Chapter 3

Angles and Directions

3.1. Introduction
Angle measurement is one of the fundamental measurements in surveying work, which is
used to describe the relative orientation of points and properties with respect to each other.
In addition to measurement of horizontal and vertical distance, angles and direction can
also used to locate the position of a point. The measurement of the angles or directions
can be made by the use of compass or a theodolite

Measurements of angles is basic to any surveying operation When angle is measured in

horizontal plane it is horizontal angle when measured in a vertical plane it is vertical
angle. Angle measure needs the following.
1. Reference of starting line
2. Direction of turning
3. Angular value (Value of the angle)
These are clearly illustrated in the fig 3.1.1

Figure: 3.1.1

3.2 Angle measuring instruments

A theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angle Depending

on the facilities provided for reading of observations theodolite may be classified as
1. Optical theodolite 2. Digital theodolite
Varies parts of both types are shown below fig 3.2.2a and fig3.2.2b
1. Optical Theodolite

1. Telescope level adjustment 18. Micrometer eyepiece

2. Telescope level 19. Telescope eyepiece
3. Micrometer knob 20. Telescope eyepiece
4. Telescope motion clamp screw 21. Telescope eyepiece mounting ring
5. Field of view illumination level 22. Reticule adjustment cover
6. Collimator sight 23. Focusing ring
7. Vertical slow motion screw 24. Objective lens
8. Horizontal motion clam screw 25. Standards
9. Horizontal slow motion screw 26. Instrument height mark
10. Shifting clamp 27. clamping slot
11. Base plate 28. light reflector
12. Leveling screw 29. Circular level
13. Lower motion clamp screw 30. Circular level adjustment screw
14. Lower slow motion screw 31. Optical plummet
15. Circle positioning ring 32. Optical plummet adjustment screw
16. Plate level 33. Optical plummet focusing ring.
17. Plate level adjustment screw Circle Positioning ring
2. Digital Theodolite

1. Handle 14. Optical plummet reticule cover

2. Handle screwing screw 15. Optical plummet focusing ring
3. Instrument height mark 16. Objective lens
4. Battery covers 17. Tubular compass slot
5. Data output connector 18. Horizontal clamp
6. Operation panel 19. Horizontal slow motion screw
7. Tribrach clamp 20. plate level
8. Base plate 21. plate level adjusting screw
9. Leveling foot screw 22. Vertical clamp
10. Circular level adjusting screw 23. Vertical slow motion screw
11. Circular level 24. Telescope eyepiece
12. Display 25. Telescope focusing ring
13. Optical plummet eyepiece 26. peep sight
27. Instrument center mark.

1. THEODOLITE OBSERVATIONS

An angle can be observed in two ways using theodolite and by combining both observation the
observer can detect the presence of some gross and systematic errors.

a. Face left observation

 If the vertical circle is on the left hand side of the observer, the observation is known as face left
observation and since vertical circle is on the left hand side the observation is also known as
normal observation.

b. Face right observation

If the vertical circle is on the right hand side of the observer, the observation is known as face
right observation. In such case a case the telescope is in inverted form and hence the observation
is also known as inverted observation.

 For horizontal angle measurment, F.R reading - F.L reading = 180°, If the measurement
is free from any error.

 For vertical angle measurement the readings are Zenith angles, F.R reading +
F.R reading = 360°, if the measurement is free from any errors.

3.3 ADJUSTMENT OF THEODOLITE

The adjustments of theodolites are of two kinds.
1. Temporary adjustments
2. Permanent adjustments
Temporary adjustment: - are adjustments which are required to be made of every
instrument stations before making observation.
Temporary adjustment of theodolite includes the following
i. Setting up the theodolite over the station – the tripod legs are spread and their
points are so placed that the top of the tripod is approximately horizontal and the
telescope is at a convenient height of sighting.
ii. Centering- to place the vertical axis exactly over the station mark. Approximate
centering is done by means of tripod legs. The exact centering is done by means of
the plumb bob or optical plummet.
Iii Leveling – After having centered and approximately leveled the instrument,
accurate levelling is done with the help of foot screws and with reference to the plate
levels. The purpose of the levelling is to make the vertical axis truly vertical.

Figure 5 Foot screw for levelling Theodolite

Focusing the eye piece – to avoid parallax and get exact vision of the cross hairs.
Focusing the objective – to get the exact target image clear and sharp.
Permanent adjustments: - This adjustment is to maintain the primary axes of
theodolites in their correct geometrical relationship. The theodolite should be regularly
tested and adjusted. Some of the permanent adjustments of theodolite are:
1. Adjustments of the horizontal plate level
2. Adjustments of the horizontal axis ( Trunnion axis )
3. Adjustments of telescope
4. Adjustments of telescope level
5. Adjustment of vertical circle index.

3.4 Types of horizontal angle

Horizontal angle can be

1-Interior horizontal angle (included)
2-Deflection horizontal angles
Interior angles:-can be clockwise or anticlockwise depending on the direction of turning
the upper part of the theodolite. (Fig3.3.1a and b)

Figure: 3.3.1a Figure:3.3.1b

Deflection angles: - similarly deflection angle can be deflection to the right (clockwise)
and deflection to the left (anticlockwise).

Figure: 3.3b
GENERAL MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES

a. Horizontal Angle Measurement

 Set up the instrument at point B and level it accurately

 The plates are unclamped (upper and lower) and horizontal circle is set to zero or
any arbitrary values near to zero. The upper clamp is locked, holding the two plates
together.
 The telescope is directed to station A using the gun sight. When closely pointing on
A the lower clamp is also locked and the vertical hair of the diagram is accurately
sighted on to the station using the lower tangent screw (lower screw). The
horizontal circle reading is now taken.
 With the lower clamp fixed, the upper clamp is released and the telescope swung in
the clockwise direction until directed toward station C using the sun sight.
 The Upper clamp is then fixed and the upper tangent screw used to accurately align
the telescope on to C. The horizontal circle reading of C can then be obtained.
 The upper clamp is released and theodolite turned through 1800, the telescope is
then also turned through 1800 in the vertical plane and the gun sight used to roughly
sight on to station C.
 The upper clamp is locked and the upper tangent screw used to align the telescope
on to C and horizontal circle is we read.
 The upper clamp is unlocked and the telescope directed towards station A with the
gun sight.
 The upper clamp is locked and the upper tangent screw used to align the telescope
on to station A. The horizontal circle can then be read for this pointing on A.

b. Vertical angle Measurement

If the point sighted is above the horizontal axis of the theodolite the vertical angle is
known as angle of elevation (+) and if it is below, it is known as angle of depression.
 Set up the instrument at A and level it accurately by using altitude bubble.
 Set the zero of vertical venire exactly in coincidence with the zero of vertical
scale using vertical clamp and vertical tangent screw. Check up whether the
bubble of altitude level is central of its run if not bring to the center of its run by
means of clip screw. In this position, the line of collimation of the telescope is
horizontal and venire read zero.
 Figure 6 Vertical angle measurement

 Loosen the vertical clamp and move the telescope in vertical plane until station B
is brought in field of view use vertical circle tangent screw for accurate bisection.
 Read the vertical angle:
 Change the face of the instruments and make the observation exactly in similar
way as on the face left.
 The average of two value of the vertical angle is the required values of vertical
angles.
3.5 Direction

Direction of a line is the horizontal angle measured from a reference line called
(Reference north).
There are four basic types of North
1. Astronomic north
It is an imaginary line on the earth’s surface passing through the north –South
geographical north.
2. Magnetic north
- It is the direction of a vertical plane shown by a freely suspended magnetic
needle.
- It will be measured by surveyor compass.
3. Grid North
- A line through a point parallel to the Y–axis of a rectangular coordinate
system on the map.
4. Arbitrary North
- An arbitrary chosen line with a directional value assigned by the observer.

3.6 Bearing and Azimuth

3.6.1. Bearing

- Bearing of a line is an angle with reference to north or south direction.

- Bearing can be measured clockwise or anticlockwise.
- It is measured with reference to North or south.
- The range of bearing is (00 - 900)
Bearing of line AB = , AC = , AD = , AF = 

Illustrative example
Let θ = bearing of line AB
It will be written as N < Angular
value >E
If θ = 400 15’ we can say that; Bearing
AB = N 40015’ E
Bearing of line AC
- It is measured from south direction
- It will be measured as S < ß > E
If ß = 320 20’ 16’’,
Bearing of AC is S 320 20’16’’E

Format of bearing
Bearing in the I - quadrant is N < angular Value > E
Bearing in the II – quadrant is S < angular Value > E
Bearing in the III - quadrant is S < angular Value >W
Bearing in the IV- quadrant is N < angular Value > W

Bearing of OA = N 200 E
OB = S 450 E
OC = S 800 W
OD = N 600 W

3.6.2 Back bearing

Back bearing is a reverse bearing.
For example
Forward bearing of line AB is N 600E
Backward bearing of AB is = bearing BA
= S 600 W

To determine the back bearing from

forward bearing,
1. Draw a line parallel to N - S direction
at the end of a line.
2. Determine the quadrant in which
backward line lies.
3. Mention the back bearing by using
direction and angular value.
The angular value is equal to the forward
bearing. Since alternative
Interior angles of parallel lines are equal

Illustrative example
Find the back bearing of line KT if a forward bearing of KT is N 52012’15” W.
Solution
1. Mark point K
2. Draw N-S and W-E line crossing at these points.

3. Draw line KT approximately at a given angle starting from point K

4. Draw N-S and W-E line through point T so that they are parallel to the lines
through
 5. Back bearing of KT= bearing of TK
= S 52012’15” W

3.6.3 Azimuths

-It is an angle measured clockwise from a reference north.

-It is always measured clock wise and north direction
-Its range is [0,360]
- Unlike bearing the direction will not mentioned
- Azimuth sometime called Whole Circle Bearing
Example.1

Azimuth of line OA =θ
Azimuth of line OB =β
Range of Azimuth in different quadrants

In I Quadrant
Azimuth between 00 - 900
In II q quadrant
Azimuth is between 900 - 1800
In III- Quadrant
Azimuth is between 1800 -2700
In IV quadrant
Azimuth is between 2700 - 3600

The relationship between azimuth and bearing

The relationship b/n bearing and azimuth in different quadrants is different.
In I quadrant Angular Value of bearing = Azimuth
In II quadrant Azimuth = 180 0 - angular value of bearing
In III quadrant Azimuth = 180 0+ angular value of bearing
In IV Quadrant Azimuth = 3600-angular Value of bearing
3.6.4 Back azimuth
Similarly to bearing the back azimuth is the reverse of forward azimuth
Back azimuth of AB = Azimuth of BA
N.B: The angular difference b/n forward and backward azimuth is equal to 1800
Computing a back azimuth from forward azimuth
 If a forward azimuth is less than 1800, Backward azimuth = forward Az + 1800
 If a forward azimuth is greater than 1800, Backward azimuth = forward azimuth
- 1800

C



F.A of line AB =  and B.A of line AB =  +   B.A = 180 + 

F.A of line CD =  + , and B.A of line CD =   B.A =  - 180

B.A = F. A  180

Then B.A = F.B + 180 for F.A < 1800

B.A = F.B - 180 for F.A > 1800
Example
Find the backward azimuth of the following lines having foreword azimuth
Line Forward azimuth
AB 43011’20’’
BC 1120 20’15’’
CD 1970 18’36’’
DE 3200 17’40’’

Solution
A.
Since Az AB < 900
Az BA = Azimuth of AB +1800
= 43011’20’’ + 1800
= 2230 11’20’’
 B.
Since 900 < Az BC< 1800
Back azimuth of line
BC = 112029’15 + 1800
= 290029’15’’

C.
Since 180 < Az CD< 2700
0

Back azimuth of CD = Az CD - 1800

= 197018’36’’- 1800
= 170 18’36’’
D Since 2700 < Az DE <360
Back azimuth of DE = Az DE -1800

=320017’40’’- 1800
= 1400 17’40’’

3.6.5 Computing bearing and Azimuth of a line given coordinates

Illustrative Example-1

Calculate bearing and azimuth of line DE,

D
(200 ,600)

E (450 .2,155.3)
Soln

1. Draw Parallel lines through E and D

Parallel to the X-and Y- axis
2. Since it lines in II quadrant, bearing
will be measured from south direction Tan Θ = ∆X/ ∆Y
3. Calculate ∆X and ∆Y
∆X DE = XE –XD
= 450 .2 -200 Θ = tan -1 [250.2]
= 250.2 -444.7
∆Y DE = YE-YD Θ = -29 21’48’’
0

= 155.3-600 Since ∆Y = - ve and ∆X = +ve the line

= -444.7 lies in the II quadrant
Therefore, Bearing of DE = S
29021’48’’E
Azimuth of DE = 1800 - Bearing of DE
= 1800 - 290 21’48’’
= 150038’12’’
Illustrative Example-2
Suppose line KT has the following coordinates.

K (930.2, 825.5)

T (538.4, 31.3)
Calculate bearing and azimuth of line KT.

Solution
∆X = XT - XK ∆Y = YT - YK
= 31.3 - 825.5 = 538.4 - 930.2
= -391.8 = -794.2

Tan θ = ∆X
∆Y
 = -391.8/ -794.2
θ = tan -1 [-391.8]
-794.2
θ = 26015’30’’
But both ∆X and ∆Y are -veThis implies the line KT lies in III quadrant. Therefore,
Bearing of line KT = S 26015’30’’ W And azimuth of KT = bearing + 1800 = 206015’3
3.7. Magnetic Declination

The horizontal angle between true north and magnetic north is known as magnetic
declination. The earth’s magnetic force not only aligns a freely suspended magnetic
needle along magnetic north and south but also pulls or dips one end below the horizontal
position. The position of the magnetic north and south poles do not coincide with the
geographic north and south poles. Therefore, the magnetic meridian is inclined to the
true meridian and this deviation is called magnetic declination. If the north end of
the compass needle points to the east of the true meridian the declination is said to
be east and if the needle points to the west of the true meridian, the declination is
said to be west

A line on a map or chart connecting points that have the same declination is called
isogonic line and agonic line consists of pointing having zero declination.
The declination at a place does not remain constant but changes with time.
These changes are
i. Secular change
ii. Annual change
iii. Diurnal change
iv. Irregular change

i. Secular change: - this is occurs over a long period of time approximately for
250 years. The magnitude also is very high. However, this variation does not
follow any general law. It can be obtained only from detailed charts and tables
derived from observations.
 ii. Annual change: - It is a variation over a year. It is roughly 1’-2’ in amplitude.
It varies from place to place.

iii. Diurnal change: - means variation over a day. It depends on the following
four factors :
1. Locality: It is greater near the pole and less near equator
2. Season : It is greater in summer than in winter
3. Time: It is more during day and less during night. The rate of variation
over 24hrs is quite irregular.
4. Year: The daily variation changes from year to year

iv. Irregular variation: is caused by unpredictable magnetic disturbances and

storms. The magnitude of variation is more than a degree.
Illustrative example
1. The magnetic bearing of a line is measured and found to be N23043’12” E.
if the declination at the time of measurement was 2’east, calculate the true
bearing of this line.

Solution

As you can see from the figure

True bearing = Magnetic bearing – magnetic declination
= 23043’12” – 2’
= 23041’12”
2. Find true bearing of a line AB if magnetic bearing is S 45032’34”W. Use
declination at a time was 3’west.
Solution

True bearing = magnetic bearing + declination

= 45032’34” + 3’
= 45035’3