Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz.

, 2018, 37 (2), 359-370

Rabies diagnosis and surveillance in animals

in the era of rabies elimination
R. Franka & R.M. Wallace*

Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, World Organisation for Animal Health
(OIE) Reference Laboratory for Rabies, 1600 Clifton Road NE, MS G47, Atlanta, Georgia, 30329, United States
of America
*Corresponding author: euk5@cdc.gov
The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official
position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Summary
Effective real-time surveillance, combined with proficient, decentralised and
validated laboratory diagnostics, is a prerequisite for successful rabies control
and elimination. The selection and prioritisation of surveillance methodologies,
in conjunction with appropriate diagnostic techniques, should reflect the goals
of the disease control and elimination programme (Stage 1: proof of burden;
Stage 2: human rabies prevention; Stage 3: monitoring and assessment of control
measures; Stage 4: verification of rabies elimination; and Stage 5: post elimination).
The development of minimum surveillance requirements, in accordance with
Chapter 1.4 of the World Organisation for Animal Health Terrestrial Animal Health
Code, and routine evaluation of disease elimination indicators are of the utmost
importance if the goal of eliminating dog-mediated human rabies by 2030 is to be
achieved.

Keywords
Laboratory diagnosis – Rabies – Surveillance.

Introduction The relative public health importance and prioritisation of

diseases can vary considerably, depending on:
– perceptions of the disease’s significance
In this era of concerted efforts towards the control,
elimination, and eradication of diseases, from both – the health impact of the disease
countries and zones within countries, the role of effective, – the availability of resources (both internal and external)
decentralised, laboratory-based surveillance becomes – the geographic distribution of the disease.
increasingly important. The frequency and consequent
severity of interspecies transmission of zoonotic pathogens To understand these factors, accurately interpret the
is a constant reminder of the importance of implementing information available, and set appropriate priorities,
and maintaining sustainable, laboratory-based surveillance we rely upon the existence of effective diagnostics and
systems for both animal and human pathogens (1, 2). The surveillance systems. The capacity for effective real-time
continuous systematic collection, analysis, interpretation, surveillance, combined with proficient, decentralised
and dissemination of information on health events is a and validated laboratory diagnostics, has long been
prerequisite to demonstrate: considered a prerequisite for any successful disease control,
a) the burden and distribution of disease (in both animals elimination, or eradication programme (4). In addition,
and humans) faithfully implementing effective surveillance is of the
utmost importance for complying with trade and export
b) disease trends
regulations once the disease has been eliminated.
c) the effectiveness of prevention and intervention activities
d) the success of disease control programmes Rabies, a disease caused by all members of the Lyssavirus
e) the subsequent absence of disease in the area (3). genus, presents as an acute, progressive encephalitis that

doi: 10.20506/rst.37.2.2807
360 Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 37 (2)

begins days or months after infection and concludes Laboratory diagnosis

in the death of the infected individual, typically within
30 days of the onset of symptoms. Clinical diagnosis in Confirmed rabies case: A suspected or probably infected
humans and animals is possible but, given the variability animal, whose infection is confirmed using a primary
of the incubation period and the non-specific nature of diagnostic test, as defined by the World Organisation for
clinical signs, laboratory confirmation is essential for an Animal Health (OIE) (6).
accurate diagnosis. Lyssaviruses can infect any mammal,
Not a rabies case: A suspected or probably infected animal
but are typically associated with discrete animal reservoir
in which rabies is ruled out, either by laboratory diagnosis
species. Rabies lyssavirus (RABV) is just one member of the or an appropriate observation period (note that observation
Lyssavirus genus, but is responsible for more than 99% of periods only apply to dogs, cats, and ferrets).
all human rabies deaths. Cross-species transmission events,
the transmission of RABV from a reservoir species into a Disease surveillance, the systematic observation of the
non-reservoir species, is common. Host-shift events, the presence or absence of a disease, can have numerous
sustained transmission within a non-reservoir species after applications within a rabies control programme, and often
a cross-species transmission event, are less common but depends upon the stage of rabies control practised by
can have profound public and animal health implications the country concerned, as well as the resources available.
when they do occur. An RABV that circulates in discrete Surveillance of both human and animal rabies is essential
animal populations and can be molecularly differentiated to rapidly detect outbreaks and monitor disease trends,
from surrounding RABVs is referred to as a ‘variant’. There as well as to assess the effectiveness of intervention
are more than 30 reported RABV variants globally, affecting programmes (i.e. parenteral or oral vaccination, population
at least 150 countries (5). management) and provide support for the maintenance
of rabies-free status (5, 7, 8). National and regional rabies
control programmes should consider regular consultation

Principles of lyssavirus with OIE Reference Laboratories for Rabies to ensure that
globally acknowledged practices and diagnostic assays are

surveillance implemented and that routine diagnostic proficiency testing

is performed.

Case definitions, the standard criteria used to define a Given the diversity of rabies reservoir species and the
disease, are the foundation upon which surveillance systems incidence of rabies during different phases of control and
are built. For the purposes of this paper, the following case elimination efforts, the following stages of rabies control
definitions are recommended: programmes can be defined.
– suspected rabies case (clinical diagnosis)
Stage 1: proof of burden
– probable rabies case (clinical diagnosis)
In many countries, the burden and impact of rabies
– confirmed rabies case (laboratory diagnosis) within animal, and even human, populations is not
– not a rabies case (laboratory diagnosis). known and should be described to advocate for support
for the implementation of control measures. At this stage,
diagnostic capacity is typically limited and public health
Clinical diagnosis recommendations are often not linked to diagnostic
activities.
Suspected rabies case: An animal that presents with
any one of the following signs: hypersalivation, paralysis,
lethargy, unprovoked abnormal aggression (biting two In this situation, surveillance activities should include the
or more people or animals, and/or inanimate objects), targeted sampling of suspected or probable rabid animals
(see case definition above) and laboratory confirmation
abnormal vocalisation, or diurnal activity of a nocturnal
using methods that have acceptable sensitivity and
species.
specificity for lyssaviruses, as defined by the programme.
Serological surveys, which often target healthy (non-rabies-
Probable rabies case: A suspected rabid animal that has suspect) animals, may be applicable in certain settings as
had a known exposure (i.e. bite, scratch, or contact with screening tools for the presence of lyssavirus circulation,
saliva) to a suspected, probable, or confirmed rabid animal, particularly in relation to bat-associated lyssaviruses.
and that is not known to be alive within ten days of the Lyssaviruses should undergo molecular characterisation
observed clinical signs, or a suspected rabid animal that and be described in relation to other epidemiologic findings
dies, is killed, or disappears within ten days of the observed to characterise the reservoir species and transmission
clinical signs. dynamics.
Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 37 (2) 361

Stage 2: preventing human rabies important epidemiological information when a PPHSS is

not adequate.
Once health authorities are supportive of rabies control
efforts, rabies surveillance systems should complement Active surveillance programmes may consider the use
human rabies prevention activities. Timely testing of of non-WHO- or OIE-recommended diagnostic tests, so
suspected rabid animals can inform recommendations long as the test results do not affect human prophylactic
for human post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). This could immunisation decisions. A slight sacrifice in the sensitivity
potentially lead to a decrease in unnecessary PEP use, which of the tests employed is acceptable if their use makes the
would result in an increase in the cost-effectiveness of the programme more robust. Examples include screening
programme (9, 10). assays that can be readily performed in the field, cost less,
or have substantially reduced technical requirements.
When test results are used to advocate for or against
human prophylactic immunisation, only WHO- and
OIE-designated primary rabies diagnostic tests should Lyssaviruses detected outside the expected geographic range
be considered and laboratories should comply with or host species should undergo molecular characterisation,
international recommendations (6). and interpretation of the results should be based upon
epidemiologic understanding of the disease. This stage
Passive public health surveillance systems (PPHSSs) are is crucial on the path toward rabies elimination and
programmes that integrate both veterinary and human eradication.
health components to evaluate and test suspected rabid
animals involved in a human exposure. PPHSSs have Stage 4: verifying rabies elimination
the highest rate of rabies detection among conventional
surveillance techniques, but are often limited to geographic A self-declaration of freedom from rabies can have
areas with large human populations and public health profound consequences for animal trade and human
infrastructure (11). Alternative surveillance methods vaccination policies. Such a declaration should be reviewed
should be considered to obtain relevant epidemiologic by independent experts and international organisations,
information for geographic areas where a PPHSS does not and supported by documentation as described in the
provide sufficient information. OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code (12). Furthermore,
health authorities should clearly describe from which
Stage 3: monitoring and assessing control measures disease they are declaring freedom: a specific variant of
rabies (such as canine rabies virus variant), all rabies virus
If rabies control measures are implemented, such as mass variants, or all Lyssaviruses (which cause the disease rabies).
vaccination of the reservoir species, then it is crucial Basic requirements that should be met to declare a free
to monitor the success of the programme. For wildlife status include the following: that rabies is notifiable in that
vaccination programmes, statistically appropriate sampling country/zone; that effective systems of rabies surveillance
techniques should be used to determine post-vaccination are in place; that all regulatory measures for the prevention
serological conversion rates. This can help to validate and control of rabies have been implemented; and that no
the programme’s objectives. Canine rabies vaccination indigenous rabies infections or cases in humans or any
programmes should rely upon adequate documentation animal species have been detected during the previous two
and reporting of vaccinated dogs; serological surveys are years (with consideration to the type of declaration and
only applicable if there is concern about the efficacy of infections with non-rabies virus lyssaviruses) (12).
the vaccine. However, the evaluation of a rabies control
programme should not be based upon serological values Evidence for rabies-free status should be geographically
or calculated vaccination coverage, but rather upon the representative of the area declared free of the disease. Only
documented decline in detected rabies cases among the primary rabies diagnostic assays should be considered when
target species over time and geography. making a determination of freedom from rabies (6) and
surveillance efforts should be focused on animals that satisfy
In some instances, PPHSSs may provide adequate the ‘suspected’ and/or ‘probable’ case definition. Testing
surveillance to evaluate a control programme. When a healthy animals is of limited value for surveillance purposes
PPHSS does not provide adequate surveillance coverage (it is likely to give negative results), thus an intended bias
by geography, or in terms of a statistically appropriate towards sampling suspect and probable animals is preferred
sample size, then active surveillance measures should for the purposes of declaring freedom from disease.
be considered. Active rabies surveillance is based on
identifying rabies-suspected animals through targeted Stage 5: post elimination
sampling of animals that act abnormally, are found dead,
or are gathered as roadkill. Active surveillance detection After elimination has been achieved, the intensity of
rates are often lower than PPHSS rates, but can provide surveillance should be based upon a risk assessment for
362 Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 37 (2)

the possible reintroduction of the disease, as well as for of adequate reporting of positive and negative rabies cases
the presence of other rabies virus variants and non-rabies- from Member Countries.
virus lyssaviruses. Appropriate border and trade security
policies should be implemented. Given the large degree The World Health Organization’s Rabies Bulletin Europe
of international trade and travel, most countries should (www.who-rabies-bulletin.org/site-page/what-rabies),
consider the continuation of their PPHSSs and active which serves as a surveillance database for 44 European
surveillance activities, albeit at a reduced intensity. Only countries (including the Russian Federation), is currently
primary rabies diagnostic assays should be considered, the most effective database, providing both numerator
and all detected lyssaviruses should undergo molecular (positive cases) and denominator (the number of tested
characterisation to determine the likely origin of the animals) data (18). To assess and address the ‘disconnect’
infection. or gap between estimated, reported, and true rabies
data in Africa, the Pan-African Rabies Control Network
(PARACON) is currently developing and implementing a
Characteristics of effective regional rabies-specific disease surveillance bulletin, based
on the District Health Information System 2 platform (19).
surveillance systems This surveillance bulletin aims to store data and facilitate
automatic data analyses and output reporting for selected
Key components for effective and useful surveillance indicators, but also to enhance the sharing of submitted
systems are: data with approved international authorities, reducing
redundancy and reporting fatigue.
a) adequate and clear reporting regulations (policies and
laws for notification)
In addition to paper-based reporting, alternative approaches,
b) a decentralised laboratory diagnostic system and such as using mobile phones as surveillance tools (20, 21,
infrastructure 22) or as dog vaccination and monitoring tools (23), are
c) an integrated surveillance system, paper-based or being implemented to improve real-time monitoring and
electronic, with clear case definitions, standardised surveillance.
indicators, zero reporting (i.e. reporting all tested animals
even if there were no positive results) and minimum Sample sizes
requirements
One of the contested factors of adequate rabies surveillance is
d) resources the minimum sample size for reporting (including reporting
e) a regional approach to surveillance (in addition to all tested samples, even if no positive results were detected,
national or within-country approaches). i.e. zero reporting). In the past, target values for the number
of samples to be tested for animal rabies surveillance were
The departmental and legal separation of the human and recommended by the international regulatory bodies of
animal health sectors, as well as an absence of requirements the OIE, WHO, and European Union (EU) (24). It is now
for disease notification and reportability (or lack of generally accepted that defining a sample size for rabies
enforcement) in many countries in which rabies is endemic, surveillance in animals is problematic, prompting countries
creates a barrier to effective rabies surveillance and response that experience difficulties in meeting such requirements to
activities. Rabies control programmes should consider resort to sampling healthy animals (25).
integrating veterinary and human health detection and
response practices. Given that rabies is not present in the brain until shortly
before the onset of symptoms, testing healthy animals is
rarely recommended and this sampling strategy should not
Reporting and disseminating results
be used as proof of freedom from the disease. In situations
Over the years, many international reporting systems where adequate numbers of clinically ill animals cannot
have been implemented, with varying degrees of be identified and tested, the results of animals placed in
success. The World Health Organization’s (WHO’s) Rabnet observation/quarantine for suspected rabies, due to bites or
platform (no longer in use) (13) and the OIE’s World other suspicious behaviour, should supplement diagnostic
Animal Health Information Database (WAHID) interface results. It was estimated that detection probabilities of
(www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahid.php/Wahidhome/ <0.1 are broadly typical of rabies surveillance systems in
Home) (14, 15), as well as the Pan American Health rabies-endemic countries and areas without a history of
Organization’s (PAHO’s) epidemiologic surveillance system rabies (26). It is vital that zero reporting and minimum
(Sistema de Información Epidemiológica or SIEPI) in Latin sample sizes, and sampling based on the definitions of
America (16, 17), have all experienced challenges in terms suspect and probable cases, are agreed upon and enforced.
Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 37 (2) 363

To ensure that the surveillance system detects the majority With progress in science and technology, novel diagnostic
of cases, it is critical that case-based surveillance (in which techniques for rabies are being developed. RT–PCR
all suspected or probable cases are reported and investigated techniques are frequently used in routine diagnostics
immediately) is implemented and maintained. If no positive (32, 33), and others, such as isothermal recombinase
cases are detected, zero reporting (reporting the number of polymerase amplification (RPA), are actively being explored
tested or assessed animals) is paramount. It is of the utmost (34) (Table I).
importance, especially for activities directed towards
eliminating rabies (Stages 3 and 4), in areas with a low Besides DFA, DRIT and pan-lyssavirus RT–PCR assays,
incidence of rabies cases, to define an indicator containing novel, field-ready, rapid diagnostic techniques have been
information about the proportion of laboratory-confirmed undergoing development and standardisation in recent
positive rabies cases from all tested or assessed animals. A years (64). Such techniques are vital for any decentralised
requirement for the minimum number of suspect animals laboratory-based surveillance system. Lateral flow devices
to be tested or assessed for rabies must be included (27). (LFDs), based on immunochromatographic reaction, have
been extensively assessed at multiple locations to detect
To ensure effective surveillance, it is also crucial that WHO rabies virus antigen in the field (65). Although LFDs
and OIE recommendations, as well as case definitions, seem very promising, evaluations have shown a high
indicators, and minimum requirements, are routinely number of false-negative results and significant batch-to-
revisited and assessed by independent experts (2, 18, 25). batch variability, making these tests incompatible with
surveillance programmes that affect human treatment
decisions or are attempting to confirm rabies-free status.

Laboratory diagnostic methods

It has been recommended that further development and
validation are needed for such devices before their licensure

for an effective surveillance

and routine use in the field (53).

system Point-of-care testing with simple, reliable, and easy-to-

operate devices (such as LFDs) would be an ideal approach,
providing rapid results and immediate decision-making for
Laboratory diagnosis of rabies, by the detection of lyssavirus the administration of prophylaxis after an animal bite, as well
antigen or nucleic acid, is a prerequisite for effective rabies as for surveillance purposes. Such testing would eliminate
surveillance (2). Testing should be decentralised, allowing the challenges associated with the need to preserve samples
rapid confirmation of cases, even in remote areas. Such and transport them to the laboratory. New, field-ready PCR
decentralisation is necessary for real-time decision-making technologies, intended to be used at the point of care, are
on PEP, as well as for establishing the local disease burden currently being assessed and implemented for the detection
and confirming that the disease is absent from a declared of various pathogens (66). However, the currently available
area. Many diagnostic laboratory techniques for rabies rapid testing devices have their drawbacks, i.e. their
have been assessed and evaluated, but only very few have inadequate sensitivity and, in some cases, specificity as well.
shown adequate sensitivity and specificity to be considered Until these inadequacies are resolved and rapid tests proven
primary or confirmatory tests by the OIE and WHO (6). reliable (with high sensitivity and specificity), decentralised
laboratory-based approaches, using traditional, primary
For decades, the direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) test laboratory techniques with high sensitivity and specificity,
performed on impression smears of brain stem and should be recommended. Logistic challenges associated
cerebellum has been the only primary laboratory diagnostic with the transportation of samples to a laboratory could
assay for rabies (28, 29). However, the DFA test is not be resolved if, besides a central reference laboratory, there
necessarily conducive to decentralised testing due to its were satellite laboratories distributed strategically across the
requirements for an expensive fluorescent microscope and country/state, based on its geography, population size and
staff with highly specialised training. In 2017, WHO and disease incidence.
the OIE recognised the direct, rapid immunohistochemical
test (DRIT) as an alternative primary diagnostic assay. DRIT In many endemic settings, the availability of, or access to,
is a technique that can be executed in the field within an testing may be severely constrained. In such situations,
hour, without the need for electricity, and requires only a prioritising testing, as well as implementing cost-effective
minimum number of reagents and a light microscope (30, diagnostic techniques that can be applied in a decentralised
31). Most recently, the OIE has included pan-lyssavirus, fashion, is critical (67). As the prevalence of rabies
real-time, reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction in countries evolves, the strategy of laboratory-based
(RT–PCR) assays that have been well validated against surveillance should shift from that of an endemic setting
the DFA or DRIT as a suitable primary diagnostic assay (Stages 1, 2, and 3; passive surveillance; rapid field testing;
for rabies. DRIT; and DFA) to a strategy suitable for a low rabies
364 Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 37 (2)

Table I
Comparison of rabies assays and their use under different animal rabies surveillance programmes (35)

Stage 3: Stage 4:
Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 5:
monitoring verification Sample
Assay (References) proof of human rabies post-
of control of rabies required
burden prevention elimination
measures elimination
Reverse–transcription polymerase chain reaction +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Brain
Molecular

(RT–PCR) (32, 33, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40)

Nested RT–PCR (41, 42, 43) ++ – + – – Brain
Quantitative RT–PCR (qRT–PCR) (33, 36, 39, 44, 45) ++ – + – – Brain

Direct fluorescent antigen (DFA) test (29, 46, 47) +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Brain
Direct rapid immunohistochemical test (DRIT) (30, +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Brain
31, 48, 49, 50)
Antigen

Indirect rapid immunohistochemical test (IRIT) (51) ++ – + – – Brain

Immunochromatographic test (lateral flow device or ++ – + – – Brain

LFD) (52, 53)

Rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT)/ ++ – +++ – – Serum

fluorescent antibody virus neutralisation test (FAVN)
(54, 55, 56)
Antibody

Indirect fluorescence antibody (IFA) (57, 58) ++ – ++ – – Serum

Indirect enzyme–linked immunosorbent assay ++ – ++ – – Serum
(iELISA) (59, 60, 61, 62)
Competitive ELISA (59, 63) ++ – ++ – – Serum
–: not recommended
+: low recommendation, useful for confirmatory testing
++: moderate recommendation, useful for primary or confirmatory testing
+++: high recommendation, useful for primary testing

incidence setting, i.e. the elimination phase (Stages 4 and 5; integrated surveillance systems, such as the European Food
active plus passive surveillance; RT–PCR screening). Safety Authority (EFSA), which monitors Campylobacter,
Listeria, verotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC), Yersinia spp.,
Brucella, Mycobacterium bovis, Trichinella and Echinoccoccus,
The future of integrated as well as rabies and food-borne outbreaks, are built in
parallel to existing disease-specific systems (70).
surveillance approaches Where integrated national surveillance systems neglect to
include rabies surveillance (or its reservoir component),
Many of the efforts for integrated approaches towards
independent human and/or animal rabies (and animal-bite)
prevention and preparedness that address all three aspects
surveillance systems are often developed and implemented
of the huma­n–animal–vector triad currently focus on pilot
locally, depending on the specific conditions and needs in
testing programmes and the implementation of a targeted,
that particular area.
risk-based strategy. The goal is to detect disease spread
early and to implement intervention strategies before the
agent reaches humans (68, 69). Often, however, such In Haiti, an independent, laboratory-based surveillance
efforts fall short, resulting in the establishment of very system, composed of active, community animal-bite
specific programmes aimed predominantly at one particular investigation and PPHS animal rabies investigation, has
pathogen, without any integration or multi-use options for proven successful in real-time monitoring and assessment
other pathogens. As a result, the quality of pan-disease data of the rabies burden (27). In certain instances, where
collection systems is less than ideal. the emphasis is only on human rabies prevention and
control, and where the surveillance of domestic animals or
Neglect is most severe in the integrated surveillance of wildlife exceeds public health surveillance needs, targeted
diseases in both domestic and wild animals. In other cases, surveillance platforms are being developed in parallel.
Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 37 (2) 365

In Canada, RageDB is a spatio-temporal, Web-based pathogens (73, 74), as well as those gained from successful
database application that focuses on the storage, analysis rabies control and elimination efforts implemented in
and communication of surveillance data on raccoon-rabies certain regions in past decades (75). The establishment of a
variants, in collaboration with public health, agriculture and formal and standardised process by which rabies elimination
wildlife agencies (71). In the United States, a geographic is certified at national and regional levels by independent
information system- (GIS-) based, centralised, rabies experts (and international agencies and partners) is of
surveillance database and Internet mapping application urgent importance if the goal of eliminating dog-mediated
were developed and piloted in eight states as a new tool for human rabies by 2030 is to be reached. Now is the time
the rapid real-time mapping and dissemination of data on to form an independent, international oversight board,
animal rabies cases, in relation to unaffected areas, rabies- which will regularly convene to review predetermined sets
enzootic areas, and baited areas where interventions are of criteria (minimum surveillance requirements, agreed-
currently in progress (72). The integration of surveillance upon indicators, zero reporting) for each country involved
systems and the human–animal–vector approach should be in rabies elimination; to determine the status of elimination
emphasised, sought and planned for, in preference to the efforts; to provide recommendations; and to coordinate
development and dissemination of incompatible, temporary, global investment, based on collaborative prioritisation.
or individual disease/species surveillance systems.

Conclusions
If elimination efforts are successful, rabies will be the first
zoonotic disease ever to be eliminated worldwide, with
millions of lives and billions of dollars saved. For this to
happen, however, it is vital to apply the lessons learned
from successful programmes to control and eliminate other

Le diagnostic et la surveillance de la rage chez les animaux

à l’ère de l’élimination de la rage
R. Franka & R.M. Wallace

Résumé
Une surveillance efficace en temps réel soutenue par des tests diagnostiques
performants et validés réalisés par des laboratoires décentralisés est une condition
préalable pour que les efforts de contrôle et d’élimination de la rage soient
couronnés de succès. Le choix et la priorisation des méthodes de surveillance et
des techniques diagnostiques qui leur sont associées doivent tenir compte des
objectifs du programme de lutte et d’élimination de la rage (phase 1 : détermination
de la charge induite par la maladie ; phase 2 : prévention de la rage humaine ;
phase 3 : suivi et évaluation des mesures de lutte ; phase 4 : vérification de
l’absence de rage ; phase 5 : post-élimination). Il est essentiel d’élaborer des
mesures minimales de surveillance en conformité avec les dispositions du
chapitre 1.4. du Code sanitaire pour les animaux terrestres de l’Organisation
mondiale de la santé animale et de procéder à une évaluation systématique
des indicateurs de l’élimination de la maladie si l’on veut atteindre l’objectif de
l’élimination de la rage humaine transmise par les chiens d’ici 2030.

Mots-clés
Diagnostic de laboratoire – Rage – Surveillance.
366 Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 37 (2)

Diagnóstico y vigilancia de la rabia animal en la era

de la eliminación de la enfermedad
R. Franka & R.M. Wallace

Resumen
Para que las actividades de control y eliminación de la rabia culminen con éxito es
requisito previo e indispensable una vigilancia eficaz en tiempo real, combinada
con una labor competente y descentralizada de diagnósticos de laboratorio
validados. La selección y jerarquización de los métodos de vigilancia, junto con
el uso de técnicas apropiadas de diagnóstico, deben responder a los objetivos
marcados en el programa de control y eliminación de la enfermedad (fase 1: datos
demostrativos de la carga de enfermedad; fase 2: prevención de la rabia humana;
fase 3: seguimiento y evaluación de las medidas de control; fase 4: verificación
de la eliminación de la rabia; y fase 5: periodo posterior a la eliminación).
La definición de requisitos mínimos de vigilancia, de conformidad con el
capítulo 1.4. del Código Sanitario para los Animales Terrestres de la Organización
Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE), así como la evaluación sistemática de
indicadores relativos a la eliminación de la enfermedad, revisten la mayor
importancia para que se cumpla el objetivo de haber eliminado la rabia transmitida
por perros para 2030.

Palabras clave
Diagnóstico de laboratorio – Rabia – Vigilancia.

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