinitarian
orientation would ultimately fail to be Christian theology.

2.2.5. (The)anthropological Christocentrism: The Divine-Human Relation
Finally, as Barths christocentrism does not reflect a denigration of the Trinity,
neither does it indicate a promotion of christological concerns at the expense of
creaturely realities. Barth was very clear that theology cannot be about God alone but
must include humanity as well:

A very precise definition of the Christian endeavour in this respect
would really require the more complex term the-anthropology. For an
abstract doctrine of God has no place in the Christian realm, only a
doctrine of God and of man, a doctrine of the commerce and
communion between God and man. (1982a:11)

The significant attention that Barth devoted to human concerns (e.g., ethics,
culture, agency, etc.) demonstrates the keen interest in creaturely realities Barth exhibited
through his christocentric theology (cf. Mangina 2001). Some have argued that this
openness to creaturely reality is a fairly late development, not surfacing until volumes III
and IV of the Dogmatics. According to Webster, however, it is more appropriate to speak
of a richer expression in these later writings of a concern that has its roots in the earliest
phases of Barths theological development (1998:37-38).
As we have seen, however, many interpreters contend that this aspect of Barths
theology actually involves some form of ontological or epistemological christomonism
that denigrates and subsumes creaturely realities. This despite the fact that Barths
rejection of christomonism could not have been clearer. In the posthumously published
fragment IV/4 he asserted that a true Christocentricity will strictly forbid us from
pursuing christomonistic lines of thought (IV/4, 19). Even more clearly, he argued in
another late article that [t]he Gospel defies all isms which fail to unite God and man
and that sound theology eschews Christomonism as a failure to appreciate the
affirmation and union of both God and humanity (1962). These concerns have also been
61
effectively responded to by a number of recent studies which demonstrate rather
convincingly that such criticisms revolve primarily around a failure to appreciate the
dialectic involved in Barths redefinition of human reality, particularly human freedom,
as a determinate correspondence to God (cf., McLean 1981:60-62; Webster 1995, 1998;
McCormack 2000:106).
Additionally, several scholars have argued that the christomonist objection fails
to appreciate Barths understanding of the enhypostatic nature of humanitys
relationship to Jesus (e.g., Dalferth 1989; Webster 1998; I. Davidson 2001; Tanner
2001). Thus, as Jesus human nature exists enhypostatically in union with the Word, so
all human nature exists enhypostatically in union with Jesus. Barths christocentricity,
then, is more properly understood as the proper ground, rather than the subsumption, of
creaturely reality.

2.3. A Properly Delimited Christocentrism
Given these caveats, one might begin to wonder whether it is still appropriate to
speak of Barth as a christocentric theologian. Since it is necessary to qualify the term so
carefully, maybe we would be better served by finding some other descriptor that is less
susceptible to such confusion. While it is true that the breadth and depth of Barths
theology make it amenable to a variety of descriptions, there remains, nonetheless, a
particular aptness to this label. As indicated at the beginning of this essay, Barth clearly
emphasized that Christian theology must be determined at every stage by the incarnation.
He thus argued that

within theological thinking generally unconditional priority must
be given to thinking which is attentive to the existence of the living
person of Jesus Christ, so that per definitionem Christological thinking
forms the unconditional basis [begrndende] for all other theological
thinkingIt is thus quite out of the question to start with certain prior
decisions (e.g., concerning God, man, sin, grace etc) and then to support
these christologically.The only decisions which can have any place are
those which follow after [Nachentscheidungen], which are consistent with
thinking which follows Him [folgsamen Denkens], which arise in the
62
course of Christological thinking and the related investigations,
definitions and conclusions. (IV/3.1, 175)

The consistency with which Barth carried out the christological determination of
theology suggests that, despite the potential for confusion and mischaracterization, the
christocentric label may still be justly, though carefully, applied. Indeed, one might well
respond to Barths critics by asking, along with Barth, if the incarnation is a reality, if the
sovereign God of the universe has in fact become incarnate in the person of Jesus Christ,
can theology be anything but christocentric?
28
From this discussion we can see that christocentric is not a generic label that can
be usefully applied irrespective of the unique particularities of individual theologians.
Any attempt to understand Barth as a christocentric theologian must therefore bear in
mind that his unique brand of christocentrism always involved (1) both a veiling and
unveiling of knowledge in Christ, (2) a methodological orientation, (3) a particular
Christology, (4) a Trinitarian focus, and (5) an affirmation of creaturely reality. We may
continue to describe Barths theology as a christocentric theology so long as we bear
these caveats in mind.

3. Seeing the Human, In Part: The Phenomena of the Human
Having clarified the nature of Barths christocentrism and its implications for
understanding its character as both determinate and open, we are now in position to
ascertain the precise manner in which Barth actually participates in such dialogue. To do
this, we will first consider Barths understanding of the phenomena of the human
[Phnomene des Menschlichen] in III/2 and how such phenomena relate to the various

28
This would seem to be an apt response to those who are concerned about the well-nigh
incredible consistency of Barths Christology (Frei 1993:175); a concern that apparently led to Colin
Browns criticism that Barth developed a speculative theology that is more christocentric than the Bible
(1978:108). Contrary to Brown, as we have seen, the consistency of Barths christocentrism is not based on
systematic speculations but on a commitment to the reality-defining significance of the incarnation.
Browns comment also betrays a lack of sensitivity to Barths christological hermeneutic; which would
raise serious questions about what it means to be more christocentric than the Bible (for good comments on
this aspect of Barths hermeneutic see Baxter 1986 and Higton 2004).
63
anthropological disciplines.
29
After developing this concept, we will take a brief look at
three crucial dialogues in which Barth engages other disciplines on their interpretation of
these phenomena.

3.1. Science and Speculation: A Phenomenological View of Humanity
In 43.2 Barth considers two distinct approaches to understand the human person,
each of which begin with that which can be ascertained about human nature from
observing humanity as it currently appears. That is, they begin by observing the
phenomena of human life.
Despite this common starting point, however, Barth makes a sharp distinction
between speculative and scientific approaches to anthropology. A speculative approach
involves the development of axiomatic principles from which a theological
anthropology may be developed (p. 22).
30
The second type, the exact science of man,
differs in that it develops hypotheses from its research but, [t]o the extent that science is
exact, it will refrain from consolidating its formulae and hypotheses as axioms (p. 23).
Hence, the primary difference between the two is that the scientific approach understands

29
At first glance Barths discussions in 44.2 seems oddly placed given the overall structure of
III/2. The subject matter of this section follows very naturally on the heels of the discussion in 43.2, with
its critique of non-christological approaches to anthropology. And it also fits rather awkwardly in its own
context separating as it does 44.1, with its discussion of Jesus as the revelation of the basic form of
humanity, from 44.3, where that basic form is used to develop an understanding of true humanity as the
divine counterpart. Closer examination, though, indicates that Barth intentionally postponed his more
extended critique of non-christological anthropologies until after he had developed his christologically-
derived principles of true humanity in 44.1. 44 can thus be understood as (1) the christological
development of the basic form of humanity; (2) the basic form of humanity critically applied to evaluate
non-christological starting points; and (3) the basic form of humanity constructively applied to develop an
understanding of humanity. So, sections 43.2 and 44.2 share the same basic concerns, but the more
complete discussions of the latter section had to wait for the christological arguments of 44.1.
30
According to Hunsinger, Speculation designates, in the Barthian lexicon, just that procedure
which seeks to move from the general to the particular, from an a priori understanding of what sorts of
things are generally possible and actual (as established by reason apart from faith) to an understanding of
what sorts of things are possible and actual in theology.More broadly, speculation is a term used to
designate the deriving of doctrine from anything other than the biblical witness to Jesus Christ as the center
and norm of Gods self-revelation (1991:51).
64
the tentative nature of its hypothetical investigations while the speculative approach
attempts to develop an axiomatic foundation upon which to build a theory of humanity.
Consistent with the christocentric orientation of his theology, Barths comments
about the speculative approach are unsurprisingly critical. He accuses this approach of
being mythical, unbiblical, and arrogant (p. 22). His primary concern is with the
unlimited self-confidence (p. 23) of this view whereby it attempts to see the essence
and nature of man apart form the Word of God, and instead seeks to develop an
autonomous perspective from which to develop its anthropology (p. 22). Whether this
approach includes an idea of God or not is irrelevant in Barths analysis since either
way the foundation of the anthropology is not the Word of God, but is instead the
autonomous attempt by the human person to know and analyse himself (p. 23).
Against this perspective, Barth can only maintain that we are not able to see the essence
and nature of man apart from the Word of God (ibid.).
The scientific approach, however, receives a much more positive evaluation from
Barth insofar as it remains true to its scientific orientation. As such it will recognize that
its purpose is to investigate the phenomena of humanity and not try to develop
comprehensive theories regarding the essential nature of humanity (p. 24).
Scientific anthropologies so understood can actually be quite helpful as they
provide precise information and relevant data which can be of service in the wider
investigation of the nature of man, and can help to build up a technique for dealing with
these questions (ibid.).
Despite this positive evaluation, Barths discussion precludes any possibility that
knowledge of true humanity could be derived in this way. Though the exact science of
man may be adept at analyzing the phenomena of humanity, it is completely unable to
deal with the relation of this creature to God, and therefore with his inner reality and
wholeness (p. 25).
31
Indeed, as mentioned earlier, Barth argues, Even the fact that man

31
Similarly, P. Jewett observes, Knowledge of the outer world of the universe where we live and
the inner world of the mind by which we perceive where we live - knowledge of the phenomena of
humanity, as Barth calls it - gives us genuine knowledge about ourselves. Such knowledge, however, will
never disclose the ultimate mystery of our humanity; it will never tell us what it means to say 'I' (1996:16-
17). Barths approach is thus markedly different from the more common method espoused by Zizioulas
where even a humanistic approach to anthropology recognizes that the actual man of our experience
transcends empirical investigation, but that such endeavors, nevertheless, provide the raw material for
the conception or creation of the real man (1975: 401, 402; cf. also Macquarrie 1982:3-4). While Barth
65
is the creation of Godis a fact that is not accessible to human thought and perception
otherwise than through the Word of God (ibid.).
32
Even scientists who are obedient
hearers of the Word of God cannot use the scientific approach to ascertain true
humanity in its relationship with God. This is because such a move would necessitate
that they look beyond the phenomenal man who is the object of exact science to the real
man perceptible in the light of Gods Word (ibid.). There is no reason why a person
should not do this but, in so doing, they should recognize that they are no longer
developing a scientific but rather a theological anthropology (pp. 25-26). The scientific
approach thus remains a good work only insofar as it recognizes its limits and avoids
becoming axiomatic, dogmatic and speculative (p. 25).
For Barth, then, both the speculative and scientific approaches are
inherently flawed when viewed as starting points for achieving an understanding of true
humanity. The speculative approach fails, in Barths estimation, to provide real
knowledge of any kind with its hyper-inflated sense of its absolute vantage point; while
the scientific approach, though valuable in its own right, is incapable of seeing beyond
the phenomena of humanity to the nature of true humanity.

3.2. The Phenomena of the Human vs. the Symptoms of Real Humanity
Barths understanding of the phenomena of the human, however, is somewhat
more complicated than it first appears.
33
In his opening discussion of the phenomena
(43.2), Barth seems to equate the phenomena of the human with whatever is accessible
to exact science (p. 23)e.g., physiology, psychology, and sociology (p. 24). Thus,
the phenomena of humanity are understood to be the outward features of humanity
accessible to the exact sciences (p. 20). Any anthropological approach that fails to limit
its investigation to these empirical phenomena and seeks instead to develop a system for
understanding true humanity becomes a speculative exponent of a philosophy and
world-view (p. 24). Thus, it would appear that this first discussion limits the phenomena

would affirm the usefulness of such raw material, he would not allow that they are necessary for an
understanding of true humanity.
32
For Barth, the determinative significance of humanitys relationship to God precludes even a
theoretical, practical or methodological atheism in his self-knowledge (p. 345).
33
Thus Stock complains about the bewildering way [verwirrender Weise] in which Barth
presents this distinction (1980:528).
66
of humanity to the exact sciences and specifically excludes any speculative or
philosophical consideration of human being.
This apparently scientific account of the phenomena, however, is clearly
expanded in 44.2. His explicit engagement with both scientific and philosophical
perspectives on the human person in this paragraph require a much broader
understanding of the phenomena which he defines here as certain human
characteristics (p. 76) that are a part of humanitys creaturely nature and consequently
place human beings in basic continuity with all other animals (pp. 76-79). Later in the
work, Barth explicitly defines these human characteristics that are ostensibly open to
phenomenological analysis as including biological, relational, intellectual, volitional,
emotional, political, cultural, and even religious dimensions of human existence.
34
For
Barth, then, the phenomena of humanity can be defined as any aspect of human
existence that can be observed and analyzed from some limited human perspective (e.g.,
philosophy, biology, sociology, history, etc.) independent of an awareness of the true
humanity revealed in Jesus Christ.
At this point, Barth draws a helpful distinction between the phenomena of the
human and the symptoms of real man [Symptome des wirklich Menschlichen] (p.
75).
35
In contrast to the phenomena, which can be studied independently of a
christological perspective and can only result in a phantom man [Schattenmenschen],
the symptoms of real man are indicators of true humanity and, as such, can only be
discerned when the phenomena are viewed from the vantage point provided by the true
humanity of Jesus (ibid). To understand the relationship between these two views of
humanity, we will have to consider the limitations of the phenomenological method.

34
The inclusion of religion in Barths understanding of the phenomena is reinforced in his
subsequent discussion of the theology of Emil Brunner under the same category (pp. 128-132). For Barth,
even religion and theology remain merely phenomena of humanity when they fail to regard humanity in
light of its historical relationship with God grounded in its ontological determination in Christ. Elsewhere,
Barth explicitly affirms that the phenomena include those things not perceptible to our senses and thus
not amenable to empirical study (p. 91).
35
Frey critiques Barth at this point for failing to provide a methodologically precise account
[methodisch przise Rechenschaft] of this distinction (1978:217). Freyer, though, points out that Barths
distinction is more precise than often recognized (1991:195).
67
3.3. Partial Perspectives: The Limitations of a Phenomenological Viewpoint
These phenomena, though useful, are inherently limited from a number of
directions. First, as we discussed above, no purely phenomenological analysis of creation
in general or humanity in particular can ever lead to knowledge of humanitys essential
relationship to God. Since this relationship is basic to any proper knowledge of
humanity, the phenomena are necessarily precluded from resulting in knowledge of true
humanity (pp. 20-21).
A second limitation, however, stems from humanitys sinful condition.
Theologians have consistently noted the problem of sin not only as it impacts human
existence and experience but also as it affects our ability to understand humanity itself
and therefore the proper methodology for approaching that study. As John Zizioulas
points out, sin constitutes a fundamental methodological problem for any theological
anthropology (1975:401). Theologians either affirm, on the one hand, that true humanity
can be discerned through actual humanitys sinful state, thus implying that sin and
redemption do not essentially alter our view of man or, on the other hand, that true
humanity cannot be discerned in this way, thus problematizing any approach to
anthropology (pp. 20-21). Hence, the methodological implications of the sin problematic
are such that any theological anthropology must address them.
Barth is keenly aware of these methodological issues. According to Barth, the
Word reveals humanity as a betrayer of himself and a sinner against his creaturely
existence (p. 26). Humanity stands in contradiction to God his Creator and to the end
for which he was created (ibid.). Though the real creaturely nature of man (p. 38)
persists through the gracious love of God and the faithfulness of Jesus, humanitys sin
means that man has no power of vision to see through the perversion of his nature to his
true nature (ibid.). So Barth asks,

In these circumstances how can we possibly reach a doctrine of
man in the sense of a doctrine of his creaturely essence, of his human
nature as such? For what we recognize to be human nature is nothing
other than the disgrace which covers his nature.But if we know man
only in the corruption and distortion of his being, how can we even begin
to answer the question about his creaturely nature. (p. 27)

68
We ourselves are blinded by sin and can only wonder if our understanding of
humanity is mere delusion, but in Christ we see the reality (p. 43).
36
Barth thus rejects
the traditional approach to theological anthropology which was to try first to establish
generally what human nature is, and on this basis to interpret the human nature of Jesus
Christ in particular. Our whole approach to the relation between human sin and human
nature has led us irresistibly in the opposite direction (p. 44).
Interestingly, though, Barth brings sin into the discussion after he rejects the
possibility of speculative and scientific starting points for theological anthropology. As
the previous discussion shows, this is not because Barth does not appreciate the
significance of the sin problematic. The order of his argument shows that his primary
concern is to demonstrate that any proper theological anthropology must begin with the
relationship between humanity and God. Any anthropology that begins in some other
place is necessarily flawed regardless of the questions posed by sin.
37
As a third limitation, Barth contends that the phenomena are inherently neutral,
relative and ambiguous (p. 76). While these phenomena are certainly capable being
symptoms of real humanity, one wonders about the criteria by which it is possible to
determine which phenomena indicate true symptoms and which only apparently do so.
Thus, they are unable on their own to establish a picture of true humanity (ibid.). What is
needed is some criterion outside the sphere of the phenomena themselves by which the
phenomena can be evaluated and understood in their proper order. And, of course, the
only possible criterion for such a task according to Barth is the true humanity of Jesus
Christ.
38

36
In his analysis of the second edition of Barths Romans commentary, McCormack, following
Michael Beintker, identifies a similar distinction between reality theologically perceived and reality as it
appears to men and women living in history, which he classifies as the ontic and the
phenomenological levels of reality (1997b: 266).
37
Additionally, Barth critiques non-christological approaches for their inherently circular and
self-referential nature: For the point at issue is who is the man who wants to know himself and thinks he
can? How does he reach the platform from which he thinks he can see himself (pp. 75, 178)? Moltmann
raises a similar concern with his observation about the necessary circularity involved in any attempt by a
human person to understand his own subjectivity (1974:2).
38
Thus, in Barths discussion of Polanus, he concludes that the idea of the human person as a
rational animal is a phenomenon of humanity that can be rightly viewed as a symptom of true humanity,
but only if it is seen in light of humanitys definite history grounded in Gods attitude to him (p. 77). If
69
The final limitation of any phenomenological approach to humanity is that such
accounts are necessarily constrained by the current state of human knowledge. Scientific
and philosophical studies of humanity offer only a modest degree of certainty because
their certainty can only be that of the competent observer who is necessarily limited by
the knowledge available in her field (p. 88). The insights of these disciplines, while
valuable, can only provide modest, i.e., limited, conditioned and relative certainty, and
definitely not the certainty which life demands of man (ibid.). A properly theological
account of the true human, by contrast, seeks to ground knowledge of humanity in its
eternal relationship with God and thus a knowledge that is not affected by the ephemeral
nature of human knowledge.
We can see, then, that despite Barths affirmation of the validity of
phenomenological investigations of human existence and their ability to produce true
insight into human phenomena, he thinks that this endeavor is inherently limited by its
christological inadequacy, the sinfulness of humanity, the ambiguous nature of its
results, and the finite limitations of phenomenological knowledge.

4. Joining the Dialogue: Karl Barth at the Anthropological Roundtable
Having considered the nature of these phenomenological investigations and their
corresponding limitations, we are finally in place to determine the precise nature of
Barths approach to interdisciplinary dialogue. Consistent with Barths aversion for
general principles, however, we find that he does not give any specific guidelines for
such dialogical interaction. Rather than provide us with an abstract account of how to
deal with the phenomena, he presents several concrete examples.
39
The bulk of 44.2,
then, is devoted to Barths engagement with these various ways of understanding the
human person and his repeated contention that each provides insight into the phenomena
of the human, but not true humanity itself. In this section, then, we will (1) consider the
nature of the three dialogue partners Barth engages, (2) determine the extent to which

not, it can only be an indifferent phenomenon, which can be established and observed as such, but which
does not shed even the smallest ray of light on the true nature of man (ibid.).
39
Barth actually deals with four different anthropologies in this paragraph. Since our concern is
primarily with the manner in which Barth interacts with non-theological anthropologies, however, we will
not address his treatment of Brunners anthropology in the fourth dialogue.
70
Barth can affirmatively engage these alternate perspective, and (3) analyze the process
by which he critically interacts with each.

4.1. Biology, Moral Agency, and Existential Subjectivity: The Conversation Partners
The Biological Dialogue: The first of the discussions, concerning a biological
account of humanity (pp. 79-90), actually involves two separate perspectives: one
theological and one more properly scientific. In the first, Barth summarizes the historical
development of apologetic efforts by modern theologians to defend the uniqueness of
humanity from naturalistic attempts to view it as no different from other creatures.
40
He
discusses how this apologetic endeavor moved from arguments asserting a high level of
discontinuity between humans and other creatures to a greater appreciation for the
similarities between them and a greater use of, indeed dependence on, evolutionary
accounts of human development. In each case, the theologians in question sought to
establish true humanity on the basis of some distinction particular to human beings (p.
85). In the second account, Barth addresses Adolf Portmanns attempt to determine the
singularity of man in his non-human environment (p. 87). Writing with more properly
scientific, rather than theological, concerns, Portmann did not seek to establish
humanitys absolute uniqueness but rather its relative singularityi.e., the extent to
which humanity is both similar to and different from other creatures (ibid.). His work is
thus distinct from the previously mentioned theologians primarily in the scope of his
intent; methodologically the procedures are identical.
The Ethical Dialogue: Barths second dialogue moves beyond the realm of what
is apprehensible by the senses to the person as the subject of particular volitions and
actions (pp. 91-92). Thus, anthropology moves beyond the merely biological and into the
realm of ethical behavior.
41
Here Barth engages this ethical/idealist viewpoint in the
philosophy of Johan Gottlieb Fichte (pp. 96-109).

40
Barth affirms the intentions of these theologians even while denying that their apologetic
endeavors were well grounded. He thus argues that they were right to resist the levelling down of a
naturalistic world-view that was prone to a forgetfulness and denial of the specifically human (p. 84).
Nonetheless, Barth believed that these theologians were constrained to confront this problem on grounds
established by their opponents because of their failure to see the christological basis of humanity as the
only secure starting point (pp. 79-80).
41
This move from a merely biological account to an ethical account is required, according to
Barth, because ethical action can of course be explained and described in connexion with the other
71
Barth summarizes Fichtes presentation as moving through three phases.
42
In the
first, Fichte stipulates that the scientific view of humanity plunges the human person into
doubt. While it seems to the person that she is free, she comes to realize from the results
of the exact sciences that her life is fully determined in every respect. She is thus cast
into doubt about the reality of her existence and the conflict between two basic ways of
understanding herself (i.e., intuitively known freedom and empirically established
determinism). The second portion of the work resolves the dilemma through an idealistic
presentation of human knowledge. Everything external to the human person is viewed
as an idealistic projection of that persons knowledge. The subject and the objects of
which the person is aware are actually one and the apparent division between them
created by the conflict addressed in the first section is dissolved. A problem remains,
however, in the possibility that the subject, the ego, is itself merely the product of
thought. While transcendental idealism can solve the dilemma posed by scientific
materialism, it is inadequate for grounding the real presence of the individual subject. So,
Fichte moves into the third section: faith. Here Fichte maintains that we are directly
aware of ourselves as individuals who have an impulse to act. This knowledge is not
derived in the sense posited by the previous section (i.e., knowledge of objects) but it is
established as knowledge, nonetheless, as I voluntarily decide to acquiesce in the view
which naturally forces itself upon men in my impulse to affirm myself in action (p. 99).
The reality of the ego is thus grounded in practical reasoni.e., knowledge of the self
as it freely wills itself in its own action (pp. 99-100). The human person is both a
spiritual being who can posit himself by an expression of a pure will and a sensual
being who can act through particular deeds (p. 100). In these three moves (doubt,
knowledge, and faith), then, Fichte seeks to establish human existence on the basis of
humanitys freedom and moral agency.
The Existential Dialogue: In the third section, Barth moves from those
anthropological approaches that perceive humanity as a self-contained reality

processes of the cosmos but can never be derived from the latter (ibid.). Barth thus rejects any possibility
that the moral freedom of human agents can be explained on the basis of any biologically reductive
account of human persons.
42
We will not be concerned in this section, or in any of the subsequent discussions, with the
question as to whether Barth summarizes and interprets his various conversation partners adequately. We
will simply deal with the ideas and works as he has presented them in an effort to determine the manner in
which he handles their ideas.
72
[geschlossene Wirklichkeit] (p. 109) to one which addresses more clearly the problem of
the human persons subjective existence in relation to something other than himself.
Rather than approaching the human person as an object of scientific enquiry or moral
action, this third approach begins from the human persons existence as a personal
subject. Barth thus engages existential philosophy, primarily as espoused by Karl
Jaspers, as an example of this type of approach.
According to Barth, this existential approach comprises for key moves (pp. 111-
112). (1) Existentialism recognizes that a complete anthropology must transcend mere
objectivity and address the ground of human subjectivity itself. (2) The human person
thus lives in a tension between his objective reality and his subjective quest for himself
as that which lies beyond that objectivity. Lest this collapse into vicious circularity, the
existentialist posits an external ground for human subjectivity in the subjects relation to
something that is other than herself. (3) The fundamental ground of human subjectivity,
however, cannot itself be objectifiable (i.e., not simply another human person), but will
undoubtedly elude all objectification, materialisation, or even spiritualisation; indeed
every kind of definition (p. 112). (4) This transcendent other, though necessarily
mysterious and remote, comes to us in those paradoxical situations of suffering and
death, conflict and guilt in which existence is transformed from a mere possibility into
a realityin the moments when in these unavoidable and inexplicable situations we have
to wrestle with them, or rather with the transcendent which encounters us in them
(ibid.). The real subjectivity of the human person is thus constituted as she meets the
transcendent other in the most difficult circumstances of life.

4.2. Seeing the Phenomena: The Affirming Conversation
Barth is very clear on his appreciation for all three of these approaches to the
phenomena of the human. He affirms that those thinkers who have addressed the
biological phenomena have applied themselves seriously and fundamentally to the
question of human phenomena and have seen much that was both incontestable and
important (p. 85), pointing specifically to their recognition that humanity is at least
relatively distinct from other creatures (pp. 86-88). He expresses particular appreciation
for Portmanns work as indicating that humanitys biological singularity consists in the
indissoluble connexion (peculiar to each individual) between his inherited tendencies and
development on the one hand and his experience of history on the other (p. 87). Such
73
insights are important and [i]t would be obstinate to disregard and ungrateful to ignore
them (p. 88).
Barth expresses a similar appreciation for the insights generated by the ethical
approach, considering it a necessary improvement on the merely biological. Indeed, the
ethical views emphasis on humanitys freedom and agential activity indicates something
that may well be supremely symptomatic and may well be significant for the whole
further development of our theological anthropology (p. 94).
The existential approach is likewise treated favorably for its recognition of a
phenomenon that is not only decisively important but may even be the most genuine
symptom [echtestes Symptom] of the human (p. 113). Although he rejects the
suggestion that the existentialist approach is essentially Christian (ibid.), it still surpasses
the previous accounts in its ability to show the being of man dynamically and in its
basic openness as his act in relation to another than himself and in encounter with this
other rather than self-grounded, self-resting and self-moving (p. 114). Transcending the
self-contained objectivity of naturalism and idealism, this account highlights what is for
Barth one of the essential elements of true humanity, its necessary relationality and
extrinsic determination.
In all three accounts, then, Barth fully affirms that legitimate human phenomena
are recognized and analyzed from these non-theological perspectives in such a way as to
contribute valuable insights. These insights must, therefore, be taken into account in
our attempts to understand human nature (p. 88).

4.3. Veiling the Phenomena: The Critical Conversation
4.3.1. The Christological Critique: Anthropological Myopia and Failing to see
the True Human
Barth, however, also presents a critical evaluation of the actual accomplishments
of these various approaches. First, in each dialogue, he contends that each fails to
consider the human person from a christologically determined vantage point. Barths six
criteria for true humanity explicitly indicate the determinative significance of humanitys
relationship to God in Jesus Christ. The nature of these three non-christological
approaches, however, fails to take into account the attitude of God to man and mans
relationship to God and are, therefore, definitively precluded from achieving any account
of true humanity. Thus, although the biological account sees something of his aptitudes,
74
capacities, and possibilities, it does not see true man (p. 89). The ethical account is
superior in that it advances beyond the narrowness of naturalism, but we cannot think
that have thus attained to real man, to his uniqueness in creation. All our six criteria for
the discovery of real man forbid this (p. 94).
43

It is important to realize at this point that Barths christological criteria are not
merely formal principles depicting the bare shape of human existence, which can then be
filled with whatever data might be provided by some other discipline.
44
Instead, they
designate both the form and (at least some of) the content of true humanity.
45
He is thus
particularly critical of the ethical views understanding of moral freedom. Humanity, in
this approach, is not only viewed as theistically independent but also morally neutral.
The human being of the ethical account is free to will both for and against God. It thus
presents a picture of humanity that includes the human person standing in sinful
contradiction to his existence in Christ as though it could be included in a depiction of
true humanity (ibid.). For Barth, this simply cannot stand as a valid anthropology,
contradicting as it does the christologically determined picture of humanity as existing
for the glory of God (criteria #3), under his lordship (criteria #4), with the freedom to
will for God (criteria #5) in his service (criteria #6).
Although Barth expresses the greatest appreciation for the existential approach,
he maintains that it too fails as an account of true humanity (p. 113). Thus, it rightly
points out that the subjectivity of human life is grounded in a historical encounter with an
other. Nonetheless, such an approach falls necessarily short of true humanity by
abstracting humanitys existentiality from its determinative relation in Jesus Christ. Barth
thus concludes that this approach fails to show us a genuine symptom of real humanity
because it does not know what true humanity is (p. 121).

43
Barth does not reiterate this specifically christological objection with respect to the existential
account, but it certainly undergirds the entire discussion.
44
Thus, Barth would not appreciate the suggestion that theological anthropology provides only
the general categories [die Grundkategorien] (Stock 1980:537) for anthropology and, consequently is
blind without the insights of scientific anthropology (Price 2002:50029.
45
That Barth does not derive all the material elements of his theological anthropology directly
from his christological premises will become clear in the course of this discussion.
75
For Barth, then, each of the perspectives is fundamentally limited in its ability to
understand the phenomena of the human by its non-christological starting point.
46

4.3.2. Beyond the Christological Critique: Determining the Coherence of an
Anthropology
In addition to these explicitly christological concerns, Barth also demonstrates
his willingness to engage the coherence and consistency of these other approaches. Thus,
he argues that the biological approach has sometimes been used to interpret the
biological phenomena as indicating the unique identity and value of the human person
(pp. 85-87). But, as Barth points out, the phenomena of the human demonstrate
humanity to be only relatively distinguishable from, and in no way demonstrably
superior to, other animals. Indeed, a comparison of human capabilities to those of the
other creatures reveals that all animals have their distinctive attributes and that those of
some of the animals far surpass those of human beings (p. 89).
47
Consequently, any
attempt to interpret these phenomena as indicators of humanitys truly unique identity in
relation to the rest of creation actually transcends the limits of the biological
methodology. Value judgments that seek to establish humanitys identity on this basis
are themselves not phenomenologically ascertainable and, consequently, lie beyond the
proper scope of this approach (ibid). Transcending the limitations of their perspective,
these thinkers have misinterpreted the phenomena that were rightly theirs to consider (p.
89).

46
It is worth noting at this point that throughout these discussions Barth avoids using the
individual criteria in particular criticisms, rather, he wields them en toto to challenge the basic
christological adequacy of some other perspective. Since he does not discuss his methodology with respect
to using the criteria, it is difficult to establish whether he does this for pragmatic reasons (e.g., space and
time) or more theoretical reasons (e.g., a concern about abstracting one criterion from the others). There
does not, however, appear to be any particular theoretical reason to prohibit using the criteria individually
for a more nuanced interaction with some particular perspective so long as their essential
interconnectedness of all the criteria remains in view.
47
As Barth says, If it is clear that human possibilities as compared with those of the animals
closest to man are far wider, yet it must also be remembered that not only these higher animals but that
others also, which according to the usual scale of values are perhaps much lower in the ladder of creation,
have possibilities which put those of man in the shade. And for all we know there may be animal
possibilities which do not make us think merely because we do not perceive them.
76
Similarly, Barth presents an extended critique of the coherence of Fichtes moral
philosophy (pp. 103-109). First, Barth contends that Fichte attempted to develop an
indeterministic view of human freedom and that such an approach is fundamentally
flawed in its inability to provide the human person with the boundaries within which true
freedom must operate. Second, he thinks that Fichtes idealistic grounding of human
knowledge leaves the human person without any real knowledge of himself; he is thus
not even free to know that he exists as more than a mere concept.
48
Third, The idealistic
conception of human knowledge means that the human person is ultimately no different
than the rest of creation and thus robs humanity of the differentiation so important, for
Barth, to any valid understanding of humanity. Fourth, Fichtes attempt to ground the
self in freely willed action is undermined and ultimately invalidated by the premises
contained in the first two stages of his own argument. If the move to faith and
understanding the person as act in the third stage of the argument is valid, Barth
contends that it necessarily impacts the argument at a much earlier stage and calls into
question the validity of the doubt and idealistic knowledge of the earlier discussions.
49

And finally, Barth thinks that Fichtes conclusion, humanity as the triumphant
determiner of her own reality, means that his argument ultimately leaves the human
person in the same condition as in deterministic naturalismi.e., no different than her
environment.
50
While we cannot take the time to unpack each of these criticisms, it

48
So Barth contends, Man as Fichte understands him has no other source of knowledge. There
can be no knowledge from without because there is no without anyway. This type of thinking is ended
before it has even begun. Hence we can only note that he appears to speak of a supposedly free man about
whom he is nevertheless obliged to report that he knows nothing of himself and can know nothing (p.
106).
49
Barth thus asks, Are the doubter and the knower so presented by Fichte that he can now
legitimately introduce the same person as a believer in a mode of self-contemplation in which what was
formerly invisible is now visible and what formerly seemed unreal suddenly becomes real, and therefore
the former mode of self-knowledge is completely shattered and transcended? How can Fichtean man make
this leap when there is nothing outside himself, so that he cannot be induced by any outward cause to make
any such radical transformation in his mode of self-contemplation? (p. 106). Even if such a move were
possible, Barth argues that it should inform the argument from the beginning: How could the doubter and
the knower speak as Fichte makes them speak if his believer must speak in this way? If what is here said
about man is fundamentally and intrinsically valid, how can it fail to have been stated earlier? (p. 107).
50
Again Barth critiques Fichte with a question, Does not this really bring us back to the point
from which the whole essay started, to the vision, as it appears to uncritical knowledge. Of the one in the
all, of the all in the one, of the great life stream in which man is only a tiny drop? (p. 107). Although
77
seems clear that Barth is willing to critique Fichte on logical as well as christological
grounds.
This same approach can be seen in Barths criticism of Jaspers existentialism.
First, Barth thinks that Jaspers has provided an insufficient account as to what makes
particular situations meaningful as a frontier [Grenze] situation (p. 114). Although
man is everywhere involved in suffering and death, conflict and guilt, why should
these negative situations be viewed as more existentially decisive than any other (ibid.)?
The existentialist merely asserts their distinctive quality without providing any real
assurances on the matter (ibid.). Likewise, this approach provides no account of the
character of the other itself: could it not equally well be a demon which fools us at that
frontier as the ostensible and illusory goal of our search (p. 116)? Although the
existentialist provides us with solemn assurances that this is not so, the nature of the
other is so key to the system that the question is not so easily avoided (ibid.). Third,
Jaspers account presumes that the human person will respond to the other in the frontier
situation with unconditional surrender and trust (ibid.). At the most, the existentialist
allows for the opposite response, rejection of the other. But what if the human person
responds with complete indifference (pp. 116-117)? Jaspers system, according to Barth,
does not seem to allow for this since the encounter with the other in the frontier situation
is too dynamic to ignore in this fashion. But this neglects the harsh realities of human
life, which is more often characterized by apathy and lethargy (p. 117). Finally, and most
decisively, Barth argues that Jaspers account does not really transcend the human
individual at all (pp. 118-119). This system requires that the human person be capable of
placing unconditional trust in the other. But this means that the unconditional trust and
therefore the transcendence which we supposed him to lackis already within him (p.
118). Since he already has the capacity for a trust that transcends himself, he possesses a
transcendent dimension within himself. Thus man does not really need to ask
concerning transcendence. Indeed, in the strict sense he cannot. What he can and must
do is simply to understand that he himself is the answer to his question (p. 119).

Fichte attempts to reverse this by focusing on the human person rather than external realities, In the last
resort does it not amount to the same thing whether we see the one which is the all, the all which is the one,
from the standpoint of its universal structure or any other part, or from that of man himself? (ibid.).
78
5. Dialogue vs. Monologue: We Are Talking but Is Anyone Listening?
Having developed a better appreciation for Barths christological criteria, it
remains to determine the extent to which these interactions can be considered a dialogue
in which Barth is actually willing to learn and be challenged rather than a mere
monologue that has been pre-determined by Barths christological presuppositions.
Through each of the three discussions, we have seen that Barth remains firmly
committed to his christological criteria and that he uses them with relentless consistency
to establish the inadequacy of these alternate anthropologies for depicting true humanity.
Viewed from one angle, this could easily be understood as an indication that these are
not true dialogues and that the outcome has been determined from the beginning.
However, as we saw with McDowells discussion of theological conversation earlier, a
commitment to ones own particularity, including ones particular presuppositions, is
necessary to engaging in meaningful conversation. Consequently, refusal to identify and
embrace ones presuppositions is actually a refusal to participate in conversation. Thus,
simply noting that Barth is committed to his christological presuppositions is insufficient
for determining that these interactions do not qualify as legitimate conversations.
Additionally, although Barth would not entertain the possibility that the christological
center of his theology could be overturned through any dialogical encounter, his
commitment to the relativity of all theological formulations leaves him at least
theoretically open to the transformation of his understanding and articulation of
theological realities through such conversational events.
51
Thus, although the center of

51
Price thinks that Barths refusal to allow for the possibility that science could invalidate the
findings of theology ultimately severs any real contact between them (2002:10-11). Similarly, Webster
suggests that Barths theology is characterized by a perverse kind of idealism, an isolation of theological
language about human nature and history from the phenomena of the human to which he grants no real
definitive role in discovering what he calls real man (1995:68). His concern seems to be, then, that
Barths refusal to allow the phenomena to inform his understanding of true humanity necessitates some
level of isolation between the different modes of discourse. Although it seems that the way Barth actually
formulated his theology can be criticized along these lines, there are resources in his distinction between
revelation and theology for handling this objection (cf. I/1, 47-87). While Barth would never allow the
possibility that Gods sovereign revelation could be subjected to a scientific critique, there seems to be no
reason why his theology could not be open to a scientific or philosophical critique of some particular
theological formulation given its necessarily human limitations (cf. Johnson 1997:281-282).
79
his presuppositional structure is not open to critique, Barths particular formulation of it
may be. Even at this level of encounter, then, Barth is not necessarily an isolationist.
52
Barths openness to significant conversation becomes even more apparent when
we move to the level of particular phenomena. At the end of 44.3 (Real Man), which
Barth devotes to a development of true humanity as it stands in the divinely initiated
history of his self-responsibility before God the Creator (p. 199), he returns to a
consideration of the phenomena. He argues that now, with a well-established
understanding of true humanity, he is in a position where a radical reconsideration of
these aspects is possible (p. 198).
53
Although a knowledge of true humanity is a
necessary presupposition for this phenomenological analysis to have genuine
significance for theological anthropology, that does not change the fact that this is still a
genuine extra-ecclesial source of information that can lead to a non-theological but
genuine knowledge of the phenomena of the human (p. 199).
54

Thus, all three accounts provide insights into human phenomena that Barth finds
enlightening about the nature of real humanity: the biological account of humanity in its
interconnexion with other cosmic phenomena (p. 200), the ethical depiction of the
human person in his freedom to rise above the organic chemico-biological process into
the free field of a history initiated and experienced by himself (p. 201), and the
existential description of man in his openness towards a withoutof true transcendence
which proclaims itself only in the fact of the limitation of human existence (ibid.).
55

52
This is true at least in theory although one could certainly challenge whether Barth consistently
demonstrates such theoretical openness in practice.
53
Johnson argues that it is only at this point that Barth is able to address the phenomena positively
(1997:79). As we have seen, though, the positive aspects of Barths evaluation have been clear throughout
his discussion. What this later section allows him to do is to indicate some of the ways in which these
insights can be appropriated when they are viewed retrospectively from the perspective of true humanity.
His earlier positive evaluations are thus strengthened and clarified by showing how these insights can be
incorporated into his christological anthropology in the concluding section.
54
Price seems to think that this implies a shift from I/1 where Barth proposed that theology can
learn little from other sciences with regard to its own method (2002:108; cf. I/1, 8-10). He does not make
it clear, though, how this critical and ad hoc use of non-theological insights constitutes a weakening of his
prohibition against methodological dependence.
55
An important question that is often raised at this point is whether this is an indication that
Barths later theology exhibits a change in his position on natural theology (cf. Brunner 1951:123-135;
Crawford 1972:320-321; R. Anderson 1986). There can be no question, though, of a weakening on natural
80
Thus, it is clear that, as Marshall argues, Barth does not think that theology needs to
derive all of its anthropological insights from that which is immediately derivable
from scriptures talk of God in Christ since this forms theologys primary orientation,
not its exhaustive source (1983:457).
56
For Barth, then, there can be no final separation between theological and non-
theological modes of discourse.
57
Although there are significant differences between the
various disciplines that must be recognized and respected, they should not be understood
as occupying distinct and unrelated spheres (I/1, 1-11; Barth 1979:113-114; cf. Price
2002:105-107.).
58
By contrast, Barth understands all truth to be Gods truth and thus to
lie within the purview of theology (Cf. Hartwell 1964:43; McLelland 1974; Schwbel
2000). Theological anthropology, therefore, cannot be separated from other
anthropological approaches, but, as the exhaustive and superior presupposition, it
actually has the task of understanding and critically appropriating, whenever useful, all
other presuppositions.
59
Marshall thus argues that Barths theology is properly

theology here. Throughout III/2 Barth has retained his negative evaluation of natural theology (pp. 29-41,
79, 321, 520). Although he is open to the theological use of insights from other disciplines, this can only
take place when these insights are understood in light of a prior knowledge of humanitys relationship to
God through Jesus that can only be known through revelation (cf. T. Torrance 1962:22-23 and Pannenberg
1991:102-103).
56
In his review essay of III/2, Brunner questions whether this does not amount to the same as his
espousal of eristics (1951:130-131). Barths interdisciplinary dialogue, however, never seeks to be an
apologetic engagement for the purpose of preparing, positively or negatively, a point of contact amenable
to revelation.
57
T. Torrance thus argues that, for Barth, theology and science are closely related spheres of
inquiry in that they share important problems and questions but that they never surrender their distinct
characteristics (1990:51, 60).
58
Marshall thus argues that Barth seems concerned to deny rather than assert that there are
spheres' of discourse external to theology (as the first two theses of the Barmen Declaration perhaps
most succinctly insist). Since theological discourse has no abiding outside, distinctions between
discourse internal and external to theology, while in some respects perhaps provisionally useful, can in
principle never be binding (1983:456). Price affirms the same idea although he expresses some frustration
that Barth failed to indicate the relationship between these various modes of discourse more clearly
(2002:109-115).
59
Hunsinger describes this process using the distinction between analytic truths derived by
way of inference from beliefsestablished as doctrinally warranted and synthetic truths derived by
way of critically rethinking or reconstructing concepts first devised elsewhere in order to make them
compatible with Christian theology (1991:61). Thus, when Barth adopts the existential concept of a
81
understood as totalistic in that it includes everything within the scope of its inquiry
and so necessarily engages in critical dialogue with, rather than staying at one remove
from, the spirit (or spirits) of its time (Marshall 1983:456-457).
60
Before concluding this section, one final question needs to be addressed. Barth
has routinely been criticized for neglecting empirical realities in his theological
anthropology.
61
If his theology is open to interdisciplinary dialogue as argued in this
chapter, one might wonder why his theology is not characterized by greater practical
engagement with their empirical insights. First, we must recognize that Barths theology
was limited by the scope of his primary interests and concerns. Barth repeatedly
indicated that the primary concern of his theological anthropology was to develop an
account of true humanity as it is (and can only be) revealed through the person of Jesus
Christ. Although he was open to the possibility of other sources of anthropological
knowledge, he fully admits that it was not his purpose to give even an indicatory or
encyclopaedic exposition of this knowledge (p. 199; cf. III/1, xi).
62
Criticizing his
neglect of empirical phenomena, therefore, may well be an example of faulting him for
failing at something he never intended to accomplish. Second, Barths account of
humanity in III/2 must not be divorced from the ethics of creation in III/4; as integral
parts of Barths doctrine of creation, the two volumes must be read together.
63
Barths

determination of the person through encounter with an other, he notes that he does so only as a concept
that has now been filled with a specifically christological content (p. 134). There can, therefore, be no
question of an exact correspondence and coincidence between the Christian statements and these others
which rest on very different foundations, but we should not be surprised of or unwilling to make use of
the approximations and similarities that inevitably arise (p. 277).
60
According to Hunsinger then, we can make a useful distinction between conceptual frameworks
and their material contents (2000d:293). The former necessarily conflicts with Christianity in that two
comprehensive organizing frameworks are by definition incompatible. With respect to the latter,
however, much of the material content of these systems is not only compatible with the gospel, but useful,
in certain circumstances even necessary, for the Christian community to adopt (ibid.).
61
Biggar provides a useful summary of several such critiques (1993:156-161).
62
Thus Eberhard Busch states that his theology does not try to avoid problems but has, at the
same time, the courage to leave otherwise much discussed issues aside because it believes that it has to
deal with more urgent and important things (2004:xii). Similarly, Johnson notes that despite Barths
reticence to indicate and explore specific examples of such secular sources of truth, there are a wide variety
of ways in which such sources could be theologically useful (1997:41).
63
This is in accord with Barths general commitment to maintaining the essential relationship
between ethics and dogmatics (cf. I/1, xvi). Webster argues that neglecting the integral importance of
82
extensive engagement with the hard realities of human life in the latter part-volume (e.g.,
family life, abortion, war, etc.) must be seen, therefore, as the practical outworking of his
more theoretical treatment in III/2.
64

6. Conclusion: Open and ClosedA Properly Delimited Conversation
Properly understood, Barths christocentric approach to theology involves neither
an unnecessary constriction of theology resulting in its isolation from all other forms of
discourse nor an indeterministic openness that undermines the positive and objective
nature of the divine self-revelation. Instead, Barths insistence that Christian theology
can only be grounded in the person and work of Jesus Christ constitutes a determinate
starting point that grounds the possibility of any meaningful interdisciplinary dialogue.
In this way, Barths theology can be viewed as enabling a christologically determined
engagement with non-theological disciplines.
In the three dialogues that we considered in the second half of this chapter, Barth
exhibits the shape that he thinks such a dialogue should take, one that involves both a
positive and a negative moment. Negatively, Barth presents a dialogue in which the
theologian must remain firmly committed to the exclusiveness of the christological
vantage point as the only perspective from which to view true humanity. On this basis,
the theologian enters into a critical engagement with the inherently limited starting points
adopted by other anthropological disciplines and the various ways in which their material
development fails to cohere adequately with the christologically determined view of
humanity. Additionally, the theologian must analyze the extent to which these other
anthropological approaches present a coherent account of humanity. Barth thus devotes a
fair portion of each section to pointing out various methodological and logical
inconsistencies in these proposals.
65
The negative moment of Barths interdisciplinary

Barths ethical discussions attracts all manner of misinterpretations which can be corrected only be
attending to what Barth has to say in its completeness (2004b:14). For a brief discussion of some thematic
and structural connections between III/2 and III/4 see Preece 2001:147-170.
64
McLean (1981:40) and Preece (2001:163-164) likewise argue for the theoretical strengths that
Barths theology has for engaging empirical realities despite his occasionally minimalist treatment of such
issues.
65
It is thus clear that Barths christological criteria are necessary but not sufficient for
establishing the validity of any account of human phenomena. Elsewhere in III/2 Barth also uses a
pragmatic criterion for evaluating non-theological disciplines (e.g., pp. 382-390).
83
dialogue, then, can be summarized as: (1) a christological critique of its formal
presuppositions; (2) a christological critique of its material interpretations; and (3) a
rational critique of its methodological consistency and logical coherency.
This negative moment, however, should not be allowed to obscure the essential
positive moment. Thus, we have seen that Barth fully appreciates the valuable
contributions of these non-christological perspectives. While we cannot encounter real
man through these limited vantage points, they can nonetheless provide insightful
glimpses into the nature of human phenomena within their own frames of reference. As
Johnson affirms, Even though secular knowledge provides no firm basis for a so-called
natural theology of God, there is still something worth discovering and knowing in all
these various ways of being human (1997:80).
Consequently, having discussed and evaluated three different, non-theological
approaches to anthropology, each of which has sought to understand the human person
in his own strength and by his own resources, Barth concludes, that we have not
encountered real man in this way (p. 121). He acknowledges that this is because he set
out from the very beginning determined to refuse any conception of true humanity
which is neutral, indefinite or obscure in respect of Gods attitude towards it and its
own attitude towards God (ibid.). Therefore, on the basis of the christological criteria,
these anthropological discussions were necessarily critical and ultimately
unsatisfactory (ibid.). But, as we have seen, rather than rejecting these alternative
approaches, he appreciates them as presenting a progressively more penetrating analysis
of the picture in which man can see and understand himself (pp. 121-122). Once again,
then, Barths No is subsumed within a larger Yes (see Hunsinger 2000d:280).
Though unable to reveal true humanity, he can nonetheless appreciate their
accomplishments in their own frames of reference.
As we move into the next chapter and then into our own engagement with
interdisciplinary dialogue in the second part of this study, we must, therefore, keep in
mind (1) the foundational importance of Barths christological criteria for ascertaining
the true form and basic content of any properly theological anthropology; (2) the vital
importance of alternate perspectives for developing a well-rounded understanding of the
human person; (3) the close relationship between theology and these non-theological
perspectives; and (4) the process by which Barths christological anthropology analyzes,
criticizes, and, when necessary, critically appropriates these insights. Holding together
84
these four points, we will be able both to appreciate and more properly evaluate what
Barth is doing as he addresses the question of human ontology.

85
Chapter 4
Christ, Spirit, and Covenant
A Model for Human Ontology

1. Wholeness, Duality, and Order: The Terms of Barths Concrete Ontology
Having now established the method and form of Barths christocentric
anthropology as well as its openness to dialogue with non-theological perspectives, we
are finally in a position to engage Barths understanding of the body/soul relationship
itself. As one of the three main foci in the constructive development of Barths
theological anthropology (relationality, ontology, and temporality), he clearly believes
that ontology has decisive importance for understanding the human person.
1
He therefore
treats this issue at great length in 46 as he presents an account of human ontology that is
grounded in Christology, pneumatology, and the covenantal relationship between God
and human persons.
2

1
It is true that Barth delays his treatment of human ontology until halfway through III/2. But he
develops his account at this point not because it is only a secondary concern, but because he believes that it
is only after having laid a properly christological foundation for theological anthropology that the question
of human ontology can be adequately addressed. By proceeding in this way, Barth thinks that he gains an
advantage over the older dogmatics that failed to ground their discussions christologically (p. 325). This,
he argues, will help him avoid a certain one-sidedness, exaggeration and vulnerability (ibid.). Far from
being of minimal importance, then, Barth identifies ontology as one of fundamental importance for
theological anthropology and an issue he engages extensively (contra Price 2002:247).
2
Basing his ontology on these theological convictions, Barth thus differs from those
contemporary theologians who have moved away from substance dualism as a response either to modern
scientific developments, the perception that Greek philosophy has unduly influenced theology at this point,
or the conceptual problems associated with substance dualism (Grenz 1994:158-160). As we saw in the
last chapter, Barths theology is open to correspondences with scientific disciplines (cf. Price 2002 and
McLean 1986:138), but Barth certainly would not have responded favorably to Prices suggestion that
theology should alter its language about human ontology simply because of modern scientific
developments (2002:251-252). Likewise, Barth was well aware of Greek philosophical influences on
theological anthropology at this point (pp. 380-382), but rejected such philosophical influences as grounds
for dismissing any particular theological formulations, since all theology is influenced by some philosophy
(I/2, 728-729). Finally, we will see that Barth was familiar with the conceptual problems associated with
substance dualism but they comprise neither the foundation of his argument nor even his most substantial
objection.
86
As always, Barth is committed in this section to grounding his theological
formulations in Scripture.
3
Indeed, Barth thinks the only way to reach a Christian
understanding of humanity that remains unencumbered by alien perspectives is through
an adequately biblical and exegetical ground (ibid.). He is well aware, though, that the
biblical accounts do not specifically and unambiguously address many of the issues that
arise in the course of such a discussion (pp. 325-326; cf. also Berkouwer 1962:31;
Kmmel 1963:38, 93-94; R. Jewett 1972:1-4; J. Green 2004a:194.).
4
Thus, although
Barth strives to ground his ontological argument in the biblical text, he recognizes from
the beginning that the material is rather limited and, consequently, his arguments are
often driven more by theological commitments than exegetical arguments.
5
But exactly what kind of ontology does Barth offer? According to Barth, the
ontological constitution of human persons is best understood as a properly ordered and
unified duality of body and soul that is created, preserved, and regenerated by the Holy
Spirit and so constituted as Gods covenantal partner. Thus, as body and soul, the human
person is wholly and simultaneously both, in ineffaceable difference, inseparable unity,
and indestructible order (p. 325). Barth thus builds his understanding of human
ontology on two sets of terms: body, soul, spirit and wholeness, duality, order.

3
Barths commitment to Scripture as the exegetical basis of theology can be traced to the earliest
stages of his theological development (Watson 2000:57-58). Indeed, Barth argues that commitment to
Scripture is what distinguishes a properly Christian theology (I/1, 48). Though his exegesis has, at times,
been subjected to pointed critique (e.g., Crawford 1972; Frey 1978:209; Barr 1994), several recent studies
have affirmed his attentiveness to the biblical text and his careful and imaginative interpretations (e.g.,
Hunsinger 2000a:210-225; T. Torrance 1990:76-77; Watson 2000:57-71; Ford 1979a:55-87; and
Cunningham 1995).
4
There is even significant disagreement about the proper background against which to understand
the biblical texts. Joel Green, for example, has forcefully argued in a series of recent papers that the
biblical milieu was not exclusively dualistic and, therefore, that we cannot simply assume a dualistic
background for the anthropological language of the Bible (2004). N. T. Wright, on the other hand,
contends that the proper background for understanding the biblical texts is the anthropological dualism of
large strands of second temple Judaism (2003).
5
This is certainly not to negate the significance of Barths commitment to exegesis or his
extensive use of exegetical argumentation throughout this paragraph. As Watson correctly warns,
interpreters who minimize the significance of exegesis in the Dogmatics will radically misinterpret that
project (2000:57). Rather than minimizing Barths exegesis, then, this simply acknowledges, as Barth did,
that the biblical texts do not answer many of the questions that must be raised in a discussion of human
ontology and, therefore, the argument must move in a different direction.
87
The very nature of this language, though, immediately raises a whole complex
of problems (p. 326) which renders its use problematic. The fact that Barth openly
associates body/soul language with wide ranging word pairs like spirit/substantial
organism, rational/sensuous, inner/outer, invisible/visible,
inapprehensible/apprehensible, intelligible/empirical, and heavenly/earthly indicates the
broad associations this language has and the complex issues surrounding its application
(p. 326).
6
Fully aware, then, of the problems associated with body/soul language, Barth
chooses this manner of speaking, not because of its terminological clarity, but because it
serves to raise the primary problems that an account of human being must address and
because it has the advantage of retaining the predominant biblical terms for human
nature (ibid.).
So, then, how should we understand Barths ontology? From one perspective,
Barths ontology is clearly monistic. As we will see, he rejects any notion that the human
person comprises two distinct substances, but affirms instead the holistic union of body
and soul in one person. Barths view, then, can be properly described as concrete
monism (p. 393). On the very next page, however, he asserts that his view could also be
understood as the concrete and Christian dualism of soul and body (p. 394). What kind
of ontology does Barth think he is offering that can be adequately described, in some
way, as both dualist and monist?
Barths interpreters seem to be divided over this very issue.
7
Many interpreters
affirm Barths accent on the wholeness of the human person as it stands in contrast to the
substance dualism of much traditional Christian theology (e.g., R. Anderson 1982:210-
211; Hoekema 1986:216-217; Berkouwer 1962:93-94; Price 2002:20-21, 248; and
McLean 1981:46). But these interpreters fail to acknowledge, or possibly fail to realize,
that holistic language of this nature does not resolve the body/soul question. They appear

6
It is worth noting at this point that the various word-pairs Barth identifies as being legitimate
ways of characterizing human ontology strongly suggests that he would have been open to mind/body or
even mind/brain as serving this same purpose, though admittedly with slightly different emphases. Indeed,
as Frede points out, historically speaking to talk about the soul is to talk about the mind conceived in a
certain way (1992:93).
7
Spezio rightly comments that the differences among Barths interpreters can be attributed both
to misinterpretations and to Barths own lack of clarity (2004:587). Barths occasional lack of clarity,
however, is often due to his commitment to follow the object of his investigation wherever it might lead
rather than bind himself to some arbitrarily determined idea of conceptual coherence (p. 583)a concept
that Spezio himself notes earlier in his article but fails to connect to Barths methodology.
88
to think that identifying Barth as a holist is sufficient to distinguish him from other
ontological approaches (e.g., reductive monism or substance dualism).
8
But, holistic
language merely provides a different, though possibly superior, language for discussing
the body/soul question rather than an actual answer to the problem of their particular
relation.
9
Other interpreters, however, take a different approach. Noting Barths use of
the traditional body/soul language and his equally strong emphasis on the duality
inherent in human nature, they conclude that his ontology at least implicitly affirms some
form of dualism.
10

As we take a closer look at Barths ontology, we will see that the reason this
question can be so difficult is because it is the wrong question. Or, rather, the question
approaches the issue from the wrong direction. Focusing on the problem of human
nature, Barths interpreters expect to see a solution that can provide an adequate theory
of the body/soul relation. Barths focus, however, as we saw in chapter two, is on

8
The limitations of such holistic language for discriminating among approaches can be seen in
the fact that it is used by both dualists (e.g., Cooper 2000 and Moreland 1995:102) and physicalists (e.g., J.
Green, 2002b:3-22 and Gregersen 2000:153-188).
9
Hirst ([1959] 2004:105) and Kim (1998a: 8-10) both correctly argue that their emphasis on
unity and supervenience respectively may provide superior languages for articulating the problem but
do not actually provide solutions. Macquarrie similarly argues that personal language does not resolve
the body/soul problem but that it is less obviously biased toward idealism, materialism, or reductionism
and, therefore, is a superior language for speaking of human persons (1982:50). Noting, as Price does, that
Barth views the body/soul relation in dynamic rather than substantialist terms may be another example of a
different language that, while somewhat useful, still does not address the more theoretical issues
involved (Price 2002:248).
10
P. Newman thus argues that in spite of Barths statements and qualifications to the contrary,
the oblique insinuation of dualism persists because of his emphasis on the necessity of soul language
(1981:423). Similarly, Willis argues, it appears virtually impossible to employ this terminology without
importing a note of dualism (classical, Cartesian, or other) into the discussion, however severely one warns
against this possibility (1971:236). Taking issue with Barths emphasis on the primacy of the soul in the
human person, Moltmann asserts that Barth only slightly modifies the answers given by Plato and
Descartes (1985:252). Even interpreters who do not posit an implicit dualism seem to think that there are
dualistic impulses in Barths anthropology. Price, who is fully aware of Barths emphasis on unity and his
rejection of dualistic approaches to humanity, argues that there are strong similarities between Barth and
the interactionist dualist Sir John Eccles (2002:254-255). Similarly, immediately after noting Barths
rejection of substance dualism, Berkouwer states that Barth rejects just as strongly any monistic
anthropology (1962:94, emphasis added). Such a statement would seem to imply some level of openness to
a non-monistic anthropology of some kind.
89
understanding the implications that (1) the person and work of Jesus Christ as the true
human and (2) the covenantal relationship in which all humans have been summoned to
participate have for understanding human nature. In other words, given the reality of the
incarnation, the atonement, and the covenantal relationship between God and all human
persons, what must we believe about the ontology of the human person? In the course of
our study, we will see that this methodology leads Barth to develop a particular picture
of human naturea pneumatologically grounded unity, duality, and orderthat has
implications for developing a theoretical account of the body/soul relationship but does
not itself constitute such a theory.
Understanding the precise nature of this pre-theoretical presentation and the
theological commitments upon which it is established will require two things. First, we
will need to understand how Barth answers three questions: (1) What are the basic
aspects or components of the human persons ontological constitution? (2) How is this
ontological constitution maintained? And (3) why is the human person constituted in this
way? As we have seen, though, Barths theological presuppositions and methodological
commitments require that these three questions in turn be subordinated to an even more
fundamental questionwho is the true human and thus the one who manifests true
human ontology? Having answered these questions, we will also need to understand the
theoretical implications of his ontology. We will see that Barths anthropological
ontology can be understood as a model of human nature generated by his christological
paradigm, which has implications for generating more precise theories of the body/soul
relationship.
11

2. The What, How, and Why of Barths Concrete Ontology
2.1. The Significance of the Who? Question for Human Ontology
Although we have seen that Barth is sensitive to the phenomena of human
existence, he denies that any purely phenomenological depiction of humanity is
adequate for establishing a firm foundation upon which to develop an understanding of

11
That Barth does not develop a theoretical account does not mean that he would have been
opposed to such a project. Elsewhere, Barth demonstrates his openness to philosophical constructions so
long as they do not serve as a substitute for faith (e.g., III/3, 23).
90
human ontology (pp. 419-422.).
12
In keeping with his well-known dislike of abstractions
in theology (see Hunsinger 1991:51-52), then, Barth maintains that theological
anthropology must focus on the concrete reality of Jesus Christ (p. 393).
13
Thus,
although 46 is focused on addressing important questions about what human beings are,
how they come to be what they are, and why God has created them in this way, he asserts
that these questions simply cannot be answered in abstraction from the who upon
whom their answers are firmly established (p. 421). Acknowledging the primacy of the
who question, according to Barth, is particularly important at this point. Barth is well
aware that the realm of human ontology has been explored by many non-theological
disciplines and, without a firm christological foundation, one can very easily go astray
(p. 325) among these other approaches.
14

Here too.[w]e find our bearings and our instruction as we look
to the constitution of the humanity of Jesus. With the clarity and certainty
that we gain here, we can then set out the propositions in which the
Christian understanding of the constitution of all men generally may be
expressed and comprehended. (p. 327)

Failing to proceed christologically at this point would be intolerable, would have
the most fatal consequences, and would give free entrance to the most varied ambiguities
and errors (p. 326). The precise nature of these intolerable consequences, ambiguities,
and errors will become clear through the course of this chapter as nearly all of Barths
criticisms of alternate ontological perspectives stem from their inability or unwillingness
to view man from this christologically determined vantage point.

12
This is in contrast, then, with some contemporary theologians who explicitly adopt a more
phenomenological approach (e.g., Macquarrie 1982 and Pannenberg 1985).
13
Barths insistence on understanding human ontology from a broad, christological perspective is
thus antithetical to modern reductionistic approaches and consistent with Barths overall emphasis on
understanding parts only in terms of their comprehensive wholes (see MacLean 1981:13).
14
This comment raises the question of Barths relationship to these earlier approaches. While
questions regarding the philosophical and theological background of Barths ontology are interesting and
worth exploring (though see McCormacks criticism of such studies for positing merely parallel
relationships without establishing any solid connections [2002:236-239]), they are ultimately of limited
value in determining the validity and adequacy of his ideas. This study will, therefore, address such issues
only in a very limited fashion.
91

2.2. What Are We? Wholeness, Duality, and Order in Human Nature
Beginning from the secure vantage point provided by the who of Jesus Christ,
then, Barth argues that we must view the human person as having a nature that is whole,
dual, and ordered. Using these three perspectives, Barth seeks to depict the relationship
of body, soul, and spirit in the human person in a manner that is faithful to the person
and work of Jesus Christ and the covenantal relationship to which all human persons
have been summoned in him.

2.2.1. One Whole Man: The Holistic Starting Point
The narratival presentation of Jesus Christ in the Bible, according to Barth,
reveals that any suggestion of a discontinuous duality implied in his adoption of
body/soul language is simply inadequate when applied to the person and work of Jesus
(p. 327).
15
Instead, the Bible describes him from every direction as a whole person:

Far from existing as the union of two parts or two substances, He
is one whole man, embodied soul and besouled body: the one in the other
and never merely beside it; the one never without the other but only with
it, and in it present, active and significant; the one with all its attributes
always to be taken as seriously as the other. (ibid.)

For Barth, the biblical emphasis on this holistic depiction of Jesus is so clear and
strong that there can be no other starting point for developing an anthropological
ontology (p. 371; cf. Moltmann 1985:244).

15
Throughout this section, Barths argument focuses primarily on the total impression generated
by the biblical narratives rather than exegetical examinations of particular texts. Barths argument, then,
does not revolve around identifying particular (proof) texts that might support his point; instead it builds
on the way the Bible portrays Jesus as a person through its various narratives. Several people have noted
Barths narratival emphasis on the overall shape and pattern of the text (Mangina 2004:43) and its
similarity to contemporary narrative theology (e.g., Kelsey 1975:44, 48). This can be a useful comparison
if we recognize, as Bloesch rightly argues, Barths firm insistence on the historical basis of the Christian
faith in distinction from any form of narrative theology that divorces the world of the text from its
historical location (1992:30; cf. also Mangina 2004:43; Broz 1988, esp. 23-24).
92
Looking first at Jesus life in general, Barth sees a person in whom there is no
conflict or tension between the inner and outer dimensions of his existence (p. 338).
16

Although the Bible makes clear that Jesus life was characterized by vital interior and
exterior dimensions, he argues that the Bible always has the whole person of Christ in
view and that passages focusing on one dimension or the other are quite rare (pp. 328-
330). The Bible thus leads the reader to view Jesus as the unity of two realms or
aspects and, therefore, as a real man (p. 328). Both are essential, but their unity is the
focus of the biblical portrayal (p. 330).
Barth finds a similar emphasis in the biblical account of Jesus work, particularly
his atoning work.
17
Looking at the many biblical passages that talk about Jesus offering
himself (.aue,; e.g., Gal. 1:4; 2:20; Eph. 5:2, 25), his soul (u,; e.g., Mt. 10:28; Jn.
10:11, 15; 15:13), or his body (c.a; eg. Lk. 22:19; Heb. 10:10; Rom. 7:4), Barth
concludes that the atonement was the unified action of a whole person (pp. 328-340; cf.
IV/1, 225). Indeed, all of Jesus deeds demonstrate the unity of his work (p. 331) and,
thus, the unity of his person. For Barth, then, only a holistic presentation of human
ontology presents an adequate understanding of Jesus work.
Finally, Barth finds this holistic emphasis even in the death and resurrection
narratives: As this one whole man, and therefore as true man, the Jesus of the New
Testament is born and lives and suffers and dies and is raised again (p. 327). Although
there is a transformation that takes place between Jesus death and resurrection there is
no change in his body/soul relation such that there is division or subtraction (ibid.).
Rather, As the same whole man, soul and body, He rises as He died, and sits at the right
hand of God, and will come again (ibid.). Thus, against all docetic interpretations of the
resurrection the Bible portrays the resurrected Christ as a whole body/soul entity (ibid.;

16
Such a description of Jesus life unfortunately neglects the real tensions that are occasionally
seen in Jesus lifee.g., Gethsemane (Mt. 26:37ff.). With respect to this scene Barth only comments that it
demonstrates the reality of Jesus inner life without noting its implications for depicting his body/soul
relation exclusively in peaceful terms (ibid., 328). Barth may have been better served by using his
emphasis on Jesus solidarity with human persons in taking up human flesh with its contradictions and
tensions (pp. 335-340; cf. IV/1, 171-175, 216) to argue that inner tension and conflict is a real aspect of our
present earthly state even though the biblical emphasis on the unity of the whole person points in the
direction of a redeemed life where harmony between these two aspects of the person is the goal (cf.
Moltmann 1985:352-353; Sherlock 1996:219-220).
17
This is thus consistent with Barths overall emphasis on the inseparable unity of Christs person
and work (IV/1, 122-128).
93
cf. pp. 441-454) who exists in continuous identity with the pre-resurrection Jesus (p.
214).
In every aspect of Jesus life, ministry, and death, then, Barth finds the Bible
describing him as a holistic union of body and soul; a holism that permeates everything
that he says, does, and is.

And He is one whole man in His relation to others, in what He
does for them, what He gives them, what He asks of them, what He is for
them and for the whole cosmos. He does not fulfil His office and His
work from His miraculous annunciation to His fulfilment in such a way
that we can separate His outer form from His inner or His inner form from
His outer. Everything is the revelation of an inner, invisible, spiritual
plane of life. But it is almost more striking and characteristic that
everything has an outer, visible, bodily form. (p. 327)

An anthropological ontology that begins from the perspective of this concrete
reality must, therefore, take the whole person as its point of departure.

2.2.2. Two Distinct Moments: The Duality of the Human Person
This does not mean, however, that such a holistic perspective exhausts the reality
of human nature. According to Barth, the christological picture presents the wholeness of
the human person so clearly that one might easily miss the important distinctions that
must be drawn (p. 340). Despite his holistic emphasis, Barth consistently maintains a
duality within the human person.
18
Body and soul, though integrally united and
interdependent, are neither identical nor reducible to one another (p. 367). They are the
two moments of the one human person and are always distinguishable aspects of
human nature (p. 399).
19
Consequently, we can only keep ourselves from prejudice,

18
Drawing on Trinitarian language, Moltmann offers a similar perspective by affirming that
body and soul interact perichoretically and that the relationship is thus marked by differentiation and
unity (1985:258-262).
19
Willis misses Barth on this point when he argues with respect to Barths portrayal of the
body/soul relationship in Jesus that this distinction ultimately has no binding, absolute meaning
94
abstraction and one-sidedness (p. 372) by realizing that, although Jesus presents the
human person as wholly and simultaneously both soul and body, there is still an inner
differentiation (ibid.).
20
For Barth, then, body and soul are distinguishable
determinations of human persons that are neither identical nor reducible (p. 367). There
can be no effective accounting of the human person without an equal emphasis on both
soul and body in their interconnexion and their particularity (ibid.). As soon as any
attempt is made to address the nature of the human person, we are confronted by the
remarkable fact thatwe have to do with a whole, but with a whole in which there is
antithesis, and therefore with a duality (ibid.).
It will help at this point to define more clearly how Barth uses the terms body and
soul. First, he understands a persons body to be her material body (p. 350), which as
such is visible, outward, earthly (p. 367). The body, therefore, is sensuous,
empirical, and available to study in ways that the soul is not (p. 326).
21
For Barth,
then, the body represents the objective aspect of human nature and can be defined as:

a spatio-material system of relations.It is spatial, i.e., it is
essential to it to be at its own specific point in space. It is material, i.e., it
is essential to it to be distinct from other bodies in virtue of its own
specific material mode or compositions. It is a system of relations, i.e., it
is free in its inner relation, but forming a specific composition. (p. 377)

Barth further associates body with the being of a creature as that which
determines the manner and nature of its existence (p. 367). Although all earthly
entities are material bodies of this sort, they are not all merely material bodies. Some
material bodies can become besouled and thus transcend their mere materiality as

(1971:209). It would be more accurate to say that, for Barth, the tension between them has no absolute
meaning but the distinction is integral to understanding human nature.
20
Price rightly points out that Barths anthropology is thus quite consistent with the early Church
councils, which maintained that both a human body and a human soul were necessary for true human
existence (2002:248).
21
Barths view of body and soul as being dissimilarly available to empirical analysis is also a
prominent aspect of contemporary philosophy of mind where the empirical status of a persons conscious
state often demarcates a border between various views of the mind/body relation (e.g., van Gulick 2004).
95
organic bodiesmaterial entities that have soul and are therefore alive (p. 377).
22
An
organic body is, therefore, understood as an object in relation to a subject, i.e., the soul
(ibid.).
23
Soul, on the other hand, is understood primarily as the subjective life of a
material organism:

Soul is life, self-contained life, the independent life of a corporeal
being. Life in general means capacity for action, self-movement, self-
activity, self-determination. Independent life is present where this self-
movement, self-activity, and self-determination are not only the
continuation and partial appearance of a general life-process, but where
there is a specific living subject. (p. 374)
24

Soul is that which allows a material body to become a living body and to
actualize the existence that is proper to it (p. 350). It is the self-directed and self-
determined activity of an independent living being,
25
i.e., the subject of a particular life

22
Some might be inclined to dismiss Barths ontology at this point as a form of vitalismi.e.,
positing some unknowable factor to explain the emergence of organic life (Bechtel and Robertson 1998).
McGinn thus eschews any theistic account of the mind/body relation by associating it with vitalism and
even alchemy (1991:7, 17). Though widely discredited, some contemporary thinkers have pointed out that
the term actually covers a very broad range of positions and that its more sophisticated versions are not so
easily dismissed (e.g., Polkinghorne 1993 and Moreland 1995). Regardless, that theistic views cannot be
dismissed as a nave appeal to vitalism should become clear in the latter half of this study.
23
Although Barth does use subject/object language in describing the body, his understanding is
markedly different from the modern notion of the disengaged subject acting instrumentally through its
objectified body (R. Taylor 1989:185-188). Given the inseparability of the two, Barths rhetoric is intended
to emphasize the leadership of the persons inner life in opposition to any form of biological determinism.
24
By associating the soul with the principle of movement and independent life, Barth is,
therefore, unwilling to attribute souls to plants (p. 374). Thus, although he does discuss the three levels of
living beings (plants, animals, and humans) in a very Aristotelian manner (ibid.; cf. De Anima 413ff.), he
differs in not affirming the souls of plants and in refusing the speculate on the nature of the animal soul
(ibid., 374-377).
25
In a similar manner, Pannenberg argues that the soul is that which makes us human in our
bodily reality while the body is the concrete form in which our humanity, the soul, finds appropriate
expression (1991:2.184).
96
(p. 364).
26
Soul is therefore associated with a variety of terms that all denote a human
persons interioritye.g., inner, rational, invisible, intelligible, inapprehensible,
and heavenly (p. 326). The independent life of a material organism, the soul is the
subject and form of specific apprehensions, thoughts, sensations, feelings, purposes and
endeavours (p. 353).
For Barth, then, the human person is characterized by a distinct duality: the
objective and subjective moments of human existence. The first moment, the soul,
involves the humans beings subjective and conscious life. The body, the second
moment, denotes that which executes the decisions of the soul, displays the attitudes
developed by the soul, and represents outwardly the interiority of the subjective self (p.
398). The soul, then, is the independent life whereas the body is that which lives the
independent life (ibid.).
Having established body and soul as indicating the duality of human existence,
we must reaffirm the wholeness and unity that was so important to Barth. From the
above definitions we can see that body and soul seem truly inseparable in Barths
anthropology. The very notions of soul and (organic) body are, for Barth, incoherent
independent of one another (pp. 331, 376). You can no more have life apart from that
which is made alive than you can have an organic body without its subjective life.
Understood in terms of such distinctions as inner/outer, movement/space, and
action/means, body and soul can be distinguished but not divided without destroying the

26
This manner of speaking about the body/soul relation is somewhat similar to Aristotles
hylomorphism i.e., the soul as the form of the body (cf. Nussbaum and Rorty 1992 and Shields 2005).
Indeed, Barths description of the person as form and life of a substantial organism (p. 325) is an explicit
adoption of Aristotelian language (Moltmann 1985:252). Other similarities include accepting the idea of
animal souls (p. 377; cf. De Anima 413ff.), using logos with respect to the ordering of human nature
(III/2, 335-336; cf. De Anima 403a), and associating soul with life (De Anima 434a) and movement (De
Anima 415b). Indeed, both ontologies can be described as an attempt to mediate certain forms of
materialism and dualism (Price 1992:161, Burnyeat 1992:15). Despite these similarities, Moltmann is
incorrect in viewing Barths ontology simply as a form of Aristotelianism (1985:254). Indeed, Barth
explicitly rejects Aristotles ontology as theologically inadequate (p. 380). Barths intense interest in the
distinction between body and soul and the difficulty of maintaining their unity in the human person
constitutes a substantial difference from Aristotles hylomorphism in which their unity could almost be
taken for granted (see De Anima 412b). Even the apparent verbal similarities are not as clear as they first
appear given that Barths christological use of logos certainly differs from Aristotles. While it may be
useful, then, to note some parallels in their anthropological ontologies, we should be very careful about
insisting on a closer relationship without recognizing the very real differences.
97
entity in question (p. 373).
27
In addition to this conceptual argument, Barth contends that
every human action and experience also demonstrates this unity. The human person
never experiences her self as a dual but only as a single subject, as soul identical with
his body and as body identical with his soul (p. 426). Every action of the human subject,
even the apparently simple act of knowing (pp. 374-376),
28
is impossible apart from the
inseparable operation of both body and soul (p. 378).
29
For Barth, then, the human person is an inseparable union of body and soul.
30

This union, though, cannot be understood in terms of identity, interchangeability, or
the union of two parts (p. 372).

Soul and body are not two factors which merely co-exist,
accompany, supplement, sympathise and co-operate with one another, but
whose intentions, achievements and sufferings have different origins,
ends and meanings. The one man is the soul of his body and therefore
both soul and body. (p. 426)

Rather than such language with its implicit substance dualism, Barth affirms the
two moments of the human person in inseparable unity and irreducible differentiation:
Soul would not be soul, if it were not bodily; and body would not be body, if it were not
besouled. We are not free to make abstractions here, either on one side or the other (p.

27
Paul Jewett argues that this approach reduces the soul to a mere concept of thought and
counters that it should be viewed instead as having objective reality, though not the reality of a material
object (1996:41-42). Similarly, Mangina refers to the body/soul difference as one among many necessary
conceptual distinctions (2004:199). For Barth, however, the soul is not a merely conceptual reality.
Although it cannot be considered independently of the body, it is, as we have seen, neither identical with
nor reducible to the body and therefore has its own objective reality though never in isolation from the
body.
28
Thus, although Barth associates personal identity primarily with the soul, he recognizes that the
body, as a participantin my subjectivity (p. 378), is integrally involved (for a similar perspective see
Macquarrie 1982:48). In this sense, Barth can associate the I of the person with the body as well as the
soul (pp. 374, 377, 426).
29
Barth thus views the soul as completely incapable of performing any action apart from a
material body. Rather than viewing the soul as in bondage to the body, Barth contends that the soul would
actually be in bondage (i.e., unable to act) apart from its embodiment (pp. 351-352).
30
Whether there is any sense in which the body and soul could be viewed as separable in any
sense in Barths anthropological ontology is a question that we will take up later in the chapter.
98
350). Barth thus contends that a human being is a duality of body and soul existing in
differentiated unity.

2.2.3. One Proper Order: The Rationality of Body and Soul
According to Barth, though, noting the unity and duality of the human person is
inadequate; we must also consider the indestructible order that obtains in the body/soul
relation. Again, looking first to the person of Jesus Christ, Barth argues that the oneness
and wholeness of this human life is fashioned, structured and determined from within
(p. 332). From such examples as Jesus fasting in the desert (Mt. 4:1-2), his agony in
Gethsemane (Matt. 26:39), and Jesus affirmation of Marys contemplation over
Marthas bodily activity (Lk. 10:38-42), Barth argues that the biblical narratives
demonstrate the priority of the soul as the director of personal life over the body as that
which is directed (p. 339). Rather than a chaos in which there is no order to the
body/soul relationship, Jesus nature is a cosmosa formed and ordered totality in
which there is a higher and a lower, a first and a second, a dominating and a dominated
(ibid.). The order among the two moments, then, is that the soul leads, commands, and
controls while the body follows, obeys, and is controlled (p. 424).
31
Barth insists that the
biblical narratives clearly portray Jesus as one who performed all of his deeds,
particularly the atonement, knowingly, freely, and actively.
32
Affirming the priority of
Jesus subjective life over any biological determinants is, therefore, of decisive
importancein the anthropology of Jesus (p. 418). Any view of the human person, on
Barths account, that gave primacy to the body in the activity of the person, would,
therefore, undermine the biblical account of Jesus person and work.
Four things must be kept in mind, however, with respect to this anthropological
cosmology in Jesus. First, the unity of the two moments is not dissolved by the
hierarchy. Despite the essential ordering of the body/soul relationship, there can be no
thought of a division or separation between the two moments of Jesus human existence.

31
The idea that there is a leading element in the human was expressed by ancient Stoic and
Epicurean philosophers by the term hegemonikon (Sedley 2005), which subsequently found its way into
Christian theology (Lampe 1961:599-601; cf. also Calvin, Institutes, 1.15.8; Verghese (1972:121),
Macquarrie 1982:14, and Pannenberg 1991:201). Though Barth, does not seem to have used the term, the
concepts are basically parallel.
32
See esp. Barths summary of the doctrine of reconciliation (IV/1, 79-156).
99
There is no original separation or hidden conflict in the order of the two moments,
but simply the proper functioning of a single human person (p. 338). Second, there can
be no valuing of the soul at the expense of the bodyboth alike are vital aspects of a
human life (ibid.).
33
The dignity of these two moments is not precluded by the hierarchy,

33
As Pannenberg notes, it is entirely possible for this hierarchical order to become a tyranny of
the soul over the body (1991:1.201). Moltmann thinks that Barths ontology commits precisely this error
and criticizes it on several points. First, he thinks that Barths position involves a domination of the soul
over the body (1985:253). He argues that this corresponds to a pattern of domination in Barths doctrine of
creation that follows a similar pattern in his doctrine of God (ibid., 253-254). In a related criticism, he also
contends, Barth never mentions a right to resistance on the part of the misused body, nor does he concede
to the feelings any right to a say in the decisions of the reasonable soul (ibid., 254). His concern here
seems to be that Barth has missed the integral relationship between the two whereby it is impossible to
assign any fundamental primacies (ibid., 260). He contends that we should speak instead of flexible
centricities (ibid., 261) that change over time rather than hierarchical orders. Finally, he criticizes Barth
for so emphasizing order and hierarchy that he fails to even suggest that a harmony between the body and
its dominating soul is something to be desired (ibid., 254).
Some of Moltmanns comments point in very helpful directions. He rightly notes that Barths
adoption of hierarchical language may have unintentionally undermined the very unity he was striving to
maintain. It may be worth asking whether one needs to speak of the body as a lower reality (p. 332) to
maintain Barths emphases on freedom, subjectivity, agency, and other vital aspects of human personhood.
A greater emphasis on language affirming community, partnership, and mutual influence may be worth
pursuing (cf. Moltmann 1985:257).
On other points, though, Moltmanns criticisms are less helpful. First, despite Barths hierarchical
language, his understanding of the body/soul relationship simply should not be characterized in terms of
domination, despite the fact that he occasionally used such language himself (e.g., p. 339). The very
concept implies a sharp distinction between the two moments that simply does not exist in Barths
ontology. We should also recognize with Pannenberg that the possibility of abuse does not necessarily
preclude the validity of viewing the relationship in terms of leading and following (1991:1.201). Even
more strongly, we should note McLeans argument that Barths actual intention, despite all of this
somewhat conventional and seemingly linear hierarchical language, is to radically redefine it in terms of
the model of Jesus as Lord and Servant: For Barth servanthood and lordship are functions of one another
(1986:112-113).
Second, Moltmanns arguments seem driven primarily by a pre-determined rejection of any form
of sovereignty (see his remarks on the Father/Son and God/creation relationships; 1985:254-255).
McFague (1987; 1993) and Kaufmann (1993) have similarly argued for a connection between domineering
portraits of God and hierarchical views of human ontology. But, again Pannenberg rightly notes that
sovereignty cannot be dismissed so easily without minimizing important biblical texts (1991:1.201).
Finally, many of Moltmanns comments manifest a misunderstanding regarding the very nature of
Barths project. He repeatedly associates Barths ontology with Platonic and Cartesian ideas while
100
but is actually established by that order as each is provided its unique status and dignity
through its relation to the other (p. 339). Additionally, this hierarchical unity is not
maintained in Jesus by any external principle. Jesus not only has life but actually is life
in himself (cf. John 6:35-51; 11:25; 14:6). Consequently, he is his own principle,
ground, and intention (p. 332). Finally, Jesus existence in the differentiated unity of
body and soul is not an accidental existence: Structured and determined from within,
the unity, duality, and order of the body/soul relation in Christ is necessary and of
lasting significance (ibid.).
This hierarchical relation is likewise manifest in human nature generally. Barth
thus defines the human person as a rational being (p. 419). Barth is not here referring
to humanitys intellectual capacities but rather to the meaningful order of human
nature such that it is proper to his nature to be in rational order of the two moments of
soul and body (p. 419). Thus, in such key human activities, as perceiving, thinking,
willing, desiring, and acting (pp. 399-416), we are faced with an ordered unity that
transcends the notions of simple distributionorcooperation (p. 400), but always
involves the primacy of the soul (p. 418).
34
Unlike Jesus, however, this rational
ordering of the two moments in human persons generally is not obvious, but is, instead,
hidden in the tensions and contradictions of human life (pp. 331-332).

minimizing the various ways in which Barth distances himself from and even attacks those very
conceptions (1985:252-253). It may well be that Moltmann is led astray here by Barths adoption of rather
traditional language and concepts and has, as a result, missed the primary thrust of Barths argument
(similarly P. Newman 1981:423).
34
Frey thus describes this ordered duality as hierarchical interactionism [hierarchischen
Interaktionismus] (1978:208). Though this label is useful in demonstrating the ordered interdependence of
Barths ontology, the use of the term interactionism is weakened by its association with certain forms of
dualism.
101
2.2.4. One Undivided Existence?: On the Separability of Body and Soul
35

One last question that remains to be answered regarding Barths depiction of this
psychophysical relation is whether the body and soul could have any form of
independent existence after the death of the person.
36
From one perspective, it seems
clear that Barth would reject any such intermediate existence. Indeed, Barth consistently
affirms that physical death entails the end of the human person. Thus, at death the human
person enters into a state of non-being (pp. 595-595). Death is, therefore, the limit of
our existence in time (III/4, 588) and the end of all human and creaturely life and
creativity and work (IV/2, 295). Although this is not a death without hope (IV/2,
476), which would be to fall prey to a fear of the negation of being (ibid.), which was
overcome through the death and resurrection of Jesus (p. 595), it is still the end of
mans existence (p. 427; cf. IV/3.2, 924-928). Death, therefore, deprives the individual
of all prospects for the future (p. 589; cf. IV/3.1, 310). Indeed, Whatever existence in
time may mean, it cannot consist of a continuation of life in time (p. 589).
Such statements would seem to suggest that an intermediate state is completely
inconceivable on Barths account. A closer look at some of his other language, however,
suggests that at least three readings are possible on this point. First, one could view Barth
as affirming that at death the human person enters into a supra-temporal reality such that

35
We will not attempt in this section even to survey let alone resolve all of the issues involved in
the debate regarding whether we should believe in an intermediate state. Our task, instead, will be to
consider whether an intermediate state is compatible with Barths christological framework. The debate on
how to read the biblical data regarding human ontology and the intermediate state continues, with some
arguing for a more dualistic emphasis (esp. Cooper 1982, 1990; cf. also Osei-Bonsu 1987; Chamblin 1993;
Moreland and Rae 2000) and others contending for a monistic approach (esp. J. Green 1998, 2002a, 2002b,
2004b; cf. J. Robinson 1952; Kmmel 1963; Wolff 1974; van Inwagen 1995; Betz 2000; Heckel 2000;
Stone 2004). Given the sharp discontinuity between these two approaches to the text, Green correctly
argues, In short, simple appeal to what the Bible teaches will not resolve those anthropological
questions arising from discussion of body and soul, mind and brain. It is worth asking, though, whether a
reading of the narrative of Scripture as whole accounts best for a view of the human person characterized
by dualism or by monism (J. Green 2005:21). Thus, Hoekema argues that although the Bible teaches that
there will be an intermediate state, it does not specify exactly how it will take place and that, therefore, it is
difficult to draw ontological conclusions (1986).
36
As Bromiley rightly points out, we must be careful against trying to reconstruct Barths
eschatology from his scattered comments, but must limit ourselves to more tentative conclusions
(1979:245).
102
she immediately experiences her future resurrection.
37
From this perspective, then,
Barth argues that when the person dies, she crosses the frontier (IV/3.1, 310) of death
and immediately enters into the eternal life of God in fellowship with him (IV/1, 111).
While this is certainly possible, Barth can also be understood as allowing the
possibility of a temporal gap between the death and resurrection of the person, but not
one in which the person continues to exist. Thus, Barth can say that Jesus ceased to be
after his physical death and that his existence was thus terminated by death like that of
every other man (IV/3.1, 312). Since all human persons cease to be after physical
death, it would seem possible to suppose that they could remain in this state for some
indefinite period of time before they experience any future life, should God graciously
choose to reconstitute them as the souls of their bodies (pp. 362, 364, 427-428; IV/3.2,
926-928).
Some of Barths language, however, presses in a third, and entirely different,
direction. Thus, despite his emphasis on the cessation of the person at death, Barth can
still speak of a dead human individual as a bodiless soul and a soulless body (p. 355).
In death, the soul is alienated from the body and the body from the soul (p. 425). Such
language indicates that Barth is not completely opposed to speaking of the soul and body
as separated from one another after death. Since the soul is only active and expressive in
its union with the body, however, such a disembodied soul would be incapable of
engaging in the activity that is the hallmark of human life (p. 425). Instead, the
ostensibly all-powerful soul becomes completely impotent (p. 370). Being deprived
of the freedom for true and meaningful action and movement, dead human persons
exist in a state of utter weakness and helplessness and are incapable of enjoying the
good things of life (p. 589). For Barth, then, it would seem that death is a radically
sharp and serious limitation of all human being and action (IV/3.1, 310; emphasis
added). We must notice, though, that all of this language suggests that Barth is able to
view the soul as continuing to exist after the death of the body, albeit only as the spent
soul of a spent body (p. 370), which is unable to engage in meaningful activity. It seems
possible, then, that Barths ontology is compatible with the conceivability of the body
and soul having a limited existence independent of one another, albeit not in such a way

37
For a similar eternalist conception of the resurrection see Gutenson 2004. Oscar Cullman
contends that Barth consistently affirmed such an immediate resurrection in his earlier theology, a more
nuanced version of which he maintains in the Church Dogmatics as well (1958).
103
that the person herself can be said to still exist.
38
If this third reading of Barths theology
is allowed, then clearly the body/soul relationship can be understood as one of integral
interdependence while still affirming the possibility that they could exist independently.
On the other hand, what if this reading of Barth is incorrect? What if we conclude
that Barths strong language regarding the cessation of human existence at death
disallows any possibility of such independent existence?
39
It would seem that if this
reading is correct, Barths ontological conclusions may be overstepping the parameters
of his own christological methodology.
Since Barth insists that an adequate anthropological ontology must begin with
christological reflection, decisions regarding the state of human ontology during any
intermediate state would have to begin with the biblical portrayal of Christ during his
entombment. But, there are remarkably few verses in the Bible that could be read as
making any reference to the nature of Jesus existence during this time (e.g., Eph. 4:9; 1
Pet. 3:19). And, if we follow Barths own interpretations, even these verses tell us
nothing about the three days of his entombment (Lauber 2004). Thus, on Barths
interpretation, the Bible is entirely silent on the nature of Christs existence during this
time. But, if this is the case, then the christological narratives provide no basis upon
which to make a definitive statement regarding the conceivability of an intermediate
state.
40
While the narratival emphasis on Jesus as a whole person in the Bible affirms
psychophysical interdependence, it does not actually entail inseparability.
41
Rather, the
christological picture merely affirms that any account of the human person must view
embodied wholeness as the normal condition of the human person. Whether there is an

38
This truncated existence could be understood to entail some form of soul sleep. If so, the
viability of this third reading would seem to be substantially weakened by the fact that although this was a
position with which Barth was quite familiar (Barth 1995), he makes no use of the concept, and he
explicitly interprets passages that describe death as sleep as referring to the process of dying rather than
the state of death (p. 778-779).
39
For the purposes of this study, it will not be necessary for us to draw any definitive conclusions
about which of these three readings is the correct way in which to understand Barths ontology.
40
Of course, if one differs from Barth on this point and understands these texts to affirm that
Jesus was active during this time, Barths christological methodology would require us to affirm some
form of an intermediate state.
41
Barth seems to miss this point when he argues that the death and resurrection narratives make
no suggestion of a separation of body and soul, without similarly acknowledging that neither do they deny
any such state of affairs (p. 327).
104
abnormal situation in which this wholeness is not a part of the human condition is simply
not in view.
42
To remain consistent with his overall methodology, then, it would seem
that Barths anthropological ontology would need to affirm, as it does, the body/soul
wholeness of the human person before and after the resurrection while remaining silent,
and potentially open, on the status of human ontology during any interim period.
43

From this discussion, then, it would seem that two conclusions are available to
us. On the one hand, we could conclude that Barths ontology views the human person as
a body/soul entity that ceases to exist at death, but that the soul might continue to exist in
a limited form during any interim period between death and resurrection. On the other
hand, we could view Barths ontology as closed to any such an interim existence for the
soul. If this is the case, however, we must question whether this aspect of his ontology is
actually consistent with his christological methodology. Either way, it would seem that
there is room for developing some concept of an intermediate state within the parameters
of Barths christological anthropology, even if he did not choose to develop this option
himself.

2.3. The Pneumatological How: The Holy Spirit and Human Ontology
Our earlier discussion of the tensions and contradictions that arise between body
and soul raises an important question at this point. If there can be tensions and
contradictions with respect to the body/soul relation, how is their unity maintained? With

42
Similarly, Barths emphasis on the concrete experience of the human person in perception and
action simply affirms unity as the normative state of human nature. While it may provide a strong bias in
favor of inseparability, it actually establishes no sure argument for the non-existence of a variant state.
Unless Barth wishes to affirm the impossibility of spiritual beings possessing the capacity for perception
and action (something Barth would presumably be averse to affirming with respect to angels, demons, and
the triune God), it would seem that he should at least be open to the possibility that human persons could
engage in both perception and action as disembodied beingsalbeit in an abnormal and (possibly)
functionally reduced manner.
43
This would also suggest that attempts to support a dualist ontology based on Jesus death and
resurrection are similarly flawed. Moreland and Rae argue that the biblical narratives suggest that between
Jesus death and resurrection he continued to exist as a God-man in the intermediate state independently
of his earthly body (2000:35; cf. Taliaferro 1995). Their only support for this conclusion, however, is that
Jesus remains human through this transition. But, whether substance dualism is the only way to account for
continued humanity through death and resurrection is itself a highly contentious issue that we will address
in the next chapter.
105
that question we have arrived at the third, and decisive, term in Barths anthropological
ontology, spirit.
The importance of the Spirit for understanding human nature is again determined
christologically.
44
Any consideration of Jesus life must acknowledge the unique
relation he shared with the Holy Spirit as the Messiah and the Son of God (p. 332).
Indeed, Jesus owes his very existence to the Holy Spirit (p. 333). As the new man who
reveals the true nature of man, Jesus thereby demonstrates the close connection
between anthropology and pneumatology, especially as regards human ontology (p. 334).
This connection is played out with respect to humans in general on three different
levels. First, the Spirit is involved in the creation of the human person. As we have seen,
Barth contends that humanity must be understood in terms of its absolute dependence on
God. This is true of humanitys ontological constitution as well. Since, according to
Barth, a material being is merely a spatio-material system of relations, no merely
material body inherently possesses independent life (p. 377).
45
If, then, a material being
actually becomes a living being and therefore subject of a personal life it can only be
because of an event over whose occurrence he has no control (p. 353).
46
For Barth, this
is the event by which the human person, as a union of body and soul and, thus, as both
subjective life and objective corporeality, is an expressly pneumatological event.
Consequently, Man is as he has spirit (p. 354).
47
The Spirit is the fundamental

44
Rosato asserts, Barth's sincere efforts towards a genuine theological anthropology first led him
to pneumatology and, in the process, to the conclusion that Jesus had also to be understood
pneumatologically (1981:95-96). This rather speculative attempt to understand the genesis of Barths
ideas unfortunately neglects the extremely important order in which Barth actually presents his ideas and
thus misunderstands the significance of his christocentrism.
45
Some may, however, possess the capacity for such life even if they do not possess that life
inherently (p. 377).
46
This is, of course, true for all living beings. What distinguishes humans in the sphere of living
creatures is not their pneumatological constitution but their covenantal relationship with God (p. 359).
47
Barths presentation of the relationship between body, soul, and Spirit thus follows what
Hunsinger refers to as Barths theological grammar (2004). Body and soul are understood using the
pattern of dialectical inclusion and unity-in-distinction that are characteristic of Barths Trinitarian
grammar. The incarnational pattern, clearly evidenced here, involves two terms and a relationship
(ibid., 182). Both forms of grammar seem to be at work in this section, as Barth seeks to explain how the
unity-in-distinction of body and soul are maintained through the Spirit.
106
determination (p. 363) of human nature as the principle which makes man into a
subject (p. 364).
48

That Barth views this pneumatological constitution as an event leads to the
second aspect of the Spirits work, preservation. For humans in general, the Spirit is a
transcendent determination (p. 348);
49
human life as a body/soul union is not a fixed
possession, but is something that must be continually established by God through the
agency of the Spirit (ibid.).
50
This pneumatological event must be continually repeated
for humans to remain human (p. 359).
51
Human nature in general must be distinguished
from Jesus at this point.
52
Unlike other humans, Jesus does not merely live from the
Spirit but in the Spirit (p. 334). Jesus alone has a relation to the Spirit that is intrinsic
and enduring: He is the man to whom the creative movement of God has come

48
According to Ray Anderson, Barth stands quite alone here in his radical interpretation of the
relation of spirit to soul and body (1982:211). Although Barths interpretation could probably be
considered a minority interpretation, it is certainly not without precedent among modern theologians (e.g.,
Pannenberg 1985:522-523; P. Newman 1981; Moltmann 1985:263; T. Torrance 1989:113). Interestingly,
given Barths extensive familiarity with Kierkegaards writings, he too posits the human person as a
synthesis of body and soul realized by the spirit (Macquarrie 1982:48).
49
One of Barths concerns at this point seems to be to protect against any idea that humanity has,
whether inherently or contingently, some part of the divine essence as an ongoing possession (p. 363).
He explicitly excludes this possibility, however, by arguing that Scripture understands the Spirit as an
activity and not a being and as something that can not be possessed (ibid.).
50
Ray Anderson thinks it is rather doubtful that anyone would follow Barth on this because
such an overemphasis on the Spirit would evacuate the human person of a truly human mortal spirit
(1982:212). He thus accuses Barth of espousing a form of Apollinarianism and prefers to speak of spirit
as an orientation of the human person (soul) brought about by the Holy Spirit (ibid., 212; cf. Come
1963:152). Contrary to this interpretation, however, Barth does not understand the work of the Spirit to
eliminate or even minimize the reality of human subjectivity and spirituality but merely to emphasize its
radical dependency at all points. MacLean, thus argues, in preservation (providence) there is a natural
man, maintained by God's active and free relationship to this context. This relationship is designated as
Spirit. Man is not absorbed. God created him, maintains him, and is constantly relating to him, indirectly,
through the context of his life (1981:45).
51
Mangina points out that Barths similar event-language with respect to the church (IV/1, 650-
7224) should not be understood to imply that its pneumatological constitution is non-continuous, but rather
as an attempt to emphasize the divine source and mystery of the churchs being (2004:154). The same
argument would seem to apply to Barths anthropological ontology.
52
See chapter 2.
107
primarily, originally and therefore definitively.He not only has the Spirit, but primarily
and basically He is Spirit (ibid.).
Finally, we must also recognize the Spirits work of regeneration. Though God
graciously maintains the ontological connection between himself and human persons, the
intimate relation between God and his covenant-partner has been lost through human
unfaithfulness (pp. 26-41, 139, 347; cf. IV/1, 139-145). Although the Spirit constitutes
all human persons as body/soul unities in his work as creator and preserver, this unity is
not experienced as such by human persons. On the contrary, humans in general live in
the flesh (case ,), which Barth understands as the condition of man in contradiction, in
disorder and in consequent sickness (p. 336).
53
In the incarnation, Jesus took up this
fleshly existence and transformed it into something that is quickening and living and
meaningful (ibid.). This renewed human reality, however, cannot become a reality for
individuals until they become aware of it and begin to take responsibility for its
expression in their lives (IV/2, 421-422, 443-444, 454, 477-478). Thus, although Barth
sees the ontological union of body and soul as universally realized through the creative
work of the Spirit, he views the experience and expression of this union as an ongoing
task (Gorringe 2004:47; cf. Macquarrie 1982:55 and Sherlock 1996:219).
Having identified these three works of the Spirit with respect to human ontology,
the specific relation between the Holy Spirit and the human spirit remains to be
considered. Barth argues quite forcefully that spirit in the Bible, both Old and New
Testaments, refers primarily to the spirit of God as the creative movement of God
toward his creation (p. 333),
54
and only derivatively of something properly characteristic
of the human person.
55
Barth thus distinguishes sharply between the human soul and the
divine spirit by which it is made alive.
56
There remains, nonetheless, a close relation

53
Barth recognizes that flesh can refer generally to human physicality but contends that it is
most commonly used with reference to the human state in rebellion against God (p. 336).
54
Although spirit as divine spirit and derivatively as the spirit of humans are Barths primary
categories for understanding spirit in the Bible, he does recognize that it also has application to the
commission of God (e.g., prophets) and to immaterial beings (pp. 357-358; cf. Sherlock 1996:222).
Unfortunately he does not clearly address how these alternate uses, particularly the last, should impact his
emphasis on spirit as primarily referring to the Spirit of God.
55
For Barth, then, there can be no trichotomous understanding of human persons as body, soul,
and spirit since he does not regard spirit as a component of human ontology (cf. p. 355).
56
Surveying the biblical terms, he argues that nephesh (:e.) in the Old Testament and u, in the
New Testament can indicate either life in general, the life of a particular individual, or, by extension, the
108
between them such that the Bible can speak in general of the spiritof man, although
[i]n practice, this means nothing else but the soul living through the Spirit (p. 334).
57

This means, however, that spirit may not be viewed as an aspect of human being. The
Spirit of God, though integrally and intimately related to human being, must never be
identified with some portion of it (p. 363.).
Since the Spirit is what constitutes the human person as soul of his body, the
removal of the Spirit can only be the death of the person: As the spirit makes of man an
embodied soul and a besouled body, so the absence of spirit makes of him a bodiless soul
and a soulless body (p. 354-355). Upon this removal, the body/soul union is dissolved
such that the ostensibly all-powerful soul becomes completely impotent and the
organic body becomes a mere material body (p. 370).
58
That this withdrawal and
dissolution will take place is certain (p. 362). Whether there is a future for the human
person after this death relies completely on whether God graciously chooses to
reconstitute the body/soul relationship and restore the existence of the person (pp. 362,
364, 370, 427-428).
59

individual herself and both are to be distinguished from the divine spirit ( or :|.ua) (pp. 378-379). He
addresses several problem passages for this interpretation (e.g., 1 Thess. 5:23; Luke 1:46f.; and Heb.
4:12) arguing in each case that spirit refers primarily to the divine spirit and only by extension to human
persons (p. 355). Following Genesis 2:7, the human person is understood to be a material being (:s:
e . : s) who is constituted as a living being ( :e. ) by the breath of life (: -::.), which Barth
identifies with the Holy Spirit (pp. 333-334, 361, 379, 396). Despite Barths strong emphasis on the
subjective life of the person associated with the soul, he does not want us to miss the fact that Gen. 2:7
refers to the material body of the person before the pneumatological event as man (: s) and, therefore,
the materialist perspective is a valid, though limited, approach to the human person (p. 374).
57
This interchangeability is possible because the constitution of man as soul and body cannot be
fully and exactly described without thinking first and foremost of the spirit as its proper basis (p. 355).
The reverse, however, does not hold and Barth argues that it is never true that the soul is spoken of where
the Spirit is unambiguously meant.There is in fact no case where the LXX translates nephesh by :|.ua
(p. 373). Although Job 7:15 would seem to provide a possible exception to this rule, his basic point
seems to hold.
58
As Price rightly notes, in Barth's anthropology, a body without a soul is not a dead person, it
is simply a body (2002:252).
59
Although Barth thus views having a body as a necessary part of the future resurrection of the
person, he does not address the question of material continuity that plays such a prominent role in
physicalist accounts of the resurrection (e.g., L. Baker 1995; Corcoran 2001b; Merricks 2001b; and Peters
109

2.4. Covenantally Constituted: The Why of Human Ontology
Barth offers the pneumatological constitution of the human person, however, not
just as an explanation of the creation, preservation, and regeneration of the body/soul
relation, but also as an explanation of why such an ontological constitution is so
important. Humans must be understood as a pneumatologically grounded and rationally
ordered relation of body and soul because, for Barth, the pneumatological event is
primarily a covenantal event:

Spirit in His fundamental significance is the element in virtue of
which man is actively and passively introduced as a partner in the
covenant of grace, in which he is installed in his position as Gods
partner in the particular stages and decisions of the history of this
covenant and in which he is equipped for his function as such. (p.
347)

The pneumatological event, by which human persons are constituted as body/soul
entities, is, therefore, the event in which human capacity for covenantal relationship is
grounded:

Man has Spirit, and through the Spirit is the soul of his body. This
means at least that, by reason of his creaturely being, he is capable of
meeting God, of being a person for and in relation to Him, and of being
one as God is one. He is capable of being aware of himself as different
both from God and from the rest of the created world, yet also bound up
with God and with the rest of the created world. He is capable of
recognising himself and of being responsible for himself. He exists in the
execution of this self-recognition and self-responsibility before his
Creator. (p. 395)

2002). For Barth this is simply consistent with his method of affirming that something is a theological
truth and being less concerned to establish precisely how it can be realized.
110
For Barth, then, human persons would have no capacity for being Gods
covenantal co-partners apart from their pneumatologically grounded dual constitution.
60

Barth contends that a purely material or spiritual account of the human person is
inadequate for dealing with this reality-defining relationship. A purely material being, in
Barths view, simply does not have the capacity for covenantal relationship (p. 353).
Apart from the subjective life enabled in the pneumatological event, the human being
would be indistinguishable from other merely material realities and unable to express
and experience the covenantal partnership. Likewise, if human persons were purely
spiritual, they would not have the capacity for outward expression and action necessary
for any real relationship. Humans are, therefore, constituted as body-soul entities
specifically because they have been created for covenantal relationship.
61
Barth develops this argument further by looking at two specific sets of capacities
that humanity must have in order to function as a subject to whom God can entrust and
from whom He can expect this partnership in intercourse with him (p. 396; cf., Prenter
1950:215). That God meets with and reveals himself to humanity implies first, that
human beings are capable of perceiving God, distinguishing themselves from God, and
knowing him as God (p. 399).
62
Barth understands this percipient capacity quite simply
as the awareness and thought necessary for an individual to receive another as such into
ones self-consciousness (p. 399). Consequently, in all Gods dealing with humanity, he
appeals to this ability as he expects that humans have the percipient capacity for self-
conscious receptivity of another in relation to himself (ibid.). Barths discussion of the
human capacity for perception is too long to analyze adequately at this point.
63
It is
important to realize, however, that the activities of perception, awareness and thought,

60
As we discussed in chapter two, the covenantal basis of humanity is clouded but not lost as a
result of human sin because it is firmly grounded in the election of Jesus.
61
Thus, as Prenter states, the human person is gifted with his body/soul nature [mit dieser
seelisch-leiblichen Natur begabt] specifically so that he might be granted the necessary functions
[diese Funktione] (1950:215).
62
Barth argues that even humanitys ordinary perceptual experiences are derivative of his
encounter with God. Thus, humanitys general capacity for perception is grounded in its particular capacity
to know and love God (pp. 402-403).
63
Although Barth devotes a rather lengthy discussion to human perception, he is not interested in
a theoretical analysis of human perceptivity, but on the capacities of a person in covenantal relationship (p.
402).
111
for Barth signify the two moments of body and soul (p. 400).
64
Although there can be no
simple distributions of the two functions in the act of perception to soul and body (p.
400), he associates the act of awareness primarily with the body and that of thinking with
the soul (p. 402). In each, though, the primacy of the soul obtains. Without this
percipient capacity Gods summons to and encounter with humans would obviously be
impossible (p. 399). And apart from the pneumatological event and the dual constitution
of human persons, this percipient capacity would be absent.
The second conclusion Barth draws from this divine-human relation is that God
summons humanity to decision and action (p. 406). Humanitys covenantal co-
partnership with God is never a mere fellowship of knowledge, but always also a
fellowship of action whereby human persons are summoned into a relationship of
obedience and service (p. 406). As with perception, Barth maintains that Gods
summons to action presupposes the created capacity for action: Man in his relation to
God is claimed as one capable of such activity (p. 407). Activity, for Barth, entails a
persons capacity to set oneself freely in motion in relation to another (p. 406). This
implies not only that the human person is free to initiate such action in response to the
divine summons but also to desire and will such action (pp. 407-408). Once again, Barth
argues that a special relation obtains between soul/willing and body/desiring even
though there can be no partition between these aspects of human existence (p. 408).
With both of these arguments, Barth thus contends that insofar as the human person is
the covenantal co-partner of God and, therefore, insofar as the human person must have
the capacities necessary for perceiving and acting, he must have this dual constitution as
body and soul so that he might be qualified, prepared and equipped for carrying out
these functions (p. 396).
With both of these arguments, Barth concludes that the unity, duality, and
rationality of human nature is established simply and firmly in the fact that the human
person has been addressed by God and it is thus presupposed that he was created as
such by God (p. 422). So, Barth argues that Gods address to humanity treats him as a
being who can rule himself and serve himself and thus presupposes that God has

64
Moltmann thinks that Barths emphasis on perception indicates a reduction of the human act
of living to thinking and willing (1985:254). This, however, completely misses Barths heavy emphasis
on activity and agency as primary categories of true humanity (pp. 175-198, 406-416). Barths approach is
quite consistent with that of John Macmurray who thinks that we should speak of human persons more in
terms of the I do than the I think (1957:84; cf. Macquarrie 1982:39-40).
112
already created him as a rational being who has the capacities of perception and action
necessary for responding to that address (p. 424). That God has created a being with such
capacities and therefore a being that can serve as his covenantal co-partner is, of course,
an act of divine grace (p. 352). So, humanity is determined by the one grace, that of his
creation, for the other grace, that of the covenant (p. 349). In this event of grace, as a
body/soul being, it becomes possible for him to meet the divine person and person, to
be a covenant-partner (p. 353). In this way, Barth has developed what may rightly be
called a covenantal ontology.
65

3. Christology and Ontology: A Christological Framework for a Theoretical Ontology
We have now developed a much clearer understanding of what Barth understands
human ontology to be (a rationally ordered unity of body and soul), how that ontological
constitution is maintained (the creating, preserving, and regenerating work of the Spirit),
and why this particular ontology is necessary (the divine-human covenantal
relationship).
66
As mentioned earlier, though, the manner in which Barth answers these
questions, emphasizing both unity and duality, has generated some disagreement among
his interpreters as to whether he is better characterized in monistic or dualistic terms. We

65
Noting the importance of covenant in Barths ontology, John Webster rightly asserts: Without
that substantial anthropology and its corresponding emphasis on the realisation of selfhood through action,
Barth's understanding of covenant, and his consistent stress on the moral character of human response to
God, would be simply unthinkable (2001c:56).
66
Failure to emphasize all three of these theological loci have led to some rather imbalanced
pictures of Barths ontological framework. Neglecting the christological basis of Barths anthropological
ontology, Berkouwer thinks that Barth operates almost exclusively on a covenantal/creation framework
and then criticizes him for being inconsistent with his christological methodology (1962:94). Rosato makes
the opposite mistake and argues that Barths theology is rooted in man's recreation, that is, in soteriology
and eschatology in contrast with theological anthropologies in general, which tend to focus on humanitys
creation (1981:95). Though soteriology and eschatology have a profound impact on Barths anthropology,
Rosato unnecessarily downplays the key role of creation, providence, and covenant in Barths
anthropology (though these can not, of course, be separated from soteriology and eschatology). Similarly,
Gorringe argues that failure to take Spirit into account is what leads us into either a monistic monism or a
monistic spiritualism, without acknowledging the christological and covenantal aspects of Barths
framework as well (1999:202). A full appreciation of Barths anthropological ontology, therefore, requires
a recognition of the vital roles that Christology, pneumatology, and covenant/creation play in its
development.
113
can now see, however, how Barths approach to the issue of human ontology is markedly
different. Although he is well aware of the difficulties associated with human ontology,
he does not begin with an ostensible problem but with a person. Beginning with Jesus, he
argues for a particular way of viewing the human person with which any theoretical
depiction must cohere.
67
Price, thus, correctly argues that Barth does not attempt a
theoretical rejoinder to the mind-body problem (Price 2002:257). Despite making this
observation, however, Price goes on to argue that Barth avoids the mind-body problem
and merely shrouds the answer in the mystery of Gods being (ibid., 257). But that too
misconstrues the nature of Barths task. He is not attempting to avoid the mind-body
problem or locate its insolubility in the divine being; rather, he is trying to locate the
discussion within a theological framework that provides a firm foundation for human
nature. Thus, he does not avoid the problem but actually attempts to clear the way for a
valid, theological consideration of the issues.
68
To understand how Barths
anthropological ontology applies to the mind/body discussion, we will, therefore, have to
lay out more clearly its specific implications.

3.1. The Ontological Criteria of Barths Christological Ontology.
While Barths anthropology may have other implications for understanding the
mind/body relation, it seems clear that the following are the most significant:
(1) Selfhood. Any attempt to understand the ontological implications of Barths
christological anthropology must begin with the fact that it clearly requires a rather
robust sense of human selfhood (Webster 2001c:56). Barths particular view of what it
means to be a human self, though, differs markedly from many contemporary portraits.
According to E. J. Lowe, self can be defined broadly as

a subject of consciousness, a being capable of thought and
experience and able to engage in deliberative action. More crucially, a self

67
In his study of biblical anthropology, Kmmel similarly argues that Jesus developed no one
theory of man, but that a very definite picture of man stood behind His gospel preaching (1963:36).
68
Such theological considerations are often dismissed as a God-of-the-gaps solution to the
mind/brain relationship (e.g., Flanagan 1984:64; Polkinghorne 1994:19). Barth does not posit the
theological grounding of human ontology as an answer to an otherwise insoluble problem but rather as the
presupposition to a proper understanding of human reality.
114
must have a capacity for self-consciousness.a self is a being that is able
to entertain first-person thoughts. (1995:817)

This definition usefully captures the importance of the self as subject that plays
such an important role for Barth (p. 371). Though Barth never clearly defines the term
subject, it involves, at least, acknowledging the human person as an independent
individual who can be identified with certain actions and experiences (esp. pp. 335, 352,
371, 374).
The usefulness of Lowes definition for describing Barths anthropology,
however, is limited for at least three reasons. First, Barth is not interested in
understanding selfhood primarily in terms of capacities. Though we have seen that Barth
is perfectly willing to argue from relationship to capacity (e.g., from the reality of the
covenantal relationship to the capacity for perception and action), he resists the reverse
approach (e.g., from the capacity for thought to selfhood). He thus refuses to speculate
on the possibility that other creatures, with notably differing sets of capacities, might also
experience inner lives as the souls of their bodies (pp. 374-35). Second, although Lowe
mentions deliberative action at the end of his definition, the overt emphasis falls on the
interiority of the human person.
69
While Barths theology of the self certainly affirms the
importance of such interiority, it calls for a much broader perspective.
70
Finally, Lowes
definition places too much emphasis on the individual. Barths approach, on the other

69
Such a focus on interiority has long been a prominent aspect of modern views of the self (cf. C.
Taylor 1989:111 and Grenz 2001:59). Lowes definition, however, does make a useful distinction between
the self and the conscious experiences of which it is the subject (1995:817). Failing to make such a
distinction results in the punctual self of which Charles Taylor has been so criticalthe transient self
constituted only by its ephemeral self-awareness (C. Taylor 1989:49-50; this view is often associated with
Humes criticisms of selfhood [1911:1.238-239]).
70
Barths understanding of human selfhood manifests an awareness of its external as well as its
internal dimensions and, therefore, presents a sharp criticism of the autonomous, rational, self-constituting
self of post-Enlightenment modernism (Fisher 1998:192, Mangina 2001:14, and Kerr 2002:27). This
resistance to any modernistic overemphasis on interiority, despite his occasionally strong language
regarding the priority of the soul, means that Barth resists psychologism in his anthropological ontology as
much as in his soteriology (cf. C. Anderson 2002). Additionally, though Barths approach bears some
resemblance to postmodern de-centered views of the self (cf. Schrag 1997 and Woolhead 1999), Webster
rightly argues that his theological matrix is antipathetic to allowing reflexive subjectivity to function as a
basic anthropological datum (Webster 2001c:56).
115
hand, prioritizes the relational constitution of humanity.
71
Although most of 46 focuses
on the ontological constitution of the human individual, it is clearly grounded in her
determinative relation with God.
72
We must also not lose sight of the important
discussions in the previous paragraphs on the constitutive nature of intra-human
relationships. For Barth, then, a properly formulated concept of selfhood must address
the human person as a subject constituted by particular relationships.
73
As the remaining
elements of Barths ontology are unfolded it will become apparent that these two facets
are not the sum of his notion of selfhood, but they do comprise its primary aspects.
(2) Consciousness. Though closely related to selfhood,
74
we can also affirm that
Barths anthropological ontology requires a real and vital subjective consciousness.
75

Consciousness can be used in a number of different ways,
76
but is used most often with
respect to the phenomenal awareness (i.e., experiences or subjective feels) of a given

71
In addition to the God-human relationship so clearly evidenced throughout this discussion,
Barth also places a priority on human relationships for maintaining a healthy body/soul balance (IV/2, 443-
444).
72
As Freyer points out the kind of subjectivity that Barth has in mind is not the subjectivity
[Subjektivitt] of the human person understood in abstraction from God, but the human person who is a
subject specifically because he has been drawn into covenantal relation through call of God (1991:195).
Since Barth views this determinative relationship as a historical reality (see chapter 2), Barths view of
selfhood may well share some similarities with those who view selfhood as grounded in particular
narratives (e.g., Ricoeur 1992; Dennett 1992; and Hutto 1997).
73
A more complete discussion of human selfhood as it applies to Barths theological
anthropology lies well beyond the scope of this chapter. Adopting an admittedly broad view of the self that
focuses on the relational constitution of the human subject, therefore, should not be interpreted as denying
the many other useful ways of understanding selfhood (some general studies of selfhood include C. Taylor
1989; Carrithers et al. 1985; Marsella et al. 1985; and Grenz 2001, esp. 58-140). Rather, it simply seeks to
affirm two important elements of Barths theological anthropology while, at the same time, drawing on one
prominent strand of contemporary theology (cf. Macmurray 1961; McFadyen 1990:100-101; Zizioulas
1985; Teske 2000; and Grenz 2001).
74
The other aspects of Barths ontological framework laid out below can all be viewed as further
elaborations of Barths broad view of selfhood.
75
Though Barths view of the self cannot be limited to personal consciousness, it nonetheless
remains an important part of his overall ontology.
76
Most agree that consciousness, as commonly used, is a rather ambiguous term with a variety
of distinct uses (e.g., Block 1995a; Rosenthal 1986; van Gulick 2004; Lormand 1998). M. Antony,
however, helpfully points out that these uses can be viewed as different modalities of the more general,
intuitive notion of phenomenal awareness (2001).
116
subject.
77
That conscious experience so understood is a requisite element of Barths
anthropological ontology seems without question.
78
Barth clearly affirms that the human
person must be regarded as a self-conscious entity capable of knowing itself and its
experiences through an inner experience of itself (p. 375). Additionally, these self-
conscious experiences must be understood to have a certain feel for the human
subjecti.e., there must be something that it is like to have undergone that particular
experience.
79
Barths depiction of the vital inner life of Jesus (p. 329) and of humans
in general would be incomprehensible without some notion that there is a distinctive
phenomenal quality to such experiences. The same holds for Barths understanding of
perceptual awareness. Barth argues that the very idea of a covenantal relationship
requires the capacity for a self-conscious experience whereby the human becomes aware
of some other being (pp 399-401). Any attempt to construe that awareness in such a
manner as to eliminate, or even unduly minimize, the qualitative experience of the
encounter would seem antithetical to Barths covenantal ontology (p. 397). Among the
many issues often associated with human consciousness, then, it would seem that Barths
ontology is, at least, committed to the importance of self-consciousness, first-person
perspectives, and phenomenal experiences.
80
(3) Continuous Personal Identity. Given Barths emphasis on the human person
as an individual subject, it is unsurprising that his ontology also addresses the question of
identity in both its synchronic (identity at a given time) and diachronic (identity through

77
From this perspective, consciousness can be understood as the whats-it-likeness (i.e. qualia) of
a phenomenal experience made famous by T. Nagels What Is It Like to Be a Bat? (1974; cf. Crane 2000
and Tye 2003).
78
Barth specifically affirms that the human person as soul and body is conscious (p. 398).
79
Though some contemporary philosophers would disagree with Barth on this point (Shoemaker
1975, Garcia-Carpintero 2003, Dennett 1991), many argue strenuously in favor of such qualia (Searle
1992; Block 1994; Chalmers 1996; and de Leon 2001).
80
This does not mean that Barths ontology that commits him to a strongly realist notion of
consciousnessi.e., that it has an independent existence similar to a magnetic fieldbut only to the notion
that human life is characterized by a certain set of properties that we categorize with the concept of
consciousness (see van Gulick 2004). Whether Barths ontology is similarly committed to other issues
commonly addressed in philosophical studies of consciousness (e.g., the irreducibility of first-person to
third-person perspectives, the ineffability of qualia, and the explanatory gap between neurobiology and
consciousness), will be considered in the next two chapters (for a good summary of these issues see Lycan
2005).
117
time) forms.
81
Although he associates synchronic identity more closely with a persons
conscious life, he maintains that it necessarily involves the body as well; the human
person is an identifiable subject only as an embodied soul (pp. 353, 375, 378). Barth is
also fully aware that the human person is a fully temporal reality; indeed, he considers it
one of the defining aspects of the human person and a constituent element of the soul.
82

Together, though, these issues, identity and temporality, raise the problem of diachronic
identity.
For Barth, however, the continuous identity of the human person is quite clear.
Looking to the person of Christ, he notes that Jesus is the same whole man, soul and
body both before and after his resurrection (p. 327). Continuous identity through death
and resurrection thus applies also to humans in general as they await their promised
resurrection (pp. 353, 360-362, 364, 370-371; III/4, 338; IV/1, 111-113).
83
Continuous
identity would also seem to be required by the self-responsibility and accountability
necessitated by his covenantal framework.
84
Indeed, the very nature of a covenant would
seem to presuppose the relatively stable identities of the individuals involved. Barths
view of the continuity of human identity, then, is more properly grounded on the
covenantal faithfulness of God than speculative arguments regarding her psychological
and/or somatic continuity.
85
(4) Agency. Agency can be loosely defined as the capacity of some particular
being for developing intentions that are causally related to the production of actions

81
On the synchronic/diachronic distinction see Olson 2003b:353.
82
Barth includes movement in time as part of his definition of soul (p. 373) and devotes 46 to
temporality as the third key aspect of human persons.
83
Although Barths language at times would seem to suggest that human existence is limited to
this life alone (e.g., III/4, 588-591), he clearly states that humans enter into the eternal life of God in
fellowship with him (IV/1, 111). Although this is life in God, the creaturliness and identity of man will
certainly not be destroyed (IV/1, 113).
84
Philosophers have long recognized the close relationship between continuous personal identity
and concern for the future (see Kind 2004).
85
Thus Barth argues, even in death God watches over him and remains faithful to the human
person (p. 371; for a similar argument see R. Anderson 1998). Similarly, Barth argues in CD IV.2 that the
continuous personal identity of the human person is maintained only by her covenantal participation in the
eschatological eternality of Jesus (pp. 315-316).
118
(cf. Searle 1983:83-98; Kapitan 1991; Knobe 2004).
86
Understood in this way, Barths
ontology entails human agency. Barths presentation of the atonement as the freely
chosen and intended act of Jesus suggests a necessary and strong view of personal
agency; so too his emphasis on self-responsibility (pp. 396-397) and the human person as
a volitional being (pp. 406-409). Indeed, his entire account of human nature as a
rationally ordered being envisions the soul as the agent that directs the intentional actions
of the person.
87
Thus, for Barth, the very nature of human life involves the agential
capacity for action, self-movement, self-activity, self-determination (p. 374).
(5) Mental Causation. Closely related to agency, Barths ontology seems firmly
committed to the stance that a persons mental life has causal powers and can exercise
causal influence on extra-mental realities. For Barths account of the souls agency to
have any real meaning, this inner reality must have causal powers. Indeed, in language
very similar to that being used in contemporary philosophy, Barth argues for the
downward causal influence of the soul (p. 339) as it controls the body (p. 368). Barth
thus explicitly rejects any epiphenomenal understanding of causation (p. 382).
(6) Freedom. We have already briefly noted the importance of human freedom in
Barths anthropology in general. He continues to develop this notion in his depiction of
human ontology. Related to, though distinct from, his account of mental causation, Barth
continues his emphasis on the divinely constituted freedom of the human person. Barths
view of Jesus as the obedient son and atoning sacrifice in particular mandates a strong
view of human freedom (IV/1, 157-210). And, again, Barths understanding of the
rational order of human as necessary for maintaining covenantal relationality entails that
human persons are determined for freedom by the self-determination of God and not

86
Tim Bayne and Neil Levy suggest a more encompassing view of agency that involves mental
causation, authorship, effort, freedom, and decision-making (2004). While we will see that many of these
are also important aspects of Barths ontology, Philip Clayton rightly warns against the tendency of some
philosophers to bias the ontological discussion from the beginning by presupposing too robust a notion of
personal agency (2005). Consequently, our discussion will proceed with the more limited notion of agency
indicated above.
87
Such an approach would seem to commit Barth to some form of agent causation, although
certainly not one that affirmed the completely indeterminate nature of human action (see chapter 2).
Although agent causation is widely considered to be problematic because of its indeterminacy and
interruption of the causal chain, some philosophers are reviving the argument by associating causation with
agential substances (e.g., Harre 2001 and E. Lowe 2003). Others dismiss the objection as stemming from
an inadequate materialistic framework (see chapter 6).
119
merely by cultural or biological influences.
88
Indeed, for Barth, The soul is itself the
freedom of man (p. 418).
(7) Embodiment. Barths understanding of Christology and the concrete reality
of human existence as well as the embodied nature of human agency and personal
identity, all suggest that any adequate anthropology must include an emphasis on
personal embodiment as part of human existence. Along with Barths emphasis on the
resurrection, these things also suggest that embodiment is an important part of the future
reality of human beings as well. An adequate anthropology must, therefore, include at
least the hope of resurrected embodiment as part of its picture.
89
(8) Contingent Personhood. As we have seen, Barths pneumatological
framework requires that any adequate anthropology will understand humans to be
persons only contingently as they are constituted as soul/body entities through the work
of the Holy Spirit. Barth, therefore, strongly opposes any move to understand some
portion of the human person to be inherently immortal (e.g., pp. 380, 392-393). Human
persons exist only and continuously as they are maintained as such by the Spirit for
Gods glory.
90
From this brief survey we can see that the theological framework of Barths
anthropological ontology commits him to viewing the human person in a way that
requires: (1) a strong concept of selfhood emphasizing humans as subjects constituted by
particular relationships, (2) an inner life comprising self-consciousness experiences, (3)
an understanding of continuous personal identity that involves both the body and the soul
but is ultimately dependent on divine faithfulness, (4) an appreciation of humans as
capable of initiating intentional actions, (5) some view of mentality that allows a causal
relationship with extra-mental realities, (6) an awareness of humanitys determination
and freedom, (7) a strong appreciation for the role of the body in every facet of human
experience, and (8) a recognition that all aspects of human life and nature are contingent
realities.
It is worth noticing at this point that Barth makes very little reference in this
paragraph to the christological criteria that he established in 44. This does not mean,
however, that these criteria are not operative in this discussion. Though he does not

88
See esp. III/4, 565-685; see also Webster 1995 and 1998, Busch 2004:116-121, and Mangina
2004:99, 151-152.
89
See chapter 6.
90
Similarly Pannenberg 1991:2.198.
120
mention them explicitly, it seems clear they continue to play a foundational role in his
argument. Indeed, Barths understanding of subjectivity, selfhood, agency, and freedom
seem to be inherent aspects of criteria 5 and 6 (participation in redemptive history and
obedient service). Similarly, his argument for the contingency of human personhood is
almost a direct continuation of his first three criteria (the primacy of God, the
christological constitution of human persons, and the fact that human persons exist for
the glory of God). The only aspect of Barths ontological framework that does not seem
to be clearly grounded in his early christological criteria is his emphasis on the absolute
inseparability of soul and body and the corresponding rejection of any form of conscious
existence between death and resurrection.

3.2. The Framing of a Theoretical Ontology
The question remains, however, whether these ontological positions commit
Barth to some particular theory of human nature. On the one hand, Barths depiction of
human identity, agency and embodiment would seem to suggest some form of
physicalism. On the other hand his strong emphasis on selfhood, agency, and mental
causation are often associated with various forms of dualism. This tension can be seen in
the fact that Barth rejects certain forms of both physicalism and dualism.
Thus, he critiques monistic materialism (p. 382) for reducing the human person
to mere corporeality and denying the real existence of the inner life of human persons.
Anything that is not corporeal, spatial, physical and material, on this view, must be
rejected as illusory and epiphenomenal (ibid.). The human person is rendered
subjectless (pp. 382-392).
91
Such a reductive account of the human person stands in
stark contrast to the ontological requirements of Barths anthropology. As we will see in
the next chapter, though, while this may have been an accurate description of
physicalistic theories in the middle of the twentieth century,
92
it accounts for only a
small portion of such theories today. The term physicalism now encompasses a broad
range of theories, many of which view the human person as a purely material being (i.e.,

91
Similarly, he rejects monistic spiritualism (p. 390) for the reverse denial of material reality in
favor of the soul that thus renders him objectless (pp. 390-392). Such idealistic accounts of human
nature, though, will not be considered in this project.
92
Whether this is in fact an accurate depiction of the philosophy of mind at that time is lies
beyond the scope of this project.
121
only one substance) but as one with a real and significant mental life.
93
Barths explicit
rejection of monistic materialism, therefore, does not necessarily indicate a stance with
respect to these more recent physicalistic proposals.
But he also denies the validity of any theory that construes the duality of the
human person in terms of two substances (pp. 380-382). According to Barth, dualism
understands the human person as comprising two substances that are self-contained and
qualitatively different in relation to the other (p. 380). These two substances are seen to
be so different that they are only tentatively united, resulting in an ultimate identification
of the human person with the soul alone (pp. 380-381).
94
Even those theories that seek to
mediate the relationship between the two substances (e.g., interactionism and
parallelism), Barth argues, fall far short of the holistic unity of the person required by
Christology and covenantal relationship (pp. 428-436). Based on this definition, dualism
is clearly inconsistent with the framework of Barths ontology. But again, this is a rather
limited view of dualism as espoused by theologians and philosophers today. A number of
proposals are now understood to fall under the broad label dualism, many of which do
not fit the definition offered by Barth and may escape at least some of his objections
(e.g., Taliaferro 1994; Hasker 1999; Moreland and Rae 2000; Goetz 2005).
95
In fact, one
of Barths key concerns about dualism, that it views the soul as inherently immortal and
is, therefore, incompatible with the contingency requirement in Barths ontology (p.
380), is not an element of most contemporary forms of dualism.
96

Neither of these two sets of arguments, however, clarifies the precise nature of
Barths own ontology. While Barth uses them to explain more clearly what a properly
theological view of human ontology is not, they do not establish a precise theory as to
what it is. It may be more helpful then, to view Barths argument in terms of the
relationship between paradigms, models, and theories in theological formulation. From
this perspective we can understand paradigm to denote the grid through which we
perceive some aspect of reality, model as a conceptual construction by which we seek to
understand and apply the paradigmatic framework to a particular aspect of reality, and

93
For nice overviews see Stoljar 2001b and Melnyk 2003.
94
Barth thinks that even though substance dualists often affirm the essential unity of the human
person, their dualistic conception necessarily entails that any ostensible unity be problematic and
ultimately ephemeral (p. 380-381).
95
.
96
See chapter 6.
122
theory as an attempt to explicate more precisely the reality depicted by some particular
model.
97
Using this language, the incarnation clearly functions paradigmatically in
Barths theology as he strives to understand all of reality through its influence. In turn,
Barth posits his unity-duality-order model of the body/soul relation as the most accurate
depiction of the human person in light of this incarnational perspective. As with most
models, though, this ontological model does not seek to address all of the pertinent
theoretical issues so much as to provide a useful way of viewing and speaking about the
phenomenon in question (see Barbour 1974). From this perspective, Barths model of
human ontology can be understood as a way of conceptualizing the human person that
seeks to integrate two important perspectives (inner and outer), and a way of speaking
about human nature with an emphasis on holistic language. Although such an account
does not provide a specific theory of human nature, it can serve to limit the range of
legitimate options for such a theory.
98
Webster makes a similar argument with respect to
the relationship between Barths theology and cosmological theories: it may be that
what Barth provides is the frameworkif not the actual executionof a dogmatic
cosmology (2000a:111, italics added). Barths approach, then, is best understood as
providing the paradigmatic framework within which an anthropological ontology must
function, without providing the actual execution of such an ontology.

4. Conclusion
Barth thus develops an anthropological ontology that can be properly construed
as christological, pneumatological and covenantal. As he argues,

97
This understanding of paradigms as frameworks through which we view reality is widely
accepted (see Kuhn 1970, Barbour 1974, and D. Clark 2003). On the relationship between paradigms,
models, and theories, though not necessarily using this terminology, see Barbour 1974, Dulles 1978,
Godlove 1984, and D. Clark 2003. For a discussion of how this language can be used to understand the
function of theological formulations see Cortez 2005.
98
Barths distinction between doctrine and theory (I/2, 761-762) suggests that he would have
been open to using this kind of language and would have argued that theological formulations should focus
on developing biblically valid paradigms and models. This does not mean, however, that he would have
been opposed to theoretical constructionsindeed he saw such theories as indispensable aspects of any
world view (see his comments on the legitimacy of developing a theoretical philosophy of history; III/3,
21-26).
123
We have not deduced this from an abstract consideration and
assessment of man. We have not given it a basis in scientific or cultural
studies, but in theology. The starting-point was that man stands before
God, who is his Creator. We brought out the presuppositions which result
in respect of his creatureliness. We asked concerning that which is
thereby credited to man and expected from him. We tried to understand
mans special nature in the light of the fact that at all events it had to be so
constituted as to comprise within itself the ability corresponding to his
special relationship with God. (pp. 416-417).

On this ground, Barth presents a holistic model of human nature that offers a
useful way of conceptualizing and speaking about the human person that values both the
objective and subjective dimensions of human life.
In the next two chapters, we will also consider whether, in addition to presenting
a useful language, this ontological model also provides a helpful framework for engaging
the more precise theories of human nature generated in contemporary philosophy of
mind. As we saw in the previous chapter, however, this will involve more than simply
noting whether a particular theory supports the ontological criteria mentioned above.
Barths methodological commitments will require us to consider whether it is both
consistent with Barths incarnational Christology and coherent within its own
framework. Both of these factors must come into play in determining the usefulness of
an ontological theory for adequately explaining the nature of the human person.

124
Chapter 5
Physicalism, But Not Reductionism
Christological Adequacy and Nonreductive forms of Physicalism

1. The Prospect of a Christologically Adequate Physicalist Ontology
Now that we have developed a basic understanding of Barths christological vision
of human ontology, we are well positioned to move into a consideration of specific theories
of the mind/body relationship. Our task in the next two chapters will be to understand the
implications that Barths christocentric orientation of theological anthropology has for
understanding and evaluating contemporary theories of human ontology. Our goal, then, is
not to try and resolve the mind/body debate, or even to conduct a thorough analysis of any
specific proposal, but to view some of the more commonly espoused positions through a
christological lens.
With that in mind, we turn our attention in this chapter to a group of theories that
understands the human person in a decidedly physicalist sense. That is, we will consider
various theories that understand human persons to be completely physical beings (i.e.,
comprising no additional non-physical or spiritual substance) whose inner dimensions
(e.g., beliefs, desires, intentions, feelings, etc.) must be understood in terms of their physical
bases.
In the course of this chapter, we will see that there are a number of different ways to
construe a physicalist ontology. At the far end of the physicalist spectrum eliminative
materialism views human persons as strictly physical beings; language concerning mental
realities
1
results from erroneous ways of thinking about the human person (i.e., the so-called
folk psychology) and should simply be eliminated (e.g., Paul Churchland 1981).
Somewhat less radical, reductive or conservative physicalism argues that mental properties
are identical with physical properties but that they, and the corresponding folk
psychology, should not simply be eliminated. This position thus espouses the reducibility

1
In this chapter, we will use a variety of terms to refer to mental realities (e.g., entities, events,
properties, etc.), without making any concerted effort to distinguish sharply between them. When a particular
discussion requires a more particular use of one of these terms, that will be made clear.
125
of mental properties to physical properties (e.g., Kim 1993c), but in such a way that our
language and concepts concerning the mental are retained.
For a variety of reasons that should become clear through the course of the chapter, it
seems highly unlikely that either eliminative or reductive physicalism could be developed in
a way that would prove adequate to a christological anthropology.
2
Our focus, then, will be
on a third group of theories that we will refer to broadly as nonreductive physicalism
(NRP).
3
NRP seeks to find a means of articulating a commitment to the physicalist
paradigm, thus rejecting dualism, while eschewing the eliminative and reductive
implications of the other physicalist approaches. Having become the most influential
mind/body theory in the last part of the twentieth century, various forms of NRP continue to
dominate among philosophers of mind despite a recent rise in more reductive approaches
(c.f., Kim 1998b).
This chapter will thus seek to analyze the prospects of developing a nonreductive
physicalist mind/body theory within the ontological framework established by a
christological anthropology. To do this, we will first need to define the basic tenets of NRP
and examine its key philosophical commitments. Having done this, we will see that the
christological adequacy of NRP can be challenged in three areas: mental causation,
phenomenal consciousness, and the continuity of personal identity. The second half of the
chapter, then, will survey each of these areas to determine the nature of the problem and the
various solutions nonreductive physicalists have proposed. The extent to which NRP is
successful in meeting these three challenges will largely determine the extent to which it can
be considered a viable option for a christologically adequate anthropological ontology.

2. What Is Nonreductive Physicalism?
Depending on how one defines NRP, it can encompass a rather broad range of
theories and ideas. In this study, we will use the term to denote any mind/body theory that
affirms: (1) epistemological nonreduction, (2) materialist monism, (3) the causal efficacy of

2
Barth made his own opinion of the christological inadequacy of such theories quite clear (pp. 382-
394).
3
As will become clear later in the chapter, we will be using nonreductive physicalism in a broad
sense to describe any theory affirming the basic tenets of NRP.
126
mental properties, and (4) the asymmetric dependence of mental properties on physical
properties.
Before addressing these in detail, though, it will be important to understand a key
concept used in most NRP ontologies. According to many philosophers, the various entities
in the universe and the sciences that study them are best understood hierarchically (c.f.,
Campbell 1974; Wimsatt 1976, 1994). According to Kim,

The Cartesian model of a bifurcated world has been replaced by that
of a layered world, a hierarchically stratified structure of 'levels' or 'orders' of
entities and their characteristic properties. It is generally thought that there is
a bottom level, one consisting of whatever micro-physics is going to tell us
are the most basic physical particles out of which all matter is composed
(electrons, neutrons, quarks, or whatever). And these objects, whatever they
are, are characterized by certain fundamental physical properties and
relations (mass, spin, charm, or whatever). As we ascend to higher levels, we
find structures that are made up of entities belonging to the lower levels, and,
moreover, the entities at any given level are thought to be characterized by a
set of properties distinctive of that level. (1993b:190)
4

The picture thus presented is of a world stratified into levels, from lower to higher,
from the basic to the constructed and evolved, from the simple to the more complex (Kim
1999:19).
5
This hierarchy factors into the mind-body discussion precisely at the point where we
try to determine the relationships that obtain among the various levels. Unlike eliminative
materialism, which denies the reality of higher-level processes and properties, both reductive

4
Stoeger explains this by reference to constitutive relationships (2002). That is, the higher levels
are constituted by both the lower-level particulars and the relationships that obtain among them.
5
Despite the widespread use of this hierarchical model, Kim points out a number of important
questions that do not seem to be adequately addressed by those adopting this approache.g., the difficulty of
individuating the levels, defending the use of one simple hierarchy to encompass all reality, and the
oversimplification involved in such a linear framework (1990:20; cf. Murphy 1996; Sharpe and Walgate 2003).
127
and nonreductive thinkers affirm their reality, but disagree on the best way to explain them.
Reductive thinkers view the hierarchy as the stepwise explanation of the phenomena of the
one level in terms of those of the next lower level, until finally the bottom rung of the ladder
is reached, that is, the level of fundamental physics, where only a few basic laws of nature
are needed (Schouten 2001:680). According to the reductive approach, then, A property or
event is explained when we can show how suitable arrangements or sequences of lower-
level properties or events (which do not themselves involve or presuppose the target
phenomena) would constitute just such a property or event (Carruthers 2001a:65). The
nonreductive approach, on the other hand, insists that even though higher-level properties
are dependent on lower-level properties, each level complements the others such that none
can be reductively explained in terms of the others (e.g., Murphy 1996).
6
These higher-level
properties and processes are dependent upon but always distinct in some way from their
lower-level constituents.
7
This disagreement on the relationship of higher- and lower-level
properties pervades the entire physicalist mind/body discussion.

6
The near-simultaneous rejection of several reductive theories in the early part of the twentieth
century (e.g., logical positivism, behaviorism, type-physicalism) led to a growing dissatisfaction with reduction
in general (Kim 1998a; Budenholzer 2003).
7
Indeed, much of the discussion surrounding NRP can be construed as an attempt to understand and
evaluate the coherence of maintaining the distinctiveness of higher-level properties within a properly
physicalist ontology.
128
2.1. The First Principle of Nonreductive Physicalism: Epistemological Nonreduction
Although epistemological reduction can be explained in a number of different ways,
8

the underlying premise is that higher-level features can be exhaustively explained using the
terms and theories proper to lower-level disciplines (c.f., Kim 1993c; 1998b; Melnyk 1995;
Crick 1994).
9
As examples of successful reductions of higher-level phenomena,
philosophers commonly point to the reduction of chemistry to physics and heat to motion
(Melnyk 1995; Kim 1998a);
10
often holding out the hope of the eventual reduction of
biological, psychological, and sociological phenomena to the fundamental sciences as well
(e.g., Paul Churchland 1981).
It is important to realize two things about this form of epistemological reduction.
First, even a successful intertheoretic reduction does not entail the elimination of the
reduced theory (Smart 1959; D. Lewis 1966). It may still prove heuristically and
conceptually useful to continue using the higher-level theory because of its greater clarity

8
Understanding the nature of reduction and the antireductionist response, however, is complicated by
the fact that, as Meyering rightly notes, the notion of reduction itself is hardly a unitary concept any longer
(2001:761). The term is thus used with reference to several different kinds of reduction (ontological,
epistemological, logical, semantic, methodological, causal, etc.; cf. Peacocke 1986; Murphy 1998b; Bielfeldt
2000) and without any clear agreement about the methodology for performing a proper reduction (cf. Peacocke
1976; Brooks 1994; Block and Stalnaker 1999; Chalmers and Jackson 2001; Budenholzer 2003; Jones 2003).
Additionally, we must note the differences between classical reductionism, which affirmed the direct
correlation of higher-level theories and concepts with those of lower levels, and new wave reductionism,
which allows for a much fuzzier correlation while still maintaining their ultimate reducibility (cf. McCauley
and Bechtel 2001).
9
The form of epistemological reduction cited most commonly is the model of intertheoretic reduction
developed by Ernst Nagel (1961; though cf. Kim 1993c; Melnyk 1995). According to this approach, the
intertheoretic reduction of one theory, T
1
, to another, T
2
, is possible just in case all the laws of T
1
can be fully
deduced from the laws of T
2
. This is accomplished by virtue of biconditional bridge laws or principles which
connect the laws and terms of T
1
with the laws and terms of T
2
. Once this bridge has been formed, it should
be a relatively simple matter to express the truths and laws of T
1
in the language of T
2
(cf. Heil 2004b; Kim
1993c). This approach to reduction, however, is commonly criticized for setting impossibly high standards in
that it requires that each mental property be provided with a nomologically coextensive physical property,
across all species and structure types, thus making it easy prey for the kinds of critical arguments we will be
surveying in this section (Kim 1998b:26). For a more positive evaluation, see Marras 2002.
10
Even these textbook examples of reduction are not without their critics (Wacome 2004).
129
and simplicity (Heil 2004b:362). As Kim comments, impugning the reality of what is being
reduced would make all of our observable world unreal (1993c:102). Thus, unlike
eliminative reductivist views that reject the continued use of such folk theories, a
conservative reductionism maintains their continued validity. Secondly, a reductive
epistemology only requires an ultimate or in principle reduction.
11
As Wacome states,

Reductionisms promises about the reducibility of one science to another are
always related to what is possible in principle; no one seriously maintained
that we might in practice dispense with the concepts, generalizations, and, if
there are any, laws of the higher-level sciences on the grounds of their
reducibility to physics. (2004:328)

Consequently, even eliminative materialists tend to argue only for the eventual
elimination of higher-level concepts when suitable lower-level ones become available.
Despite these two caveats, NRP firmly rejects epistemological reduction. According
to Van Gulick, NRP argues that we must not confuse the plausible claim of ontological
physicalism with the implausible claim that the physical sciences provide us with conceptual
and representational resources adequate for describing and explaining everything within the
physical world (1992:158; cf. also Kirk 1996, 2000). NRP thus holds that at least some
higher-level theories and concepts are incommensurable with those of the lower-levels
(Peacocke 1986; Van Gulick 1992; Murphy 1998b; Meyering 2001; Arbib 2002; Rosenberg
and Kaplan 2005).
12

According to Meyering (2000, 2002), nonreductivists commonly level five primary
arguments against epistemological reduction.
13
First, nonreductivists maintain that higher-
level explanations are often necessary due to a lack of precise knowledge regarding lower-

11
Even if the reduction is only in the mind of God, it still qualifies as an in principle reduction
(Bonevac 1995).
12
Of course, this nonreductive argument does not require the dismissal of all forms of reduction. NRP
proponents are quick to affirm that reduction is necessary at times and that it has usefully served to eliminate
unsuccessful philosophical ideas like phlogiston (Sharpe and Walgate 2003). What they deny is that all higher-
level phenomena are so reducible.
13
Wacome lists a number of less effective but popular antireductionist arguments (2004).
130
level entities.
14
Second, as we will see in the next section, nonreductive thinkers argue that
mental and physical types are not identical to one another and, therefore, there is no way of
mapping precise nomological relationships between them.
15
Third, higher-level theories
often provide an explanatory account of the causally relevant properties of seemingly
unrelated physical events that is unavailable on a physical description alone. Fourth, the
possibility of multiple superveniencei.e., the fact that particular physical properties can
realize multiple higher-level properties depending on the circumstances involvedindicates
that appeal to lower-level explanations alone is inadequate for describing the pertinent
causal factors.
16
Finally, the downward causal influence of higher-level properties, a basic
commitment of NRP and something we will address in more detail later, entails
epistemological nonreduction. Although some of these arguments are weaker than others,
they nonetheless present clearly the NRP case for epistemological nonreduction.

2.2. The Second Principle of Nonreductive Physicalism: Physical Monism
Philosophers commonly describe NRP as being ontologically monistic or
reductionistic (Kim 1993b; Murphy 1998a; W. Brown 2004). From one perspective, this is
certainly true and noncontroversial. A basic tenet of all physicalist ontologies is that
everything is physical. Although this can be understood broadly to preclude the existence
of any non-physical beings, we will understand it more narrowly to refer to the principle that

14
This argument is, of course, inadequate for establishing a robust epistemological nonreduction since
it is consistent with complete reductionism, though it concedes that we do not always have such reductive
theories available to us (Meyering 2000).
15
As we will see in the next section, arguments of this type are also insufficient to ground a fully
nonreductive epistemology since they fail to preclude the possibility of an in principle reduction in a theory
that is able to encompass the entire disjunctive set of physical realizers of a particular mental kind.
16
As an example, Meyering (2001) argues that a given realizer state (e.g., atomic constituents of an
aluminum ladder) have various dispositional properties (e.g., thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity)
that are selectively activated depending on the circumstances (e.g., lightning strike or bright sunny day). A
higher-level explanation thus plays a distinctive role in explaining the cause of a particular event (e.g., being
electrocuted or burned) by taking into account the overall context in a way that cannot be done by a mere
description of the physical realizer.
131
all human are physical beings.
17
That is, NRP is monistic in that it rejects any appeal to non-
physical substances as an explanation of human ontology.
From another perspective, though, that of understanding the precise relationship
between human persons, their mental features, and their physical features, the ontology of
NRP becomes slightly more complicated. We will thus see that nonreductive physicalists
differ with respect to the precise nature of the relationship between physical and mental
items.

2.2.1. Defining Physicalism without Losing the Physical
At this point, however, an important question arises. What exactly is physicalism?
Or, even more basically, what does it mean to be physical? Unfortunately, there does not
seem to be any widely established definition of physical to which we can appeal. As a
result, the term has tended to be used in a rather imprecise manner, leading to significant
confusion as to what constitutes a properly physicalist theory of the mind/body relation (E.
Lowe 1993).
18
Indeed, Horgan argues that defining physicalism is itself an inherently
philosophical question and suggests that theories of the mind-brain relationship can be
understood as ways of explicating particular notions of what it means to be physical
(1993a).
19

17
Vallicella (1998) distinguishes global physicalism, which posits that everything that exists is
essentially physical (e.g., Crane 1994; Post 1995; Melnyk 1997, 2003; Shagrir 1999; Bennett 2004), and local
physicalism, a more limited thesis contending that human persons are essentially physical (G. Strawson 1994;
Murphy 1998b; Van Inwagen 2002; W. Brown 2004). Of course, these two definitions are not exclusive and
many thinkers use both (e.g., Kim 1993b). But, as the former is clearly incompatible with Christian theism and
as the latter is more pertinent to the matter at hand, the term physicalism will be used throughout this chapter
with respect to local physicalism.
18
Fink (2006) points out that similar problems plague attempts to define natural.
19
Montero goes so far as to argue that failure to solve the body problem (i.e., defining the nature of
the body and the physical) is a pervasive problem that has inhibited contemporary philosophys ability to
resolve the mind/body debate (1999; cf. Sussman 1981).
132
General definitions of physicalism tend to fall into two different categories.
20
From
one perspective, physical things are identified based on their conformity to certain
paradigmatic physical characteristics. Usually this comprises an appeal to the spatio-
temporal nature of physical things (Kim 1993b:193; Honderich 2001; cf. also van Inwagen
1990). Montero points out, however, that such a spatio-temporal approach struggles to
provide an adequate account of things like neutrinos and photons that most would consider
to be physical in nature (1999:184). Similarly, McGinn argues that such definitions are
weakened by our limited understanding of the nature of space and time; a limitation that can
easily render such definitions vacuous (2003:155).
Recognizing the difficulties of establishing a satisfying, abstract definition of the
physical, many philosophers opt for a more pragmatic approach. These thinkers follow the
common practice of defining physicalism in terms of those things that are studied by the
physical sciences (cf. Melnyk 1997; Ellis 2000).
21
But this approach likewise runs into
trouble. What do we mean by science? If we mean science as it is currently understood, then
physicalism is almost certainly false, given the historical track-record of scientific theories
(Melnyk 2003). But, if we mean some form of ultimate science, a theory that will eventually
be able to account for everything within some scientific framework (e.g., Kirk 2000), then
physicalism again flirts with vacuousness since there is no reason to think that even such
disparate things as minds, atoms, and fairy godmothers could not be accommodated within
such a grand theory (McGinn 2003).
Based on these difficulties, McGinn argues that we should stop using a vague term
like physicalism (2003).
22
Although there is some validity in such a proposal, it may
prove more useful to continue using it while recognizing its inherent limitations. In this
study, then, we will adopt a rather general definition of physical as that which refers to

20
Stoljar labels these two approaches the object-based and theory-based conceptions of the
physical (2001c).
21
Thus, Melnyk proffers a definition consisting of the following two assertions: (1) There is some
science, S, distinct from the totality of all the sciences, such that every entity (property) is either itself
mentioned as such in the laws and theories of S or is ultimately constituted (realized) by entities (properties)
mentioned as such in the laws and theories of S and (2) S is current physics (1997:633).
22
Radder goes even further, arguing that these difficulties indicate fundamental problems with
physical monism as a tenable metaphysic (2001).
133
those entities and processes that are studied by the physical sciences, either as those sciences
are currently understood, or in some future form that will not be radically different from
their present state.
Having explored the difficulties of defining physical things, we must consider two
further issues. First, any definition of physicalism must make room for physical properties
as well. Thus, Van Inwagen proposes that we define physicalism in terms of an individual
thing made entirely of those things whose nature physics investigates and a physical
property to be a property that can be possessed by a physical thing and only by a physical
thing (2002:167; cf. Melnyk 2003). Although determining precisely which properties thus
qualify as physical properties can be as difficult as defining physicalism itself (Burge 1993),
such a distinction will be necessary for understanding the relevant discussions. Second,
physicalism must also account for physical processes. Thus, physicalism seems necessarily
committed to the premise that all causal processes are in some sense fundamentally
dependent on the causal processes studied by the physical sciences. Indeed, many
philosophers contend that the causal completeness of the physical universe (i.e., the
principle that all physical events have sufficient physical causes) is a defining factor of any
true physicalism (Horgan 1993b; Kim 1993c).
23
And indeed, nonreductive physicalists agree
(e.g., McLaughlin 1989; Bontly 2001; Murphy 2002a; Meyering 2002).
With these principles in mind, physicalism will be used in this chapter to identify the
theory that (a) human persons are either themselves physical entities or are exhaustively
composed of physical entities; (b) that all the properties of human persons are either
themselves physical properties or are properly related (whatever that proper relation turns
out to be) to physical properties; and (c) that all causal processes are either physical
processes or are causally dependent on physical processes (cf. Melnyk 1997).
24

23
The causal completeness principle is sometimes referred to as causal closure, though some
prefer to reserve the latter term for a stronger thesis that combines causal completion with the denial of
overdetermination (cf. E. Lowe 2000; Robb and Heil 2005).
24
Thus, although dualists are often criticized for their inability to provide a clear definition of the
soul, we can see that similar problems arise for the physicalists ability to define the nature of the physical; both
are inherently difficult tasks that rely heavily on philosophical analysis and we should, therefore, be careful
about asserting a de facto scientific superiority for physicalistic approaches over dualistic ones (see E. Lowe
1993).
134

2.2.2. What Does It Mean to Say that the Mental is Physical?
Although all physicalist theories are thus committed to the general form of
physicalism outlined above, they differ substantially when it comes to understanding the
relationship between physical properties and processes and other things like mental
properties and human persons. Given the commitment to physical monism, we might expect
that physicalists would simply identify things like mental properties and human persons with
physical things. Indeed, early physicalists like U. T. Place, Herbert Feigel, and J. J. C. Smart
understood the premise that everything is physical to mean that mental features are type-
identical with physical features (Place 1956; Feigel 1958; Smart 1959).
25
On this view, a
mental type (e.g., pain) simply is a physical type (e.g., a particular neural state).
26
Thus,
affirming a very clear relationship between the physical and the apparently non-physical, the
type-identity theory became the orthodox view in philosophy of mind (Kim 1999).
Such an ontologically reductionistic view of higher-level realities, though, did not
remain unchallenged for long, and by the late sixties and early seventies the type-identity
theory had been abandoned by most philosophers. The reason for this rejection was the
growing conviction that the kind of identity relationship required by type-identity was too
strong. In a series of essays, Hilary Putnam convincingly argued that it was quite
conceivable that mental properties could be realized in a variety of different ways.
27
In other
words, a mental state like pain could be realized in a human by a C-fibre firing,
28
in a

25
For more on the nature of the distinction between type- and token-identity see Horgan 1981; Foster
1994; Latham 2003; Wetzel 2005.
26
Most of these early identity theorists argued that they were positing an identity relationship that was
both strict, i.e., an identity relationship that an object has only with itself, (Place 1956; Smart 1959), and
contingent, i.e., the mental kinds associated with physical kinds could have been entirely different in some
nomologically different possible world, (Smart 1959; D. Lewis 1966). Kripke, however, famously responded
by arguing that strict identity relationships are necessary and non-contingent (1971). Although his arguments
have not convinced everyone, most philosophers have followed Kripke on this point.
27
See Putnam 1975 for a collection of his papers published during this time. For an overview of
arguments related to multiple realizability see Bickle 2002.
28
C-fibre should be understood to refer to whatever complex physical state is involved in realizing
the relevant pain state.
135
mollusk by a D-fibre firing, or in a Martian by some other mechanism entirely. Pain could
then be seen to be multiply realizable. But, if mental states can be realized by multiple
physical states, it would appear that there can be no strict identity relationship between
them.
29
The multiple realization argument, as this argument has come to be known, seemed
to establish clearly the impossibility of type-identifying mental properties with physical
properties.
30

29
Gene Witmer summarizes the multiple realizability argument against identity as follows (2004):
1. There exists at least one mental property M such that there is a set of distinct physical
properties {P
1
v P
2
v ... P
n
}, no one of which realizes M on every occasion, while each
realizes it on some occasion.
2. If M is identical with any physical property, it is identical with one of {P
1
v P
2
v ... P
n
}.
3. M can't be identical with any of {P
1
v P
2
v ... P
n
} because there is no member of it with
which it is coextensive.
4. There is no physical property with which M is coextensive, and hence none with which it
is identical.
30
As Block points out, multiple realizability has not been without its critics (1978). According to Kim
multiple realizability defeats global type-reduction but has nothing to say about local type-reduction
(1993c:180-181; 273-275). In other words, there is nothing in multiple realizability that precludes one from
arguing that even though pain could be multiply realized across species, pain could be singly realized within a
given species (assuming that we allow for the inevitable variations among particular members of that species).
But, Kim argues, species-specific or local reduction of this kind is all that we need to establish reductionism.
Horgan agrees and contends that local reduction of this kind is incompatible with NRP (1993b).
Even more significantly, Kim argues, against Fodor (1974) and Putnam (1975), that disjunctive
physical types can be type-identified with mental types and that denying this possibility calls into question the
nomological consistency of mental kinds (cf. Van Inwagen 2002; Block 2002; Sawyer 2003). Putnam and
Fodor both argued that multiple realizability could not be defeated by positing a disjunctive physical type that
would include all the possible realizers of a given mental type. Such wildly disjunctive physical types are not
nomologically related to one another and thus not proper members of a set. In response, Kim has argued that if
this is true and if mental tokens stand in nomologically consistent causal relationship with their physical
tokens, then mental kinds likewise are wildly disjunctive and nonnomic (1993c:316-325).
Kims arguments have not been universally accepted (see Melnyk 2003; Horgan 1993a). L. Antony
(2003) helpfully points out, however, that much of this is extraneous to the question of nonreduction. As we
will discuss a little later, both token and type identity run into problems with respect to causal reduction. The
main issue for nonreductivists, then, is not whether mental kinds can be identified with physical kinds, but
136
In place of type-identity, many philosophers have argued for a weaker identity theory
known as token-identity. Rather than establishing an identity relationship between mental
and physical kinds, token-identity merely posits the identity of mental and physical
particulars. In other words, according to token-physicalism, a particular mental event or
token (e.g., the pain experienced on some occasion by a particular individual) is identical
with a particular physical event or token (e.g., a C-fibre firing on some occasion in a
particular individual), but that there is no identity relationship between these two kinds of
events (i.e., a C-fibre firing is not required for the instantiation of pain states in general).
This approach became quite popular with philosophers looking for a way to maintain their
physicalist commitments without the perceived drawbacks of the type-identity theory.
There is a third option, however. Some physicalists reject both type- and token-
physicalism by asserting that higher-level entities and properties are constituted by but not
identical to the lower-level entities and properties that constitute them (cf. Pereboom and
Kornblith 1991; Cocoran 1998; 2001b; 2005; L. Baker 1997; 2001).
31
For example, macro-
entities like statues, dollar bills, and persons are constituted by but distinct from their
copper, paper, and biological constituents. That this should not be understood as an identity
relationship, according to constitution theorists, is established by the fact such macro-entities
have different properties than their constituent elements (L. Baker 1997). According to one
famous example, then, a statue and the bronze that constitutes it can be distinguished by the
fact that the lump of bronze possesses properties (e.g., malleability) not possessed by the
statue (i.e., if the bronze were melted down, the statue would cease to exist but the bronze
would not). Given the property of the indiscernibility of identicals, constitution theorists
argue, the differences in properties entails the non-identity of the statue and the lump of
bronze constituting it. On this view, then, mental properties should be viewed as constituted
by but not identical to the physical properties that constitute them.

whether mental properties stand over-and-above their physical realizers (whether types or tokens) sufficiently
to facilitate causal nonreduction.
31
Some prefer to restrict nonreductive physicalism to token-identity theories (e.g., Marras 1994).
Since constitution theorists maintain the four basic commitments outlined in this chapter, we will consider
them to be nonreductive physicalists.
137
From the preceding discussions, it seems reasonable to conclude that any physicalist
ontology that seeks to affirm a nonreductive understanding of mental items will be inclined
to reject type-identity in favor of either token-identity or constitution theory. In this study,
then, we will understand the physicalism component of NRP to refer to some form of either
of these two approaches.

2.3. The Third Principle of Nonreductive Physicalism: Causal Efficacy of the Mental
The fourth principle to which NRP is committed is the causal efficacy of the
mental.
32
Since the complex issues surrounding the question of mental causation will be the
focus of the next section, it will only be mentioned briefly here to complete our discussion
of NRPs basic commitments.
When saying that NRP is committed to mental causation, two opposite ideas must be
kept in mind. First, as we have already noted, NRP holds a simultaneous commitment to the
causal completeness of the physical and the existence of mental realities. NPR must,
therefore, reject any theory inconsistent with these two fundamental commitments. And
second, by affirming the causal efficacy of mental properties, NRP rejects any form of
epiphenomenalismi.e., any theory that posits that mental properties are real but causally
irrelevant.
33
As we will see in the next section, NRPs commitment to mental causation within a
physicalist framework committed to the causal completion of the physical universe is highly

32
Except when necessary for addressing particular arguments, we will not concern ourselves with the
question of whether mental causation is best understood in terms of mental states, properties, or events. This
chapter will largely focus on mental causation in terms of the causal efficacy of mental properties but it seems
unlikely that any of the arguments would be significantly affected if mental states or events were in view.
33
Many have pointed out that epiphenomenalism, understood as affirming real but causally irrelevant
mental properties, is incoherent in that there seems to be no reason to affirm the existence of causally impotent
properties (cf. Kim 1993b; McLaughlin 1993). A less effective argument used by some is to contend that
epiphenomenal properties make no sense in an evolutionary scheme because there is no way to explain why
such empty properties would have been selected (e.g, Midgley 2000; Elder 2001). It would seem entirely
possible, though, to view such epiphenomenal properties as merely resultant aspects of biological selection
rather than as specifically selected themselves.
138
contentious and marks one of the most significant objections to NRP as a coherent
mind/body theory.

2.4. The Fourth Principle of Nonreductive Physicalism: Asymmetric Psychophysical
Dependence
The epistemological and ontological irreducibility of mental features to physical
features, however, is an inadequate basis upon which to develop a mind/body theory. As
Kim points out, NRP needs to complement this negative thesis with a positive account of a
nonreductive understanding the mind/body relationship (1993b:194). Nonreductivists often
seek to do this utilizing some set of terms that indicates an irreducible asymmetric
dependence of the mental on the physical.
34
In this way the physical is accorded
epistemological and ontological primacy, but not ultimacy.

2.4.1. The Realization Relationship
The first of these terms, realization, was originally introduced by functionalist
thinkers to refer to the physical realization of functional states (cf. Kim 1998a).
35
Kim
defines realization as:

When P is said to realize M in system s, P must specify a micro-
structural property of s that provides a causal mechanism for the
implementation of M in s. (Kim 1993b:197)

34
Kim suggests that dependence and determination are the two key ideas of the nonreductive theory
(1993b:194). For now we will not address whether asymmetrical psychophysical dependence entails some
form of psychophysical determination, leaving that question for our later discussion of mental causation.
35
Functionalism, often referred to as the reigning presumption (Dennett 2001) in contemporary
philosophy of mind (c.f., Kim 1998a; Honderich 2001), is the view that mental states are functional states
which should be defined in terms of their causal inputs, outputs, and relations to other functional states (see D.
Lewis 1966; Armstrong 1968; Putnam 1967; Fodor 1981, 1983; Shoemaker 1975, 1981).
139
On this definition we can see that the realization thesis is intended to affirm the
asymmetrical dependency of M on P in s.
36
The usefulness of realization-language for nonreductive thinkers, though, is limited
for three reasons. First, realization-language has come to be associated primarily with
functionalism (Kim 1993c, 1998a). Though many nonreductive physicalists use functionalist
ideas in developing their theories (e.g., Van Gulick 1992; Meyering 2002), NRP is not
committed to functionalism, nor is functionalism necessarily consistent with NRP as we
have defined it here (see Pereboom 2002; Block 2004).
37
Second, many have argued that
realization-language actually generates such a strong psychophysical dependency relation
that it may actually be incompatible NRPs basic commitments, especially its commitment
to mental causation (cf. Kim 1993b, 1993c:363-367; Melnyk 1995; Bielfeldt 2001; Bontly
2001). And third, as Kim suggests, the concept of realization has been used in ways that are
neither uniform nor clear, thus reducing its usefulness (1998a:72; cf. Kim 2003:166).
Possibly for reasons like these, realization-language, though used by nonreductive
physicalists, tends not to be the primary way in which they express themselves.

36
For a broader analysis of realization and its role in mind-body theories, see Shoemaker 2003.
37
Functionalism is often developed as a nonreductive mind/body theory itself. We will not be
addressing it in this chapter, however, because it does not seem to be clearly committed to physical monism or
the causal efficacy of mental properties. Although it is usually formulated in ways that indicate a commitment
to both principles, many have pointed out that functionalism is at least theoretically compatible with dualistic
ontologies (e.g., Putnam 1967), while others have argued that it is best construed as a fully reductive theory
(e.g., Honderich 1994; Kim 1993c), with the possible implication that mental properties are causally
inefficacious (Block 1990). Additionally, Block points out that functionalism can be used in support of or
against the phenomenological realism that we will see is a necessary part of the nonreductive program (2002;
cf. Block 1978 for more general arguments against functionalism). Thus, although nonreductive physicalists
often use functionalistic ideas in developing their systems, we will consider them distinct approaches and not
deal with functionalism as a form of NRP.
140
2.4.2. The Supervenience Relationship
The term supervenience rose to popularity in the 1980s as a result of its perceived
ability to affirm three important tenets of NRP:
38
(a) the covariance of mental and physical
properties; (b) the dependence of mental properties on physical properties; and (c) the
nonreducibility of mental properties to physical properties (Savellos and Yalcin 1995; Kim
1993c). It was thus thought by many that supervenience was the ideal term for espousing
NRP. It came under heavy criticism, however, and, though still used extensively by
nonreductive physicalists, no longer bears the explanatory weight that it once did.
The core idea of supervenience, according to Kim is that mental properties or states
of something are dependent on its physical, or bodily, properties, in the sense that once its
physical properties are fixed, its mental properties are thereby fixed (1998a:7). More
explicitly, we can say that supervenience entails that higher-level properties or states (A
facts) supervene on lower-level properties or states (B facts) if and only if (1) A facts are real
(i.e., they are not merely conceptual); (2) A and B facts are distinct (i.e., they are not simply
different ways of referring to the same properties or states); and (3) there is some objective
dependency relationship between A and B facts such that A facts cannot change without a
corresponding change with respect to B facts (cf. Horgan 1993a; Lynch and Glasgow 2003;
Wilson 1999).
39

For two reasons, though, supervenience-language is now widely regarded as being
inadequate by itself to articulate a nonreductive position. First, attempts to clarify the
supervenience relationship beyond the general definition offered above have produced such
a wealth of different definitions as to limit its practical usefulness.
40
Second, despite the fact

38
The term rose to prominence in philosophy through its use by the British emergentists and moral
philosophers like R. M. Hare in the first part of the twentieth century (Kim 1993c; Horgan 1993a), but did not
become significant in philosophy of mind until the 1980s when it was introduced by Donald Davidson
(1980:214).
39
Although supervenience can be understood as dealing exclusively with facts intrinsic to the
subvenient bases, several thinkers have argued convincingly that supervenient properties require a broader base
that includes extrinsic factors like relations and relational properties (L. Baker 1993; Horgan 1993a).
40
Philosophers commonly distinguish different supervenience concepts based on their scope and
strength (Lynch and Glasgow 2003). As to scope, we can distinguish between global, local, and regional
supervenience depending on whether the supervenience relationship in view is directed at entire worlds,
141
that supervenience-language was originally introduced as a way of affirming the
asymmetrical dependency of the psychophysical relationship, it is now widely accepted that
it fails to do so (Horgan 1993a; Kim 1993c; Goetz 1994; Wilson 1999; Schouten 2001;
Melnyk 2003). The concern is that supervenience merely establishes the necessary
covariation of A and B facts without establishing either how or why this covariation takes
place.
41
But covariation by itself is insufficient to ground a properly physical mind-body
theory. Kim rightly argues that mind-body covariation is a theory that could be supported by
reductive physicalists, nonreductive physicalists, epiphenomenalists, and even some dualists
(1998b:12).

specific regions, or particular individuals. Some thinkers have argued for an additional distinction between
strong and weak forms of global supervenience (e.g., McLaughlin 1995 and Stalnaker 1996), but Bennett
convincingly demonstrates that the strong form is not interestingly different from strong supervenience and
that weaker forms are insufficient to establish a significant dependency relationship (2004). These distinctions
will, therefore, not come into our discussion.
With respect to strength, supervenience is commonly divided into strong and weak forms (Haugeland
1982; Kim 1993c, 1994; Horgan 1982, 1993a, 1995; McLaughlin 1995; Savellos and Yalcin 1995; Stalnaker
1996; Bielfeldt 2000). Surveying the extensive literature on this distinction would take us too far afield. The
basic distinction between them is that weak supervenience holds that A-facts only supervene on B-facts with
nomological necessity whereas strong supervenience maintains that the relationship holds with metaphysical
necessity. They thus differ with respect to whether or not the relationship holds in nomologically different
worlds (on these modal issues see Chalmers 1996; Schouten 2001, Lynch and Glasgow 2003).
Noting the tremendous number of different theories of supervenience and their correspondingly
diverse applications, Kim nonetheless argues that the term still usefully expresses its core idea, i.e., No
difference of one kind without a difference of another kind, even though we must now recognize the many
different ways in which this core idea can be expressed (1993c:155).
41
Thus, Kim correctly argues that even strong supervenience does not entail asymmetrical dependence
(1993c:67). The failure of supervenience to ground dependence can be clearly seen in the general definitions of
supervenience that have been offered. For example Davidson describes his position on supervenience as: a
predicate p is supervenient on a set of predicates S if and only if p does not distinguish any entities that cannot
be distinguished by S (1993:4). Similarly, Lynch and Glasgow define supervenience as entailing that the B-
facts supervene on the A-facts if and only if there are not two possible situations that are identical in A-facts,
but different in B-facts (2003). Despite the fact that supervenience is often taken as almost synonymous with
the dependence of A-facts on B-facts, neither of these definitions even suggests such a dependence relation.
142
Kim is probably correct to view supervenience not as a metaphysically deep,
explanatory relation, but as a phenomenological relation about patterns of property
covariation (Kim 1998a:10).
42
Thus, supervenience can play a useful role in articulating an
important NRP commitment, the asymmetrical dependency relationship between mental and
physical properties, but is not by itself a sufficient principle of a physicalist ontology
(Horgan 1993a; Kim 1998b; Hansen 2000; Melnyk 2003).

2.4.3. The Emergence Relationship
A third term often used in NRP, emergence, needs to be carefully distinguished from
its use in other contexts.
43
As we will see in the next chapter, emergent dualism uses
emergence-language to affirm the emergence of non-physical substances. This, however, is
clearly inconsistent with NRPs commitment to physical monism. But NRP must also be
distinguished from a form of emergent monism that espouses emergent causal powers in a
manner that is inconsistent with NRPs commitment to the causal completeness of the
physical universe (e.g., Crane 1995, 2001; Clayton 2000, 2004, 2005; OConner 2001,
2003).
44
Searle (1992) suggests that we should distinguish between emergent theories that
espouse autonomous emergent causal powers that violate the causal completeness principle
(emergent
2
) and those that do not (emergent
1
).
45
As we will see later in the chapter, NRP is

42
Kim thus argues that much of the literature on supervenience is misdirected since it focuses
primarily on the question of reduction when the real issue is whether or not supervenience can serve as a mind-
body theory at all (1998a).
43
For good studies of the concept of emergence and its historical development see van Cleve 1990,
Stephan 1992, McLaughlin 1992, and Clayton 2005).
44
Brntrup argues that emergent monism can be understood as consistent with the causal closure
principle if it is understood as a form of dual-aspect theory (1998). While this may be true, it seems clear that
at least some (if not most) forms of emergent monism operate largely outside the framework established by
causal completeness .
45
McGinn draws a similar distinction between properties that are conservatively emergent and
those that are radical or brute (2003:154).
143
strongly committed to the causal efficacy of mental properties, but it seeks to explicate this
causal efficacy within the framework of physical causal completeness.
46

With these two distinctions in mind, emergent-language still has a role to play in
articulating NRP.
47
Specifically, since emergence-language is widely viewed as the opposite
of reduction-language, nonreductive physicalists have found emergence to be a useful
concept for articulating its commitment to epistemological and causal nonreduction (e.g.,
Peacock 1986, 1990; Searle 1992; Polkinghorne 1994; Murphy 1998c, 2005;W. Brown
2004; cf. D. Newman 2001). Emergence is thus used to express the conviction that higher-
level realities come to exhibit novel properties that in some sense transcend the properties
of their constituent parts, and behave in ways that cannot be predicted on the basis of the
laws governing simpler systems (Kim 199:3).
Thus, emergence-language can serve a useful role in developing NRP so long as it is
kept distinct from other proposals that use such language in ways that would undermine
NRPs commitment to the asymmetrical dependence of the mental on the physical.

2.4.4. The Constitution Relationship
We have already discussed briefly the fourth term that is often used to articulate a
nonreductive understanding of the psychophysical relationship. According to the
constitution theory, higher-level features are asymmetrically dependent on lower-level
features in that they are constituted by them. Using the example of the statue again,
constitution theory holds that the statue is distinct from the bronze that constitutes it but that
the statue depends on the bronze, which thus has a certain ontological primacy.

NRP has thus tended to rely on four different terms in an effort to express its
commitment to the primacy of the physical and the asymmetrical dependency of the mental
on the physical, while still maintaining that the mental is not in any way reducible to the

46
Kim has argued that nonreductive materialism is merely a contemporary version of emergent-theory
and that the two are roughly synonymous (1999). Differences between them regarding the nature and status of
mental causal powers, though, would seem to be sufficient to establish that they are distinct theories (cf.
Pereboom 2002).
47
See especially the useful set of essays in Beckermann, Flohr, and Kim 1992.
144
physical. We have seen that the four terms express various aspects of the basic commitments
held by nonreductive physicalists, but that each has significant limitations. As Kim notes,

We have learned from work on causation and causal modal logic the
hard lesson that the idea of causal dependence or determination is not so
easily or directly obtained from straightforward modal notions alone....Ideas
of dependence and determination, whether causal, supervenient, or of other
sorts, stubbornly resist capture in simpler and more transparent terms. (Kim
1993c:67)

These four terms, then, should be viewed as helpful but limited attempts to express
basic commitments held by any NRP theory.

3. Christology and Coherence: The Viability of Nonreductive forms of Physicalism
As we saw in the previous chapter, viewing the human person from the vantage point
provided by the person and work of Jesus Christ has important implications for
understanding human ontology. Specifically, we saw how Barths christological ontology
can be understood as providing an ontological framework within which any christologically
adequate anthropological theory must operate. At first glance, NRP appears to fare rather
well with respect to this framework. Its physicalist approach allows NRP to affirm the
importance of embodiment, while its nonreductive stance accords well with the commitment
to the subjective and mental aspects of human life. NRP seems well positioned, then, to
provide an account of human ontology that addresses the full range of concerns posited by
Barths christological framework.
The evaluative task is not so easy, however, when we look a little more closely and
consider some of the many criticisms that have been raised regarding the nonreductive
position. Specifically, many feel that the attempt to mediate between irreducible mental
properties and fundamentally physical realities results in some level of incoherence. Tim
Crane speaks for many when he asks, If the mind is not physical, then how can it have
effects in the physical world; but if it is physical, how can we explain consciousness (Crane
2003:234)? In this section, then, we will evaluate NRP more closely on three specific issues,
145
regarding which it has been subject to some criticism: (1) mental causation, (2)
consciousness, and (3) the continuity of personal identity through death and resurrection. As
we have seen, all three are required for a christologically valid ontology. Each is its own
field of study with an impressively large body of literature. We will, therefore, not attempt
to do more than simply survey some of the key arguments as we seek to establish whether or
not NRP has coherent and christologically adequate responses to these concerns.
48

3.1. Descartes Revenge: The Problem of Mental Causation
As we will see in the next chapter, the problem of mental causation constitutes one
of the primary objections to dualist ontologies. It might seem somewhat surprising, then, to
discover that it is no less problematic for physicalists.
49
Unlike the dualist problem of
accounting for the causal interaction of two disparate substances, NRP bears the burden of
establishing the causal relevance of mental properties in a physical universe (Kim 1998b;
Robb and Heil 2005). This becomes critical when we realize that some account of such
causal relevance seems necessary for grounding personal agency, moral responsibility, and
rational mental processes (Hornsby 1993; Kim 1998b; Midgley 2000; Harre 2001; A.
Torrance 2003; E. Lowe 2003).
Most thinkers recognize that there are actually several problems for a physicalist
account of mental causation.
50
They can be divided broadly into two categories. In the first
fall those arguments that question whether the nature of mental properties themselves rules
out their causally efficacy (the suitability argument). In the second we can place those
arguments to the effect that even if mental properties are suited as causes, there is no room

48
Consequently, none of the following sections will attempt to engage all of the arguments and
responses that have been offered. Rather, each section will selectively adopt several important arguments and
note the ways in which NRP proponents have responded as a way of testing its coherence and adequacy.
49
Kim refers to this intriguing situation as Descartess Revenge (1998d:38). For a good survey of
different ways of understanding causation see Tooley 2003.
50
Robb and Heil note that the physicalist problem of mental causation can actually be divided into
four separate issues: property dualism, anomalous monism, exclusion, and externalism (2005). Since all four
arguments are closely related and since the problem of exclusion has received the most attention, we will focus
our discussion on that issue and address the other problems as necessary.
146
for them in the causal structure of the physical universe (the exclusion argument). Although
the causal suitability of mental properties has been called into question by a number of
important arguments,
51
they are highly contentious. Most philosophers thus affirm that there
is no reason to believe mental properties to be intrinsically inadequate as causal properties.
We will, therefore, focus our attention on the second category. Specifically, we will
concentrate on the influential form of the argument developed by Jaegwon Kim (cf. esp.
1993b, 1998b, 2003).

3.1.1. The Exclusion Argument
52

Kim contends that NRP fails to establish a coherent account of mental causation
because it cannot do so without either violating the causal completeness of the physical or
appealing to overdetermination. Since, he argues, neither option is available to the proponent

51
The primary objections to the causal suitability of mental properties have been advanced in two
ways. From one direction, Donald Davidsons anomalous monism theory contended that there are no strict
laws governing the relationship between mental and physical events and, therefore, no strict causal
relationships (1980, 1993). Mental properties are causally relevant in that they are individuating properties of
causally efficacious physical events (1993). Davidsons argument has been widely criticized for providing at
least tacit support for epiphenomenalism (Kim 1993a; McLaughlin 1993; Sosa 1993) and is no longer widely
followed (though cf. LePore and Loewer 1989 ).
A second set of objections stems from the externalist conception of mental states. According to this
theory, most, if not all, mental states have extrinsic (i.e., relational properties) that are essential to them (see
Burge 1979; Putnam 1981; Heil 1987; Curtis Brown 2002; Lau 2004). For example, a belief that Paris is the
capital of France is at least partly determined by extrinsic geo-political criteria. But, the argument goes, if the
extrinsic properties of mental states include such distant and causally irrelevant relations, how can they have
any immediate causal relevance themselves (see Hansen 2000)? The issues involved here are complex and turn
on whether externalism about mental properties is true and, if so, whether extrinsic properties are a problem for
causation (cf. Yablo 2003).
52
Kim prefers to label this the supervenience argument (1998a). But, as Kim himself points out, the
exclusion problem is a problem for any theory that posits mind-body dependence, not just those that espouse
supervenience (2003:155). The prominence of the idea of overdetermination in the following argument has led
some to contend that it is better understood as the overdetermination problem (e.g., Hansen 2000). While
there is some validity to this observation, we will follow the more commonly used label in this section.
147
of NRP, it fails with respect to mental realism. He thus concludes that a reductive account of
mental causation is the only coherent one available for a physicalist.
The first step in Kims argument is to contend that NRP is committed to the principle
of downward causationi.e., that mental events and/or properties are causally efficacious
with respect to physical events and/or properties. Given that NRP proponents have
consistently affirmed their commitment to this position (see below), it would not seem to
require much argument. A brief summary of Kims argument, however, will help clarify the
nature of his overall point.
Kim argues that NRPs commitment to the causal efficacy of the mental requires, at
least, that some mental event (M) can cause some other mental event (M*). And, given the
physical primacy thesis, M* is instantiated in a subvenient physical base (P*). But, if M*
comes about because it is instantiated in P*, what role does M play in bringing it about?
According to Kim, To cause a supervenient property to be instantiated, you must cause its
base property (or one of its base properties) to be instantiated (1998b:42). In other words,
for M to cause M* it must do so in virtue of causing P*. So, Kim concludes, any form of
mental-to-mental causation requires some form of mental-to-physical causation.
The second step in Kims argument, though, is to contend that mental-to-physical
causation is incoherent within a nonreductive framework given the causal completeness of
the physical (CCP): for each and every physical event that has a cause at some time t
necessarily has a physical cause at t (Kim 1993c:280). Or, as Horgan describes it:

Metaphysical naturalism includes the view that physics is causally
and explanatorily complete, within its own domain: i.e., every fact or
phenomenon describable in the language of physics is fully explainable (to
the extent that it is explainable at all) entirely on the basis of facts and laws of
physics itself. There are no causal 'gaps', in the nexus of physically
describable events and processes, that get 'filled in' by causes that are not
themselves physically describable; and there are no explanatory gaps.
(1993b:301)

148
Any physical event must therefore have a physical cause. But this raises the question
of the extent to which M can be seen to cause M* in virtue of its causing P*.
Remember that M is itself instantiated in its own subvenient base P. The question
then becomes, what is the causal relationship of M and P to P*? Whether causal relations are
formulated in terms of nomological sufficiency (e.g., the cause of an effect is that which is
nomologically sufficient for its instantiation) or counterfactuals (e.g., the cause of an effect
is that without which the effect would not, or might not, have taken place),
53
it would seem
that P qualifies as a cause of P*i.e., it is nomologically sufficient for P* as the instantiator
of M and as that without which P* might not have come about (assuming no other
concurrent subvenient base). This conclusion is in turn supported by CCP which requires
that P* have some physical cause, P.
But, if P qualifies as a cause of P*, how do we understand the proposition that both
P and M are causes of P*? Kim lays out the following options (1993c:250-252):
(1) they are actually the same event (i.e., P = M)
(2) M is reducible to P (M >P)
(3) M and P constitute two parts of a single, sufficient cause (M+P)
54

(4) M and P are two segments in a causal chain (P M)
(5) M and P are distinct and are both sufficient causes of P* (PM)

Immediately, though, we can see that CCP raises problems with (3), (4), and (5)
since each of them appeals to a nonphysical element as an essential causal aspect of a
physical event. Kim raises some additional objections as well. He rejects (3) because P
seems to be causally sufficient for M* by itself and, therefore, the combination of M and P
seems to add little to the overall causal effect. Kim also argues against (4) because most
thinkers agree that the relationship between a supervenient property and its subvenient
realizer should not be construed as a causal relationship (see also Bennett 2003; though cf.
Searle 1992). The only options that remain are (1) the elimination of M, (2) the reduction to

53
For a good overview of some of the difficulties involved in establishing the proper understanding of
causation see Field 2005.
54
As an alternative to (3), Kim also lists the possibility that M could be understood as a proper part of
P.
149
M to P, and (5) and the causal overdetermination of P*, leaving the nonreductive
physicalists in the difficult position of having to accept the elimination or reduction of
mental properties, deny causal completion, or affirm the highly unintuitive position that all
events involving mental causes are systematically overdetermined (cf. Sturgeon 1998; Elder
2001; Witmer 2003; Bennett 2003; Ehring 2003; Kim 2003).
Hansen helpfully summarizes the main steps in Kims argument as follows:

(1) Suppose that a mental property instantiation M causes P*.
(2) M has a physical supervenience base P.
(3) On the standard accounts of causation, P qualifies as a cause of P*.
(4) Mental properties are not reducible to physical properties.
(5) M and P are distinct (simultaneous) sufficient causes of P*.
(6) Overdetermination is unintelligible.

Conclusion: Mental-to-physical causation is unintelligible given non-
reductive
physicalism. (2000:470)

According to Kim, then, the best way to account for mental causation is to recognize
mental causes as epiphenomenal parasites that are causally efficacious inasmuch as they
are strongly supervenient on physical causes. Any other solution allows the ostensible
mental causes to become causal danglers that serve no purpose and are an acute
embarrassment to the physicalist view of the world (1993c:100).
55

55
Since a reductive approach can simply type-identify mental properties with physical properties,
reductivists have no problem with affirming that mental properties are causally efficacious (Kim 1993c). Thus,
contrary to what some thinkers have argued (e.g., E. Lowe 1993), mind-body reduction does not constitute a
problem for mental causation. Of course, the price that they pay for this solution is a form of
epiphenomenalism where mental properties are causally efficacious only insofar as they are identical to
physical properties and, consequently, play no independent role in causal explanations (Rockwell 2004).
150
3.1.2. Responding to the Exclusion Argument
Unsurprisingly, nonreductive thinkers reject Kims arguments against the causal
efficacy of mental properties, though they have tended to do so in several different ways.
OPTION #1: UNDERMINING THE BASIS OF THE EXCLUSION ARGUMENT. One way of
responding to this argument is to undermine its strength in some way. One common
approach is to criticize Kims argument as having unacceptable consequences for our entire
understanding of reality. These thinkers contend that the exclusion argument generalizes
into a problem for the causal efficacy of all higher-level properties and processes. In other
words, if mental causes can only play an epiphenomenal role piggy-backing on the micro-
causal powers of its subvenient constituents, then all higher-level entities and properties, and
possibly even some lower-level properties and processes, are similarly constrained (e.g.,
Pereboom and Kornblith 1991; Van Gulick 1993b; Burge 1993; Hansen 2000; Bontly 2002;
Schrder 2002). Thus, Van Gulick contends, If the proponent of the Exclusion Argument
takes such a hard line, he will have to concede that none of the properties of the special
sciences are causally potent (1993b:249).
56
However, although the generalization argument
thus indicates that Kims argument has significant implications with which most thinkers are
uncomfortable, and may provide some epistemic warrant for questioning the cogency of
Kims argument, it does not constitute an actual defeater for Kims argument (Kim
2003:165). To formulate an adequate response, NRP must provide a positive argument for
the coherence of its own position.
Another strategy for undermining Kims argument is to suggest that it proceeds on
an invalid understanding of the relationship between explanations and causality (e.g., L.
Baker 1993; Burge 1993). These thinkers contend that our causal framework should follow

56
Kim, however, denies that his arguments against mental causation can be generalized in this manner
(1997; 1998b). His basic contention is that his mental causation argument does not generalize because mental
causation is an intra-level relation while the special sciences deal with inter-level relations. He also argues for a
broader understanding of physical that would incorporate the processes and entities studied in the special
sciences and preclude the possibility that they involve non-physical causes. As Hansen points out, however, the
distinction between intra- and inter-level relations is not as clear as he supposes them to be and his redefinition
of physical has significant implications for his mental causation argument (2000; cf. also Bontly 2002). Thus,
although we will not be considering the generalization argument in detail here, there seems to be a continuing
concern to the cogency of Kims argument.
151
from our epistemic processes. Since we can provide successful explanations of the world in
terms of higher-level properties, we should recognize these as causally legitimate.
According to this argument, to contend, as Kim does, that causality should determine our
explanatory framework gets it entirely backwards. However, Kim rightly argues that this
approach misses the heart of the problem (1998b; cf. also Leiter and Miller 1998). Kims
argument does not call into question the efficacy of our mental properties in a manner that
would violate our epistemic explanatory practices as this approach contends. Rather, Kim
fully agrees that we should assume the causal efficacy of the mental but, at the same time,
seek a metaphysical theory that can provide an adequate explanation for this state of affairs.
Kims argument is a challenge for NRP to offer its own explanation and defend its
coherence.
57
A third response that could be offered is explicitly theological. This argument points
out that any theological system that allows divine causal action in the physical universe
already requires some form of nonphysical causation (cf. Bielfeldt 2001). If God can act in
the physical universe, then at least some physical events cannot be reduced to merely
physical explanations. Even without entering into a discussion of divine causality and its
implications for physicalism, it seems that this response is inadequate. At the least, we
should be very careful about positing an analogy between supernatural/natural causation and
mind/body causation.
58
More to the point, however, is that this response does not seem to be
available to the physicalist who remains committed to the principle of casual completeness.
OPTION #2: SYSTEMIC INFLUENCE. A second way of responding to Kims argument is
to affirm the validity of his basic premises, but to develop nonreductive explanations of

57
Ned Block has another way of undermining the validity of the exclusion argument based on a
reductio ad absurdum. According to Block, if the causal powers of higher level properties all drain away to
the causal powers of their determinate bases and if, as may be suggested by contemporary quantum physics,
there is no bottom level of physics, then it would seem that there can be no causal powers of any kind in the
universe (2003:138). Kim, however, rightly points out that this argument (1) fails to recognize that the
exclusion argument (reasonably?) presupposes the existence of just such a physical bottom level and (2)
implies the nonreducibility of even physical entities (e.g., molecules, atoms, etc.) about whose reducibility
philosophers are generally agreed (2003).
58
This argument does suggest, though, that the implications of principles like CCP need to be
carefully considered before they are adopted wholesale into a christologically adequate ontology.
152
mental causation that avoid Kims reductive conclusions. A variety of different ways have
been offered to account for mental causation within a physical framework. We shall
consider two.
One common approach has been to appeal to the properties of complex physical
systems (cf. Jackson and Pettit 1990). From this perspective, higher-level properties can be
seen as casually efficacious in that the way in which the constituent elements of a system
are organized must be included in any causal account. It is, therefore, impossible to account
for the behavior of the system in terms of its constituent elements alone. Thus, Van Gulick
argues:

The events and objects picked out by the special sciences are
admittedly composites of physical constituents. But the causal powers of such
an object are not determined solely by the physical properties of its
constituents and the laws of physics, but also by the organization of those
constituents within the composite. And it is just such patterns of organization
that are picked out by the predicates of the special sciences. (1993b:250)

The causal influence of the higher-level properties of complex systems is
typically depicted in terms of their ability to activate selectively the causal powers of lower-
level systems (Van Gulick 1992, 1993b; Meyering 2000, 2002). In any given situation the
micro-particulars of complex systems are understood to have a range of causal powers. But,
understanding which of those causal powers gets activated in any particular situation
requires that the circumstances (Van Gulick 1993b; Murphy 1998b, 1998c, 1999a, 1999b,
2002a, 2002c), environment, (Peacocke 1986, Searle 1992) or initial boundary
conditions (Van Gulick 1993b) of the system as a whole be taken into account.
59
The same argument is then applied to higher-level mental properties. Though they
do not operate with the same kind of direct causality associated with micro-physical

59
On this point, some nonreductive physicalists appeal to the notion of multiple superveniencei.e.,
the idea that not only can higher-level properties be instantiated by multiple physical bases (i.e., multiple
realization), but particular physical bases can instantiate multiple higher-level properties depending on the
broader circumstances (Meyering 2000, 2002; Murphy 1999b; cf. also Yablo 1992).
153
causality, they are causally efficacious in that they play a structuring (Dretske 1993),
facilitating (E. Lowe 1993), or sustaining (Audi 1993) role in the selective activation
(Van Gulick 1993b; cf. also Murphy 1998c, 2002c, 2005) of physical causal powers.
60
In
other words, mental states can be thought of as providing the relevant background
information for causal explanations involving conscious beings. From this perspective, then,
mental causes are not in competition with physical causes. Rather, they play a different role
in the total causal process.
We thus seem to have an account of mental causation in nonreductive terms that
does not violate the basic principles of physicalism. However, several concerns could be
offered to such an account. First, one might well wonder if this approach properly construes
the reductive program. Their emphasis on the complexity of total systems could almost lead
one to believe the reductionists entirely eschewed such reasoning (Cullen 2001; Wacome
2004). But this is not the case. Reductionists are entirely aware that any valid causal
explanation must account for both the relevant particulars and their extrinsic relationships.
Indeed, Kim states, Clearly then macroproperties can, and in general do, have their own
causal powers, powers that go beyond the causal powers of their microconstituents
(1998b:85, emphasis his). The reductive argument is not that higher-level properties are
causally irrelevant but that their causal relevance is established by their reducibility. Thus, it
is up to the nonreductive physicalist to establish that their system-explanations are
sufficiently distinct from reductive system-explanations as to constitute a significant
advance with respect to systemic causal explanations.
61

60
Though all of these thinkers present their ideas in slightly different ways, the basic idea of mental
properties as background states that enable the selective activation of physical properties is common to all of
them. Jackson and Pettit have offered a similar argument in which they concede that mental properties are not
causally efficacious but assert that they are causally relevant in that they program for or ensure the
presence of the causally efficacious property (1990). It is hard to see, though, that this is any improvement on
Davidsons problematic anomalous monism (see note 41). Thus, Kim rightly argues that causal relevance
without causal efficacy is an empty concept (1998b:75).
61
Murphy contends, however, that the reductionist cannot accommodate circumstances within his
system (1998c). According to her, the multiple realizability argument and problem of disjunctive subvenient
sets (see note 31) demonstrate the nonreducibility of at least some of the causally relevant circumstances. But,
if the circumstances are irreducible and are causally relevant, then any causal explanation that appeals to
154
Second, as nonreductive physicalists are well aware, one could argue that these
broader contextual considerations are themselves reductively determined (c.f., Bielfeldt
2000). That is, NRP seems to entail that these broad macro-systems are themselves
asymmetrically dependent on their microphysical bases. If that is the case, any systemic
influence these mental properties have is simply a larger part of the whole microphysical
causal process.
And third, even if we hold that higher-level properties have sufficient autonomy to
be causally effective, the nonreductive argument still requires some mechanism by which
they can causally effect lower-level properties (Horgan 1993b). But if this is the case, the
system-explanation simply shifts the focus from mental-physical causation to system-
physical causation. At the very least it would seem that such influence would require the
transmission of some kind of information (Peacocke 1986; Polkinghorne 1994).
62
But
information transfer in any sense currently available to us requires some form of causal
interaction and fails to avoid the problem (Bielfeldt 2001; Sharpe and Walgate 2003). Burge
rejects the requirement for a physical causal mechanism stating that such a requirement
simply presumes the kind of physicalistic model of causation that NRP seeks to overturn
(1993). But, if this is true, then NRP owes us an explanation of how systemic properties
activate or otherwise influence physical properties in a way that is consistent with causal
completion. Although appeals to explanatory practice and counterfactual analysis may
provide epistemic warrant for speaking of systemic causes in this manner (e.g., Burge 1993;
L. Baker 1993, van Gulick 1993b), they do little to provide a coherent account of how this
causal interaction takes place.
63
OPTION #3: CAUSAL COMPATIBILISM. Another option for responding to Kims
argument is to contend that there is a sufficiently close relationship between the physical
and the mental that they do not compete as causal factors (e.g., Pereboom and Kornblith

circumstances will be irreducible. Though her argument is valid, it remains questionable in that (1) it is still an
open question whether reductionism is actually defeated by the multiple realizability argument and (2) it odes
not address the concerns raised by such an externalist understanding of mental properties.
62
The same objection can be raised to Murphys argument for complex feedback loops as an
explanation of mental causation (cf. 1998c, 2002c, 2005).
63
Thus, it could be argued that NRP needs to spend more time working on the metaphysics of
causation itself before addressing the metaphysics of mental causation.
155
1991; Yablo 1992, 2003; Pereboom 2002; Witmer 2003).
64
Two arguments have been
particularly influential.
65
Pereboom and Kornblith argue for a constitutional view of causal
powersthat is, a mental token has its causal powers in virtue of the causal powers of the
micro-physical particulars that constitute it (1991). Pereboom thus rejects Kims argument
that psychophysical realization entails that the causal powers of mental properties be
identical to those of their physical bases (2002; cf. Kim 1993c:326). According to
Pereboom, this is sufficient to avoid overdetermination:

Just as Kim claims that no competition between explanations arises
in the case of reduction and identity, I propose that no competition arises in
the case of mere constitution either. For if the token of a higher-level causal
power is currently wholly constituted by a complex of microphysical causal
powers, there are two sets of causal powers at work that are constituted from
precisely the same stuff (supposing that the most basic microphysical entities
are constituted of themselves), and in this sense we might say that they
coincide constitutionally. (1991: 8).

Thus, rather than competing for causal primacy, different causal explanations pick
out different sides of the constitutor/constituted relationship.
Yablo has made a similar argument based on the distinction between determinate
and determinable properties (1992). According to Yablo, a determination relationship of this
kind is established when some property necessarily entails the instantiation of some other
property but that one could have the latter without the former. So, for instance, he suggests,
crimson is a determinate of the determinable red, red is a determinate of colored, and so
on (ibid., 252). Based on this principle, he identifies mental properties as determinables of
physical determinates.

64
This kind of approach is often referred to as causal compatibilism in that it construes mental and
physical causes as being entirely compatible with one another. Another version of causal compatibilism that
we will not be considering has been espoused by Terence Horgan based on a counterfactual analysis of causal
relationships (1994, 1997).
65
For a discussion of other options that have received attention in recent literature, see Ritchie 2005.
156
This becomes significant for the issue of mental causation when we consider the
relationship between determinates and determinables with respect to causation. According
to his argument, we cannot distinguish between determinables and determinates with respect
to causal relevance.
66
Any form of the exclusion argument that would render the violence of
an earthquake or the suddenness of a bolt breaking causally irrelevant, as though they could
be construed as causal rivals (ibid., 272-273), must be suspect (see also Yablo 2003). As
a rule, determinates are tolerant, indeed supportive, of the causal aspirations of their
determinables. Why should it be different, if the determinate is physical and the
determinable mental (ibid., 260)?
However, even though determinates and determinables cannot compete with respect
to causal influence, Yablo contends that they can compete for the role of cause (ibid., 273-
274). This is because we expect proper causes to be both adequate and commensurate to
their effects. But Yablo presents a number of cases in which it appears that the determinable
property is more causally commensurate, based on a counterfactual analysis, than the
corresponding determinate property. Thus, we can attribute effects to mental
causeswhen we believethat the effect is relatively insensitive to the finer details of ms
physical implementation (ibid., 278)that is, when the mental causal explanation is more
commensurate with the given effect.
These two approaches certainly offer a convincing way of construing mental causal
powers in such a way that they can be viewed as having real causal influence but without
identifying them with physical causal powers in any way. The way in which this is done,
though, raises the question of whether they have avoided the problem by tightening the
psychophysical relationship to the extent that it offers no real help in establishing the kind of
mental efficacy required for establishing human agency and free will. Constitution theorists
often note that constitution is as close as one can get to identity without identity (Corcoran
2005:159). But is this too close for real mental causation when Pereboom is willing to affirm
that mental causal powers are nothing over and above their physical constituents such that
they can be described as being absorbed or swallowed up by physical causal powers
(2002:6-7)? A similar concern arises when we consider that Yablo can compare the

66
Leiter and Miller, however, point out that he does very little in his argument to establish this point,
merely assuming it to be true (1998).
157
psychophysical relation to the relationship between rectangles and their squareness, colors
and their hues (1992). With such a tight relationship, it becomes difficult to see how mental
causal explanations can be anything more than pragmatic conceptual necessities that offer
no real help in establishing human agency.
67

3.1.3. Mentality, Causality, and Moral Freedom: Continuing Difficulties for
Nonreductive Physcialism
Having offered a rather quick survey of NRP responses to Kims argument, what can
we conclude about their christological adequacy? First, given NRPs commitment to the
physicalist program, we can say that there does not seem to be any easy way to escape the
basic premises of the argument (option 1). An appropriate NRP response, therefore, will
have to be along the lines pursued by the two alternate explanations offered above (options
2 and 3).
With respect to those arguments, it does seem that they offer coherent accounts of
mental causation within a physicalist framework while still retaining their commitment to
epistemological nonreduction. Though a number of significant difficulties remain to be
addressed, particularly with respect to systems-explanations, they are both worth exploring.
To that extent they must be considered successful accounts of mental causation.
The problems arise when we consider the price that has been paid for these
solutions. We have seen that both of them raise concerns with respect to their ability to
account for free human agency. Although free will remains a contentious philosophical
issue (cf. Van Inwagen 1983; Hasker 1999; Flanagan 2002; Dennett 2003; OConner and
Wong 2005), we have seen that some account of free human agency is required for a
christologically adequate ontology. To lift these concerns, a systems-explanation must be
able to establish that its appeal to circumstances does not necessitate environmental

67
Crane offers another objection to this line of argument; he contends that this approach infelicitously
allows for mental causation only by denying that it is a cause in the same way as physical causation
(1995:232-233). By thus rejecting the homogeneity of mental and physical causation, according to Crane,
this approach robs mentality of any significant causal involvement. Although Witmer dismisses this argument
as just fallacious (2003:210), his concern seems legitimate. Indeed, one wonders if any real advance has been
made if mental causation can only be construed in such a parasitic manner.
158
determination; but, it must do this without violating its own commitment to causal
completion. Similarly, causal compatibilists need to be able to show that the tight
psychophysical relationship entailed by their account of causality does not preclude free
agency without opening up so much space between physical and mental causes that the
overdetermination argument comes back into play (Ritchie 2005). Leiter and Miller have
argued that these solutions only succeed to the extent that they import dualistic ideas into
their physicalist systems (1998). Corcoran, similarly argues that such explanations can only
succeed if they rely on a more robust notion of emergent causation (2005; cf. Clayton 2005).
Both arguments suggest that these explanations, by themselves, fail to establish a robust
sense of mental causation without appealing to notions that are incompatible with the NRP
system.
68
It would seem, then, that NRP offers some interesting but still incomplete answers to
the question of mental causation. Until it shows itself able to address these concerns, it will
be difficult for it to serve as the backbone of a christologically adequate ontology.

3.2. Experiencing Subjectivity: The Problem of Phenomenal Consciousness
Although the term consciousness can be used in a variety of different ways, indeed
it is often used to encompass the entire range of mental phenomena,
69
the aspect we will
address in this section is that which is often referred to as phenomenal consciousness
(Block 1995a).
70
This aspect of consciousness focuses on those mental states that consist of

68
Additionally, to the extent that NRP relies on functionalist accounts of human mentality, they run
afoul of what Ruper calls the problem of metaphysically necessary effects (2006). That is, since
functionalism defines a mental property in terms of it being the kind of state that causes e, any functionalist
account of mental causation appears to argue that the state of being that which causes e, causes e.
69
Although consciousness can be used in this broader sense (e.g., Searle 1992), most agree that
consciousness and mind should not be conflated since there seem to be certain intentional mental states (e.g.,
beliefs, desires, etc.) that continue to exist even when we are in completely unconscious states (Rosenthal
2002a).
70
Block distinguishes between phenomenal consciousness, which is characterized by qualitative
experiences, and access consciousness, which involves mental states that are available for conscious reflection
(1995a). Though he also posits a third category, reflexive consciousness, involving mental states that reflect on
one another, this distinction will not be necessary for our discussion (2001). Blocks taxonomy has not been
159
inner, qualitative, subjective states (Searle 1999)i.e., they have a particular feel.
71
In
other words, it refers to that which it is like to undergo certain kinds of experiences (e.g., hit
your thumb with a hammer, see a bright color, or smell burnt food).
72
These phenomenal
aspects of human experience are commonly referred to as phenomenal properties or qualia
(singular quale).
73
Accounting for phenomenal properties, however, has long been regarded as one of
the most significant problems for any physicalist ontology (cf. Chalmers 1995). How is it
that brain processes, which are objective, third person biological, chemical and electrical
processes produce subjective states of feeling and thinking (Searle 1999)? It does not seem
conceivable that there is anything it is like to be an atom or a chemical process, so how does
it come about that organisms solely constituted by atoms and chemical processes are
characterized by vital subjective lives? There thus seems to be an explanatory gap
between our subjective experiences and our ability to explain them (Levine 1983).
According to Chalmers, then, the hard problem in philosophy of mind is to explain how a
physical universe can give rise to subjective qualities (1996).
74
Given the importance of the subjective life of human persons for any adequate
christological anthropology, an ontological theory must be able to provide some account of

without criticism (e.g., Rosenthal 2002b), but it is widely used and usefully distinguishes the concepts
addressed in this section.
71
Although distinctions are possible between terms like subjectivity, phenomenal experiences, qualia,
and raw feels (cf. van Gulick 2004), they will be used interchangeably in this section.
72
Tye suggests that a list of mental states characterized by such phenomenal qualities should at least
include perceptions, those associated with bodily states, emotions, and moods (2003). According to this
understanding of consciousness, it ends when someone is in certain bodily states (e.g., a coma, dreamless
sleep, etc.; cf. Searle 1999). This, of course, does not mean that all aspects of consciousness cease in such
states but only those that have a phenomenal aspect.
73
Determining what phenomenal properties are properties of is itself a contentious issue. The
traditional position is to view them as properties of subjects or mental states. Alternately, one could view them
as properties of experiences that are then represented in mental states or as higher-order properties (i.e.,
properties of properties). For a good discussion see Chalmers 2004.
74
Or, more specifically: The hard problem is one of explaining why the neural basis of a phenomenal
quality is the neural basis of that phenomenal quality rather than another phenomenal quality or no
phenomenal quality at all (Block 2002:394).
160
these subjective qualities. The task of this section, then, is to consider whether NRP is able
to offer an understanding of human subjectivity that is both coherent within its physicalist
framework and christologically adequate.

3.2.1. Phenomenal Properties without Reductionism
According to Block (2003) there are basically four approaches that a physicalist,
broadly conceived, could take to the problem of phenomenal consciousness. The first two
correspond roughly to what we have been calling the eliminative and reductive positions. An
eliminativist argues that qualia, understood as irreducible experiential properties, simply do
not exist (Dennett 1979; Patricia Churchland 1983; Rey 1997).
75
Although we certainly
have experiences, the properties of those experiences are fully physical properties and the
folk psychology that we use to describe them in non-physical terms should (ultimately) be
eliminated in favor of more scientific explanations (Paul Churchland 1981). Reductionism,
or phenomenal deflationism (Block 2003) by contrast, allows the existence of
consciousness but analyzes it in non-phenomenal (e.g., behavioral, functional,
representational, etc.) terms. Currently, the two most popular candidates for such a reductive
account are representationalism (Lycan 1987; Tye 1995; Shoemaker 1994; Dretske 1995;
Crane 2001) and higher-order thought (HOT) theories (Lycan 1996; Rosenthal 2002a;
Carruthers 2001a, 2001b, 2005). Both of these positions view consciousness in terms of the
representation of experiential properties. Although they differ from one another in
understanding the precise manner in which this representation takes place,
76
they generally
agree that phenomenally conscious states are identical to the content and manner of the
intentional representation of experiential properties. According to both of these perspectives,

75
Eliminativist positions like that espoused by Dennett and Churchland have often been misconstrued
as a simple denial of consciousness in general (e.g., Searle 1997). Eliminativists, though, do not reject the idea
that human persons have certain phenomenal experiences. What they deny is that qualia should be understood
as ineffable and incorrigible subjective states that are accessible only through first-person introspections of
experiential properties (cf. Sousa 1996; Byrne 1997; Tye 2003).
76
They differ primarily in terms of whether consciousness should be understood as the first-order
representation of experiential properties or higher-order reflection on such first-order states.
161
then, there is no hard problem involving an irreducible explanatory gap since phenomenal
properties are given non-phenomenal explanations (e.g., Papineau 1998).
Such nonphenomenological accounts of phenomenal consciousness, though, have
left many unconvinced. The standard objection is to contend that no matter how carefully a
non-phenomenal depiction of consciousness is formulated, it still fails to account for the
nature of the experiencei.e., the phenomenon itself. Two famous arguments along these
lines have been presented by Thomas Nagel and Frank Jackson. Nagel proposes that we try
to imagine what it is like to be a bat (1974). Though we may be able to imagine what it is
like for a human to be a bat, he argues that we cannot conceive of what it is like for a bat to
be a bat. This is because our ability to explain the nature of a particular form of existence is
necessarily related to our possessing certain conceptual categories that are themselves
dependent on having the relevant form of experience. Even if we were able to provide an
exhaustive physical account of the bats neurophysiological state, we would still be
incapable of explaining its phenomenological states without already having the requisite
concepts that can only be acquired through the relevant bat-experiences.
Jackson offers a similar argument positing the existence of Mary, a brilliant color
scientist who has been imprisoned in a black and white room for her entire life (1982, 1986).
Although unable to experience color, she performs extensive research and develops an
exhaustive knowledge of the physical aspects of color and vision. In fact, she becomes the
worlds leading expert on the physics of color and understands all of the relevant physical
facts. Upon being released from prison, she steps outside and discovers what it is like to
experience red. Therefore, according to Jackson, despite knowing all of the relevant physical
facts regarding the color red, she still lacked the knowledge of the corresponding experience.
Both the Nagel and Jackson arguments, then, contend that consciousness cannot be reduced
to physical facts.
77
From thought experiments like these, nonreductive thinkers conclude that any
attempt to provide a nonphenomenological explanation of phenomenal properties simply
misses the point. As McLaughlin argues, There is no a priori sufficient condition for
phenomenal consciousness that can be stated (noncircularly) in nonphenomenal terms.

77
For a good recent discussion of these arguments and recent attempts to block them by positing
important differences between phenomenal and non-phenomenal concepts, see Stoljar 2005.
162
Replacing our concepts of consciousness with deflationary purely functional concepts that
have such a priori sufficient conditionswould not change that. It would only change the
subject (McLaughlin 2003). Nonreductive thinkers have long contended that phenomenal
properties resist any attempt to functionalize themi.e., define them solely according to
their causal role (Levine 1983; Pereboom and Kornblith 1991; Humphrey 2000; Pereboom
2002).
78
Nonreductive thinkers are thus concerned to maintain the phenomenological feel
of experiential properties and contend that no attempt to depict the structure or function of
consciousness can adequately account for that experience.
Of course, reductive thinkers reject thought experiments like those offered by Nagel
and Jackson (cf. Levin 1986; Loar 1990; Lycan 1995; Tye 1995) and contend that the
nonreductivist sets the standard for explaining consciousness too high (Tye 1999; Carruthers
2001b; Lycan 2001).
79
Thus Carruthers argues, We just need to have good reason to think
that the explained properties are constituted by the explaining ones, in such a way that
nothing else needed to be added to the world once the explaining properties were present, in
order for the world to contain the target phenomenon (2001b). But this simply reflects the
divide between reductive and nonreductive thinkers. Reductivists contend that phenomenal
properties can be exhaustively explained in terms of what they do while nonreductivists and
dualists both insist that such an account misses important aspects of what they are.

3.2.2. Phenomenal Properties without Dualism
This does not mean, however, that NRP simply affirms a dualistic account of
phenomenal properties. Although these two ontologies agree regarding the reality of
phenomenal properties, they disagree substantially on the ontological implications of this
position. Substance dualists contend that the only way to adequately account for such
phenomenal properties is to recognize them as properties of nonphysical substances (e.g.,
Swinburne 1986; Foster 1991; Moreland and Rae 2000). Even some philosophers who do
not affirm substance dualism argue that the conceptual irreducibility of phenomenal

78
Even a reductive philosopher like Kim recognizes that qualia might resist attempts to functionalize
them (2004). His concern, though, is that such non-functional qualia can only be epiphenomenal. Since we
addressed this in the previous section, we will not go into it again here.
79
For a very helpful discussion, see the collection of essays in Ludlow, Nagasawa, and Stoljar 2004.
163
properties entails their ontological irreducibility (cf. T. Nagel 1974; Chalmers 1996, 2002,
2003; Chalmers and Jackson 2001). According to these philosophers, then, we should
recognize a basic duality in the fundamental structures of the universe. This could be
construed in terms of (1) panpsychism, or the theory that all physical entities have intrinsic
phenomenal properties, (2) protophenomenal properties, or the theory that all physical
entities have properties that are disposed toward the production of phenomenal properties, or
(3) neutral monism, that is, the idea that physical and mental properties are properties of
some fundamental substance that is itself neither mental nor physical (see Chalmers 1996,
2003; Stubenberg 2005). In any of these three ways, mental properties are understood to be
fundamental properties of the universe in a form of naturalistic dualism (Chalmers
1996).
80
Nonreductive physicalists reject such dualistic approaches, though, by denying the
principle that the conceptual irreducibility of phenomenal properties entails some form of
fundamental dualism (e.g., van Gulick 1992; Wacome 2004). Indeed, as we discussed in our
first section, one of the basic commitments of NRP is that you can have physical monism
without epistemological reduction based on the rejection of psychophysical type- and
possibly even token-identity. Although many nonreductive physicalists can be properly
understood as property dualists (i.e., they espouse both mental and physical properties),
this is distinctly different from the form of fundamental property dualism espoused by such
naturalistic dualists (Chalmers 1996). Thus, Block and Stalnaker argue that, even though
phenomenological properties are resistant to conceptual analyses of the sort often presumed
necessary for nomological reduction, this does not establish ontological dualism, nor does it
even defeat epistemological reduction (1999; for a reply see Chalmers and Jackson 2001).

80
It is not clear, though, that such a theory really provides a significant advance over earlier emergent
theories. If the properties of the basic substrate (whatever that might be) are phenomenal properties, then
panpsychism would seem to be committed to the idea that things like quarks and atoms have some form of
phenomenal consciousness (Searle 1997; McGinn 1999). If, as is more likely, these are protophenomenal
properties that are not themselves phenomenally conscious but can give rise to phenomenal properties, then it
does not seem to have really solved the problem. For now we must give an account of how protophenomenal
properties give rise to phenomenal properties (Van Gulick 2005). It would thus seem that panpsychism must
ultimately appeal to some form of emergence based on latent protophenomenal powers (Seager and Allen-
Hermanson 2005) and thus surrender its status as a distinct theory of consciousness.
164
For example, life, they argue, similarly resists conceptual analysis and yet we have no
difficulty affirming that it does in fact have a neurophysiological basis. Indeed, many
nonreductive thinkers have responded to the argument that subjective phenomenal properties
are intrinsically incompatible with objective physical properties by arguing that subjectivity
and objectivity are properties of concepts rather than properties of properties (Loar 1990;
Searle 1992; van Gulick 1993a; Block 2003). The irreducible subjectivity associated with
qualia is, therefore, a result of how we think about them rather than how they are in
themselves.

3.2.3. Phenomenal Properties and Phenomenal Realism
Most nonreductive physicalists, then, opt for Blocks fourth position, phenomenal
realism (McGinn 1991; Searle 1992, 1997, 1999; Block 1995a, 1995b, 2002, 2005;
Flanagan 1992, 2002; Loar 1997; McLaughlin 2003). This approach rejects the ontological
implications of the dualists as well as the reductivism of phenomenal deflationists. Thus,
though conceding the epistemological force of the Explanatory Gap argument, they deny
that it amounts to anything more than a denial of reductionism and a support for the
plurality of theoretical frameworks posited by the nonreductive approach (van Gulick
1992:172).
A nonreductive view of consciousness would thus seem to be committed to three
ideas. Ontologically, NRP should affirm the asymmetrical dependence of phenomenal
features on physical features, whether in terms of supervenience (Block 2002), emergence
(Searle 1992), or some other dependency relationship.
81
Epistemologically, NRP denies the
possibility of fully explaining the essence of phenomenal properties in strictly

81
Chalmers has argued that zombie thought experiments establish that phenomenal features do not
supervene on physical features (1996). Many nonreductive physicalists, though, have responded to this by
calling into question the realizability of such conceivability arguments, Chalmers understanding of identity
relationships, and his characterization of possible worlds (Balog 1999; Block and Stalnaker 1999; Loar 1999,
Yablo 1999; Gertler 2002; for more on arguments from conceivability see van Cleve 1983; Stoljar 2001a;
Barnes 2002; Gendler and OLeary-Hawthorne 2002; Marcus 2004). In general, it would seem that NRP must
reject zombie arguments with their implication that microphysically indistinguishable creatures could have
radically different phenomenological states.
165
nonphenomenological terms. Functionally, however, NRP can allow the possibility that
nonphenomenological analyses of phenomenal properties may be useful for understanding
the role of consciousness in human life so long as this functional role remains distinct from
its phenomenological essence.
82
Indeed, several philosophers inclined toward nonreductive
thinking are actively exploring representational or HOT approaches to consciousness (e.g.,
van Gulick 1992, 2000; Shoemaker 1994).
83
While such an approach may well be fruitful
and certainly bears further consideration, nonreductive thinkers will continue to argue that
they will ultimately be unsuccessful in uncovering the essence of whats-it-likeness.
84

3.2.4. A Nonreductive Understanding of Phenomenal Consciousness
The question, then, is whether NRP and phenomenal realism offers a coherent and
christologically adequate account of phenomenal consciousness. As to coherence, it would
seem that NRPs understanding of phenomenal consciousness is fully consistent with its
basic commitments. It acknowledges phenomenal properties to be fully subjective, internal
aspects of human mental life while rejecting any move toward dualism. At the same time it
affirms their physical basis without succumbing to reductionism. So long as it is successful
in maintaining this balancing act, it would appear to be capable of articulating a view of
consciousness that is sufficiently robust to support a christological ontology.

82
Block thus contends that access consciousness is functionalizable but not phenomenal
consciousness. (2003).
83
Chalmers has recently argued that reduction is not a necessary aspect of representationalism and
that a nonreductive formulation is perfectly feasible (2004). He contends that representationalism requires an
account of both the intentional content and the manner of the representation. Nonreductive representationalism,
then, could simply argue that conscious states are representational but that the manner of the representation is
itself phenomenological. Whether such a nonreductive understanding of representationalism succeeds and
whether a similar argument can be made for higher-order theories remains to be seen. But Chalmers offers a
convincing case that such an avenue is worth exploring.
84
A complete discussion of the ontology of phenomenal properties would need to address those
projects exploring other cognitive (e.g., Dennett 1991), neural (e.g., Crick and Koch 1990; Crick 1994), or
quantum (e.g., Penrose 1989) bases. The literature on these projects is vast and will not concern us here (cf.,
van Gulick 2000).
166
The key question, then, is whether or not this mental balancing act is successful.
Both dualists and reductionists argue that it is not and that it either needs to affirm the
fundamental irreducibility of phenomenal properties or acknowledge their ultimate
functionalization. To a large degree, though, this argument comes down to a contest of basic
intuitions. According to the dualist intuition, phenomenality is so distinct from physicality as
to preclude any possibility of bridging the divide. The reductionist intuition, on the other
hand, is that consciousness is simply a functionalizable state of a highly complex
neurophysiological being. The nonreductive intuition is to maintain that both are partly
right.
85
This clash of basic intuitions has so far produced no widely accepted account of
phenomenal consciousness other than the simple acknowledgement that consciousness
remains a mystery.
86
It would seem, then, that so long as NRPs account of consciousness is consistent
with its basic principles, coherent within its own framework, and adequate to sustain a
christological ontology, there is no outstanding reason to reject it, barring future
philosophical or scientific developments.

3.3. I Am I, But Am I the Same I that I Was Yesterday?: The Problem of Personal
Identity
One final issue that has often been raised as a problem for any physicalist ontology
deals with the continuity of personal identity. In a theological context, the question usually
arises around the need to explain the continuity of personal identity both before and after

85
This clash of basic intuitions is revealed most clearly in the arguments surrounding what is
conceivable about phenomenal properties. Such thought experiments seem most effective in revealing basic
intuitions and the points at which they differ.
86
Indeed, several philosophers have made mystery the central aspect of their position regarding
consciousness (e.g., McGinn 1989, 1991; Chalmers 1995; Searle 1997). For such thinkers, the mystery of
consciousness stems from (1) a limitation in our current knowledge that may be addressed by future scientific
developments (Searle 1997), (2) a fundamental limitation in the structure of human knowledge (McGinn
1989), or (3) a fundamental limitation in the nature of physicalist explanation (Maxwell 2000). Some, like
Daniel Stoljar (2005), have argued that the mystery stems from an anemic understanding of the physical
universe, which refuses to accept the possibility that the physical is a far broader concept than we have been
willing to accept up to this point.
167
that resurrection.
87
As we saw in chapter 4, a Christological anthropology requires that an
adequate ontological theory be able to account for both embodiment and persistent
identity.
88
For NRP to be considered an adequate ontological theory, then, it must have
resources for addressing this issue.
The question has been repeatedly raised, however, whether any physicalist ontology
can adequately account for the continuity of personal identity through such a radical
experience as death and resurrection.
89
If the human person is a bodily organism and,
therefore, cannot survive bodily death, how could a post-resurrection bodily organism of any
kind be numerically identical with a pre-resurrection bodily organism? As Flew asked,
How is the reconstituted person on the last day to be identified as the original me, as
opposed to a mere replica, an appropriately brilliant forgery (1967:140).
90
Similarly,
Cooper thinks that physicalist ontologies raise the worry that we are really dealing with two
distinct people rather than one and the same human being (1988:26). Any physicalist
ontology must demonstrate itself capable of meeting this objection.

3.3.1. The Nature of Personal Identity
To understand the various proposals we need to begin with a few preliminary
comments on the persistence of personal identity. First, as Olson rightly notes, the

87
We will, therefore, be concerned in this section with diachronic identity (i.e., the identity of persons
through time) as opposed to synchronic identity (i.e., the identity of persons at a given time).
88
A number of philosophers have argued that we should not be overly concerned about identity
questions and should simply focus on what establishes the greatest amount of continuity between yourself and
any future persons (e.g., Nozick 1981; Parfit 1986, 1995; Martin 1995). Given that the Christian view of the
resurrection seems to require the identity of pre- and post-resurrection persons, we will not address these
arguments and, instead, simply assume that the identity question is neither trivial nor empty (cf. D. Lewis
1983; Sosa 1990).
89
This problem is made even more difficult by the fact that the Christian doctrine of resurrection
requires some significant transformation of the pre-mortem person; consequently, a viable theory cannot lean
strongly on qualitative similarities (Davis 1986).
90
Flews objection was primarily aimed at Hicks notorious replica theory where the post-mortem
person is simply a divinely created replica of the pre-mortem person (see Hick 1976). For a useful survey of
the debate around Hicks theory see Loughlin 1985.
168
persistence question is a question about numerical rather than qualitative identity (2003b).
Two things are qualitatively identical only when they are exactly indistinguishable. No
person, then, is qualitatively identical with the person she was five years ago or will be five
years from now. Numerical identity, on the other hand, cannot change. If two things are
numerically identical, they simply are the same thing and cannot become two different
things (Olson 2003b).
91
The question with which we are concerned, then, is properly
understood as a question about the persistence of numerical identity through time.
92
We can,
therefore, formulate the persistence question as follows: Under what circumstances is some
person who exists at one time, a, numerically identical with something that exists at another
time, b (Olson 2003b)?
But how do we go about answering such a question? What determines whether a
person at one time is identical with something that exists at another time? It would seem that
to answer such a question requires that we posit certain criteria by which personal identity
can be established. Such criteria will also need to transcend the merely epistemic issues
involved in recognizing continuous personal identity, but will need to be nontrivial
metaphysical truths about conditions necessary for personal identity through time (Quinn
1978).
While it would seem reasonable to expect that physicalist ontologies would require
physical criteria for establishing personal identity, this is not actually the case. A number of
different criteria have been offered and each leads to a slightly different way of accounting
for personal identity through resurrection.
Before moving on to discuss those criteria, though, we must also consider the nature
of the resurrection itself as one of the factors contributing to this problem. First, we must
acknowledge that the resurrection is an essentially mysterious event. Consequently, we
cannot expect any theory to do more than posit hypothetical examples of how an identity

91
Any talk about one thing becoming another thing, then, must either be a metaphorical reference to
qualitative change without loss of numerical identity, or it actually involves the cessation of the first thing and
the beginning of some new thing.
92
Whenever personal identity is used in this discussion, then, numerical personal identity is
understood. For the sake of our discussion, we will simply assume that persistence of numerical identity is
possible and will not address theories to the effect that human persons do not persist, as Hume famously argued
(MacDonald 2003).
169
theory might be constructed. Thus, difficulties raised regarding the believability of a
particular identity theory must be set aside in the face of something as inscrutable as the
resurrection. We will focus instead on questions of coherence and adequacy. Second, some
of the proposals posit divine involvement as a solution to the problems raised. While it is
generally recognized that one should avoid such deus ex machina devices, since the
resurrection necessarily entails divine agency, we should assume that it is appropriate to
invoke divine involvement to a certain extent (cf. L. Baker 1995).
93

3.3.2. Understanding Personal Identity through a Physical Lens
THE BIOLOGICAL-CONTINUITY CRITERION. As expected, many philosophers have
argued that personal identity is closely connected to the human body (e.g., B. Williams
1970, 1973; van Inwagen 1978, 1997; Corcoran 1998, 2001b, 2005; Olson 2003a, 2003b).
But, body according to these thinkers means more than a mere collection of physical parts,
the persistent identity of which would be notoriously difficult to establish (cf. van Inwagen
1990, 2001).
94
Rather, these philosophers assert material continuity in virtue of their
understanding of the human body as a self-sustaining living organism.
95
According to the

93
Although the intermediate state often factors into the discussion at this point, Lynn Baker rightly
argues that an intermediate state by itself does not raise any issues for physicalist ontologies that do not already
arise with respect to resurrection in general (1995). We will, therefore, postpone our consideration of this issue
until the next chapter.
94
A number of philosophers have argued that a material (rather than biological) criterion of personal
identity fails in the case of the resurrection because it is impossible for a material object to maintain its identity
without spatio-temporal continuity (e.g., Flew 1967; Penelhum 1970). After surveying a number of these
arguments, Mavrodes concludes that, if they are successful, they raise problems for any diachronic theory of
human identity (1977). But this is precisely what reductive identity theorists argue in contending that identity is
either a matter of identifying the closest continuer of an individual (e.g., Nozick 1981) or simply a matter of
convention (e.g., Penelhum 1970). Some have suggested brain-continuity as the proper criterion (T. Nagel
1986; Unger 1990). Since this proposal seems to be merely a subset of either the body- or biological-continuity
theories, we will not discuss it separately.
95
By rejecting the possibility that the body as a materially composite entity could be the ground of
personal identity, these thinkers all reject the classic reassembly version of the resurrection (e.g., Corcoran
2001b). They also tend to reject the possibility of a human person having temporal gaps in its existence (cf.
170
somatic view (Olson 2003b), a and b are identical just in case b is simply a later temporal
stage in a continuous biological organism of which a was an earlier stage (Corcoran
2001b).
96

A problem arises for such an account, however, when we consider the resurrection.
If continuous personal identity requires the continuity of a living organism, how can you
have any continuous personal identity after death? One possibility would be to argue that the
causal connections necessary to depict an organism as a continuous biological organism are
able to cross temporal gaps such that b could be part of the same biological organism as a
even though there was a time when the biological organism of which they are temporal
stages did not exist. The possibility of such a temporally gappy existence, however, has
been rejected by most philosophers as being incoherent within a physicalist framework (cf.
van Inwagen 1978, 1990; though cf. Davis 1986).
The primary alternative to such an account is to suggest that although there can be no
biological continuity beyond the death of the biological organism and although it seems that
all biological organisms do in fact die, it is at least conceivable that God could intervene at
the death of the person so at to miraculously continue her biological life despite the
appearance of death. At least two different ways have been suggested for how God might
accomplish this. According to van Inwagen, God could create a simulacrum in place of the
persons corpse, which God whisks away to be miraculously preserved until the resurrection
(1978).
97
Corcoran, on the other hand, suggests that a better, and less theologically
disturbing, proposal would be to imagine that God copies a persons simples (i.e., the
basic microphysical components of the human body) such that one set becomes a corpse and

van Inwagen 1990). Some, who reject the biological continuity theory, however, have presented arguments
suggesting that this traditional view should not be set aside so quickly (L. Baker 1995; Davis 2001).
96
Chisholm has argued that it is impossible for even living organisms to have any persistent identity
since, according to him, nothing can have different parts at different times and yet retain identity (1976).
Chisholms view, though, is not only contrary to our strongest intuitions about living creatures, but also fails to
stand up to the substantial arguments developed by van Inwagen for the identity of living beings (1990, 2001).
97
Van Inwagens theory is thus distinct from Hicks replica theory (at least) in that Hick posits no
real continuity between a and b, whereas van Inwagens theory requires direct biological continuity. The
continuity of the human person, then, is sustained in that the persons life is suspended rather than disrupted
(van Inwagen 1992).
171
the second set continues the biological life of the person (Corcoran 1998, 2001b).
98
Either
way, the basic premise remains the same. Despite the difficulties of establishing biological
continuity, it is conceivably within Gods power to intervene and sustain biological identity.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL-CONTINUITY CRITERION. For a long time, the most common
way of establishing the persistence of human identity over time was through an appeal to
some form of psychological continuity (D. Lewis 1983; Shoemaker 1984b; Parfit 1986,
1995). Using thought experiments like transferring a mind from one body to another or
gradually replacing a human persons biological parts with entirely synthetic parts, these
thinkers argue that the identity of the human person is most closely associated with her
mental states and that even a total lack of spatio-temporal material continuity would not
preclude continuity of identity. From this perspective a and b are identical just in case there
is mental continuity between them that is appropriately connected.
99
On this view a theory
of the resurrection could simply be constructed around the conceivability of God
transferring the relevant mental states from one body to another.
Many philosophers have called the psychological-continuity criterion into question
because of the problem of duplication (cf. Merricks 1999). In other words, if mental states
are transferable and if identity coincides with mental continuity, what is to prevent the
conceivability that a given set of mental states could be transferred into multiple physical
organisms? We seem to have a situation in which multiple individuals would have equal

98
Corcoran also has to posit this as an answer to the objection that this allows the possibility that God
could create multiple biological organisms who are all biologically continuous with the same person (e.g.,
Zimmerman 1999). Since such an account would render Corcorans identity theory untenable, he must respond
and does so by simply stating that God would not participate in such an action (2001b). Though this certainly
seems reasonable, it is not clear that he has sufficiently addressed the problem that his solution raises for the
Kripkean notion of strict identity (cf. Kripke 1971). Van Inwagens solution, though problematic as well, at
least avoids this problem.
99
Early forms of the psychological argument, often associated with John Locke, appealed to
continuity of memory (Martin and Barresi 2003). This quickly ran into objections from thinkers like Thomas
Reid who pointed out the problems that memory gaps and non-mental states raise for any such theory (Olson
2003b). Though some have tried to reformulate the memory criterion to handle such objections (e.g.,
Shoemaker 1970), most now recognize that continuity of memory is insufficient to ground personal identity
(cf. van Inwagen 1990:183-188).
172
claim to being the same person.
100
Shoemaker responds to this objection by stipulating that
identity is only sustained in cases where there is no such duplication (1984). The duplication
of mental states necessarily results in the destruction of the original person and the creation
of multiple new persons. Such a response, however, requires that we view strict identity
relationships as both contingent and extrinsically dependent; neither of which are appealing
positions for most philosophers. Reductive thinkers like Parfit and Lewis argue that the
duplication argument simply establishes that our concern should not be with identity but
with significant continuity (cf. Martin and Barresi 2003). The denial of identity, though,
seems entirely inadequate to account for the Christian doctrine of the resurrection.
Van Inwagen goes even further and argues that the very nature of the
psychological-continuity theory is inconsistent with a physicalist ontology. He constructs a
reductio argument to show that mind-transfer thought experiments imply that a human
person, which is identical to some physical thing, could suddenly become identical with
some other physical thing by the mere transfer of information (2001:144-161). But,
according to van Inwagen, on any realistic view of identity this is simply absurd. Since
many proponents of psychological-continuity are also constitution theorists (e.g., Shoemaker
1984b; Parfit 1986, 1995), one could try to block the argument by denying that human
persons are ever identical to their physical bodies. As van Inwagen argues, though, for a
mind/body theory to be a materialist theory, it must maintain that human persons are
identical to some material thing (otherwise, what are they?).
101
A FOUR-DIMENSIONAL PROPOSAL. A third option that we will only discuss briefly
relies on an alternate conception of time. According to four-dimensionalism, material objects
are temporally as well as spatially extended (cf. Sider 1997, 2001; Rea 2003). From this
perspective, then, a and b are understood to be temporal components of a single, temporally
extended human person, f. That is, a refers to that temporal segment of f that is f-at-a and b

100
Note that the same objection has been raised with respect to certain forms of the biological-
continuity theory. It seems to be considered more of a problem for psychological-continuity because there is no
way to establish the kind of causal relationship between mental states that is characteristic in a self-sustaining
biological organism.
101
Lynn Rudder Baker notes, though, that this argument does not touch her version of the constitution
theory because she contends that human person is a material-object category (2000:144).
173
refers to that temporal segment that is f-at-b. Thus, a and b are identical in that they are
temporal parts of a temporally extended human person.
The view of the resurrection that arises from such a theory would seem to be rather
straightforward. The pre-resurrection person, a, is identical with the post-resurrection
person, b, inasmuch as they are temporal parts of the same human person irrespective of any
intervening temporal gaps.
Four-dimensionalism, though, is a highly contentious theory of human identity with
significant metaphysical implications that has attracted much criticism (e.g., van Inwagen
2001:75-123; Barker and Dowe 2003, 2005). Thus, it would seem that more work needs to
be done before it is sufficiently well-established to serve as a theory of resurrection identity.
THE NO-CRITERION SOLUTION. A fourth possibility is to agree that personal identity
persists, but argue that there are no criteria of identity (Merricks 1998, 1999, 2001a).
Merricks asserts, Because criteria must be informative, criterion-based worries about
temporal gaps are closely related to the suspicion that nothing could explain what makes a
person in the distant future identical with a person who, long before, died, decayed, and
disintegrated (2001a:186).
102
Similarly, Lynn Rudder Baker argues, I doubt that there are
any noncircular, informative, plausible criteria of personal identity to be stated (2000:132).
This does not mean that it is never possible to explain how a could be identical with b, it
may in fact be possible to do this in many cases, but Merricks anti-criterialism argument
rejects the possibility that we could devise metaphysical criteria that would establish the
identity of a and b in every case. Though we can affirm that identity persists, we will, on this
argument, not always be able to explain it.
This approach also lends itself to two other ways of understanding identity.
According to Baker, the lack of substantial criteria suggests that a more useful approach is to
ground personal identity in the sameness of first-person perspective over time (2000:132-
141). On this view, then, although there are no strong criteria of identity, it can be known
intuitively through the self-representation of a coherent narrative (cf. MacIntyre 1989; Peters

102
Reichenbach seems to make a similar argument by contending that there are criteria by which we
can be justified in identifying b with a; a judgment that apparently leaves us in the dark about whether a and b
are actually identical (1978).
174
2002; Schechtman 2003; J. Green 2004a; Gutenson 2004). Thus, a and b are identical just in
case there is a coherent narrative connecting them.
103
It would also seem that this would be the best place to categorize some attempts to
develop a multiple-criteria model for understanding identity. Murphy posits such an
approach when she argues that there is no one criterion of identity but it is instead grounded
in some combination of material, psychological, narratival, moral, and relational issues
(2002b). Although it might seem at first that this is actually an all-criteria solution,
Murphys argument would seem to be more consistent with the suggestion that none of these
are necessary in every situation, but that some combination of them will prove to be
sufficient to ground identity in any particular case.
104
From this perspective, then, the continuity of personal identity through death and
resurrection is possible, but there are no non-trivial criteria on which we can base it. At best
we can suggest that the identity of the person is grounded either in a narratival self-
representation or in some undeterminable but jointly sufficient set of criteria. The theory of
the resurrection that results from such an account would seem to affirm the post-resurrection
identity of the human person, but deny that there are any apriori criteria for its
establishment.

3.3.3. Continuous Physical Persons: The Prospects of Nonreductive Solution to the
Identity Problem
It would seem that each of these four ways of understanding the identity of human
persons through death and resurrection at least presents itself in such a way as to be

103
Capitalizing on this approach to understanding human identity, Madell argues that monism is
fundamentally inadequate for grounding such identity as a result of its inability to account adequately for the
kind of first-person subjectivity that this approach entails (1989). Since we have seen that NRP is not without
resources for addressing the problem of phenomenal consciousness, this is not necessarily the decisive
argument that it might first appear.
104
Her approach would thus be distinct from a multiple-criteria approach that posited that all the
criteria were necessary and that they were jointly sufficient (e.g., Davis 1986).
175
christologically adequate.
105
In addition, assuming that we reject the reductive solution
espoused by Parfit and others, it would seem that are all consistent with a nonreductive view
of the human person.
The real question comes when we consider the extent to which these various options
can be coherently maintained within a physicalist framework. As we have seen, a number of
significant arguments have been raised against the psychological-continuity theory that must
be addressed before it can be considered a viable identity-theory for nonreductive
physicalists. The same concerns could be raised against narratival approaches to identity,
since the continuity of a first-person narratival framework seems almost entirely dependent
on a mental-continuity criterion. Without that or some other criterion of identity, would we
not simply conclude that the individual is deluded about the coherence of her narratival
framework? The same objection might also be raised against multiple-criteria arguments that
include mental and narrative aspects, although the strength of the objection would be
diminished somewhat in that a multiple-criteria approach is not dependent on these
psychological factors alone.
106

Although the other theories have their weaknesses and their detractors, it does seem
that they present viable and coherent theories of personal identity through death and
resurrection that maintains the commitments of physicalism.
107
Not everyone will find these
various suggestions believable but, as we saw earlier, believability is not the most useful
criterion in discussions regarding the resurrection.

4. Is There Hope for Nonreductive Forms of Physicalism: Problems and Prospects
We have seen that nonreductive materialism is a physicalist theory that views the
mind as asymmetrically dependent on its microphysical base in such a way that it can
neither be reduced to that base (reductivism) nor regarded as possessing autonomous causal

105
One final account of identity that could be drawn into this discussion is that of relative identity (cf.
Geach 1967, 1968; Harry 2002). This approach, though, has not found wide acceptance and we will not
address it here.
106
For a more sustained critique of the no-criteria solution see Zimmerman 1998.
107
For other thinkers who argue that the various physicalist theories of personal identity through death
and resurrection are coherent and viable see Quinn 1978, L. Baker 1995, and Davis 2001.
176
powers (strong emergence). Whether it can be viewed as a christologically adequate
ontology depends on how we evaluate its answers to the three questions raised in the last
half of the chapter: (1) Can a physicalist ontology with a commitment to causal completion
coherently account for mental causation in a way that supports a belief in human agency,
personal freedom and moral responsibility? (2) Can NRP affirm a realist position on
phenomenal properties that remains consistent with its physical commitments? And, (3) are
the options available for developing a physicalist theory of personal identity adequate to
establishing the continuity of personal identity through death and resurrection?
On each of these questions we have seen that NRP has developed substantive
positions that need to be taken seriously. Each, though, also manifests some significant
weaknesses that must be addressed if NRP is to be viewed as a viable christological
ontology. With respect to mental causation, although nonreductive physicalists have devoted
considerable attention to articulating a nonreductive view of causation that can operate
within a physicalist framework, they seem to have paid insufficient attention to the question
of whether their answers accord with a commitment to agency and freedom. The NRP
account of phenomenal consciousness, on the other hand, offers a coherent account of
phenomenal properties. The extent to which this argument is deemed successful, seems to
turn largely on intuitive convictions regarding the nature of subjectivity and its
compatibility with physical properties. It is on the third question, personal identity, that NRP
seems to have the strongest answers. Regardless of whether one finds the various proposals
plausible, they seem coherent and christologically adequate.
In general, then, it seems that we can conclude that NRP should be considered a
viable candidate for use as a mind/body theory within a christologically adequate
anthropology, but that there are a number of unresolved issues that must still be addressed.
177
Chapter 6
Across the Cartesian Divide
Christological Adequacy and Holistic forms of Dualism

1. Moving Beyond the Cartesian Critique: Contemporary Substance Dualism
Having considered in the previous chapter the Christological implications for
developing a physicalist ontology of the human person, we now turn our attention to a
similar analysis of dualist theories. The prospect of developing any such account,
however, seems dim in light of Barths clear pronouncements against any form of
substance dualism. He argues,

In general, the character and result of this anthropology are
marked by a separation of soul and body, an exaltation of the soul over
the body, a humiliation of the body under the soul, in which both really
become not merely abstractions but in fact two co-existing figmentsa
picture in which no real man ever recognised himself, and with which one
cannot possibly do justice to the biblical view and concept of man. (p.
382)

Thus, as long as theology insists on taking the dual nature of humanity as its
starting point, no real insight is possible (p. 393).
Many contemporary philosophers agree, viewing substance dualism as an
inadequate theory of human ontology; and a decisively refuted theory at that.
1
Thus,
some philosophers contend that we should no longer consider substance dualism to be a
serious option in the mind/body debate (e.g., Dennett 1983).
2
According to Himma, then,
Substance dualism is almost universally rejected among people who work in philosophy

1
In philosophy of mind, dualism can be used with reference to a duality of substances (as here),
properties (i.e., distinct mental and physical properties of a single substance), or predicates (i.e., semantic
duality that is not reflected ontologically) (cf. Levin 1979; H. Robinson 2004). In this chapter, we will use
the term dualism to refer to a dualism of substances in the human person.

2
Indeed, Moreland and Rae complain, most contemporary philosophers and scientists
dismiss substance dualism without much serious consideration of the notion and with very little
argumentation against it (2000:98).
178
of mind and the cognitive sciences (2005:81). As Taliaferro indicates, this widespread
rejection of mind-body dualism stems from a variety of different criticisms:

Dualism appears to face intractable problems accounting for
mind-body interaction, for the individuation of nonphysical beings, and
for our knowledge of the mental life of other persons. Dualism seems
vulnerable to private language argumentsand dualism is often
considered a prime target for Ockham's razor. Moreover, dualism is often
considered public enemy number one on religious and ethical grounds. It
faces the charge of promoting a life-threatening, body-denigrating
asceticism, of encouraging homocentric approaches to the environment,
and of favoring an ethic of individualism more generally. It has also been
accused of advancing a sexist agenda that privileges a male bias in
matters of inquiry and substance. (1995:567)
3

Dualism, therefore, is often dismissed as a theory that stems from a simple
category mistake (Ryle 1949) resulting in an unfortunate tendency to reify those
properties of human persons that we associate with mentality (Murphy 1998a; Herbert
1998).
4
Despite this strong consensus, however, Corcoran is able to claim that the mind-
body problem remains wide open (2001b:11). Indeed, discussions of dualism abound in
the literature.
5
This may be at least partially because of the continued pervasiveness of
dualistic thinking at the popular level.
6
But, it may also stem from a growing realization

3
For similar summaries of arguments against dualism see Swinburne 1986; Foster 1989, 1991,
2001; Moreland and Rae 2000; Moreland 2002.
4
Similarly, Harre argues that social and linguistic structures have a significant impact on
ontologies (1987).
5
Thus, introductions to philosophy of mind still routinely devote considerable attention to
substance dualism (e.g., Graham 1998; E. Lowe 2000; Cockburn 2001; Crane 2001; Maslin 2001; Heil
2004a).
6
Even many non-dualist philosophers affirm that some form of dualism is the common-sense
view of most people (e.g., Levin 1979; Shoemaker 1984a; J. Green 2005). Others, though, argue that
human persons have an equally strong intuition of our essential physicality and wholeness (van Inwagen
1995; Corcoran 2005). To a large degree, then, we are dealing here with a conflict of basic intuitions that
makes negotiating the various arguments quite difficult (cf. E. Lowe 2000:32).
179
that dualism actually comprises a family of theories, many of which are resistant to some
of the standard criticisms. Historically, dualism has included Platonic, Aristotelian,
7

Thomistic, Cartesian,
8
and Hobbesian dualism.
9
Corresponding to the rapid development
of philosophy of mind in the latter part of the twentieth century, these historic forms of
dualism have recently been supplemented by more recent formulations. Modern dualist
systems thus include basically Cartesian approaches (e.g., H. Lewis, W. Hart, Foster,
Robison)
10
along with theories like naturalistic dualism (e.g., Chalmers), emergent
dualism (e.g., Hasker, Zimmerman), Thomistic dualism (e.g., Moreland, Stump), and
more holistic forms of Cartesian dualism (e.g., Cooper, Goetz, Taliaferro).
11

This spectrum of positions suggests that any adequate criticism of dualism must
engage with more than the Platonic/Cartesian perspective.
12
Unfortunately, much of
what passes for a refutation of substance dualism focuses exclusively on this one
approach and fails to consider other dualist theories that might be more resistant to
criticism. Thus, Taliaferro, contests that a fairminded, reasoned case against dualism
must take seriously the ways in which a version of dualism may do justice to the unified
nature of embodied life (1994:568).
Given these newer forms of substance dualism which seek to do justice to the
psychophysical nature of the human person, it seems reasonable to engage the question
of whether it is possible to formulate a form of substance dualism that is compatible with
Barths christological framework despite Barths own disavowals. To do this, we will

7
This is not to say that Aristotle himself was a dualist, but that his philosophy has, at times, been
used to support dualist ontologies.
8
As a subset under Cartesian dualism we would also have to list the parallelistic theories
espoused by Leibniz and Malebranch.
9
Although criticisms have tended to focus on the more Platonic and Cartesian strands of dualism,
the Aristotelian and Thomistic branches have actually been far more prominent in much Western
philosophy and theology (cf. Crane and Patterson 2000; MacDonald 2003).
10
Although Foster and Robinson have presented significant defenses of substance dualism (Foster
1989, 1991, 2001; H. Robinson 1989, 2003, 2004), both prefer an idealist approach to human ontology
(see esp. Foster 1982).
11
Locating Swinburne within this spectrum of approaches can be somewhat challenging. As
Hasker points out, although his emphasis on evolutionary development would seem to suggest an emergent
theory of substance dualism, his creationist perspective on the origin of the soul and some of his language
regarding the mind/body relationship suggests a more Cartesian orientation (Hasker 1999).
12
Barth himself was well aware of many of these distinctions and took care to comment on
several distinct forms of Cartesian and Thomistic dualism (cf. III/2, 383-390).
180
first survey the form of substance dualism that is most often presented in the literature
and in response to which most forms of modern dualism have developedi.e., Cartesian
dualism. Having offered a definition of Cartesian dualism and a quick survey of the key
objections to this ontology, we will look at three significant types of substance dualism
that have recently been offered as providing a more holistic view of the human person.
Finally, as in the previous chapter, we will consider this more holistic form of substance
dualism against the requirements of Barths christological framework. Specifically, we
will look at whether or not even this more holistic approach offers a viable ontology in
light of problems surrounding mental causation, embodiment, and contingent
personhood.

2. What is Holistic Dualism?
To understand holistic dualism (HD) and the resources that it offers for
developing a christologically adequate ontology, it will be helpful to consider briefly the
more traditional Cartesian dualism (CD) that serves as the backdrop against which HD
developed. There is an ongoing debate regarding the extent to which what is often called
Cartesian dualism actually represents the position espoused by Descartes (cf. G. Baker
and Morris 1996). That debate need not concern us at this point. Rather, our focus will
remain primarily on CD as it has come to be understood by most philosophers.

2.1. Understanding the Cartesian Divide
2.1.1. The Basic Tenets of Cartesian Dualism
Substance dualism, at its most basic level, involves three claims:

(a) There is a mental realm and a physical realm;
(b) The mental and physical realms are both fundamental; and
(c) The mental and physical realms are ontologically distinct.
13

To understand CD, we will need to unpack each of these further.
According to substance dualists, it is simply evident that any explanation of
human persons must account for both physical and mental realities. The recognition of

13
This is adapted from Fosters list of basic dualist assertions (1991:1).
181
such a basic duality, according to many dualists, has been the common view of human
persons throughout history and in all cultures (Foster 1991:206; Moreland and Rae
2000:17; Goetz 2005:35). Given the pervasiveness of this viewpoint, dualists contend
that ontological dialog must begin from this point and that the burden of proof lies on
anyone who seeks to deny the reality of either aspect (Foster 1991:150; Goetz 2005:43).
Furthermore, not only must we acknowledge both realms, but also, substance
dualists argue, we must affirm that both are fundamental and, therefore not reducible to
something else (Foster 1991:2). Though property dualists are willing to affirm the
epistemological nonreduction of mental states, substance dualists argue that mental states
must be regarded as completely irreducible if we are to account for their unique
properties.
Typically, dualists contend that an examination of these two realms demonstrates
that they are so intuitively different from one another that the only plausible option is to
conclude that they constitute distinct and irreducible substances (e.g., Swinburne 1984;
Taliaferro 1994). A brief look at these differences will help establish exactly what
dualists have in mind.
First, as we saw in the previous chapter, dualists affirm the qualia of conscious
experiences. As Jacksons famous Knowledge Argument sought to demonstrate (1986),
these qualia seem very different from the physical properties of human persons.
Although the physicalist could respond that these phenomenological experiences only
seem to be distinct from their physical realizers, Taliaferro rightly points out that even
this admission causes problems for the physicalist since the existence of a
phenomenological seeming is itself a phenomenon in need of explanation (1994:70).
Physicalist attempts to functionalize mental states have similarly failed to convince
dualists given the widespread rejection of any attempt to functionalize qualia (cf. Foster
1991; Moreland and Rae 2000; Zimmerman 2004). Thus, we may be able to design a
mechanical system that can perform mental functions, but not one that can have
phenomenological experiences (Vendler 1994:319).
14

14
As Swinburne argues, attempts to provide reductive explanations of qualia merely separate
phenomenality from causality and explain the latter; but, it is the former that is key (1994:191). Thus,
some physicalists, like Kim, agree that qualia cannot be reduced to physical states but argue instead that
they must be viewed as the epiphenomenal productions of physical states (cf. Kim 1993c; 2004).
182
Second, mental states can be about somethingi.e., they can be intentional (cf.
Crane 1998, 2005).
15
According to Crane, Mental states like thoughts, beliefs, desires,
hopes (and others) exhibit intentionality in the sense that they are always directed on, or
at, something (2005). Physical states, on the other hand, simply are, they cannot be
about anything (Crane 1998; though cf. Bontly 2001).
16
Although many physicalists
contend that intentional states can be functionally reduced and, therefore, exhibited in
complex physical systems (e.g., Fodor 1987), dualists typically reject any attempt to
naturalize intentionality in this way, arguing instead that the very nature of intentionality
precludes the possibility of its realization in physical states (Moreland 2002; cf. Searle
1983).
And, third, mental states are accessible through first-person introspection and are,
therefore, privatei.e., only available to the person having them (see Myro 1994).
However, physical states are largely thought to be necessarily open and available to
analysis from a third-person perspectivei.e., they are publicly available to all
persons.
17
As we saw in the previous chapter, though, many physicalists agree with
substance dualists on these unique properties of mental states. The difference lies in the
nature of the substance underlying the properties. While physicalists contend that one
need only posit a single, physical substance in all of its complex forms to account for the
existence of mental properties (even if we are not able to provide an explanation of how
this actually works), dualists argue that the disparate nature of the properties involved
requires two, distinct substances, each with different sets of properties. Thus, dualists
often favorably cite McGinns arguments for the essentially mysterious nature of
mentality, though disagreeing with his physicalist presuppositions (e.g., Taliaferro
1994:193). It is important to note, then, that the disagreement does not center on the

15
Whether all mental states exhibit intentionality is an open discussion (cf. Pierre 2003). Crane
suggestively argues, though, that all mental states have some intentional content even if they cannot all be
exhaustively explained in intentional terms (2005).
16
Functionalists, though, contend that intentionality can be functionally reduced and, therefore,
exhibited in complex physical systems (cf. Fodor 1987).
17
Several other dualist arguments which could be placed here include the unity-of-consciousness
(cf. Hasker 1995, 1999, 2001; E. Lowe 1993, 2004; Goetz 2005) argument and the modal-properties
argument (cf. Taliaferro 1994; Moreland 2002). Each of these identifies ways in which the properties of
mental states are irreconcilably different from those of physical states.
183
existence or non-existence of mental properties but on the best possible explanation of
those properties (W. Hart 1988:29; Foster 1989:8; Hasker 1999:69; Taliaferro 2001).
18

In addition to dualisms affirmation of distinct substances, CD also affirms that
they are (at least) conceivably separable. Indeed, so strongly is the notion of separability
linked to substance dualism that many affirm this as its defining characteristic (e.g., W.
Hart 1988; L. Baker 2004; Barnes 2004). Thus, one of the primary arguments
traditionally used in defense of substance dualism relies entirely on the conceivability of
mind/body separation.
19
We must emphasize, though, that CD need only affirm the conceivability of such
ontological separation and not necessarily its actuality. Thus, Swinburne argues, By
saying that the person can continue if the body is destroyed I mean only that it is
logically possible, that there is no contradiction in supposing the soul to continue to exist
without its present body or indeed any body at all (Swinburne and Padgett 1994:146).
Similarly, E. J. Lowe asserts, though we have to regard [the self] as distinct from its
body, we are not required to think of the two as separable (except perhaps purely
conceptually, or purely in imagination) (2004:853). Consequently, a dualist like Popper
can remain agnostic about the actuality of the mind surviving the death of the body (see
Popper and Eccles 1977).
20

And, finally, according to CD, the mental and physical substances are
capable of entering into causal relationships with one another. The soul possesses a
peculiar causal relation with its body such that it is able to act directly upon the body
and be acted upon by the body. Although there are forms of substance dualism that

18
As Levin rightly points out, the differences between these two sets of properties do not, then,
constitute a decisive argument for substance dualism (1979). Instead, they comprise a data set that needs
explanation. Whether the dualist or the physicalist argument represents a better explanation of the data set
is what remains to be decided.
19
Simply stated, the modal argument, in use at least since Descartes, moves from conceivability
to metaphysical possibility (see van Cleve 1983; Swinburne 1984, 1998; Bealer 1994; G. Baker and Morris
1995; Plantinga 2003). In the context of the mind/body debate, the modal argument contends that the
conceivable separability of mind and body entails the metaphysical possibility of such separability and
their corresponding non-identity. An analysis of the extensive literature on this argument lies beyond our
reach at this point, but see Shoemaker 1984a; Alston and Smythe 1994; Hasker 1998; Goetz 2001.
20
Of course, Popper does not consider himself to be a dualist because he actually posits the
existence of three separate worlds (1994). Regardless, though, his position is entirely consistent with
substance dualism.
184
do not entail such psychophysical interaction, affirming instead some from of
psychophysical parallelism (e.g., pre-established harmony, epiphenomenalism, etc.),
most forms of substance dualism support causal transactions between the two
substances.
21

2.1.2. The Cartesian Soul
Given these two fundamentally distinct and conceivably separable substances
in the human person, what does CD believe about the nature of the human soul? For
our purposes, we can summarize CDs view of the soul in six assertions.

(a) The soul is simple. The soul is not a composite entity constructed out
of particles that are more basic.
22

(b) The soul is primitive. That is, the soul is not an emergent entity.
Rather, it is a fundamental substance not derivable from any other
substance.
23

(c) The soul is non-spatial. The soul is a non-physical substance and is,
therefore non-spatial and non-extended. Instead, it is an immaterial
substance, which does not inhabit physical space in any way.
(d) The soul is immortal. By nature the soul is immortal and incapable of
destruction.
24

(e) The soul is rational. By this, the Cartesian means that the soul is the
substance with which all of the rational faculties of the person are
associated. Thus, the soul alone is what thinks, wills, and chooses,
even if it must use the body (i.e., the brain) to accomplish this (at least
during its embodied state).

21
We will address this causal relationship later in the chapter.
22
For good discussions on this point see Zimmerman 2003 and E. Lowe 2001.
23
Although some speak of the soul as though it were made out of some generic immaterial
substance, it is more correct to speak of the dualist soul as a simple substance that is not constructed from
any other substance.
24
Although a variety of arguments have been put forward in support of this position, the most
common is that since the soul is a simple substance, it cannot be broken down into its constituent elements
(cf. Hasker 1999). But, for something to be destroyed is for it to be broken down in this way. Therefore,
the soul cannot be destroyed.
185
(f) The soul is the person. The person is the soul. The body is merely the
mechanism by which the person acts and expresses herself in the
world. The continuity of the person, therefore, involves only the
continuation of the immaterial soul; bodily continuity is not required.

2.1.3. Criticizing Cartesian Dualism
The substantial objections that can be raised against substance dualism have been
thoroughly addressed many times in the history of philosophy and do not need to be
rehearsed again at this point. In this section, then, we will merely list some of the more
prominent arguments as a means of understanding the problems that gave rise to more
holistic forms of substance dualism.
CDs struggles with mental causation are widely known and often constitute the
primary objection against substance dualism.
25
As we will see later in this chapter,
dualisms view of mental causation is criticized both for its inability to explain how a
causal relation could obtain between such disparate substances and for its alleged
scientific inadequacy.
A similar problem is raised by thinkers who contend that CD is unable to
account for the extensive psychophysical dependence established by the modern
sciences. Recent developments in modern science clearly establish the pervasive link
between physical states and mental states like emotions, personality, reasoning, morality,
religious experience, and, of course, consciousness itself (cf. Gazzaniga 1992, 1997;
Damasio 1994, 1999; LeDoux 2002a, 2002b; Ayala 1998; Libet, Freeman, and
Sutherland 1999; Feinberg 2001). Such evidence leads many to conclude that substance
dualism, with its premise that body and souls are two quite disparate thingseach
having almost nothing in common and only the flimsiest connection with the other (R.
Taylor 1983:13), is simply untenable (e.g., Jantzen 1984; Pannenberg 1991). After a
brief survey of several different ways substance dualism has tried to affirm
psychophysical interdependence (possession, occupancy, use, and causal interaction),

25
Several forms of substance dualism view the mental and physical substances as completely
independent such that they do not even interact causallyi.e., parallelism, occasionalism, and
epiphenomenalism (cf. Foster 1989; van Inwagen 2002:170). These forms of dualism, however, have been
much less popular than the traditional Cartesian approach, which maintains the distinctness of the mental
and physical substances while still arguing for some level of interaction.
186
Richard Taylor concludes that substance dualism is simply unable to articulate an
ontology that is adequate to these tight psychophysical links (1983:13-22). Despite
substance dualisms appeals to the contrary, critics contend that this approach inevitably
leads to an undue separation of the two substances and the ultimate disparagement and
devaluation of the principle of embodiment (e.g., Ryle 1949; Armstrong 1968; Jantzen
1984; Thatcher 1987).
Along the same lines, many argue that CD is generally inconsistent with the
modern understanding of the physical universe. As we saw in the previous chapter, most
contemporary philosophers hold to some form of physicalism with its commitment to the
causal and explanatory completeness of the physical universe.
26
Since dualism clearly
stands outside this framework, many conclude that it is scientifically unacceptable.
27

Another problem is raised by those who argue that the Cartesian principle that
souls are non-spatial and non-extended would make it impossible to individuate one soul
from another.
28
As Shoemaker points out, Cartesian souls cannot be individuated on the
basis of their non-relational properties since they are particulars rather than universals
and could, therefore, share their non-relational properties with another particular (1978).
Moreover, the possibility of individuating them on the basis of their relational properties
is severely weakened by the fact that they are non-spatial and thus cannot be individuated

26
Thus Atkins affirms that science is all competent and that any appeal to an explanation that
lies ostensibly outside the reach of the physical sciences is unacceptable (1987:13).
27
Some, like Murphy, offer a softer form of this argument which concedes that science does not
actually refute substance dualism, but that the physicalist program has, nonetheless, been more successful
and progressive (2002b). Therefore, according to this argument, dualism should be rejected as an
unnecessary postulate (e.g., Aune 1985; Crick 1994).
28
See esp. P. Strawson 1959; for a more recent presentation of the argument see Carruthers 2004.
Taliaferro offers three responses to this argument (1994:207-209). First, he contends that nonphysical
entities could be individuated in terms of their qualitative properties. Second, even if such qualitative
properties are insufficient for individuation, one could still appeal to some metaphysically deep, though
epistemologically unavailable, brute property that individuates such entities, i.e., haecceity. Finally, even if
these two arguments fail, it is not clear that the dualist has any more difficulty individuating nonphysical
entities than the physicalist has individuating physical entities (cf. Swartz 1991; Hoffman and Rosencrantz
1991).
187
on spatial terms as physical objects typically are. Although the dualist could posit some
non-spatial relation to individuate souls, it is not clear what such a relation would be.
29
Finally, since CD affirms a non-physical substance that is completely unavailable
to empirical observation, many contend that CD entails that human persons can only be
confident in their own mentality and must remain completely agnostic with respect to the
existence of other minds (cf. Hyslop 2005).
30
In other words, whether the person across
the table is actually a zombie with no mental life at all is something we can never know
confidently. This argument, though, is routinely dismissed by dualists, who argue that
even though dualism entails that we cannot have indubitable knowledge of other
peoples mental states, this does not entail that we must, therefore, be skeptical about
their existence (cf. H. Lewis 1982; Foster 1989; Moreland 2002).
31
Needless to say, dualists have not been silent on these matters and have offered a
number of significant responses to each of these objections (see esp. H. Lewis 1982; W.
Hart 1988; Swinburne and Padgett 1994; Foster 1991; Taliaferro 1994; Hasker 1999;
Moreland 1992, 2002; Moreland and Rae 2000). Generally such responses have fallen
into one of two categories. Some dualists argue that these objections can all be
overcome. Consequently, they affirm the coherence of a largely Cartesian ontology (e.g.,
H. Lewis 1982; W. Hart 1988; Foster 1991). Others argue that although these objections
to Cartesian dualism are not decisive, they do suggest some weaknesses in the Cartesian
model, but ones that can be countered by offering an alternate form of dualism (e.g.,

29
Shoemaker actually affirms the conceivability of such quasi-spatial relationships, though he
concedes that the notion is problematic (1978).
30
A similar argument, the private language argument presented by Wittgenstein, on the other
hand, asserts that private access to mental states causes a problem for understanding the language that we
use to refer to them (see Candlish 2004). If such language is based on ostensive reference to completely
private mental events, then it would seem to be a private language understandable only to the user. But,
according to Wittgenstein, such a language would be incomprehensible to the user herself since the
meaningfulness of all language is grounded in particular forms of common life (cf. Philosophical
Investigations 244-271). Given the incredibly complex nature of the debate surrounding the proper
interpretation and evaluation of Wittgensteins arguments and the fact that the private language argument,
though typically addressed to substance dualists, actually touches on any ontology that affirms private
access to mental events (including many forms of NRP), we will not address this argument in this study
(but see Taliaferros very helpful account of ostension and private-access [1994]).
31
Taliaferro thus lays out at least five ways that the problem from other minds can be met
(1994:154-158).
188
Taliaferro 1994; Hasker 1999; Moreland and Rae 2000). The rest of this paper will focus
on the second response and will consider whether the more holistic forms of substance
dualism offered by these thinkers offers a tenable basis upon which to explicate a
christologically acceptable anthropological ontology.

2.2. Understanding the Holistic Alternative
Despite these significant criticisms, then, many dualists have responded by
agreeing with many of the concerns that they raise, but denying that they affect all forms
of dualism.
32
By affirming a holistic understanding of human persons, HD seeks an
ontology that can maintain the basic commitments of CD (i.e., two ontologically distinct
substances that are conceivably separable), while still affirming the functional
interdependence of the entire person. Thus, according to Cooper

Holismaffirms the functional unity of some entity in its totality,
the integration and interrelation of all the parts in the existence and proper
operation of the whole. It views an entity as a single primary functional
system, not as a compound system constructed by linking two or more
primary functional systems. It recognizes entities as phenomenological
and existential unities. It implies that the parts do not operate
independently within the whole, and that they would not necessarily
continue to have all the same properties and functions if the whole were
broken up. (2000:45).

On this understanding, rather than viewing body and soul as disparate ontological
pieces and identifying the human person with one piece, HD views the human person
as one functional whole. Although it is conceivable that the person could survive the
death of the body, it would be a truncated existence limited by the demise of the
functional psychophysical union. We will, therefore, understand holistic dualism to refer

32
Hasker argues that all forms of substance dualism are theoretically consistent with the
kind of holistic approach argued for by him and others (1999:149). Taliaferro similarly states that his
version of dualism is entirely consistent with the more traditional forms of substance dualism offered by
thinkers like Foster or W. Hart; it simply places a greater emphasis on a unified understanding of the
person (1994:115-116).Whether this is actually the case, lies outside the scope of this chapter.
189
to any ontology that affirms the basic commitments of Cartesian dualism while arguing
for a deeper and more integrated body/soul relationship.

2.2.1. Different Brands of Holistic Dualism
CARTESIAN HOLISM. Holistic dualists typically seek to unpack this
psychophysical unity in one of three ways. Some simply retain the Cartesian system but
place a greater emphasis on psychophysical interdependence. This would seem to be the
best way to understand Taliaferros integrative dualism (1994, 1995; cf. Cooper 2000;
Goetz 2005). Taliaferro describes his position as an attempt to articulate how a dualist
may view the person and body as profoundly unified, while still remaining
metaphysically distinct (1994:115).
33
Although he thinks that the picture of an
excessively fragmented version of dualism has been perpetuated primarily by dualisms
critics, he nonetheless maintains that traditional dualism has tended toward an
unfortunate overemphasis on the disparity between the two substances (ibid., 115-116).
According to this view, substance dualism is entirely compatible with the idea that
persons and bodies exist in a profoundly integral union and, therefore, that they can be
treated as a single unit in ethical, social, political, and aesthetic contexts, as well as most
scientific ones (ibid., 16).
34
He even goes so far as to state the body and person form a
substantial unity (ibid., 120).
EMERGENT DUALISM. Another approach that has recently received significant
attention is the idea that minds and bodies are integrally related because minds are
emergent entitiesi.e., mental substances emerge from properly configured physical
systems (cf. Popper 1977, 1994; Swinburne 1984; Hasker 1999, 2001, 2005; Zimmerman
2004).
35
Thus, Hasker argues that we should view the human mind as something that is

33
Taliaferro is, therefore, rightly critical of philosophers like Dennett and Ryle who lampoon
substance dualism as entailing a ghostly self floating around the body (1994:115).
34
The mere fact that ontological separation exists as a possibility under the extreme condition of
physical death, according to Taliaferro, does not preclude the reality of functional unity (1994:116).
35
Like other forms of dualism, though, emergent dualism has come under criticism for being
unable to explain this emergent relationship. This is because it seems to leave us with the conclusion that
either the physical substrate possesses the properties and capacities of the emergent substance, at least in a
protoemergent state, or that the properties and capacities of the emergent substance are completely
unrelated to its substrate. If the former, we seem to be dealing with some form of proto-panpsychism
(Hasker suggests this as the primary cost of an emergent dualism [1999:194]); if the latter, the relationship
190
produced by the human brain and is not a separate element added to the brain from
outside (1999:189). Such properties are emergent in that

they manifest themselves when the appropriate material
constituents are placed in special, highly complex relationships, but these
properties are not observable in simpler configurations nor are they
derivable from the laws which describe the properties of matter as it
behaves in these simpler configurations. (Hasker 1999:189-190).

While we saw in the previous chapter that there is a form of emergentism that is
broadly compatible with physicalist commitments, emergent dualism transcends this
framework by arguing that what emerges from the physical substrate are not merely
emergent properties, but emergent substances.
36
Thus, although emergent dualists argue
for on ontologically deep relation between the mental and physical substances, once the
mental substance emerges, it is a distinct substance that is at least conceivably divisible
from its physical counterpart (see Hasker 1999).
37

THOMISTIC DUALISM. Finally, a renewed interest in Aristotelian and Thomistic
ontologies has generated a number of proposals for understanding substance dualism in
terms of the soul as the form of the body (Braine 1992; Stump 1995; Moreland and Rae
2000; Leftow 2001). We will not be concerned in this chapter with the ontologies of
Aristotle or Aquinas themselves, and we certainly will not attempt to resolve the long-
standing disagreement about whether they are properly understood as physicalists or
dualists.
38
Rather, we will direct our attention to the way in which their philosophy has
been used recently to construct a form of HD.

is brute and inexplicable (Lockwood 2003). Thus, Clayton (2005) notes that one of the primary concerns
about emergence is that it is often portrayed as a purely negative ontological thesis with few positive
contributions to make to the explanatory task. While neither of these constitutes an insurmountable
objection to emergent dualism, they certainly raise some concerns.
36
Emergent dualists eschew limiting emergence to emergent properties for largely the same
reasons that they reject physicalism as a whole, i.e., they do not believe that any form of physicalistic
monism is adequate for explaining the data provided by humanitys mental life (cf. Hasker 1999).
37
Hasker appeals to the analogy of a magnetic field to illustrate this (1999; 2005).
38
With respect to Aristotle, van der Eijk points out that scholarly consensus on his view of the
soul has proved impossible to this point and that this may well stem both from Aristotles varied
philosophical background and from tensions within his philosophy (2000). Similarly, Aquinas
191
According to Aquinas, as is widely known, the soul is the form of the body.
39

Thus, for thomistic ontologies, all material objects comprise a material composite (i.e.,
the matter from which the person derives) and a substantial form, which determines the
essential nature of the object.
40
For the human person, then, the soul is the substantial
formin virtue of which the matter informed by itconstitutes a living human body
(Stump 1995:508).
41
Thomists thus view the soul as an individuated essence that makes
the body a human body and that diffuses, informs, animates, develops, unifies and
grounds the biological functions of its body (Moreland and Rae 2000:202).
42

Additionally, thomists generally agree that it is (at least) conceivable that the soul could
survive the death of the body, though its existence would be sharply limited (see Stump
1995; Leftow 2001).
Although some might prefer to view this more thomistic approach as a non-
dualistic understanding of the human person, it fits the general parameters for HD that
we have established herei.e., they affirm two ontologically fundamental aspects in the
human person that are conceivably divisible such that the soul could continue to exist

understanding of human ontology has generated significant debate, with some thinkers concluding that his
view is simply incoherent (e.g., Hasker 1999, 2005).
39
Summa Theologica Ia.76.1.
40
There is some ambiguity in the thomistic approach regarding the nature of the soul as an
individuating principle. From one perspective it seems that the soul is an abstract universal (Leftow seems
more inclined in this direction [2001]). Since the soul is that which determines the nature of an object, it
seems to be something shared by all members of a species. But, thomists generally regard the soul as a
particular that serves to individuate the human person (Stump 1995; Moreland and Rae 2000).
41
It is important, then, not to confuse form with shape. The form is that which determines the
essential nature of the entity, which certainly has a bearing on its shape, while the shape is a function of its
material elements (Stump 1995).
42
There seems to be some ambiguity regarding how the soul originates. Several thomists argue
that forms can be understood as configurational states that emerge from material entities (e.g., Stump
1995; Leftow 2001). On this view, the material from which human persons are formed, contain the
potentiality for a soul-form that emerges when they enter into the proper configurational state. This seems
to conflict, though, with the more traditional view that souls are specially created by God and infused into
the material substrate (Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Ia.90.2; cf. Moreland and Rae 2000). Indeed, in a
manner very similar to Swinburne, Stump seems to affirm that souls are both emergent configurational
states and that they are specially created by God, without providing any real explanation of how these fit
together (1995).
192
after physical death, albeit in a limited fashion. Indeed Moreland and Rae explicitly
affirm the dualistic implications of the thomistic approach (2000).

2.2.2. Not Your Traditional Substance Dualism
These three forms of HD each represent different ways of affirming the basic
tenets of CD, while avoiding some of its more negative implications. Of course, since all
forms of HD are still varieties of substance dualism, they all maintain that body and soul
are ontologically distinct and at least conceivably separable. Additionally, all forms of
HD continue to view the soul as ontologically simple and as being that which explains
the rational capacities (among other things) of the human person.
There are some marked differences on the other points, however. Thus, Cartesian
dualism maintains CDs view that the soul is primitive while emergent dualists and most
thomistic dualists depict the soul as at least somewhat derivative (though cf. Moreland
and Rae 2000). Similarly, Cartesian dualists are more inclined to retain CDs view of the
person as identical with the soul, while the other two tend to assert that the person is a
composite entity (though again see Moreland and Rae 2000).
The different forms of HD, though, are united in affirming several key
differences with the more traditional Cartesian view. First, all three affirm that the soul
has a spatial locus.
43
Although the various proposals differ with respect to the precise
nature of this spatiality, they all agree that the body provides a spatial locus for the soul
in a way that is markedly lacking in CD.
44
Second, holists are united in affirming that,
while the soul accounts for the rational capacities of the person, it must be expanded to
account for emotional, phenomenal, and sub-conscious factors as well (see especially
Taliaferro 1994). Holists are, therefore, careful to present a much broader picture of the
soul than is typically associated with CD. And, finally, as we will discuss later, holists
are united in affirming that the soul is not naturally immortal.
These three different kinds of holistic dualism go a long way toward easing some
of the concerns expressed with respect to substance dualism. All three approaches offer a

43
This means that HD is more resistant than CD to the problem of individuation (i.e., that souls
cannot be individuated because they are non-spatial).
44
This spatiality is easier to affirm for emergent and thomistic dualists with their emphasis on the
soul as deriving from a particular physical system. Although Cartesian holists tend to affirm that the soul
has a unique spatial relation to its body, it is harder to understand why this is the case.
193
slightly different understanding of the mind or soul and its relationship to the body, but
each contends that its version of dualism maintains their integral union while still
affirming their ontological distinctiveness. Thinkers from each camp thus argue that
some form of HD is superior to CD in its ability to handle the standard criticisms (Stump
1995:522-523; Hasker 1999:317; Moreland and Rae 2000:200-201). While we cannot
consider this claim in depth, we will look in the following section at the extent to which
HD presents an anthropological ontology that is adequate to Barths christological
criteria.

3. Christology and Coherence: The Viability of Holistic Forms of Dualism
We saw in the previous chapter how the ontological criteria of a christological
anthropology could be used to evaluate the adequacy of mind/body theories that rely on
some from of nonreductive physicalism. In this section, we will apply the same
methodology to determine the viability of HD for developing an anthropological
ontology that can operate effectively within this christological framework.
For the purposes of this chapter, we shall focus our discussion on the three
ontological criteria that seem most vulnerable on a dualist account of the human person:
mental causation, embodiment, and contingent personhood. This is not to say that HD is
not susceptible to critiques with respect to the other criteria, but that these are the ones
most commonly noted.

3.1. Making Things Happen: The Problem of Mental Causation (Again)
Since psychophysical causal interaction is part of the very definition of the type
of dualism that we are considering in this chapter, questions related to the coherence of
its account of mental causation will be critical for determining its overall adequacy. As
we noted earlier, however, the problem of providing an adequate account of the causal
relationship between the mental and the physical has long plagued Cartesian dualism.
Many philosophers have thus concluded that, despite dualisms long efforts to overcome
the problem, the scandal of Cartesian Interactionism (B. Williams 1978:287; cf.
Richardson 1982) remains a decisive objection (e.g., Armstrong 1968; Levin 1979;
194
Braddon-Mitchell and Jackson 1996; Kim 2001, 2004; Murphy 2002a).
45
Thus Murphy
states, the failure of three hundred years of attempts to solve the problem of mind-body
interaction gives good grounds for saying that the problem is essentially insoluble
(2002b:203).
46
We cannot possibly hope to resolve such a long-standing debate in this short
section. Instead, we will survey the arguments and relevant responses to evaluate the
resources that HD has for addressing this problem.

3.1.1. The Dissimilarity & Spatiality Problems
Among the oldest and most frequently cited objections to dualist causation, is the
claim that the mental and physical substances, according to dualism, are simply so
different from one another as to disallow any possibility of causal interaction.
Richardson calls this the problem of heterogeneity (1982). In her letter to Descartes,
Princess Elizabeth thus noted that causation in the physical realm seems necessarily to
involve properties like motion, spatiality, and extension.
47
And, yet, these are the very
properties that are excluded by CD.
48
Similarly, Richard Taylor argues:

However natural it may seem to conceive a person in such terms,
as a dual complex of two wholly disparate things, body and mind, it is
nonetheless an impossible conception, on the simplest metaphysical
grounds. For on this view, the body and the mind are wholly disparate
things, so that any bodily change wrought by the mind or by some

45
Indeed, this objection to substance dualism has been so well established in the minds of many
philosophers that Foster complains, many philosophers regard the problem as self-evident and not calling
for further elucidation: they take it as just obvious that there is something deeply puzzling, perhaps even
incoherent in the dualism account of causation (1991:159).
46
One common response offered by dualists to physicalist criticisms of its account of
psychophysical causation is to contend that psychophysical causation is a basic datum of human
experience that cannot be simply set aside (Swinburne 1984; Foster 1991; Taliafferro 1994). As we saw in
the last chapter, though, physicalist in no way exclude or ignore this basic datum but take it as an important
aspect of any adequate ontology.
47
Cited in Himma 2005.
48
We will deal with a specific form of this objection based on the non-spatial nature of the soul in
CD a little later when we discuss the causal pairing problem.
195
nonphysical occurrence transpiring therein is a change that lies quite
outside the realm of physical law. This means that human behavior is
veritably miraculous. (1983:18)

It is simply inconceivable, according to Taylor, that an idea can cause a physical
event to occur: Try, I say, to form a conception of this, and then confess that, as soon as
the smallest attempt at any description is made, the description becomes unintelligible
and the conception an impossible one (ibid., 21).
49

Holistic dualists are at one with traditional Cartesian dualists, though, in arguing
that this particular objection is clearly inadequate for refuting dualism. Descartes
responded to this objection in two ways (Richardson 1982). First, Descartes argued that
this objection makes an illegitimate comparison between mental and physical causation.
Since mental substances are significantly different from their physical counterparts, there
is simply no reason to assume that mental causation will be comparable to physical
causation. Descartes second response, was to argue that the psychophysical causal
relationship was utterly mysterious and that its ultimate resolution lay beyond our ability
to achieve satisfactorily.
These two responses continue to characterize large strands of dualist philosophy.
Thus, many dualists similarly contend that mental causation is distinct from physical
causation and that physicalist arguments against mental causation are, therefore, invalid
(e.g., Richardson 1982).
50
Indeed, Hasker quips, The dualist besieged by arguments of
this sort would do well to repeat to herself, from time to time, Psychophysical causation
is not physical causation (1999:151). Similarly, dualists often follow Descartes is
claiming the essentially mysterious nature of psychophysical causation (e.g., H. Lewis

49
Of course, part of the reason that such a concept is unintelligible is because it completely
ignores the dualist concept of mental substances as ontologically real entities with causal powers, rather
than merely abstract ideas.

50
Indeed, Foster argues that the influence of physicalist models of causation is the very
root of the problem: One reason why we may think that there is an a priori problem for the dualist is that
our conception of the nature of causation tends to be strongly conditioned by the ways in which causality
operates in the physical realm (1991:159). Similarly, Lowe contends that dualists should jettison the
Cartesian notion that causation is mechanical and must involve setting bodies in motion and stop thinking
that minds must influence physical events by (directly) affecting the state of motion of physical particles
(1992:271).
196
1982; Goetz 2005), often arguing that the psychophysical relation is a fundamental (i.e.,
brute) relation that is simply inexplicable on any other terms (e.g., Foster 1991:160).
51
Such responses, though, have not tended to impress physicalist philosophers. As
Richardson notes, these arguments seem, jointly, to be little more than an insistence that
the interaction of mind and body be accepted, together with the claim that such
interaction is inexplicable (1982:21). As we saw in the previous chapter, though, and as
dualists frequently point out, the physicalist account of causation runs into an equal
number of problems (see esp. Himma 2005). Thus, dualists often appeal to Humes
account of causation to point out that all causal relationships are inherently opaque and
that physicalist causation is no less fundamentally mysterious than mental causation (H.
Lewis 1982; Swinburne 1984; Foster 1991; E. Lowe 1992, 2000; Hasker 1999). Indeed,
Kim points out the irony that

abandoning the substantival dualism of Descartes doesnt get us
out of the woods as far as mental causation is concerned. Indeed one
notable development in the recent philosophy of mind is the return of the
problem of mental causation as a serious challenge to mainstream
physicalism, a phenomenon that would have amused Descartes.
(1998b:39)

Another form of the dissimilarity problem that deserves mention is the contention
that spatial relations are necessary for causation in the physical world (cf. E. Lowe
1992). Since CD denies that the body is spatial, according to this objection, it cannot
enter into causal relations with physical substances. Of course, this objection can also be
responded to as before by arguing that mental and physical causation are different.
52

Additionally, since most forms of holistic dualism posit that the soul is spatially located,
they do not have a problem at this point (Goetz 1994, 2005; cf. Quinn 1997).

51
For Taliaferro, the mind/body relationship cannot even be understood in terms of some form of
necessary correlation (1994:128).
52
Some have argued that modern science makes the idea of causation at a distance less
problematic (e.g., H. Lewis 1973; Heil 2004b:815). The difficulty with this argument, however, is the idea
of action across a distance presumes the very kind of spatial location that is precluded on the Cartesian
account of the soul.
197
Finally, the argument from dissimilarity fails to provide any traction on the
problem because of its failure to provide any defense for its basic intuition. As Kim
points out,

But as an argument this is incomplete and unsatisfying. As it
stands, it is not much of an argumentit hardly gets started; rather, it
only expresses a vague dissatisfaction of the sort that ought to prompt us
to look for a real argument. Why is it incoherent to think that there can be
causal relations between diverse substances? (2001:32).

The other arguments that we will consider, then, seek to provide exactly such an
explanation for why dualistic causation is either incoherent or, at least, improbable.

3.1.2. The Causal Pairing Problem
One argument that has recently received significant attention is the contention
that dualistic causation is incoherent because it cannot provide any explanation for the
causal relation that obtains between particular souls and the relevant bodies (cf. esp.
Foster 1968, 1989, 1991; Kim 2001). Suppose that we have a situation in which two
souls, s
1
and s
2
, interact causally with two bodies, b
1
and b
2
. What is the precise
relationship which establishes that s
1
causally interacts with b
1
and not b
2
? Since causal
relations are typically understood in terms of the nomological relation of noncausal
properties (cf. Foster 1991),
53
the causal pairing argument is a call for dualists to provide
just such an account.
As Foster points out, though, such an account is very difficult to provide on
dualist terms (1989). Causal laws based on mere temporal correlation are of no use since
they would not rule out the possibility of an effect on b
2
that is temporally correlated with
the action of s
1
. Given the non-spatial soul of CD, Foster argues, the dualist is also
prevented from relying on the spatial relationships utilized to explain physical causal

53
On this understanding of causation, as Foster describes it, causal relationships between events
are always constituted by certain non-causal properties of the situation, together with the relevant covering
laws (1991:167).
198
pairing.
54
The causal pairing argument, therefore, suggests that the dualist has no way of
accounting for the unique causal relation between a soul and its body.
Dualists might try to counter this objection, as before, by arguing that the causal
relation is brute (cf. Richardson 1982; Foster 1989, 1991; Goetz 1994). Theists could
carry the argument further by simply maintaining that God establishes the proper causal
relations when a soul comes into being and that no further explanation is necessary. Kim
rightly argues, however, that this misses the point of the argument (2001). The causal
pairing argument does not call on dualists to provide an explanation of how the causal
relation comes into being but what the causal relation is. In other words, regardless of
how it came into being there must be some causal relation R between a soul and its body.
The causal pairing argument is a call for dualists to explain what R is.
Some dualists contend that we should simply reject the premises upon which this
argument is based. After a rather thorough discussion of the problemindeed, he seems
to have introduced the problem (cf. Foster 1968)Foster contends dualists should either
reject the demand for a nomological account of causal pairings, or they should reject the
demand for general covering laws and rely instead on particular laws limited to
particular body/soul relations (1989, 1991). Other dualists argue that the whole causal
framework built around event causation needs to be discarded in favor of a more
substantial view of causation (e.g., Goetz 1994; Moreland and Rae 2000).
The holistic dualist, however, does not need to reconstruct a theory of causality in
this way. Causal pairing only appears to be a problem for dualists because of the
Cartesian understanding of souls as non-spatial and non-extended. Since causal pairing
in a physical system is normally established on the basis of spatial relations, the lack of
such relations is what makes it difficult for the dualist to handle the problem.
55
Thus, the
causal pairing problem is a problem for dualists only if dualism entails that we do not

54
The causal pairing argument should, therefore, not be confused with a nave appeal to physical
connection as an explanation of causation, an argument that is easily defeated by dualists. Rather, the
causal pairing argument simply calls for an explanation of the causal relation and argues that any coherent
explanation will entail an appeal to spatial relations of some kind. Shoemakers argument that the dualist
can simply appeal to quasi-spatial relations to establish causal relations is conceivable, but, as he points
out, seems less probable than the spatial account (1978).
55
Kim argues that the causal pairing problem afflicts even soul-to-soul causation on the dualist
account (2001). That is, on the Cartesian account of souls, there does not seem to be any way of
establishing causal relations between souls that would make soul-to-soul causal interaction coherent.
199
have the slightest hint of any relation holding between souls and bodies (Hoffman and
Rosencrantz 1997:197). But, HD affirms that the soul has precisely such a spatio-causal
relation to a particular body and, therefore, seems to escape the force of the objection
(Zimmerman 2004:319).
56
Even Cartesian Holism, affirms that the soul has such a
spatial locus, even if it fails to provide any metaphysically deep explanation for this
relation (cf. Goetz 1994, 2005; Taliaferro 1994).

3.1.3. The Principles of Science Problem
The objections most commonly raised to dualist interactionism are those
stemming from the physicalist framework that predominates among contemporary
philosophers. As E. J. Lowe notes, The more serious area of concern is created by the
suspicion that dualist views of the mind-body relation...are somehow at odds with the
findings of modern physical science: not only physiology and neurology, but also, more
fundamentally, physics itself (1992:263). Along these lines, we can identify objections
stemming from at least three different principles: causal completeness, explanatory
exclusion, and conservation of energy.
The first two objections (causal completeness and explanatory exclusion) should
already be familiar to us from the previous chapter and we will not rehearse those
arguments again. Suffice it to say that these arguments are even more pointed when
directed at dualist philosophers, many of whom explicitly reject both principles (e.g.,
Popper and Eccles 1977; Foster 1991; Hodgson 1991; Hasker 1999). Dualists thus
contend that although CCP and explanatory exclusion may be valid methodological
commitments for the physical sciences, we overstep our bounds when we try to make
them metaphysical theses (Goetz 2005).
In addition to simply setting aside CCP as a metaphysical thesis, dualists offer a
number of other responses. Probably the most common is to contend that the objection
begs the question (e.g., E. Lowe 1993; Hasker 1999; Moreland 2002). On this argument,
the physicalist presumption that physical events can only be caused by and explained in

56
Goetz disagrees with this causal framework entirely, arguing that causal relations are
established on the basis of a basic causal ontology, rather than spatial relations (1994). Regardless of
whether this argument is successful, though, it seems that causal pairing is not as significant a problem for
HD as for CD.
200
terms of other physical events is precisely what dualism denies. To criticize dualism for
failing to maintain these principles, then, simply begs the question.
Some have argued in rejoinder, however, that this counter-argument misses the
point of the physicalist objection (e.g., Larmer 1986:280-281). Physicalists do not merely
criticize dualists for failing to maintain the physicalist framework, but primarily for
positing a theory than has little or no support from the physical sciences. Thus, as Lowe
rightly points out, The claim that only the physical can have causal powersor, at least
that only the physical can causally affect the physicalmay be seen by many not just as
some question-begging antidualist prejudice, but as a cornerstone of modern physical
science (1992:265; cf. Kim 2004). Given sciences superior explanatory track record,
physicalists argue, we should assume a scientific framework unless and until it is proven
wrong.
A dualist might fairly ask, however, what might qualify as proof in this
argument? It seems likely that the only thing such a physicalist would count a proof
would be those things that qualify as evidence in a physicalist framework. But this would
seem to predetermine the outcome. Thus, many holistic dualists argue that the physical
sciences themselves are simply inadequate for addressing the fundamental issues
involved in this debate (e.g., Moreland and Rae 2000; Swinburne 2003). This does not
mean that holistic dualists reject science itself; indeed, many of them rely heavily on the
sciences for informing their understanding of how the psychophysical relationship works
(e.g., Eccles 1977, 1979; Taliaferro 1994; E. Lowe 2004). But, unlike thinkers who
affirm that science is all-competent (Atkins 1987:13), holistic dualists contend that
science is inherently limited in its ability to speak to the existence and nature of the soul.
A second response, however, is to note that the physicalist solution is itself
untenable. As we saw in the previous chapter, both reductive and nonreductive forms of
physicalism struggle to explain mental causation in a way that maintains the causal
significance of the mental while avoiding the problems of physicalistic determinism.
Consequently, some dualists simply note that given a choice between the two, the dualist
framework is superior in terms of its ability to affirm the causal efficacy of the mental
and the free agency of the human person (e.g., E. Lowe 1992; Hasker 1999; Zimmerman
201
2004). As we have seen though, whether the physicalist account of mental causation is as
untenable as this response contends remains an open question.
57

Another objection commonly encountered in the literature is that dualistic
psychophysical causation is scientifically untenable because it would violate the
Principle of the Conservation of Energy (COE).
58
In other words, dualist interaction
entails that mental substances are able to cause changes in physical systems. But, any
such change seems to entail a change in the total energy of the physical system, thus
violating COE. As Larmer notes, however, To many thinkers, this seems too high a
price to pay, since to deny the Principle of the Conservation of Energy is to deny one of
the most fundamental scientific laws (1986:277).
Popper argues that COE should be understood as a statistical principle and
suggests that mental causation would not constitute a violation of COE so long as mental
acts only involved small amounts of energy. Larmer rightly points out, however, that
even if individual mental acts only involve small amounts of energy, the tremendous
number of mental acts occurring on a regular basis would certainly constitute a
statistically significant contribution to the overall state of the system (ibid.).
Larmer argues instead that science only entails a weak form of COE, one that
holds only for closed systems (ibid.; cf. Averill 1981). Psychophysical causation,
therefore, does not violate COE since mental substances lie outside the physical system.
While Larmer is certainly correct that psychophysical causation would not violate a weak
form of COE, he does not consider the physicalists most likely rejoinderi.e., that (1)
the lack of evidence for any mental substances outside the physical system and (2) the
weight of evidence that the total state of energy of the physical system does not change
both support the conclusion that a strong form of COE is justified even if not logically
required.

57
Two other responses that have been offered by dualists, the possibility of pervasive causal
overdetermination (e.g., Mills 1996) and the contention that theistic causation renders these objections
untenable (e.g., Zimmerman 2004; Goetz 2005), were mentioned in the previous chapter and, therefore,
will not be pursued here.
58
Apparently this objection was first formulated by Leibniz (Averill 1981). Versions of the
argument can also be found in Armstrong 1968 and Dennett 1983.
202
It would seem, then, that the dualists best response to this objection is to argue
again that psychophysical causation is simply different than physical causation.
59
In
other words, since mental causation differs from physical causation, there is no reason to
suppose that mental causation requires the transfer of energy. Even though physical-to-
physical causation always requires the transfer of energy, it is not necessary to conclude
the same for mental-to-mental or mental-to-physical causation. While the physicalist will
certainly not be convinced by this argument, it is logically consistent with the dualists
own framework.
The basic dualist rejoinder to objections based on the principles of science to its
understanding of mental causation, then, comprises the claim that psychophysical
causation is of an inherently different kind than physical causation. Consequently,
psychophysical causation cannot be fairly criticized on the basis of physicalist criticisms
stemming from causal completeness, explanatory exclusion, and the conservation of
energy, since those principles simply do not apply outside the physical realm.

3.1.4. The Explanatory Problem
One final argument that we should consider is the contention that as long as
substance dualism is unable to provide an explanation of psychophysical causation it
should be rejected. To call ones dualism integrative does not help us much,
according to Schouten, as long as we are kept in the dark as to how this (causal)
bridging of the corporeal and mental realms takes place (2001:694). In other words, if
the mind is able to interact causally with the body and, therefore, cause physical changes
in the body, we should be able to provide some theory as to how and where this causal
transaction takes place. Thus, Armstrong argues forcefully that the dualist needs to be
able to provide some empirically verifiable theory about the locus of causal interaction

59
Larmer also notes that some have suggested that psychophysical causation could be made
consistent with COE if one posited that any change in energy caused by a mental action would be balanced
by a corresponding change elsewhere in the system (1986). While this is logically conceivable, Larmer
rightly questions its plausibility. Additionally, some have argued that quantum science provides support for
the idea that physical systems are not hermetically sealed off from outside forces (Taliaferro
1994:221). Whether such appeals to quantum mechanics can provide the necessary support for dualist
causation, though, would require a far more extensive understanding and analysis of quantum theory than
is possible in this chapter and, indeed, than is normally offered by dualists appealing to it (though cf.
Penrose 1989).
203
(1999). This is, of course, the problem that Descartes was attempting to address with his
infamous appeal to the pineal gland as the locus of psychophysical interaction (cf.
Treatise of Man and The Passions of the Soul).
Dualists have offered two responses to this argument.
60
First, one could accept
the challenge and attempt to provide a specific and testable theory of causal interaction.
The most famous such attempt was put forward by the neuroscientist Sir John Eccles
(see esp. Eccles and Popper 1977; Eccles 1979). Eccles posited that psychophysical
interaction could be understood in terms of certain areas of the brain that potentially are
capable of being in direct liaison with the self-conscious mind (1977:358). This liaison
brain is a broadly distributed physical system, only a small portion of which is ever
actually interacting with the mind at a given moment in time. The self-conscious mind
affects psychophysical interaction by scanning the relevant modules of the brain (i.e., the
liaison brain) and selectively modifying the dynamic spatio-temporal patterns of the
neuronal events (1979:227).
61
Since this interaction requires very little energy and is
broadly distributed throughout the brain, it will be difficult to detect.
62
Nonetheless,
Eccles views his theory as a kind of research programme that raises many questions
which demand detailed theories (1977:37). Indeed, much of Eccles work involves a
pursuit of just such a scientific analysis.
Evaluating the specifics of Eccles proposal would take us too far from our task.
It does seem significant, however, that his research program has failed to generate any
significant following among neuroscientists in general. While his approach exemplifies
what a dualist attempt to explicate the locus of psychophysical interaction might look
like, it does not seem to have provided an adequate basis upon which to develop such an
explanation.
63

60
Thomistic dualism can actually be read in two different ways on the question of causal
transaction. Some thomistic dualists argue for such tight psychophysical relation within the hylomorphic
system as to disallow any talk of psychophysical interaction (Stump 1995; cf. Machuga 2002). If
thomistic hylomorphism is understood in this way, however, it results in an ontology that is little different
from the forms of NRP considered in the previous chapter.
61
That this account requires both reading and modifying the physical brain is what prevents
Eccles account from being a form of psychophysical parallelism (Eccles 1979:229).
62
Lowe also argues that mental causation should be understood in terms of a broadly distributed
engagement with the mind rather than as a direct cause of a specific neuronal event (1992).

63
If nothing else, Eccles work demonstrates that those who argue, like Richard Taylor,
that any attempt to spell out in detail a scientific account of dualist causation will quickly demonstrate
204
A second response, however, simply dismisses the demand for a scientific theory.
Thus, Goetz argues, Why, however, think that the dualists needs at all, let alone
urgently needs, an empirically testable scientific theory about the location of causal
interaction between a soul and its body? (2005:53). According to Goetz, the reason
dualists do not need such an account is because belief in dualism is not grounded on
empirical arguments of this sort. On the contrary, a belief in dualism is grounded in the
sorts of intuitively available evidence that we discussed at the beginning of the chapter.
While the dualist may choose to posit some theory regarding the locus of causal
interaction, such a theory is not necessary, and the refutation of any particular theory
would not constitute a decisive refutation of dualism itself (ibid.). Furthermore, it is not
clear what sort of proof the physicalist would accept since, by definition, the physicalist
is only willing to allow physical causes for physical events.

3.1.5. Mind and Matter: Can Holistic Dualism Cross the Cartesian Divide?
So, what can we say about the adequacy of HDs account of mental causation.
First, substance dualists in general seem justified in rejecting the arguments from
dissimilarity, causal completeness, and explanatory exclusion. Since their reasons for
rejecting these arguments are based on a fundamentally different way of viewing the
world, they are unlikely to convince any physicalists by their arguments, but they are,
nonetheless, justified in contending that these arguments are inadequate for establishing
the falsity of dualism. Additionally, given that the soul has a spatial locus in HD, it is
better positioned than more traditional forms of dualism for handling many of these
criticisms.
64
It would seem that the greatest weakness of all dualistic accounts of causation is
the pervasive negativity of its arguments. At several points, the dualist position boils
down to an affirmation that physicalist arguments do not succeed. While this is helpful,
the dearth of positive dualist arguments regarding the nature of psychophysical causation

itself to be unintelligible (1983:22). Surely, even if Eccles account was ultimately unsuccessful, there is
nothing unintelligible about his presentation.
64
It may be, however, that holistic dualists should be more attentive to concerns raised by Alan
Sussman (1981) about attributing properties typically associated with material things to nonmaterial
entities. Although such a move increases the explanatory power of dualistic systems, it runs the risk of
losing the distinctness of the mental altogether.
205
or the empirical basis of dualist interaction is noticeable (Langsam 2001). All too often,
one finds the dualist appealing to mystery to explain the mind-body relation (e.g., H.
Lewis 1973:118; Swinburne 1984:195; Hasker 1999:200). Given the significant
difficulties encountered by physicalists in providing their own account of the
psychophysical relation, it is difficult to fault dualists overly much on this point. Indeed,
from one perspective the HD seems to be on much better footing that NRP at this point
since it is less susceptible to charges that its account of mental causation is simply
incoherent within its metaphysical system. Nonetheless, even if the dualist rejects the
demand for an empirically verifiable theory of the mind-body relation, it would seem
reasonable to ask for more work to be done to establish a positive account of the relation
that would have some bearing on the data produced by the empirical sciences.

3.2. Chunks of Matter: The Problem of Personal Embodiment
As we discussed in chapter four, Barths christological ontology maintains the
integral union of body and soul.

Far from existing as the union of two parts or two substances, He
is one whole man, embodied soul and besouled body: the one in the other
and never merely beside it; the one never without the other but only with
it, and in it present, active and significant; the one with all its attributes
always to be taken as seriously as the other. (p. 327)

Consequently, one of his greatest concerns about substance dualism is that it
views body and soul as only tentatively united, even though it often tries to affirm the
essential unity of the person (p. 380-381).
Some modern dualists continue to talk about the body/soul relation in ways that
generate such criticisms. Thus, Hywel Lewis compares the persons relation to his body
with his relation to a mechanical object like a car (1978:119). Similarly, Swinburne can
speak of the body as a chunk of matter through which a person acts in the world
(1984:146). These ways of speaking suggest to some that substance dualism necessarily
involves a failure to appreciate the psychophysical intimacy that pervades human
experience. As a result, a whole host of problems and objections has been raised against
substance dualism. The following concerns, therefore, represent only a sampling of those
206
objections, but they should, nonetheless, serve to raise the kinds of problems the dualist
must face and the answers they have offered.

3.2.1. The Psychophysical Interdependence Problem
First, how does a dualist account for the integral relation between physical states
and such fundamental mental states as consciousness and rationality?

According to
Jeeves,

At every level of neuroscience research, from single cells and their
interactions to the functioning of whole integrated systems
coordinating different centers of brain activity, one message is clear.
There is interdependence between what is happening at the physical
level of brain processes and at the levels of cognition and behavior.
On that almost everyone today agrees. (2004b:173)

As Hasker points out, however, CD seems to provide no explanation for this
psychophysical interdependence:

On the dualistic view, why should consciousness itself be
interrupted by drugs, or a blow on the head, or the need for sleep? And
why should reasoning, generally thought of as the distinctive activity of
the conscious mind, be interrupted by such physical disturbances? The
natural conclusion from Cartesian dualism would seem to be that
consciousness should continue unabated during such times - deprived, to
be sure, of sensory input and the capacity for motor action....by making
the mind essentially independent of the brain rather than dependent on it,
Cartesianism deprives itself of a ready explanation for these kinds of
dependence that we actually find. (1999:154)

Despite this apparent weakness, however, substance dualists have long contended
that a persons mental life was dependent on bodily operations (e.g., W. Hart 1988;
Foster 1991:263). Indeed, as Taliaferro points out, the vulnerability of consciousness to
207
material processesis precisely what many dualists expect. Obviously, our whole
mental life is causally bound up with the well-being of our material constitution. But this
does not mean our mental life is itself material (1994:75). Similarly, Swinburne affirms,
The evidence of neurophysiology and psychology suggests most powerfully that the
functioning of the soul depends on the operation of the brain (1984:174). Thus, Hywel
Lewis, himself a critic of Descartes in many places, points out those who criticize
Descartes would do well to remember that he was intensely interested in the natural
sciences and the function of the body (1973:19).
There is, therefore, nothing to prevent a dualist from affirming psychophysical
dependence. Critics have long maintained, however, that they have no way of explaining
it. Given the sharp distinction dualists make between physical and mental substances,
how can there be any adequate explanation for the intimate connections noted by
contemporary science?
At least some forms of HD, however, would seem to fare much better than CD on
this point. Since emergent dualism explicitly affirms that the generation and function of
the soul is directly dependent (apart from the miraculous intervention of God) on the
underlying physical states, it should come as no surprise that damage to ones body
would affect ones mental life (Hasker 1999). Similarly, the tight psychophysical
connection espoused by thomistic dualism would seem to entail a similarly close
connection between physical and mental states (Stump 1995). Cartesian holism, on the
other hand, although it certainly affirms a strong psychophysical connection, has a more
difficult time providing an adequate account. Thus, although Taliaferro also argues for an
integral psychophysical unity, even a substantial union, of body and soul, it is not clear
how this approach really explains the connection. It is not sufficient merely to affirm
such an integral relation; the dualist must also be able to provide some account of that
union that fits within his dualist framework. Although the emphasis of the Cartesian
holist on the tightly integrated unity of body and soul is incoherent, it is difficult to
harmonize with its Cartesian framework. Thus, as Hasker rightly asserts, Its not that
these phenomena are logically inconsistent with Cartesianism; no doubt they can be
accommodated (1999:157). Nonetheless, he continues, Cartesianism needs to be able
to address these problems in a way that exhibits the known facts as plausible
consequences of the underlying metaphysical view. A string of ad hoc conjectures will
not suffice (ibid.).

208
3.2.2. The Biological Continuity Problem
A second, though related, objection stemming from the biological continuity of
humans with other animals similarly holds little difficulty for HD (Taliaferro 1995;
Hasker 1999). According to CD, only human persons have a soul (G. Baker and Morris
1996). The significant mental life of animals must, therefore, be explained in some other
way. Such a distinction is, however, very difficult to maintain in light of the growing
evidence for the lack of any sharp biological divisions between humans and other
animals. That is, if humans and other animals are remarkably similar biologically, why
would their mental lives require entirely different explanations?
Once again, though, we can see that HD offers resources for a more adequate
response. Both emergent dualism and thomism explicitly incorporate animals in their
systems (Moreland 2002) and many affirm the theory of evolution as a reasonable way
of understanding the development of human persons (e.g., Popper and Eccles 1977;
Swinburne 1984; E. Lowe 1993; Taliaferro 1994; Hasker 1999; though cf. Moreland and
Rae 2000; Goetz 2005). Thus, continuity between animals and humans is exactly what an
HD account of human ontology would expect.
65

3.2.3. The Disparagement Problem
Does dualism result in a necessary disparagement of the body and of creation as a
whole? One of the more common criticisms espoused by contemporary thinkers (e.g.,
Jantzen 1984; Thatcher 1987), this is also the one most likely to be simply dismissed by

65
Hasker argues, though, that some forms of holism struggle on this question because of their
commitment to a creationist view on the origin of the soul (1994:152). That is, this position would seem to
entail that God immediately creates a soul, not only for every human person, but for every animal as well
(cf. Swinburne 1994:199). A dualist could try to affirm an agnostic position on the question of animal
minds akin to Barths (e.g., Foster 1991), but this simply raises the problem of biological continuity all
over again. As Goetz rightly points out, however, the Cartesian view that God creates each soul
immediately is no more problematic than the emergent theists view that God created the biological world
in such a way that each animal would generate its own soul (2005). While one might wonder why he
would operate in such an occasionalist manner (Hasker 1999:153), it is not unintelligible to suppose that he
does. Taliaferro argues that even if the dualist rejects the idea that animals have substantial souls, he need
not maintain low view of animal mental life (1994:569). Thus, the dualist could argue that there is
significant biological and psychological continuity between animals and humans and still maintain that
there is a decisive ontological difference between them (cf. Machuga 2002).
209
dualists. Thus, many dualists point out that there is no necessary relation between dualist
ontologies and the disparagement of other aspects of creation (see esp. Taliaferro 1994).
While this might be true, given the history of such disparagement in the dualist tradition,
dualists would be wise to provide a much stronger response to this criticism (though see
Taliaferro 1994).
Nonetheless, holistic dualists are clear in their emphasis on the importance of the
body for life of the whole person. Thus, Taliaferro calls on all those affirming an
integrative dualism to eschew all suggestions that the person is a mere attachment to
an object, as though ones body were an accessory (1994:233). Given this more holistic
emphasis, then, Thatcher is certainly wrong to assume that dualism necessarily
disparages the body because it is viewed as inessential to mind and to personal identity
(1987:185). Throughout this discussion, we have seen that HD affirms a much higher
view of the body for understanding the human person than is traditionally associated
with dualistic ontologies.

3.2.4. The Disembodiment Problem
The question of embodiment becomes particularly acute when one turns to more
eschatological considerations, specifically the question of whether there will be an
intermediate state for human persons between their death and eventual resurrection, in
which one aspect of the self continues to exist in a disembodied state.
66
Since dualists all
affirm the conceivability of the mind functioning, to some extent, independently of the
body, we must ask what this entails about the mind/body relation.
67

66
Following Steven Davis, we will understand the intermediate state to involve a temporary
disembodiment that corresponds to the following scenario: We human beings are born, live for a time as
psycho-physical beings, and then die; after death we exist in an incomplete state as immaterial souls; and
some time later in the eschaton God miraculously raises our bodies from the ground, transforms them into
glorified bodies, and reunites them with our souls, thus making us complete and whole again
(1989:121).
67
Dualists have long contended that the Bible clearly teaches a pre-resurrection intermediate state
and that this teaching entails some form of substance dualism. This position is generally supported by
holistic dualists as well. Thus Moreland and Rae argue, The human soulis capable of entering an
intermediate disembodied state upon death, however incomplete and unnatural this state may be, and of
eventually being reunited with a resurrected body (2000:17). And according to Cooper, Any doctrine of
the future lifeexcept the theory that we cease to exist from death until the resurrection, traditionally
210
Indeed, most forms of CD view the mind as retaining most or all of its basic
functions in its disembodied state (see esp. W Hart 1988). Thus able to perceive, think,
will, and perform all of the other mental functions of a conscious being, one begins to
wonder what role the body actually played in the life of the person prior to
disembodiment. Such a view appears to make the body extraneous and unnecessary to
the functioning of the person.
As we have seen, though, HD affirms that the mind would only function in a
severely truncated manner during such a disembodied state.
68
The issue remains,
however, that the mind is still perceived as functioning in some manner during this time.
Thus, Stephen Davis argues that although the souls existence during this period
constitutes a radically attenuated and incomplete form of human existence (1989:121),
nonetheless, its mental abilities and properties will survive in some form. Thus, human
persons in the interim state can be spoken of as having experiences, beliefs, wishes,
knowledge, memory, inner (rather than bodily) feelings, thoughts, language (assuming
memory or earthly existence) - in short, just about everything that makes up what we call
personality (ibid., 121). If the mental life of human persons continues without
interruption during this period of disembodiment, however, this would seem to raise
significant questions regarding HDs emphasis on the integral relationship of the soul to
the body.
69
It would seem that the holistic dualist could offer two responses to this argument.
First, HD could affirm the independent functioning of the mind and simply deny that the
corresponding implications for understanding the psychophysical relationship constitute

rejected as hereticalrequires a dualistic anthropology (2000:13; cf. Vallicella 1998). Since, as we noted
earlier, the substance dualist need only affirm the conceivability rather than the actuality of mind/body
separation, we will assume that substance dualism similarly must only affirm the conceivability of an
intermediate state.
68
Thus, Davis argues that the abnormality of the intermediate state is one of the clear
differences between his position and the immortality of the soul commonly associated with substance
dualism (1989:123).
69
More sensitive than most dualists to this problem, Robinson notes: We are in something of a
cleft stick. We want to reconcile the intuition that the mind or self can think and act on the body on its own
initiative with the fact that even the most abstract thoughts and decisions appear to depend for their
formulation as well as their execution up on the proper operation of the brain. Moreover, the latter fact
seems both more certain and more clear in its exact sense that the former intuition. IT is, therefore, the
dualist's intuition which is most at risk (1989:46).
211
decisive objections to its account (e.g., Moreland and Rae 2000). Second, HD could deny
the independent functioning of the mind during the intermediate state. This could be
accomplished either by arguing that the mind continues to exist but does not continue to
function during this time (Robinson 1989), or by asserting the possibility that the mind
could be united with some intermediate physical form in connection with which it can
continue to function until its eventual resurrection (cf. Harris 1983; Reichenbach 1983;
L. Baker 1995).
Neither of these two arguments is entirely satisfying, however. To the extent that
HD relies on the first approach, it seems to entail a slide back toward CD in that the mind
is understood to possess a significant degree of independence from its physical
embodiment. While this would not constitute a decisive move away from HD, it does
signify that the embodiment relation may not be as close as HD appears to affirm. The
latter argument, on the other hand, seems to entail a slide in the opposite directioni.e.,
toward physicalism.
70
In other words, if HD abandons its commitment to the conceivable
separability of body and mind, affirming instead that the mind cannot function in any
way apart from some form of embodiment, one begins to wonder about the extent to
which HD can continue to affirm that they are distinguishable substances.
71

It may be, then, that the only way that HD can maintain its commitment to both
the conceivable separability of the two substances and their integral interdependence is
to appeal to the possibility that God could miraculously sustain some level of
functionality for the mind during the intermediate state (e.g., Hasker 1999).

3.2.5. Explaining Psychophysical Interdependence: The Prospects of a Dualist
Account of Personal Embodiment
Once again we can see that HD is in a much better position to address many of
the standard criticisms of traditional substance dualism. Its clear and consistent

70
There are, of course, significant biblical and theological considerations that would also come
into play with respect to either soul sleep or intermediate embodiment, which will not be considered in this
chapter.
71
Robinson recognizes the viability of this argument, but apparently does not think that it is
incoherent to assert that something entirely comprised of unactualized powers could be understood to
constitute a real entity (1989:56). Given that this constitutes a rejection of the widely held idea that the
existence of an entity depends on its causal activity (i.e., Alexanders Dictum, see Kim 2003c), though,
it would seem that any dualist relying on this approach should offer more of an argument.
212
affirmation of the tight psychophysical relations that pervasively characterize every
aspect of human existence, seems to refute decisively any suggestion that all forms of
substance dualism necessarily disparage the embodied nature of human persons.
Nevertheless, it does seem that there are at least two remaining weaknesses in
HDs portrayal of embodiment. First, while Cartesian holism makes its commitment to
human embodiment quite clear, its apparent inability to provide a metaphysically deep
explanation of this relationship constitutes a significant drawback as compared to the
other forms of HD. Second, we have seen that HD struggles to affirm the conceivable
separability of body and soul while still emphasizing the embodiment relation. While
neither of these objections suffices to defeat HD as a theory of human ontology, they do
suggest that more work needs to be done on this issue.

3.3. Living Eternally: The Problem of an Immortal Substance
One final area in which substance dualism could be understood to be
incompatible with Barths ontological framework has to do with the nature of the soul
and Barths emphasis that human persons depend on the preserving work of the Spirit for
their existence at every moment.
72
If this is true, substance dualisms historic belief in
the natural immortality of the soul would seem to be completely incompatible with
Barths framework.
This objection, though, actually holds very little interest for us at this point.
Holistic dualists, most of whom are explicitly Christian theists, clearly insist that the
human soul is not inherently immortal and that its existence is fully contingent on Gods
preserving work.
73
Thus, Swinburne argues that the human soul does not have a nature
such that it survives under its own steam and, therefore, that is can survive death only

72
That this was one of Barths primary concerns, if not the primary concern, regarding substance
dualism is reflected in his statement that the central affirmation of a dualist anthropology is the
immortality of this rational thingwhich does not come to it by the special grace of God, but dwells
within it by nature (III/2, 380).
73
Hasker argues that most forms of dualism hold to the natural immortality of the soul (1999:81).
He understands this to mean that the soul, like all created beings, needs the sustaining power of God in
order to continue its existence. The soul, then, would be annihilated should God cease to sustain it, but
otherwise it is indestructible (ibid). While this might have been true for traditional dualists, and may even
hold for some Cartesian holists, most holistic dualists affirm that the soul would not survive the death of
the body unless God actively chooses to sustain its independent existence.
213
if God exercises his power to enable it do to so (Swinburne and Padgett 1994:308-
309).
74
Holistic dualists thus contend that the soul is not by nature immortal (Moreland
and Rae 2000:17) and that it cannot exist independently of Gods creative activity
(Goetz 2005:35).
75
Consequently, there seems to be no reason that we should regard HD
as inconsistent with Barths emphasis on the contingent nature of human persons.

4. Is There Hope for Holistic Forms of Substance Dualism?: Problems and Prospects
From our discussions in this chapter we have seen that dualism is a term that
covers a broad range of ontological theories. While some forms of dualism seem clearly
unsupportable given Barths christological framework, a number of contemporary
dualists have developed forms of substance dualism that express a higher appreciation
for the strong psychophysical links that characterize human experience. This more
holistic dualism, itself comprising a range of ontological approaches, affirms that human
persons comprise two fundamentally distinct substances that are intimately united and
integrally interdependent.
As with nonreductive physicalism, though, the christological adequacy of HD,
must be evaluated on the basis of its ability to articulate its anthropological ontology in a
way that is both consistent with this christological framework and internally coherent.
Given these requirements, we have seen that the adequacy of HD has been challenged
with respect to its account of mental causation, embodiment, and contingent personhood.
On each of these issues, we have also seen that HD is able to offer some serious
responses that suggest that HD is an ontological approach that bears serious
consideration.
As with NRP, however, there are still some weaknesses to HDs presentation.
Thus, we have seen that HD (especially Cartesian holism) needs to do more work
developing its positive account of the embodiment relation, spending less time on

74
Swinburne further argues that this would not be a violation of any natural laws since there are
no natural laws which dictate what will happen to a soul after death (1994:309).
75
Although the traditional dualist position has been to affirm that the soul is inherently immortal
because it is simple (i.e., it has no parts) and, therefore, cannot be broken down into any constituent
elements, it is not at all clear why something should be deemed indestructible merely because it is simple
(Shoemaker 1978:134). For a nice summary of the philosophical arguments for the natural immortality of
the soul as well as a brief refutation, see Swinburne 1994:305-306; cf. van Inwagen 2002:171.
214
negative refutations of physicalist arguments. Additionally, we have discussed the
problems that arise with respect to the continuing functionality of the soul in any
disembodied state. Despite these weaknesses, though, HD has proven itself sufficiently
capable of responding to its critics to be considered a christologically viable candidate
for developing an anthropological ontology.

215
Chapter 7
Conclusion:
Sharpening our Christological Vision

1. Making the Christocentric Turn
The turn toward the centrality of the person and work of Jesus Christ for
understanding human nature has been a decisive mark of contemporary theological
anthropology. Thus, many theologians happily affirm some form of Barths dictum, The
nature of the man Jesus alone is the key to the problem of human nature (p. 136).
Nonetheless, as we noted in the opening chapter of this study, the content and
methodology of such a christocentric approach to theological anthropology have been
inadequately developed. Thus, despite the fact that many of these christocentric
theologians are keenly aware of the significance of the contemporary mind/body debate,
little effort has been made to apply the insights derived through a Christological
understanding of human persons to this ontological discussion.
We have seen through the course of this study, however, that the implications of
a carefully formulated christocentric anthropology have a direct bearing on our
understanding of human ontology and have the potential to shape the mind/body
discussion in some very useful ways. Our exercise in christocentric anthropology has,
consequently, focused on (1) analyzing the theological anthropology of Karl Barth as a
means to clarifying the formal and methodological issues involved in developing a
christocentric anthropology and (2) determining the implications of such an approach to
the contemporary mind/body discussion. Each of these tasks has generated its own set of
insights and opportunities for further study.

2. Clarifying Christocentric Anthropology
Unlike many theologians, Barth was unsatisfied with merely affirming the
anthropological centrality of Jesus Christ. Rather, he went on to indicate explicitly the
ground for this affirmation and the methodological implications involved in drawing
insights from this perspective. He thus argued that one could only approach real
knowledge of true human nature because all human persons are ontologically determined
in Jesus Christ through their participation in his eternal election, through his covenantal
216
faithfulness to the divine purpose for humanity, and through the encounter that all
humans have with him in the divine summons. By grounding anthropological knowledge
on this sure Christological foundation, Barth is able to assert that we come to know
humanity truly in the person of Christ alone.
1

With a similar rigor, Barth explicates the methodology of a christocentric
anthropology. Thus, he argues that we must develop anthropology from Christology, but
always in such a way that anthropology is not reduced to Christology. Although Jesus
Christ is fully human, he is also fully divine and, therefore, distinct from all other human
persons by virtue of his unique relation to God and his sinless obedience. Thus, while his
full humanity means that he provides true insight into human nature, his uniqueness
entails that we cannot directly infer general anthropological truths from a consideration
of his person and work. Rather, any christocentric anthropology must involve a two stage
process that resists any temptation to reduce anthropology to Christology. Utilizing such
a method, Barth is able to develop a series of key christological principles from which
anthropological reflection must begin.
Such an approach, however, raises another methodological issue in that it would
seem necessarily limited in its ability to engage in significant dialogue with those
proceeding from other anthropological starting points. Indeed, Barth explicitly rejects the
possibility that any other vantage point could be capable of providing real insight into
true humanity. Consequently, should he not simply dismiss alternate perspectives as
fundamentally misguided efforts that result only in distorted and illusory pictures of
humanity? As we have seen, though, despite criticisms to the contrary, this is precisely
what Barth does not do. While he is sharply critical of the anthropologies produced by
these alternate approaches, he is perfectly willing to view them as legitimate
anthropological investigations worthy of serious consideration. Indeed, he devotes an
extensive portion of 44 to considering the contributions and insights of these other
perspectives for understanding human nature. His contention that they ultimately fail to
provide knowledge of true humanity does not preclude, nor should it cloud, his
affirmation of their right to speak and their value for understanding humanity.

1
Thus, if one wanted to disagree with some aspect of Barths theological anthropology, this
cannot be done in isolation from his Christology. That is, if we were to reject Barths ontological
framework for understanding human ontology, it must be done by directly engaging its christological
ground.
217
In this way, Barths theological anthropology helps clarify some of the
methodological issues involved in developing a christocentric anthropology. Yet it seems
clear that despite Barths impressive accomplishments in this area, more work needs to
be done. Although Barth provides a useful framework of Christological principles upon
which to develop a theological anthropology, there is room for developing other
christological insights which may bear similarly fruitful results for theological
anthropology. Barth is a remarkably thorough theologian, but his treatment of
Christology and its implications for theological anthropology was never intended to be
comprehensive. Rather, Barths theology should be viewed as an invitation to carry on
the theological task in new, and often unexpected, contexts.

3. A Christological View of an Ontological Panorama
Moving into the substance of Barths theological anthropology, we saw how
Barths presentation of a methodologically clear christological anthropology opens the
door for a fruitful engagement with questions related to human ontology. Building off
the central affirmations developed from his Christological reflections, Barth presents a
view of the mind/body relationship in which body and soul are understood to be
integrally united and constantly interdependent. His presentation, however, does not
comprise a fully worked out theory of human ontology. Throughout Barth seems more
interested in presenting what must be affirmed about human ontology on the basis of his
christological reflections than on developing a theoretically rigorous account of how that
ontology obtains. Barths model of the mind/body relationship, then, is better understood
as providing an ontological framework within which any particular theory of human
ontology must function.
This christological approach, then, should not be understood as constraining the
range of human inquiry. Determining that a particular theory of human ontology is
christologically inadequate does not entail the cessation of all attempts to understand the
human person from that perspective. Barths methodology helpfully demonstrates that
although the christological perspective will forcefully point out the problematic elements
in any such theories and consistently reject them as false pictures of true humanity,
nevertheless it will affirm their right to participate in the ongoing dialogue about human
nature and glean their proposals for useful insights.
218
This ontological framework thus proved to be very useful for identifying and
addressing the salient issues involved in assessing two contemporary theories of human
ontology. Nonreductive physicalism seeks to espouse a physicalist view of human
ontology but in such a way that (1) the mental life of a human person cannot be
reductively analyzed or understood using the terms, concepts, and theories of lower-level
sciences, (2) mental events and processes are understood to be causally efficacious, and
(3) mental events and processes are asymmetrically dependent on physical events and
processes. But is such an understanding of human ontology christologically adequate?
Although physicalist ontologies are routinely dismissed by non-physicalist thinkers for
their ostensible inability to provide any coherent account of continuous personal identity
and phenomenal consciousness, we have seen that this is not necessarily the case. While
these are certainly challenging problems for any form of physicalism, physicalist theories
do have substantial resources for addressing these issues. We could not take the time in
this project to consider exhaustively all of the available options, but our discussion does
provide ample reason to believe that these problems may not be unsolvable within the
framework of a physicalist ontology.
A more challenging issue presents itself, however, when we turn to the question
of mental causation. Nonreductive versions of mental causation seem caught in the vise
created by their commitment both to the principle of a causally closed physical universe
and the causal efficacy of mental realities. Although our study does not necessarily lead
to the conclusion that this problem is unsolvable within the nonreductive framework, it
does raise substantial questions about whether NRP can resolve this problem without
either sacrificing its commitment to the causal efficacy of the mental (thus becoming a
form of reductive physicalism) or to the causal completeness principle (thus sacrificing
its standing as a physicalist ontology). If it can resolve this tension, there seems to be no
reason not to consider it a christologically viable anthropological ontology.
We similarly applied our christological analysis to the tenets of holistic dualism.
Rejecting the psychophysical interdependence commonly associated with Cartesian
dualism, HD espouses a more holistic relation sufficient, so its proponents argue, for
grounding the tight psychophysical interdependence pointed to by the neurosciences.
Despite this affirmation of psychophysical holism, however, the christological adequacy
of HD can still be challenged on at least two points: mental causation and the
219
embodiment relation.
2
HD defends itself against the former primarily by arguing for the
essential difference between mental and physical causation, the brute nature of the
psychophysical causal relation, and the extensive difficulties that any theory of causality
faces. On all three points, however, HD struggles when it comes to providing any
positive account of mental causation. That is, with notable exceptions (e.g., Eccles), the
dualist strategy involves a defensive move (i.e., refuting physicalist charges that the
dualist account of causation is incoherent or unscientific), an offensive move (i.e.,
pointing out that the physicalist account of causation is at least as problematic), and a
negative move (i.e., affirming that mental causation is not physical causation), but not
primarily an explanatory move (i.e., providing a metaphysically deep explanation of the
causal relation). Indeed, as we have seen, many dualists contend that such an explanation
is impossible, either because the relation is inherently mysterious or because it is simply
brute.
Such an approach, however, though difficult, if not impossible, to refute, should
only be appealed to as a last resort. Given their affirmation of tight psychophysical
interaction, one would like to see holistic dualists taking a more active role in developing
a theoretically rigorous account of the causal relation. This issue comes to play in the
question of personal embodiment as well. Although HD provides a superior framework
to CD in its affirmation of tight psychophysical relations, its position is weakened by the
lack of an explanatory framework within which to account for those relations. From the
perspective of a christocentric anthropology, then, it would seem reasonable to conclude
that there is no reason to exclude HD as a viable anthropological ontology even though
there seems to be room for more development in its ability to account for causal and
embodiment relations.

4. Extending Our Christological Vision
Theologians have long been aware of the need to address the mind/body, or
body/soul, relationship. Indeed, given its impact on our understanding of the nature of
human persons, its implications for understanding a broad range of theological issues,
and its moral significance, the question of human ontology has long been, and should
continue to be, an important aspect of any fully developed theological anthropology. The

2
As we discussed in the previous chapter, challenges stemming from the contingency of human
personhood do not need to be taken seriously.
220
tremendous complexity of the philosophical and scientific issues involved in the
mind/brain debate, however, especially given the advances made by philosophers of
mind and neuroscientists in the last several decades, make it one of the more difficult
anthropological issues to resolve.
In this study, we have not attempted to resolve this theoretical conundrum. In
fact, the approach developed in the course of this study suggests that theologians should
resist the temptation to wed Christian theology to any particular theory of human
ontology. Instead, by proceeding from the person and work of Jesus Christ, this exercise
in christocentric anthropology has sought to determine that which we must believe about
human persons. As we have seen, however, although this does not constitute a theory of
human ontology, it does have decisive implications for the evaluation of any such theory.
Through the course of this study we have seen that a christological perspective on
the nature of human persons has decisive implications that range far beyond the realm of
morality to which its insights are often confined. This in turn suggests that those of us
who affirm the anthropological centrality of the person and work of Jesus Christ should
approach theological anthropology with a firm conviction that this will have implications
for understanding every aspect of human nature and existence.
221
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