UNIT 1

Urban Design as a Discipline

Urban design is both a method and a result of establishing communities where people can live, interact with one
another, and interact with their surroundings1. It involves several diverse academic fields, including economics,
engineering, planning, and architecture. It is a relatively recent phrase that first appeared in the 1960s in response to
the need to resolve the issue of the interaction between urban planning and architecture. Its theory and practice have
been impacted by numerous paradigm shifts. It can be examined from a variety of angles, including social,
geographical, temporal, environmental, and others. This design strategy focuses on particular design procedures and
results when designing buildings and the spaces between them. In addition to designing and establishing the physical
features of towns, cities, and regional locations, urban design also considers 'bigger picture' issues of economic, social,
and environmental significance as well as social design. The scope of a project may include anything, from a single
public or neighbourhood street to an entire city and its surrounding areas. The sciences of architecture, landscape
architecture, and urban planning are combined by urban designers to oversee physical space and social conditions
more effectively. It considers and takes into account the larger scale of clusters of buildings, infrastructure, roadways,
and public spaces, as well as entire neighbourhood and districts, with the goal of creating urban landscapes that are
equitable, attractive, performative, and sustainable. It draws on information from the natural sciences as well as related
fields in the social and behavioural sciences, like public administration, sociology, law, urban geography, and urban
economics, to construct its theoretical and technical understanding. Strategic urban design, landscape urbanism, water-
sensitive urban design, and sustainable urbanism are some of the more modern sub-subfields of urban design. Urban
planning requires expertise in a variety of fields, including physical geography, social science, real estate
development, urban economics, political economy, and social theory. Urban design theory is concerned with the usage
and perception of public spaces, as well as their planning and administration (sometimes known as the "public
environment," "public realm," or "public domain"). and how people utilize and interact with public spaces. The
entirety of the areas that the general public uses for free on a daily basis, such as streets, plazas, parks, and public
infrastructure, is referred to as public space.

Scope and Objectives of Urban Design

Urban design is a multidisciplinary field that involves the arrangement, design, and planning of the physical and
spatial aspects of cities, towns, and other urban areas. It aims to create functional, attractive, sustainable, and vibrant
environments for people to live, work, and interact.

Scope of Urban Design:

Physical Layout and Form: Urban design involves the arrangement of buildings, streets, public spaces, and
infrastructure in a way that creates a coherent and visually pleasing urban form. This includes considerations of scale,
proportions, building heights, setbacks, and the overall spatial organization.

Public Spaces: The design of public spaces like parks, plazas, squares, and streetscapes is a significant part of urban
design. These spaces serve as places for social interaction, recreation, and cultural activities, contributing to the
quality of life in cities.

Land Use: Urban design takes into account the appropriate allocation and mix of land uses, such as residential,
commercial, industrial, and recreational zones. A well-balanced land use strategy can promote walkability and reduce
the need for extensive commuting.

Mobility and Transportation: Designing efficient and sustainable transportation systems is crucial in urban design.
This includes considerations for pedestrian-friendly areas, cycling lanes, public transit, and minimizing traffic
congestion.

Built Environment: The design of buildings and their integration into the urban fabric is another important aspect.
Coherent architectural styles, building materials, and design standards contribute to a visually harmonious urban
environment.

Heritage and Cultural Identity: Urban design often incorporates the preservation of historical and cultural heritage,
maintaining a sense of continuity and identity within the urban landscape.

Environmental Sustainability: Sustainable urban design aims to reduce the ecological footprint of urban areas
through strategies like green infrastructure, energy-efficient buildings, waste management, and water conservation.
Social Inclusion: Urban design strives to create inclusive environments that cater to diverse populations, including
people with disabilities, different socio-economic backgrounds, and various age groups.

Objectives of Urban Design:

Functional Efficiency: Urban design seeks to optimize the functionality and efficiency of urban spaces by ensuring
that buildings, infrastructure, and transportation systems are well-integrated and accessible.

Aesthetic Quality: Creating visually appealing and harmonious urban environments enhances the quality of life for
residents and visitors. Aesthetic considerations encompass architecture, landscaping, public art, and overall streetscape
design.

Social Interaction: Urban design aims to foster social interactions by creating public spaces that encourage
community gatherings, cultural events, and recreational activities.

Economic Vitality: Well-designed urban areas can attract investment, tourism, and economic activities. Aesthetically
pleasing and functional environments can enhance property values and stimulate business growth.

Environmental Sustainability: Urban design plays a role in mitigating environmental impacts by promoting
sustainable practices such as green spaces, energy-efficient buildings, and eco-friendly transportation options.

Cultural Identity: Preserving and celebrating the cultural heritage of a place through urban design can strengthen the
sense of belonging and pride among residents.

Safety and Security: Thoughtful urban design can contribute to safer neighbourhoods by designing spaces with clear
sightlines, well-lit areas, and minimized opportunities for crime.

Health and Well-being: Creating walkable neighbourhoods, providing access to green spaces, and promoting active
transportation can have positive effects on residents' physical and mental health.

Resilience: Urban design can enhance a city's resilience to various challenges, such as climate change, by integrating
strategies that address adaptability and mitigation.

Components of Urban Space

Urban spaces are composed of various elements that come together to create a cohesive and functional environment
for people to live, work, and interact. These components contribute to the overall character, identity, and functionality
of a city or urban area. Here are some key components of urban space:

Buildings: The built environment, including residential, commercial, industrial, and institutional structures, defines
the physical character of urban spaces. Architectural styles, building heights, materials, and design elements contribute
to the city's visual identity.

Streets and Roads: Transportation networks, including streets, roads, and highways, are essential components of
urban space. They facilitate the movement of people and goods and play a role in shaping the overall urban layout.

Public Spaces: Public spaces such as parks, plazas, squares, and recreational areas provide places for social
interaction, relaxation, and community events. These spaces enhance the quality of life in urban areas and contribute
to a sense of community.

Sidewalks and Pedestrian Areas: Walkable sidewalks and pedestrian-friendly zones are crucial for urban mobility.
They encourage walking, reduce reliance on cars, and contribute to a vibrant street life.

Transit Facilities: Public transportation infrastructure, including bus stops, subway stations, and light rail systems,
provides efficient options for moving around the city, reducing traffic congestion and environmental impact.

Cycling Infrastructure: Designated bike lanes, bike-sharing programs, and cycling-friendly paths promote
sustainable and healthy modes of transportation.

Landscaping and Green Spaces: Trees, plants, gardens, and greenery contribute to the aesthetics of urban areas
while also providing environmental benefits like improved air quality, shade, and habitat for wildlife.
Public Art and Sculptures: Art installations and sculptures in urban spaces enhance the cultural and visual appeal of
the city, fostering creativity and community engagement.

Seating and Street Furniture: Benches, seating areas, and other street furniture provide places for rest and
relaxation, encouraging people to spend time outdoors.

Lighting and Street Fixtures: Well-designed lighting enhances safety and aesthetics in urban spaces, making them
usable during nighttime and creating ambiance.

Water Features: Fountains, ponds, and water features add sensory elements to urban spaces, providing visual and
auditory appeal.

Architectural Features: Urban spaces might include architectural landmarks, historical buildings, and unique
structures that contribute to the city's identity and sense of place.

Commercial Areas: Retail zones, markets, and commercial districts provide spaces for shopping, dining, and
economic activities.

Residential Areas: Housing complexes, neighbourhoods, and residential zones are essential components of urban
space, accommodating the city's population.

Cultural and Civic Facilities: Museums, libraries, theatres, and civic buildings contribute to the cultural and
intellectual life of the city.

Waterfronts and Water Bodies: If the city is located near water bodies, waterfront areas can become significant
urban spaces, offering recreational opportunities and scenic views.

Historical and Heritage Sites: Urban spaces with historical significance or preserved heritage buildings contribute to
the city's cultural identity and storytelling.

Wayfinding and Signage: Clear signage and wayfinding elements help people navigate through urban spaces and
access key destinations.

Urban Design terms:

Urban Structure: The arrangement and organization of various elements within an urban area, including buildings,
streets, open spaces, and infrastructure. Urban structure refers to the spatial layout and organization that gives a city or
neighbourhood its distinctive character.

Urban Form: The physical shape and layout of an urban area, encompassing the arrangement of buildings, streets,
open spaces, and other elements. Urban form defines the overall appearance and layout of a city or neighbourhood.

Grain: The size and scale of urban elements within a given area. Grain refers to the level of detail and the dimensions
of individual components, such as buildings, streets, and blocks, that collectively shape the urban environment.

Texture: The visual and tactile quality of an urban area, resulting from the arrangement of diverse architectural styles,
building materials, and spatial features. Urban texture influences the visual variety and richness of the built
environment.

Density: The measure of how closely buildings, people, or activities are packed within a specific area. Urban density
often refers to the number of people or housing units per unit of land area and has implications for land use,
transportation, and social dynamics.

Enclosure: The sense of containment and spatial definition created by the arrangement of buildings, streets, and open
spaces. Enclosure refers to the way urban elements form visual and physical boundaries, contributing to a sense of
place and scale.

Scale: The relative size and proportion of urban elements in relation to each other and to the human observer. Scale is
important in urban design as it influences how people perceive and interact with the built environment, from the scale
of buildings to the scale of the entire city.
 UNIT 2
Urban Form and Morphology: Case Studies in History
World Scenario of Urban Form and Morphology of Early cities
Early cities, which emerged thousands of years ago, displayed distinct urban forms and morphologies that were
shaped by the technological, cultural, and social conditions of their time. While each ancient city had unique
characteristics, there are some common features and patterns that can be observed in their urban layouts. Here are a
few examples of early cities and their urban forms:

Mesopotamian Cities (e.g., Ur, Babylon): Mesopotamian cities, located in the fertile valleys between the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers, were some of the earliest urban centers. They often featured a grid-like layout with well-organized
streets and buildings made of clay bricks. Ziggurats, stepped pyramids used for religious purposes, were prominent
architectural features in these cities.

Indus Valley Cities (e.g., Mohenjo-daro, Harappa): The cities of the Indus Valley civilization, located in what is now
modern-day Pakistan and India, exhibited advanced urban planning. They had a sophisticated system of roads,
drainage, and water supply. The cities were laid out in a grid pattern, with houses and public buildings made of
standardized fired bricks.

Ancient Egyptian Cities (e.g., Thebes, Memphis): Egyptian cities were centered around monumental architecture,
such as temples and palaces. The layout often followed a hierarchical structure, with important buildings located along
a central axis. Residential areas surrounded these central structures.

Greek City-States (e.g., Athens, Sparta): Greek cities were known for their distinctive urban forms. The agora, a
central public space, was a focal point for civic and commercial activities. Greek cities often had irregular street
patterns that followed the contours of the land.

Roman Cities (e.g., Rome, Pompeii): Roman cities were characterized by a grid-based layout, with intersecting
streets known as the "cardo" (north-south) and the "decumanus" (east-west). These streets often led to a central forum,
which served as a civic and commercial hub. Roman cities also had elaborate infrastructure, including aqueducts,
sewers, and amphitheaters.

Mesoamerican Cities (e.g., Teotihuacan, Tenochtitlan): Mesoamerican cities, such as the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan,
were planned around religious and ceremonial centers. These cities featured radial and concentric road systems that
led to important temples and plazas. Artificial islands called "chinampas" were used for agriculture and settlement.

Medieval European Cities: Medieval European cities often developed around a castle or cathedral, with narrow,
winding streets. The layout was influenced by defense considerations and property divisions. Central squares or
marketplaces served as gathering spaces.

Ancient Chinese Cities (e.g., Xi'an, Chang'an): Ancient Chinese cities, such as Chang'an (modern-day Xi'an), were
characterized by axial planning. Major streets and avenues led to important governmental and religious buildings. The
layout often reflected Confucian principles of order and hierarchy.

These historic cities help us to understand the needs, developments, ideas, and cultural practices of the various nations
and the way they influenced these urban form and morphology.

Greek Agora:
The Greek "agora" was a central public space in ancient Greek city-states, serving as the heart of civic life and a hub
for social, political, and commercial activities. It was typically an open area surrounded by important buildings such as
temples, government buildings, and stoas (covered walkways). The agora facilitated discussions, trade, cultural events,
and gatherings of citizens. The layout of the agora varied, but it often featured a central open space with colonnades
and structures around its edges.
Roman Forum:
The Roman forum was a similar concept to the Greek agora but adapted to Roman culture and governance. It was a
large open plaza located in the center of Rome and other Roman cities, serving as a place for public assemblies,
commerce, legal proceedings, and religious ceremonies. The Roman forum was often surrounded by important
structures like temples, basilicas, government buildings, and arches. It was a focal point of urban life and a symbol of
Roman power and civilization.

Medieval Towns:
Medieval towns in Europe developed organically, often around a castle or cathedral. They had narrow, winding streets
that followed the natural topography of the land. The town center usually featured a marketplace or square where trade
and social interactions occurred. The layout of medieval towns was influenced by defense considerations, with walls
and gates for protection. Buildings were often built close together, and land was at a premium.

Renaissance Place Making:

During the Renaissance, there was a renewed interest in urban planning and design that emphasized humanism,
proportion, and aesthetics. Plazas and squares were designed as central gathering places and often surrounded by
important civic and religious buildings. Architects and planners during the Renaissance focused on creating
harmonious and balanced urban environments. One of the notable examples is the Piazza del Campidoglio in Rome.

Piazza del Campidoglio is known for its geometric and harmonious design, showcasing Michelangelo's mastery of
urban planning and architecture. It was designed as part of a project to revitalize the ancient Capitoline Hill, which
was one of the seven hills of Rome. The piazza features the following key elements:

Triangular Design: The piazza has a trapezoidal shape with an elongated central space that opens up toward the
historic center of Rome. Its design is based on a trapezoid rather than a square or rectangle, which creates a unique
sense of perspective.

Palazzo Senatorio: The Palazzo Senatorio, the city hall of Rome, is located at the top of the piazza's staircase. Its
façade is adorned with classical elements, including pilasters and statues.

Cordonata Staircase: Michelangelo designed a grand staircase, known as the "Cordonata," to lead from the base of
the hill to the piazza. The staircase features a gentle slope, making it easier for horses and carriages to ascend.

Statue of Marcus Aurelius: At the center of the piazza stands a bronze equestrian statue of the Roman Emperor
Marcus Aurelius, a replica of the original statue that is now preserved in the nearby Capitoline Museums.

Capitoline Museums: The piazza is flanked by the Capitoline Museums, which house a rich collection of classical art
and artifacts. The museums are housed in two buildings connected by an underground passage.

The design of Piazza del Campidoglio is characterized by its symmetrical layout, careful attention to proportions, and
the use of classical architectural elements. It has become an iconic example of Renaissance urban planning and
remains a prominent public space in Rome, attracting both locals and tourists.

Ideal cities- Industrialization and city growth

During the industrialization period, which began in the late 18th century and continued into the 19th century, cities
experienced significant growth and transformation. This period marked a shift from agrarian economies to industrial
and urban-centered economies. The rapid expansion of industries, technologies, and population led to the emergence
of new urban forms and planning concepts.

Industrialization and Urban Growth:

Industrialization brought about technological advancements that revolutionized manufacturing processes. This led to
increased urbanization as people moved from rural areas to cities in search of job opportunities in factories and
industries. The growth of industries led to the rise of factories, which required a concentrated labour force. As a result,
many cities experienced rapid population growth and the development of new urban neighbourhoods.

Challenges of Urbanization:
The rapid and unplanned growth of cities during industrialization often resulted in overcrowding, inadequate housing,
poor sanitation, and social inequalities. Urban areas faced challenges such as pollution, inadequate infrastructure, and
inadequate transportation systems to handle the increased population and economic activity.

Ideal Cities Concept:

In response to the challenges posed by industrialization and urban growth, urban planners and architects began to
explore the concept of "ideal cities." These were envisioned as carefully planned urban environments designed to
address the negative aspects of industrialization and promote healthier living conditions.
Ideal cities were often characterized by rational and orderly layouts, with a focus on hygiene, green spaces, and
efficient infrastructure. These concepts aimed to improve the quality of life for urban residents.

Garden City Movement:

One of the most influential movements arising from the ideal cities concept was the Garden City movement, initiated
by Ebenezer Howard in the late 19th century. Howard's vision combined the benefits of both urban and rural living by
creating planned communities that featured a balance of industry, agriculture, and nature.
Garden cities were designed to be self-contained communities with green spaces, affordable housing, and
opportunities for work within the community. The movement aimed to counter the negative effects of industrialization
on urban life.

Influence on Urban Planning:

While many aspects of the ideal cities concept were challenging to implement on a large scale, it had a lasting impact
on urban planning and design. Elements of ideal cities, such as green spaces, zoning regulations, and focus on quality
of life, continue to influence urban planning practices today.

American Grid Planning

The grid plan, grid street plan, or gridiron plan is a style of city design in urban planning where streets intersect at
right angles to form a grid. The frequent crossings of the grid plan and its orthogonal shape, two built-in features,
make movement easier. Because of the frequent intersections of the geometry, it is easier to choose a direct path to the
locations you want and it also aids in orientation and navigating.

Anti-Urbanism
Anti-urbanism is a basic rejection of the city and a desire to eliminate it. It is enmity toward the city as contrasted to
the country. When the words "URBOPHOBIA" or "URBANOPHOBIA" are used, they sometimes conjure up a
collective cliché that describes this animosity rather than a particular feeling. This cliche might be politicized, which
would have an impact on how cities are planned. Although it naturally manifests in various civilizations for various
political reasons, ant urbanism is a universal concept. The anti-urban perspective is still relevant despite the massive
urbanization and concentration of almost half of the world's population in cities. Although many people view the city
as a source of aggravation, ant urbanism really takes the form of anger directed more specifically at the global city
than at urbanity as a whole.

Anti-urbanism evolved in the 17th and 18th centuries in the middle of the industrial revolution, the mass migration of
peasants, and their subsequent plight. Before this point, the city was seen as a source of money, employment, services,
and culture; nevertheless, it gradually started to be seen as nefarious and the root of problems like crime, unhappiness,
and immorality. The first anti-urban newspaper was created in England, the first industrialized nation, on the basis of
sentiment brought on by dreadfully unhealthy living circumstances. The city was characterized as being infested with
sickness, dark, and full of sad, exploited employees. The city's increasing detractors can also be attributed to the 1873–
1896 Long Depression. Thus, it is possible to interpret the growing fear of cities as a rejection of a traumatic reality.

The second half of the 20th century saw the emergence of social and environmental critiques of the city that addressed
problems including anonymity, pollution, and noise pollution. Contradictory views of the city may actually coexist;
agrarianism may be critical of the subpar conditions while appreciating the significance of progress and innovation.
An anti-urban worldview contrasts positive country characteristics like traditions, community, and stability with
unfavourable city ideas. Together with the Romantic movement, which pushed for a return to nature, these principles
first appear in the European environment in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. At times of extreme economic,
political, and social upheaval, such as the French Revolution and the Swiss agricultural crisis at the end of the 19th
century, acute cases of ant urbanism can be seen.
Picturesque
The term "picturesque" originates from the concept of designing landscapes to resemble pictures and create visually
pleasing scenes. It reached its peak in Britain during the late 18th and early 19th centuries and continues to be relevant
today. In American landscape discussions, "picturesque" had two main meanings. Firstly, it referred to a garden style
with specific compositional elements outlined by theorists like Thomas Whately and A. J. Downing. Secondly, it was
used to describe the visual effect achieved by blending natural and designed landscape elements into a view. This
understanding is evident in statements like J. C. Loudon's assertion that a scene was picturesque if it could be turned
into a "tolerable picture" when painted. This dual usage of the term was common during its historical evolution.

Furthermore, the term "picturesque" often conveyed the idea of an appealing or charming scene, as seen in William
Bartram's descriptions of his travels in the southern United States. The aim of the picturesque was to recreate in
gardens the experience of natural landscapes. Key attributes included surprise and variety, as opposed to the sublime's
associations with awe and terror. The theorists Whately and William Gilpin, whose writings were influential in
America, defined these characteristics. For instance, at Mount Vernon, the picturesque effect was heightened by the
unexpected sight after emerging from a dense forest. Serpentine paths through gardens offered a continuous change of
scenery. Downing emphasized the importance of intricacy and irregularity for the effect in his descriptions of his
picturesque plantations. Overall, the picturesque aimed to evoke the experience of nature through surprise, variety, and
the incorporation of both designed and natural elements. Picturesque urban planning and design of cities refers to
creating urban environments that are aesthetically pleasing, harmonious, and visually captivating. It involves
integrating natural landscapes, architectural elements, and infrastructure in a way that enhances the overall visual
appeal and quality of life for residents and visitors. Here are some key principles and features often associated with
picturesque urban planning and design:

Human Scale: The design should prioritize the comfort and convenience of pedestrians. Streets, pathways, and public
spaces should be designed to encourage walking and human interaction.

Landscaping and Green Spaces: Incorporating greenery, parks, gardens, and trees into urban areas enhances the
visual appeal and provides spaces for relaxation and recreation.

Mixed Land Uses: Creating a mix of residential, commercial, and recreational spaces within the same area fosters a
vibrant and dynamic urban environment.

Architectural Variety: A mix of architectural styles and designs adds character and diversity to the cityscape. This
can include a blend of historical and modern buildings.

Historic Preservation: Integrating historic buildings and landmarks into urban planning maintains a sense of
continuity and cultural heritage while contributing to the city's unique identity.

Scenic Views: Planning for viewpoints and vistas that offer breathtaking views of landmarks, skylines, and natural
landscapes can create memorable visual experiences.

Waterfront Development: Incorporating waterfront areas, such as rivers, lakes, or oceans, into the urban design can
offer opportunities for recreation, dining, and relaxation.

Public Art and Sculptures: Integrating public art installations, sculptures, and murals into urban spaces adds a
creative and cultural dimension to the environment.

Pedestrian-Friendly Infrastructure: Designing safe and accessible sidewalks, crosswalks, and pedestrian zones
promotes walking and reduces dependence on cars.

Plazas and Gathering Spaces: Designing plazas, squares, and open spaces with seating, fountains, and amenities
encourages social interaction and community gatherings.

Street Furniture and Lighting: Thoughtfully designed benches, street lamps, and other elements contribute to the
overall ambiance and functionality of public spaces.
Traffic Management: Implementing traffic-calming measures, such as roundabouts, traffic islands, and reduced
speed limits, improves safety and creates a more pleasant urban environment.

Public Transportation: Efficient and accessible public transportation systems, including buses, trams, and subways,
reduce traffic congestion and promote a more sustainable urban environment.

Cite-Industrielle
Living Quarters: The living quarters are located in a narrow strip along the river, to minimize distances to nature.
The houses are designed to be spacious and airy, with plenty of sunlight and ventilation.
Industry: The industrial zone is located on the other side of the river, away from the living quarters. The factories are
designed to be efficient and clean, with no smoke or pollution.
Civic center: The civic centre is located in the heart of the city, and includes a town hall, library, theatre, and museum.
It is designed to be a place for people to gather and celebrate their community.
Tony Garnier's Cité Industrielle civic center
Health center: The health center is located outside the city, in a clean and healthy environment. It includes a hospital,
sanatorium, and other health facilities.
Tony Garnier's Cité Industrielle health center
The city is designed to be efficient and functional, with a focus on public transportation and green spaces. The streets
are wide and tree-lined, and there are parks and gardens throughout the city. Garnier's plan was never built, but it is
considered to be a major contribution to urban planning. It influenced many of the 20th century's most famous
architects, including Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright