Book 3 The Engagement Toolkit (4th Ed.) - Melbourne State Government of Victoria

Effective Engagement: building relationships with
community and other stakeholders
The engagement toolkit
Book 3
Version 4
© The State of Victoria Department of Environment and Primary
Industries 2014
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ISBN BOOK 1 1 74152 241 2

ISBN BOOK 2 1 74152 247 1
ISBN BOOK 3 1 74152 253 6
ISBN CD-ROM 1 74152 265 X
ISBN SET 1 74152 259 5
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Disclaimer
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therefore disclaims all liability for any error, loss or other consequence
which may arise from you relying on any information in this publication.
Contents
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................1
2. Choosing the Right Tool ...........................................................................................................................................2
3. The Toolkit ...............................................................................................................................................................6
3.1. Backcasting ................................................................................................................................................6
3.2. Brainstorming ............................................................................................................................................8
3.3. Briefings................................................................................................................................................... 10
3.4. Citizen Committees .................................................................................................................................. 12
3.5. Citizen Juries ............................................................................................................................................ 14
3.6. Civic Journalism........................................................................................................................................ 16
3.7. Community Fairs ...................................................................................................................................... 18
3.8. Community Indicator................................................................................................................................ 20
3.9. Community Profiling ................................................................................................................................. 22
3.10. Conference .............................................................................................................................................. 24
3.11. Consensus Conference ............................................................................................................................. 26
3.12. Deliberative Opinion Polls......................................................................................................................... 28
3.13. Delphi Study............................................................................................................................................. 30
3.14. Design Charrettes ..................................................................................................................................... 33
3.15. Displays and Exhibits ................................................................................................................................ 36
3.16. Electronic Democracy ............................................................................................................................... 38
3.17. Expert Panel ............................................................................................................................................. 40
3.18. Field Trips ................................................................................................................................................ 42
3.19. Fishbowl .................................................................................................................................................. 44
3.20. Focus Groups ........................................................................................................................................... 46
3.21. Future Search Conference ........................................................................................................................ 48
3.22. Information Contacts................................................................................................................................ 50
3.23. Information Hotline .................................................................................................................................. 52
3.24. Information Repository ............................................................................................................................ 54
3.25. Interactive TV ........................................................................................................................................... 55
3.26. Interactive Video Display Kiosks ................................................................................................................ 57
3.27. Key Stakeholder Interviews....................................................................................................................... 59
3.28. Kitchen Table Discussion........................................................................................................................... 61
3.29. Media Releases ........................................................................................................................................ 63
3.30. Mediation and Negotiation ....................................................................................................................... 65
3.31. Mind Mapping.......................................................................................................................................... 67
3.32. MODSS (Multi-objective Decision Support Systems) .................................................................................. 69
3.33. Newspaper Inserts ................................................................................................................................... 70
3.34. Nominal Groups ....................................................................................................................................... 72
3.35. Open House (or Open Days, Drop-In Centres)............................................................................................ 74
3.36. Open Space Technology............................................................................................................................ 76
3.37. Participant Observation ............................................................................................................................ 78
3.38. Photovoice ............................................................................................................................................... 80
3.39. Planning4real ........................................................................................................................................... 82
3.40. Poster Competitions ................................................................................................................................. 84
3.41. Printed Information .................................................................................................................................. 86
3.42. Prioritisation Matrix ................................................................................................................................. 88
3.43. Public Conversation .................................................................................................................................. 90
3.44. Public Involvement Volunteers ................................................................................................................. 92
3.45. Public Meeting ......................................................................................................................................... 94
3.46. Questionnaires and Responses ................................................................................................................. 96
3.47. Role Plays................................................................................................................................................. 98
3.48. Samoan Circles ....................................................................................................................................... 100
3.49. Scenario Testing ..................................................................................................................................... 102
3.50. Search Conference ................................................................................................................................. 104
3.51. Shopfront............................................................................................................................................... 106
3.52. Simulation (electronically generated) ...................................................................................................... 108
3.53. Sketch Interviews ................................................................................................................................... 110
3.54. Snowball Sampling ................................................................................................................................. 112
3.55. Speakout (version 1)............................................................................................................................... 114
3.56. Speakout (version 2)............................................................................................................................... 116
3.57. Stakeholder Analysis (CLIP) ..................................................................................................................... 118
3.58. Stakeholder Analysis (Stakeholder Matrix) .............................................................................................. 120
3.59. Stakeholder Analysis (Venn Diagrams) .................................................................................................... 122
3.60. Study Circles........................................................................................................................................... 124
3.61. Submissions ........................................................................................................................................... 126
3.62. Surveys .................................................................................................................................................. 128
3.63. Technical Assistance ............................................................................................................................... 130
3.64. Technical Reports and Discussion Papers ................................................................................................ 131
3.65. Telephone Trees..................................................................................................................................... 133
3.66. Visioning ................................................................................................................................................ 135
3.67. Websites ................................................................................................................................................ 137
3.68. Workshops ............................................................................................................................................. 139
1. Introduction
Within these pages you will find a valuable list of
tools for assisting in the planning, implementation
and evaluation of community engagement
activities.
This toolkit has been developed with the
assistance and permission of the Coastal Co-
operative Research Centre (CRC).1 Our team of
facilitators and practitioners have also contributed
tools that they have found useful in their own
engagement practices.
The toolkit is not intended to provide an
exhaustive list, but rather it offers a broad
selection of tools covering all types of
engagement, from ‘inform’ through to ‘empower’.
The tools have been listed in alphabetical order,
with detailed descriptions including objectives,
resources required, a discussion of their strengths
and weakness, as well as references for further
exploration.
1The former Coastal CRC was based in Queensland and

provided advice and decision-making tools to assist in
effective management of ecosystem health for
Australia’s coastal zones, estuaries and waterways.
1 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

The following table matches the tools to the IAP2
2. Choosing the Public Participation Spectrum.2 A bracketed tick
indicates the tool that best fits the engagement
Right Tool type (inform, consult, involve, collaborate or
empower).
You will also notice the ‘diverge’ and ‘converge’
Choosing a tool or combination of tools for columns in the table. A diverging tool is one that is
engaging your community is a critical step in the predominantly focussed on generating ideas and
engagement planning process. It is important that information. A converging tool brings information
you know what you are asking from the together and enables decisions to be made or a
stakeholders when you decide to use a specific solution/recommendation to be identified. Some
engagement tool. You should only choose tools tools can be both diverging and converging, while
that are suited to the purpose of your particular others are more specific and focussed on either
engagement. generating ideas or making decisions.
The selection criteria will vary according to the: This table is intended as a guide only and focuses
 Project context (i.e. project goals, objectives on matching decision-making processes to your
and anticipated outcomes). purpose of engagement. The table can also be
used for individual decision making. For example,
 Community context within which your project
technical assistance in a group situation is more
sits (i.e. your community profile and the social about informing, while for an individual this
and political context). information is often empowering for their own
 Project parameters (including the project size, decision making (e.g. extension dairy advice to a
budget, timeline and resources allocated). farmer).
 Project teams (i.e. skills of team and
availability of the members).
You may need to employ varying types of
engagement for the same stakeholder during the
lifespan of your project. A range of tools may be
utilised and consequently the promise made at
differing stages in the project process will need to
be accommodated.
Tool Checklist
 Does the tool match your overall program

objectives, purpose of engagement and
anticipated outcomes? (In particular, refer to
the objectives, outcomes and uses for each
tool.)
 Are you being inclusive of all stakeholders? If
not, what do you need to consider in order
to be more inclusive? (Refer to Book 1: an
introduction to engagement, Engaging
Diverse Groups.)
 Can you adapt this tool to better suit your
work and community context?
 Have you developed an evaluation method
for this tool in your plan? Will it capture the
tool’s success and effectiveness in engaging
the community as well as capturing new
ideas and learning for incorporation next
time?
2 http://www.iap2.org [accessed 15/10/2014]

Engagement Tool Classifications
Tool Inform Consult Involve Collaborate Empower Diverge Converge
Backcasting ✓ ✓ {✓} {✓} {✓} ✓
Brainstorming ✓ {✓} {✓} {✓} ✓
Briefings {✓} ✓ ✓
Citizen committees {✓} ✓ ✓
Citizen juries ✓ {✓} {✓} ✓ ✓
Civic journalism ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Community fairs {✓} ✓
Community indicator ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓
Community profiling ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Conference ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Consensus conference {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Deliberative opinion ✓ {✓} ✓
polls
Delphi study ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Design charrettes ✓ ✓ ✓
Displays and exhibits {✓} ✓ ✓
Electronic democracy {✓} ✓ ✓
Expert panel ✓ ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓
Field trips {✓} ✓ ✓
Fishbowl ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓
Focus groups ✓ ✓
Future search ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓
conference
Information contacts ✓ ✓
Information hotline ✓ ✓
Information repository ✓ ✓
Interactive TV ✓ {✓} ✓
Interactive video display ✓ ✓
kiosks
Key stakeholder ✓ ✓
interviews
Kitchen table discussion ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Media releases {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Mediation and ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓

negotiation
Mind maps ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Multi Objective Decision- ✓ ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓
Making Support
(MODSS)
Newspaper inserts ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓
Nominal group ✓ ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓
Open house ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Open space technology ✓ ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓
Participant observation {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓
Photovoice {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓
Planning4real ✓ ✓ {✓} ✓
Poster competitions {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓
Printed information {✓} ✓ ✓
Prioritisation matrix ✓ ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓
Public conversation ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓
Public involvement ✓ ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓
volunteers
Public meeting ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Questionnaires and ✓ {✓} ✓
responses
Role plays {✓} ✓ ✓
Samoan circles ✓ ✓ ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓
Scenario testing ✓ ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Search conference ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓
Shopfront {✓} ✓ ✓
Simulation ✓ ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
(electronically
generated)
Sketch interviews ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓
Snowball sampling {✓} ✓ ✓
Speakout (version 1) {✓} ✓ ✓
Speakout (version 2) ✓ ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓
Stakeholder analysis ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
(CLIP)
(Stakeholder matrix)

(Venn diagrams)
Study circles ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓
Submissions ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓
Surveys ✓ {✓} ✓
Technical assistance ✓ ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓
Technical reports and {✓} ✓ ✓
discussion papers
Telephone trees {✓} ✓ ✓
Visioning ✓ ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓
Websites ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Workshops ✓ {✓} ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Resources required:
3. The Toolkit  Publicity
 Venue rental
3.1. Backcasting  Catering
 Staffing
Description:
Backcasting is a method of analysing alternative  Moderator/facilitator
futures, often energy futures. Its major  Experts
distinguishing characteristic is a concern with how  Recorders
desirable futures can be attained. It involves
working backward from a desired future end-  Gophers
point or set of goals to the present to determine  Artists/photographer
the physical feasibility of that particular future and
 Audiovisual recording equipment and
the policy measures required to reach that end
amplification
point. End-points are usually chosen for a time 25
to 50 years in the future.3  Overhead projectors
Backcasting is similar to visioning, however  Data projectors
backcasts are not intended to reveal what the  Video
future will be, but rather to weigh up a number of
 Slide projector/screen
possible futures, and decide the implications and
preferable options, then to map out steps along  Printed public information sheets Response
the way. sheets
 Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins,
Objectives:
etc.)
Backcasting allows a group of people to weigh up
the implications of different future options or  Furniture
policy goals.  Children’s requirements
Outcomes: Can be used for:

Backcasting provides one preferred option from a  Showcase product, plan, policy
number of future possibilities, and a series of ways
 Engage community
that the desired endpoint can be achieved.
 Develop community capacity
Uses/strengths:  Develop action plan
 Backcasts are not intended to reveal what the
future will likely be, but to indicate the Number of people required to help organise:
relative feasibility and implications of different  Medium (2–12 people)
policy goals.
 Individual
 Suggests the implications of likely futures,
chosen not on the basis of their likelihood but Audience size:
on the basis of other criteria defined  Large (> 30)
externally to the analysis (e.g. criteria of social
 Medium (11–30)
or environmental desirability).
 Determines the freedom of action, in a policy Time required:
sense, with respect to possible futures.  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
Special considerations/weaknesses: Skill level/support required:
 No estimate of likelihood is possible.  High (Specialist skills)
 Does not seek to discover the underlying  Medium (Computer & other expertise)
structural features of the world that would
cause the future to come about. Cost:
 High (> AUD$10,000)
3Paehlke, R (1995) Conservation and environmentalism,  Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
an encyclopedia, New York, Garland

Participation level:
 High (Stakeholders participate in decision)
Innovation level:
 High (Innovative)
Method:
1. Define future goals and objectives, projecting
25–50 years into the future.
2. Specify the scenario by analysing the
technological and physical characteristics of a
path that would lead towards the specified
goals.
3. Evaluate the scenario in terms of physical,
technological and socio- economic feasibility
and policy implications.
4. Brainstorm ways this desired end-point can be
achieved, working backwards to the present.

3.2. Brainstorming  Pens, markers
 Venue large enough for comfort
Description:
 Facilitator
Brainstorming is a method for developing creative
solutions to problems. It works by focusing on a Can be used for:
problem, and then having participants come up  Engage community
with as many deliberately unusual solutions as
possible and by pushing the ideas as far as  Discover community issues
possible. During the brainstorming session there is
Number of people required to help organise:
no criticism of ideas – the idea is to open up as
many possibilities as possible, and break down  Large (> 12 people)
preconceptions about the limits of the problem.  Medium (2–12 people)
Once this has been done the results of the
 Individual
brainstorming session can be analysed and the
best solutions can be explored either using further Audience size:
brainstorming or more conventional solutions.
 Large (> 30)
Brainstorming is useful in warming up a workshop
 Medium (11–30)
and creating a sense of unity between workshop
participants by ‘breaking the ice’ between them.4  Small (≤ 10)
Objectives: Time required:

Brainstorming aims to develop the broadest  Short (< 6 weeks)
possible range of creative options, to evaluate
these, and to select the best. Skill level/support required:
 Low (No special skills)
Outcomes:
Brainstorming will offer better solutions to a Cost:
community issue or proposal because a wider  Low (< AUD$1,000)
range of options has been canvassed.
Uses/strengths:  High (Stakeholders participate in decision)
 Can encourage creative solutions.
Innovation level:
 Can serve as a warm-up exercise.
 Low (Traditional)
 Can replace conventional participation tools
where such tools are inappropriate. Method:
 Can assist in developing unity between 1. Select participants from as wide a range of
participants. disciplines with as broad a range of
Special considerations/weaknesses: experience as possible. This brings many more
 Ideas are unrestrained and may not be creative ideas to the session.
achievable. 2. Select a leader for the session, who can:
 Sessions may be difficult to record.
 Outline any criteria that must be met.
 Realistic outcomes are not guaranteed.
 Keep the session on course.
 Allow time to engage jury and facilitator, put
together briefing papers and contact ‘experts’.  Encourage an enthusiastic, uncritical
attitude among brainstormers.
 Jury can take up to four days to consider its
‘verdict’.  Encourage participation by all.
3. Set times for the whole brainstorming session,
Resources required:
and for generating ideas.
 Whiteboard, butcher’s paper or projector
4. Keep fresh ideas coming, and welcome
4http://www.mindtools.com/brainstm.html [accessed creativity.
15/10/2014]

5. Do not allow any one train of thought to
dominate for too long.
6. Do not criticise or evaluate during the

brainstorming session (criticism stifles
creativity and spoils the fun).
7. Record ideas no matter how unrealistic, until

there are no more ideas, or the time allocated
for generating ideas is up.
8. Record all ideas on a whiteboard or projector

so that all participants can see all the ideas.
9. Encourage ‘spark off’ associations from other

people’s ideas, or combinations of ideas.
10. Either evaluate solutions at the end of the
brainstorming session to agree on the most
practical way forward, or record the session
either as notes, tape recording or video for
later evaluation.

3.3. Briefings Special considerations/weaknesses:
 Purpose and timeframe need to be stated
Description: clearly at the outset.
Briefings are often a way of providing information  If not appropriately targeted, project
on a specific issue or initiative to a special stakeholders may not be in target audience.
audience. The presentation may be delivered by
an industry, government or organisation’s  The topic may be too technical.
representative, and is typically followed by  Does not provide a forum for making
detailed discussions in a question- and-answer decisions.
format. Briefings are useful as a public relations  May raise expectations of the targeted
activity when an identified group is going to be audience.
affected by a proposal. The use of existing
meetings of social and civic clubs and  Stakeholders may be disillusioned because the
organisations as a forum for briefings to inform process is used as a means to inform them
and educate is often used.5 and not take on board their ideas, interests
and concerns.
Briefings may provide some preliminary ideas of
community issues based on questions and  Concerns of stakeholders need to be
feedback at the briefing. recorded.
Objectives: Resources required:

A briefing will inform stakeholders of a project,  Staffing
product or proposal and provide them with a  Experts
chance to ask questions.
 Facilitators
Outcomes:  Recorders
Providing a briefing or briefings will ensure that an  Overhead projectors
organisation will be working with an informed
 Data projectors
stakeholder group.
 Video slide projector
Uses/strengths:
 Projection screen
 Used when stakeholders are identified as
being more directly affected by an issue than  Printed information as handouts
the general population and you want to Can be used for:
inform them first.
 Showcase product, plan, policy
 Provides a forum to interact directly with a
particular group and allows for detailed  Communicate an issue
explanation of issues, circumstances and
implications unique to the group.
 Medium (2–12 people)
 Allows sponsor to retain control of
information/presentation.  Individual
 Allows sponsor to reach a large number of Audience size:

individuals who are not attracted to other  Large (> 30)
participatory forums, as this forum is
specifically designed for them.  Medium (11–30)
 Provides an opportunity to expand project  Small (≤ 10)
mailing list.
Time required:
 Allows presentations to be tailored with  Long (> 6 months)
specific information suited to different groups.
 Can build community good will. Skill level/support required:
 High (Specialist skills)
 Medium (Computer & other expertise)
5Ministry of Environment and Energy (1994) Public
consultation guide, Toronto, Ontario

Cost:
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
 Low (Information only)
Innovation level:
Method:
1. Prepare presentation materials using (e.g.
PowerPoint, overhead transparencies, etc.)
thinking about the specific interests of the
target audience. Also take printed material
and have background information available.
2. Select groups and make offers for a briefing
(telephone and/or send letters to confirm
date and times). It is important to
accommodate group/community needs as
much as possible.
3. Clarify whether the groups are willing to
promote the event, or whether you need to
provide promotional material (flyers, posters,
newsletter articles).
4. KISS – keep it simple and short.
5. Bring visuals if possible, and talk about case
studies or personal experiences to illustrate
the points you want to make.
6. Outline opportunities for ongoing
participation.

3.4. Citizen Committees  Participants gain an understanding of other
perspectives leading toward an agreed,
Description: integrated outcome.
Also known as public advisory committees and Special considerations/weaknesses:
public liaison committees, citizen committees
consist of a group of representatives from a  Participant selection is a major consideration:
particular community or set of interests appointed  The range of interests must be broad
to provide comments and advice on an issue. enough to represent all those affected,
Generally, relevant community groups and and those with relevant interests and
agencies are invited to nominate as members of skills
the committee, although people with specific skills
 Community members must be willing to
may also be asked. Members meet regularly to
work together on a common challenge
provide ongoing input and advice over the
duration of the project. These generally have an  Organisers must be aware of potential
agreed life span and are normally organised at the conflicts.
local level to address a specific issue.6  The original terms of reference need to be
agreed upfront and recorded.
Objectives:
 Contact should be maintained with the
The objective of citizen committees is to provide
committee to ensure that it does not take on
broad-based input into planning and decision
a life of its own.
making from a range of groups and agencies that
are affected by a proposal or issue.  Members’ comments to the media may not
coincide with the sponsor’s policy. A set of
Outcomes: principles can be developed to avoid this
The citizen committee may have sufficient happening.
ownership of a project or issue to take  The general public may not embrace
responsibility for the actions that are needed. committee recommendations.
Where the citizen committee’s role is more in a
consultation and planning mode, the final plans  Members may not achieve consensus
will be based on better information and deal with (although consensus may not be the goal).
a wider range of issues as a result of this broad-  The sponsoring agency or agencies must
based and extensive consultation mechanism. accept the need to give and take.
Uses/strengths:  May be time and labour intensive if the issue

is significant.
 Allows the involvement and input of a range
of people (e.g. fishers and surfers as well as Resources required:
relevant government departments).
 Venue
 Allows development of consensus (where  Catering
achievable) or directions for action on
complex issues that affect the broad  Staffing
community.  Moderator/facilitator
 Effectively disseminates detailed information  Overhead projectors
and decisions to members of the
 Data projectors
organisations or community sectors
represented on the committee.  Video
 Provides opportunities for exploring  Slide projector
alternative strategies and building on  Projection screen
commonalities and alliances.
 Provides for a detailed analysis of project etc.)
issues, timelines and deliverables and a focus
on the outcomes.  Children’s requirements
Can be used for:

6
Ministry of Environment and Energy (1994) Public
consultation guide, Toronto, Ontario.  Discover community issues

 Develop community capacity 6. Clearly state the role of the citizen committee
 Develop action plan and the objectives of the participation.
 Communicate an issue 7. The organising group or agency should work
 Build alliances, consensus closely with the committee during its
Number of people required to help organise: formation.
 Large (> 12 people) 8. The organising group or agency should work

 Medium (2–12 people) closely with the group during the participation
process.
Audience size:
 Large (> 30) 9. Use third-party facilitators to manage conflict.
 Medium (11–30) 10. Be forthcoming with information.
Time required: 11. Use a consistently credible process.

 Medium (6 weeks – 6 months) 12. Set up reporting arrangements to ensure that
 Short (< 6 weeks) members communicate with their
Skill level/support required: constituents via their regular communications
 High (Specialist skills) networks (e.g. newsletters, meetings,
 Medium (Computer & other expertise) presentations, email, or websites).
 Low (No special skills) 13. Record decisions and keep a running
summary. This is important if new people join
Cost:
the group.
 High (> AUD$10,000)
Innovation level:
 Medium (Some new elements)
Method:
1. Consider the demographic profile of the
community to ensure most of those groups
that will be affected by an issue or proposal
are represented.
2. Consider special interest groups.
3. Consider groups most affected by the issue.
4. Conduct stakeholder analysis prior to inviting
groups to propose.
5. Be flexible to allow other representatives to
join if they make themselves known during
the participation process (however, it is more
effective not to allow alternative
representatives, as they can highjack the
agenda and/or may need extra briefings that
slow down the process).

3.5. Citizen Juries  Can be used to moderate divergence and
provide a transparent process for decision
Description: making.
Citizen juries involve the wider community in the  Provides a transparent participatory process
decision-making process. Participants are engaged which can be seen to be independent and
as citizens with no formal alignments or credible.
allegiances rather than experts. Citizen juries use a  Provides a public democracy mechanism.
representative sample of citizens (usually selected
in a random or stratified manner) who are briefed  Provides citizens with an opportunity to
in detail on the background and current thinking develop a deep understanding of the issue.
relating to a particular issue, and asked to discuss  Involves ordinary citizens.
possible approaches, sometimes in a televised
 Pinpoints fatal flaws or gauges public reaction
group. Citizen juries are intended to complement
and opinion.8
other forms of consultation rather than replace
them. Citizens are asked to become jurors and Special considerations/weaknesses:
make a judgement in the form of a report, as they
 Jury members need to be representative of
would in legal juries. The issue they are asked to
the community in consideration.
consider will be one that has an effect across the
community and where a representative and  Setting up involves selecting jurors and
democratic decision-making process is required. experts and planning the timing, as it takes up
to four days to run the jury.
Citizen juries can be used to broker a conflict, or to
provide a transparent and non-aligned viewpoint.  Moderators may be required, and would need
to be hired.
Citizen jurors bring with them an intrinsic worth in
the good sense and wisdom born of their own  Everyone involved needs to be clear about the
knowledge and personal experience. Citizen juries results and how they will be used. Ahead of
provide the opportunity to add to that knowledge the event, time needs to be allowed to engage
and to exchange ideas with their fellow citizens. jury, hire facilitator, put together briefing or
The result is a collective one, in which each juror background papers and contact ‘experts’.
has a valuable contribution to make.7  Allow up to four days for the jury to consider
its ‘verdict’.
Objectives:
 The commissioning body must follow
Citizen juries aim to draw members of the recommendations or explain why.
community into participative processes where the
community is distanced from the decision-making Resources required:
process or a process is not seen as being
 Venue rental
democratic.
 Catering
Outcomes:
 Staffing
A citizen jury will deliver a considered report with
recommendations for future actions or directions.  Moderator/facilitator
 Other facilitators
Uses/strengths:
 Overhead projectors
 Can be used to draw members of the
community into participative processes where  Data projectors
the community is distanced from the decision-  Slide projector
making process or a process is not seen as
being democratic.
 Strives to improve representation in etc.)
participative processes by engaging a cross
section of the community in the jury.  Jurors’ fees
Can be used for:

7http://www.jefferson-center.org [accessed
15/10/2014] 8 http://www.iap2.org [accessed 15/10/2014]

 Develop community capacity 7. If the recommendations of the citizen jury are
 Develop action plan not followed up, publish the reasons for not
 Communicate an issue following up (this would normally be done by
the commissioning body).
Audience size:
 Medium (11–30)
Time required:
 Long (> 6 months)
 Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
Skill level/support required:

Cost:
 High (> AUD$10,000)
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
Innovation level:
Method:
1. Select a broadly representative group of
approximately 8–12 people. Determine a
question important to the issue being
considered or develop a series of options for
the jury to consider.
2. Brief jurors on the rules of the proceedings,
and allow them two to four days to come to a
recommendation.
3. Provide expert witnesses to brief the jury who

can be cross-examined and who can spend
time discussing the issue with the jury.
4. Engage independent moderator(s) to assist
the process of deliberation.
5. At the agreed time, arrange a presentation
from the panel and/or collect the jury’s
report, which should outline their
recommendations.
6. Publish the report and recommendations (this
would normally be done by the
commissioning body).

3.6. Civic Journalism Special considerations/weaknesses:
 The media must decide whether to become
Description: involved to this extent.
Civic journalism sets out to provide people with  May pander to those who are most ‘media
detailed news and information about specific friendly’ (glamorous, articulate people) and
issues to allow them to make the decisions they hence may not be representative of
are called on to make in a democratic society. community views.
Newspapers, radio and television stations and the
internet combine to provide forums for citizens to  Outcomes will be influenced by the media’s
question their politicians, polling the electorate to agenda.
elicit the major issues and then questioning
Resources required:
legislators.
 News agencies or individual news reporters
Civic journalism is an effort to reconnect with the
real concerns that viewers and readers have about Can be used for:
the issues they care most about, not in a way that  Engage community
panders to them, but in a way that treats them as
citizens with the responsibilities of self-  Discover community issues
government, rather than as consumers to whom  Develop community capacity
goods and services are sold. Civic journalism takes  Communicate an issue
the traditional five w’s of journalism (who, what,
when, where, why) and expands them to ask ‘why Number of people required to help organise:
is this story important to me and to the  Medium (2–12 people)
community in which I live?’9
Audience size:
Objectives:
 Large (> 30)
Civic journalism aims to develop more
democratically active citizens. Civic journalism Time required:
aims to do this by providing expert comment on an
issue, either in the media or by organising face-to-
face public debate.  Short (< 6 weeks)
In this way, civic journalism is encouraging citizens Skill level/support required:

to become engaged in democratic processes, or to  High (Specialist skills)
take some action (e.g. to reduce water use).
Outcomes:
Cost:
Better informed citizens and more effective media
coverage of issues that are more directly relevant  Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
to citizens’ rights and responsibilities in civic
society.
Uses/strengths:  Medium (Opinions noted)
 Can be used to raise widespread public
awareness of community issues. Innovation level:
 Offers citizens the chance to determine what  Medium (Some new elements)
makes news in their community through polls
Method:
or participation in community forums.
If citizen generated:
 Combines the power of the media to set
political and social agendas with the power of 1. Contact news agencies with case studies of
individuals and groups to speak out about civic journalism and their advantages for the
their issues of concern, and hence can
news media and the community.
influence the decision-making process.
2. Organise focus groups, citizen juries, citizens’
9
committees.
http://www.cpn.org/topics/communication/civicjourn.h
tml [accessed 15/10/2014]

3. Advise local media of the opportunity to be
involved.
4. Keep contact with key journalists to

encourage them to treat this as a ‘running
story’ with regular updates for the duration of
the campaign or until the issue is resolved.
If news agency generated:
1. Publicise public meetings, focus groups, etc.,
to determine what issues are of most concern
within the local area.
2. Coordinate coverage with other media (print,
radio and television).
3. Invite politicians to discuss issues with citizen

groups on camera.
4. Encourage citizens to develop options and

publicise these options as an open forum for
comment/ voting.
5. Present solutions to those who have the
power to make decisions and report back on
their reactions/ responses.

3.7. Community Fairs  Experts
 Recorders
Description:
 Artists or photographer Events organiser
A community event intended to provide project
information and raise awareness about particular  Cleaners
issues. The fair includes a multiplicity of activities  First aid
and events of interest to cater for the broadest
 Other audio and visual recording and
range of people (e.g. sausage sizzles, rides and
amplification
activities for children, young people’s activities
and events of interest to adults). The events  Overhead projectors
incorporated within community fairs, if focused on  Printed public information materials
the main issues, will act as magnets to encourage
public participation and will raise awareness on  Response sheets
this basis.  Data projectors
Objectives:  Video
Community fairs provide a fun venue that will  Slide projector
draw a crowd of all ages and backgrounds, and  Projection screen
then use many different ways to inform and
engage the participants on a community issue.
etc.)
Outcomes:  Furniture
The community fair will raise awareness of an  Children’s requirements
issue or proposal, and provide a venue for
collecting contact details and getting signatories to  Entertainment and events
any submissions or alternative proposals.  Duty of care
Uses/strengths:  Insurance
 Focuses public attention on an issue. Can be used for:
 Can create interest from media groups and  Showcase product, plan, policy
lead to increased coverage of the issue.  Engage community
 Allows for different levels of information  Discover community issues
sharing.
 Communicate an issue
 Builds social capital, that is, people who are
more willing and able to participate in Number of people required to help organise:
community decision making and  Medium (2–12 people)
management.
Audience size:
Special considerations/weaknesses:
 Large (> 30)
 The public must be motivated to attend.
 Fairs can be expensive to do well. Time required:
 The project’s reputation can be damaged if  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
the fair is not done well.10  Short (< 6 weeks)
Resources required: Skill level/support required:

 Publicity  High (Specialist skills)
 Venue  Medium (Computer & other expertise)
 Catering
Cost:
 Staffing  High (> AUD$10,000)
 Moderator/facilitator  Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
10 http://www.iap2.org [accessed 15/10/2014]  Medium (Opinions noted)

Innovation level:
Method:
1. Select a date and venue that will encourage
the greatest number of participants to attend
(generally weekends or public holidays). Liaise
with key groups to avoid clashes.
2. Arrange for a number of activities and events
of interest to various groups in the community
(i.e. all ages, children, young people, adults,
the elderly).
3. Provide low-cost or free activities (rides,

sausage sizzles, etc.) to encourage
attendance.
4. Advertise and publicise the event with

emphasis on the issue to be considered.
Advertise starting and closing times.
5. Provide adequate staffing and consider the
employment of volunteers.
6. Determine appropriate consultative activities

for the fair. Organise the necessary duty of
care and insurance issues.
7. Consider employment of an events manager.
8. Develop a plan of the site, and ensure all
those participating know where they are to
go. Consider some form of marking out sites
(tape or stakes).
9. Prepare a traffic plan (for trucks, cars, etc.)
including a site for parking.
10. Allow adequate time for setting up.
11. On the day, ensure that coordinators circulate
to assist participants to focus on the major
issue and to facilitate participation.

3.8. Community Indicator  Helps build citizens’ capacity for community
involvement and participation.
Description:  Benefits from the community members’
Community indicator projects are those where combined experience and their first-hand
communities have a vision for a sustainable future knowledge about their community.
and have established ways of tracking their  Allows monitoring of change over time.
progress through the use of indicators. The list of
indicators varies and is generally developed by the  When it’s difficult to know which are most
community itself. The technique has been used urgent issues or will be most effective actions,
mostly in North America and Europe. The most a community indicator project can measure
successful projects have three characteristics in and guide the community.
common:
 First, the community created a vision of its  The steps that have been chosen as
future that balanced economic, indications of progress toward a goal should
environmental, and social needs. This future is be relevant to the entire community.
long-term – not in the order of years, but for
decades or generations.  The community indicator project will need
ongoing management.
 Second, the vision incorporated the views of a
wide cross-section of the community.  Indicators can be incorporated into wider
statutory/legislative frameworks and this may
 Third, the community decided how to keep be beyond the scope of the project and the
track of its progress in reaching that vision.11 experience of the project leaders.
Objectives:  There may be difficulties in identifying and
Community indicators measure progress toward agreeing on accepted stakeholders.
community sustainability action plan goals.
Resources required:
Outcomes:  Publicity
Community indicators provide a set of indicators  Venue
that allows a community to keep track of its
 Catering
progress in reaching an agreed vision.
 Staffing
Uses/strengths:
 Moderator/facilitator
 Can be used to educate other residents and to
mobilise additional community members to Can be used for:
join in community efforts.  Engage community
 Can either precede efforts to build a  Discover community issues
community-wide initiative or be developed
through a community-wide process. Both
approaches are valid and serve distinctly  Develop action plan
different yet complementary purposes.
 Can still be used to inform and engage a wider
 Large (> 12 people)
cross section of the community when the set
of indicators are developed by a small, non-  Medium (2–12 people)
inclusive group of concerned residents first.
Audience size:
 Can help generate community-wide interest
 Large (> 30)
reporting of change through measurement
and indicators. Time required:
 May reveal data previously unknown by  Long (> 6 months)
residents and decision makers.

11Hart, M (1997) ‘Evaluating indicators: a checklist for  High (Specialist skills)
communities’ Wingspread Journal, 19(2)  Medium (Computer & other expertise)

Cost:
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
Innovation level:
Method:
1. Select a representative sample of the
community.
2. Organise the appropriate method to gather
people together. This may be in the form of a
meeting or it may be done via phone or email.
3. Establish a vision for the future and the steps
that are needed to get there (strive to balance
environmental, social and economic issues in
all decision-making activities).
4. Develop a set of indicators that will indicate
that progress is being made – significant
milestones that have made concrete and
measurable progress towards the future
vision.
5. Can also be developed by a small group prior
to community-wide visioning and planning
processes for educational purposes, and then
be developed through community-wide
involvement.
6. Monitor progress against indicators.
7. Publish and circulate regular progress reports
through media and newsletters.

3.9. Community Profiling  Profiles are a means to gather community
intelligence over time as projects develop and
Description: therefore this info can be easily passed on.
Community (or stakeholder) profiles are a useful Special considerations/weaknesses:
way of developing an understanding of the people
in a geographical area or a specific community of  Community profiling is in itself an engagement
interest. This understanding can assist in the activity. People involved in profiling need to
development of a community engagement plan be clear about why it is occurring and what
and influence who the key stakeholder groups are will happen with the information that is
and how a project develops. Profiles can illustrate collected (i.e. privacy laws).
the makeup of a community and could include  Communities are often complex and over time
information about the diversity within the a rich and diverse picture may develop. It is
community, their history, social and economic important to think about how such
characteristics, how active people are (i.e. the information will be collected, managed and
groups and networks used) and what social and presented in order to prevent ‘information
infrastructure services are provided. A community overload’.
profile can also provide information on the level of
 Some of the most interesting questions to ask
interest community members may have in being
about a community can be the most
actively involved in a project and their preferred
expensive/ time intensive to research.
method of engagement.
Resources required:
Objectives:
 Profile Coordinator (to manage the above
To develop a more in-depth understanding of a
tasks)
community of interest.
 Social research texts
Outcomes:
 Social research advisors (to assist in
The understanding provided by a community development of the method)
profile can assist in the development of a
community engagement strategy and lead to more  Publicity
effective projects as they are tailored to the needs  Statistical resources (i.e. ABS Community
and characteristics of the people involved. Profiles)
Uses/strengths: Can be used for:

 A profile is an effective way of gathering  Engage community
information about the diversity of a  Discover community issues
community and the potential stakeholders
that may otherwise not be recorded.  Develop community capacity
 Profiles can highlight the gaps in our  Communicate an issue

understanding of a community or different  Build alliances, consensus
stakeholders and therefore guide future
research. Number of people required to help organise:
 Profiles can encourage broader thinking about  Large (> 12 people)
‘who’ a community is and ‘who’ is involved in  Medium (2–12 people)
a project and ‘how’.
 Individual
 Profiles can help determine who is likely to be
influenced by change or affected by a project. Audience size:
 Developing a profile can be used as a means  Large (> 30)
to develop relationships in a community/  Medium (11–30)
stakeholder group as the understanding is
 Small (≤ 10)
researched and developed together.
 The process of profiling can in itself raise Time required:
awareness, interest and build the capacity of  Long (> 6 months)
members in the community.

Skill level/support required:  Will the profile be added to over time as
 Medium (Computer & other expertise) more understanding is developed?
 Low (Traditional)  Who will be responsible for the profile?
Cost:
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
 Medium (Options noted)
Innovation level:
Method:
1. Scoping
 What is the purpose of the community

profile for the overall project?
 How will the community profile assist the
overall project?
 What information needs to be in the
community profile?
 How will the community profile
information be used?
 Who will be involved in the development
of the profile?
 What resources/constraints will influence
the development of the profile?
2. Develop a research proposal
 What are the key questions to be

researched by the profiler?
 What research approach will be taken?
 What methods will be used?
 Estimate the time/cost for development.
3. Endorsement
 Who needs to endorse/support the

development of the profile?
4. Research Activity
 How will the information be collected and

recorded? (e.g. community maps)
 How will privacy issues be managed?
5. Presentation of profile
 Presentation of profile to project

team/community (dependent on purpose
of profile)
6. Production of profile document

3.10. Conference Special considerations/weaknesses:
 May take a long time from conception to
Description: welcoming delegates.
A conference is usually organised by a like-minded  Needs a dedicated committee for advance
group or association to share information, present planning to ensure every detail is planned for.
the latest innovations, and/or to make decisions
about or on behalf of the organisation.  When deciding on timing and venue, consider
Conferences can vary from ‘shoestring’ budget other events or activities that may affect costs
gatherings to large-scale, week-long events that and availability (e.g. school holidays).
may justify hiring a professional conference  Need good-quality presenters and a suitable
organiser. Often, conferences provide an venue to encourage large numbers to attend.
opportunity for organisation members who are
 Need to tailor the venue and costs for
geographically scattered to gather, learn, and inclusiveness (e.g. disabled access, childcare,
socialise. The venue and presenters need to suit cost, ambience, levels of comfort, distance
the types of people who will be attending. That is, from public transport) to encourage people to
a camping conference may suit backpackers, but attend.
an organisation whose members have young
children, or are aged, will need a venue that suits  Starting and registration times need to suit
these special needs. people travelling long distances.

A conference provides a venue to bring a large  Venue
group of people together to share information,  Catering
hear the latest updates on a topic or issue, and
 Presenters fees (in volunteer organisations,
make decisions.
presenters may not ask for fees)
Outcomes:  Staffing (can be a trained volunteer)
The conference outcomes should include a report  Moderator/facilitator
that includes all presentations and decisions for
future reference, participants who have received  Other facilitators
up-to-date information. Outcomes may include  Overhead projectors
recommendations or an action plan for future
 Data projectors
directions and outcomes.
 Video
Uses/strengths:
 Projectors
 Can allow organisation-wide sharing and
 Slide projector
decision making by bringing all members to
one place for a day or a number of days.  Projection screen
 Provides networking opportunities for  Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins,
members of an organisation that are spread etc.)
over a wide area.
Can be used for:
 Provides a large enough audience to draw
presenters of renown who may not be willing
to come for a smaller gathering.  Engage community
 Allows new information to be shared with a  Discover community issues
large number of people simultaneously.  Communicate an issue
 Usually provides time for serious
consideration of issues over two or three Number of people required to help organise:
days.  Large (> 12 people)
 Can provide an opportunity for public Audience size:
statements that bear the authority of coming
 Large (> 30)
from the collective group.
Time required:

 Short (< 6 weeks) 7. Engage independent moderators to
encourage equitable participation and to
assist processes of decision making and
deliberation.
8. Preferably, have some agreed conference
Cost:
outcomes or actions or recommendations.
 High (> AUD$10,000)
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000) 9. Consider gaining sponsorship to lighten the
cost to participants.
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
10. Arrange all legal, financial and other
responsibilities for holding a public gathering.
 Medium (Opinions noted) 11. Organise a booking procedure, keep
 Low (Information only) scrupulous records, and consider offering
discounts for early registration.
Innovation level:
12. Check audiovisual requirements, book and
check equipment.
Method:
13. Plan carefully for the arrival of participants. If
1. Select a small working group to organise the
possible, trial your registration processes,
event.
catering and other facilities prior to the event.
2. Determine what will be a suitable venue and
14. Publish any reports, statements or
time, taking into consideration the types of
recommendations.
participants, their levels of ability/ agility, the
kinds of activities planned, cost and transport 15. Consider how participants will find their way
accessibility. to their destinations (signs, arrows, ‘help
desks’ can all help the conference run more
3. Book the venue and catering early, and check
smoothly).
at regular intervals in relation to staff
turnovers, changes to availability of facilities, 16. Use the media to publicise your event and the
changes to numbers, events, etc. conference’s decisions or opinions on issues.
Send out media releases before the event to
4. Give plenty of advance notice of the date and
publicise the venue, times and speakers, and
venue through mailouts, newsletters,
any notable events or people attending. If
together with contact details for one person
appropriate, organise a media conference for
for inquiries.
the end of the conference to announce the
5. Select presenters who have credibility,
outcomes.
knowledge, and good presentation skills.
Confirm all times, dates and locations in
writing, and clarify what audiovisual
equipment they may need, and any issues of
payment.
6. Visit the venue when booking, and closer to
the event, to check that all is as expected.
Select knowledgeable and credible presenters,
aiming for a variety of delivery styles and
information.

3.11. Consensus Conference  Can develop new knowledge.
Description: Special considerations/weaknesses:

A consensus conference is a public meeting, which  High costs for set-up and recruitment of
allows ordinary citizens to be involved in assessing participants and staging the event.
an issue or proposal (traditionally, this has been  The conference would run for a two- to four-
used in the assessment of technology). The day period and therefore resources will be
conference is a dialogue between experts and costly.
citizens. It is open to the public and the media.
 The process of panellist selection can be
Developed in Denmark, there it is usually attended
difficult. Stakeholders’ analysis must be
by members of the Danish Parliament.
undertaken to predetermine who are the
The citizen panel plays the leading role, relevant groups. This will ensure that
formulating questions to be taken up at the representation from the relevant groups is
conference, and participating in the selection of achieved.
experts to answer them. The panel has two  Need to draw citizens for panels that are
weekends for this preparation. The expert panel is representative and from a wide range of
selected in a way that ensures that essential backgrounds rather than members of the
opposing views and professional conflicts can community who are usually present in
emerge and be discussed at the conference. An participatory processes.
advisory/planning committee has the overall
responsibility of making sure that all rules of a  Strict adherence to the rules of
democratic, fair and transparent process have implementation is required for the conference
been followed. Consensus conferences have to be successful.
mostly been used where the topic being  The formal nature of the tool can restrict
investigated concerns management, science or impartiality.
technology. They require a strict adherence to the
 Rapid production of reports and findings is
rules of implementation to be successful. Where
required.
members of the community feel their views go
unheard, the consensus conference offers an  Choice of an effective facilitator is critical to
exciting participatory technique for democratic the success of the conference.
participation.
Resources required:
Objectives:  Publicity
Consensus conferences aim to give members of  Venue rental
the community a chance to have their say on
 Catering
community issues, to increase their knowledge of
and ability to participate in such a discussion, and  Staffing
to come to one position statement that all  Moderator/facilitator
participants can ‘own’.
 Experts
Outcomes:  Recorders
At the end of a consensus conference, the
 Gophers
outcome should be a position statement that
reflects the joint decision(s) of all participants on  Artists
an issue or proposal.  Photographer
Uses/strengths:  Other
 Assists in the facilitation of public debate from  Audio and visual recording and amplification
a range of perspectives.  Overhead projectors
 Empowers lay people to develop an informed  Data projectors
understanding and make some contribution to
the development of policy on a sensitive topic.  Video
 Demonstrates a plurality of views on issues.  Slide projector
 Bridges the gap between experts and lay  Projection screen

people.

 Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins, 3. Hire a professional facilitator to work with the
etc.) citizen panel during its preparation.
 Furniture
4. Book suitable venues for the citizen panel to
 Children’s requirements
meet over two weekends to work with a
Can be used for: facilitator to formulate the questions to be
 Showcase product, plan, policy taken up at the conference, and to participate
 Engage community in the selection of experts to answer them.
 Discover community issues 5. With the help of the citizen panel, select the
 Develop community capacity expert panel in a way that ensures that
 Develop action plan essential opposing views and professional
 Communicate an issue conflicts can emerge and be discussed at the
conference. Good experts are not only
knowledgeable but also open-minded and
good communicators with an over-view of
Audience size: their field.
 Large (> 30)
6. Hold a formal conference (two to four days) at
Time required: which:
 Panellists hear experts’ responses to
Skill level/support required: questions.
 High (Specialist skills)  After hearing these responses, panellists
 Medium (Computer & other expertise) can ask follow up questions.
 The audience is given opportunity to ask
Cost: questions.
 High (> AUD$10,000)
 The panel deliberates and prepares a
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000) position statement to achieve consensus
on the issue.
 Panellists present outcomes.
 Planning committee prepares a report of
Innovation level: the outcomes and distributes to
 High (Innovative) panellists, media and decision-making
bodies.
Method:
Select an advisory/planning committee to have the
overall responsibility of making sure that all rules
of a democratic, fair and transparent process have
been followed.
The committees should then:
1. Organise a public meeting and advertise the
venue, time and topic to the public, experts in
the field to be discussed, the media and
appropriate decision-making bodies.
2. Select participants for the citizen panel,
ensuring a representative sample of the
geographic area and/or relevant community
groups (about 14 people).

3.12. Deliberative Opinion Polls  Briefing papers
 Expert knowledge
Description:
Deliberative Opinion Polls (DOPs) measure Can be used for:
informed opinion on an issue. Compared to  Engage community
ordinary opinion polls, DOPs differ in that  Discover community issues
participants are informed via briefing notes and
access to experts (these may include politicians)  Develop community capacity
on a particular issue and have time to consider the  Communicate an issue
issue in detail, whereas participants in ordinary
opinion polls do not have the opportunity to learn Number of people required to help organise:
about the issue being measured and may know  Large (> 12 people)
little about the issue.
Objectives:
Audience size:
DOPs aim to develop well-informed core group
representatives, who have been privy to good-  Medium (11–30)
quality information and who can take this Time required:
information back to share within the community.
Outcomes:  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
DOPs will deliver a report which reflects informed
public opinion on an issue or proposal. Such Skill level/support required:
reports may then be distributed to the wider  High (Specialist skills)
community via the popular media.
Uses/strengths:
Cost:
The DOP uses a random sample of the population
 High (> AUD$10,000)
so that the results can be extrapolated to the
community as a whole. The DOP advises decision  Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
makers and the media what the public would think
if they had enough time to consider the issue Participation level:
properly.  Medium (Opinions noted)
Special considerations/weaknesses: Innovation level:

 DOPs involve a large number of participants  Medium (Some new elements)
(between 250 and 600), therefore set-up costs
are high. Method:
1. Determine a random sample of the
 Informing the participants normally requires
access to experts in a number of fields of population, so that participants are
knowledge. representative of the wider groups in the
 Speakers need to be organised. community.
 With so many participants’ opinions, 2. Conduct baseline survey of opinion.
managing data is a significant undertaking.
3. Contact experts and politicians who may be
 Organising and running the event can be time
consuming. required to inform the participants on specific
 Organisers need to allow time to select aspects of the issue.
participants, undertake an initial opinion poll, 4. Brief participants and dispatch written
allow two to four days for the deliberation
process, and then allow time for another poll, information.
and formulating the report. 5. Give participants two to four days to compose
Resources required: questions and engage politicians and experts
 Staff and telephones in plenary discussions.

6. Record views on a particular issue before the
poll begins and again at the completion of the
poll.
7. Changes in opinion are measured and
incorporated into a report.
8. DOPs are often conducted in conjunction with

television/media companies.

3.13. Delphi Study Outcomes:
The Delphi study process should lead to an agreed
Description: set of guidelines and/or recommendations that
The Delphi group approach is a technique for includes the input of all relevant areas of
gathering data that is similar to focus groups. Its expertise, regardless of how geographically far-
value is that unlike focus groups, Delphi groups do flung this network might be.
not have to physically meet. The Delphi technique
is a method of generating ideas and facilitating Uses/strengths:
consensus among individuals who have special  Allows sharing of ideas and consensus
knowledge to share, but who are not always in decision making by a large number of
contact with each other. A Delphi study carefully stakeholders who are geographically
selects individuals who have knowledge necessary distanced.
to analyse a specific problem.  Can be used when the issue is complex.
Most often, a Delphi study is conducted through  Works well to produce a consensus decision.
the mail, by telephone, and sometimes by
 Provides a transparent and democratic
personal interviews. However, this technique can
technique.
also be used with faxes and email. Initially, the
participants do not interact with each other.  Can deal with quite technical issues.
Through the efforts of one facilitator, who serves  Offers convenience to participants, as they
as a clearinghouse, the panellists see and react to can contribute from their own office or home.
each other’s ideas. Through a series of surveys,
they share and generate new ideas based on an Special considerations/weaknesses:
emerging consensus among the panel members.12  The process can be expensive to run.
Nehiley says ‘the Delphi technique is an innovative  Large amounts of data need to be assessed
way to involve busy experts and specialists who and distributed.
may not be able to come together to brainstorm,
 Takes time for the organisers (can run for
but who nevertheless need to interact with each
several months).
other to generate new ideas’. Using email, one
central contact person (who may be conducting  Participant commitment may falter if the
research) will send questions and background process takes too long or they have other
information to individuals who have been selected commitments.
on the basis of the relevance of their expertise.
These people will reply, stating their thoughts on Resources required:
the topic. The researcher or facilitator will then  Staffing
compile these ideas to develop a concrete  Relevant communication media
proposal, set of guidelines, or wording for an
agreement, and will send this out again for  Relevant technical information needs to be
comment. The process is continued until made available to participants
agreement on the wording or process or action to
Can be used for:
be taken has been reached.
Objectives:  Communicate an issue
A Delphi study aims to engage a large number of
 Build alliances, consensus
experts and/or stakeholders in a process of coming
to agreement without necessitating their leaving Number of people required to help organise:
their usual domain. This usually involves
circulating documents or options papers by email
or post so that all comments and suggestions can  Medium (2–12 people)
be noted.  Individual
Audience size:
 Large (> 30)
 Medium (11–30)
12Nehiley, JM (2001) ‘How to conduct a Delphi study’  Small (≤ 10)
[no details available]

Time required: 3. Prepare and distribute the initial survey
 Medium (6 weeks – 6 months) instrument. The initial survey may contain
open-ended probes or specific closed-ended
 Medium (Computer & other expertise) questions, depending on the focus of the
research.
Cost:
4. Receive and analyse the first responses.
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
Compile the responses by question, with only
Participation level: minor editing as necessary for clarity and
 High (Stakeholders participate in decision) consistency.
Innovation level: If open-ended questions were used
 Medium (Some new elements) extensively, then it may be necessary to
analyse and present the first set of responses
Method:
within an appropriate theoretical framework,
The following steps are necessary to conduct an
effective Delphi study.13 typology, or outline.
1. Identify a panel of experts or specialists by 5. Prepare and distribute the second survey
soliciting nominations from specialists or instrument. Most often panellists are asked,
individuals appropriate to serve on the Delphi with this second-wave enquiry, to clarify and
panel. Cooperation and participation is rank order survey items suggested during the
improved significantly when prospective first wave. When the panellists receive the
panellists are told how they were nominated second survey instrument, it will be the first
by their peers. The panellists’ primary time they will have seen the responses of the
qualification should be their specialist other panel members. It is often appropriate
knowledge. This knowledge can be gained at this time to ask for additional ideas,
through experience (eg readers of a certain clarifications, and elaborations based on the
publication) or specialist knowledge (eg safety initial survey responses.
engineers). Another key qualification is that 6. Receive and analyse the second lot of
panellists be willing to share their information responses (second wave of data). If the initial
(eg non-competitors). The terms of reference questions were open-ended and the second
of the study need to be described to the wave asked for clarifications and elaborations,
panellists at this time. the analysis of the second wave of data can be
2. Invite an appropriate number of panellists to very challenging because it requires numerous
participate: 30–50 individuals should be subjective decisions about rewording and
members of the final panel. This is large revising the initial responses. Care should be
enough to see patterns in responses, but not exerted to include all of the new ideas and
so large as to overwhelm the facilitator or suggestions, for the main purpose of the
researcher, who must sift through all of the Delphi study is to generate new ideas.
responses individually. The invitation should 7. Prepare and distribute the third survey
explain what is expected from each panel instrument. Most often, panellists are asked,
member in terms of time and effort to with the third wave, to rank order and clarify
complete each wave of the Delphi study. the new set of revised survey items.
13
8. Receive and analyse the third wave of data.
McElreath, M (2001) Managing systematic and ethical
public relations programs, cited in Nehiley, JM. (2001) Often by this stage, the analysis is less
‘How to conduct a Delphi study’ [no details available]

subjective and judgemental, and more
quantitative and objective.
9. Repeat the process with additional waves, if

necessary. For example, sometimes certain
priority items are selected for more in-depth
treatment by the Delphi panellists, who may
be asked to propose answers to questions or
short-range strategies for long-range goals,
and so on.
10. Prepare and distribute a final report to panel
members. One of the motivations for
participating in a Delphi panel, particularly for
specialists, is to learn firsthand, before others,
what the results of the Delphi study are.
11. The final report is acted upon according to the

initial terms of reference.

3.14. Design Charrettes Objectives:
The charrette process aims to develop a vision for
Description: a geographic region on a planning process which is
‘En charrette’ was a term used by architecture based predominantly upon the issues that
students in Paris to mean ‘to draw at the last stakeholders have said are a priority.
moment’. In recent years, the term has come to
describe a design workshop in which designers Outcomes:
work intensively on an issue and present their The design charrette process aims to be
findings in a public forum.14 transparent, allowing information to be shared
between the design professionals and the
According to the Charrette Center website, ‘a stakeholders of a project area. The information
charrette is an intensive, multi-disciplinary ... shared and the understanding gained by the
design workshop designed to facilitate open participants are the most important products. The
discussion between major stakeholders of a trust that is built between the parties ensures that
development project. A team of design experts the resulting vision is based predominantly upon
meets with community groups, developers and the issues that stakeholders feel are most crucial
neighbours over a period from three to four days to them.
to two weeks long, gathering information on the
issues that face the community. The charrette Uses/strengths:
team then works together to find design solutions  A design charrette is a good idea when people
that will result in a clear, detailed, realistic vision need to cut across boundaries and work on a
for future development. The charrette process is large, collaborative project.
an exercise of transparency, where information is
shared between the design professionals and the  Because participants are encouraged to offer
stakeholders of a project area. In this way, trust is design ideas and solutions to problems that
built between the parties involved and the are outside their areas of expertise, charrettes
resulting vision can be based predominantly upon are particularly helpful in complex situations
the issues that stakeholders feel are most crucial calling for new ways of looking at things.
to them.’  Can save money where many drawings are
Charrettes are popular with architects, planners, needed in a short time. Rather than
designers and developers as the intensive nature commissioning expensive drawings without
of the process means results are achieved input from the community, a charrette offers
quickly.15 an inclusive, less expensive process.
 A highly specialised participatory tool, usually
Charrettes are increasingly used by public and
applied in planning and design projects.
private sector groups and agencies as the chief
design event in the urban design or town planning  Attempts to bring together project
process. There are three stages in the charrette stakeholders to facilitate fast and interactive
timetable: decision making.
 Information gathering, in which the design  Provides joint problem solving and creative
team listens to the views of the stakeholders thinking.
and citizens.  Effective for creating partnerships and
 Design and review, a collaborative process positive working relationships with the public
engaging the design team. Sarkissian et al16 have identified the following
 Presentation – the charrette ends with a final uses/strengths:
presentation of designs and findings.  Can open up horizons for local people to
imagine and visualise possibilities.
 Allows a problem to be analysed holistically,
attempting to resolve community problems
14
and encourage consensus building.
www.washington.edu/research/showcase/1985c.html
[accessed 15/10/2014]  Enables the initiating agency to understand
15 Sarkissian, W, Perlgut, D & Ballard, E (eds.) (1986) how a proposal appears to a community.
‘Community participation in practice’, The community
participation handbook: resources for public involvement
in the planning process, Impacts Press, Roseville, NSW 16 ibid

 Allows the desires, attitudes and preferences  The effects may not last if this is seen as a
of special interest groups to be tabled so that ‘one shot’ technique, rather than part of a
conflicting issues can be resolved by large planning and decision-making process.
consensus.
Resources required:
 Can energise community participation by
introducing new perspectives through  Publicity
introducing multidisciplinary teams.  Venue rental for final presentation
 With expert facilitation, can provide a  Catering
transparent and accessible process, giving  Staffing
voice to all participants, including those who
may not be as self assured and confident as  Experts for design process and expert panel
others.  Trained green charrette facilitator
 Can stimulate community momentum through  Recorders
the intensity of the process.
 Gophers
 Encourages people to become actively
 Photographer
involved because the process promises
immediate feedback.  Audio and visual recording and amplification
 Properly facilitated and with extensive  Overhead projectors
community contact, can function as a  Data projectors
community education process.
 Video
 Provides an opportunity for the community to
have input at a number of points in the  Slide projector
process.  Projection screen
 Can save money by being an effective use of  Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins,
time and resources. etc.)
Special considerations/weaknesses:  Children’s requirements
 This specialised tool is only applicable to Can be used for:

certain scenarios (e.g. where a short-term  Showcase product, plan, policy
resolution is needed, or where a high level of
public awareness and input is needed and  Engage community
welcomed).  Discover community issues
 The process is intensive, and usually lasts  Develop community capacity
5–14 days.
 Develop action plan
 As specialists are required, the process is
costly.
 Ideally, the break-out groups should contain a
cross-section of people in the various Number of people required to help organise:
disciplines represented in the design team.
 A compressed time period means a number of
stakeholders may miss out.
 Individual
 Inadequate time provided for reflection and
refinement. Audience size:
 The process can be ‘railroaded’ by vocal  Large (> 30)
stakeholders if not run by a trained design
 Medium (11–30)
charrette facilitator.
 The process limits the input of children. Time required:
 Participants may not be seen as  Short (< 6 weeks)
representative of the larger public.

Cost: 10. Record ideas using on-site graphic recording in
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000) a somewhat standard format that can easily
 Low (< AUD$1,000) be compiled in a report. Examples include ‘fill-
in-the-blanks’ flip charts that can be scanned
into booklets or files for internet distribution.
 Medium (Opinions noted)
11. At the conclusion of the charrette, allow each
Innovation level:
team to present its proposed solution to a
large audience of the public, planning
Method: professionals, and business and civic leaders.
1. Identify an architectural, urban design, or The goal is not necessarily to prepare a final
planning policy issue of community and/or design but to explore and understand all the
environmental importance. design issues. The information shared and the
2. Select a suitably cross-disciplinary team or understanding gained by the participants are
teams (e.g. architects, landscape architects, the most important products.
urban designers, engineers, biologists and/or 12. Invite questions from an Expert Panel and
students in these fields). questions from the audience.
3. Select an Expert Panel who can help assess
the designs at the end of the process.
4. Hire a trained design charrette facilitator, who
can help form teams and small groups, obtain
quick agreement on desired outcomes, and
keep everyone involved in the process.
5. Brief the teams on the charrette process,
which aims at delivering feasible and creative
solutions for real clients within a short period
of time.
6. Plan for a workshop that provides sufficient
time for the designers to work intensively on a
problem and then present their findings
(often five days).
7. Book a venue (indoor or outdoor) with room
for the design team as a whole to work, as
well as areas for smaller, break-out groups.
8. Encourage the team to begin each day with a

whole-group discussion of issues, goals,
findings, and approaches. These help to define
subsequent goals and issues for break-out
groups to discuss and analyse.
9. Encourage break-out groups to join the larger
group regularly to present ideas and
approaches. These can then be integrated or
adapted into the overall design concept.

3.15. Displays and Exhibits  Recorders
 Gophers
Description:
 Artists
A community event intended to provide project
information and raise awareness about particular  Photographers
issues. Displays can be interactive, and can be  Events organiser
used as part of a forum, workshop, exhibition,
 Cleaners
conference or other event. Displays and exhibits
can include feedback opportunities such as blank  First aid
sheets with one-line questions, and can include  Overhead projectors
drawings, models, posters, or other visual and
audio representations relevant to community  Printed public information materials
issues and interests. Interactive displays can  Response sheets
include ‘post-it’ ideas boards, maps for people to  Data projectors
make their most and least favourite buildings or
spaces, and flip charts or blank posters for  Video
comments and questions.  Slide projector
Objectives:  Projection screen
Displays and exhibits use drawings, maps, models  Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins,
or audio representations of community issues and etc.)
interests to inform the community, and to help to  Furniture
engage community members in the process of
planning and decision making about an event,  Children’s requirements
proposal or issue.  Duty of care
Outcomes:  Insurance
Displays and exhibits develop more concrete Can be used for:

concepts of proposals or developments, and,  Showcase product, plan, policy
where these provide options for interaction,
provide public opinions and feedback that can be  Discover community issues
incorporated into the planning and decision-  Communicate an issue
making process.
Uses/strengths:
 Focuses public attention on an issue.
 Can create interest from media groups and
 Individual
lead to increased coverage of the issue.
 Allows for different levels of information Audience size:
sharing.  Large (> 30)
 Provides a snapshot of opinions and
Time required:
community issues based on feedback.
 Public must be motivated to attend.
 Needs a facilitator to encourage involvement
and written feedback.  High (Specialist skills)
 Can damage the project’s reputation if not  Medium (Computer & other expertise)
done well.  Low (No special skills)
Resources required: Cost:
 Publicity  High (> AUD$10,000)
 Venue rental  Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
 Staffing

 Low (< AUD$1,000)
Innovation level:
Method:
1. Select a date and venue that will encourage
the greatest number of participants to attend
(generally weekends or public holidays/
shopping centres or malls/public spaces).
2. Arrange for a number of displays/exhibits to

give details of the event/issue.
3. Place the display/exhibit in a well-populated

public space where those most affected by
the issue/event are likely to pass by.
4. Advertise and publicise the event with
emphasis on the issue to be considered.
Advertise times when display/exhibit will be
open.
5. Provide adequate staffing and consider the

employment of volunteers.
6. Consider duty of care and insurance issues.
7. Allow adequate time for setting up.
8. On the day, ensure that coordinators circulate
to facilitate participation and answer
questions.
9. Collage feedback and publish results.

3.16. Electronic Democracy  Facilitates interactive communication.
 Costs little to set up.
Description:
 Disseminates large amounts of information
Electronic democracy seeks to embrace existing effectively and without distortion.
and emergent media sources as a forum for
allowing members of the public to express Special considerations/weaknesses:
opinions and seek to influence decision making  May exclude participation by those not online.
within their community, state, country, or globally.
Media sources that may be used for the processes  Results can be manipulated therefore results
of democracy include television and radio, but the of polls should be carefully considered.
internet is the main way that electronic democracy  Needs a core group of dedicated volunteers
can be seen in action. While electronic democracy (5–15 depending on the scope and scale of
is more an ideal than a reality, electronic activities).
democracy is generally discussed in theoretical
 People can become disillusioned if the project
terms. Participation using the internet through
is ‘over-hyped’. Keep expectations realistic.
email, online voting and access to information on
websites are widely used participatory tools.  Encouraging electronic conferencing among
People can use email or websites to register their participants in an interactive forum ensures
opinions on proposed developments, on that the project moves beyond broadcast to
environmental impact statements, and so on. build an online, participatory open space.
Television and radio stations can set up websites  Email lists with many active subscribers
that record listener voting on issues, or to register generate so much information that they drive
the major community issues for a particular people away.
demographic of the community. These findings
can then be reported as a measure of community Resources required:
attitudes and issues, increasing the chance that  Commercial and not-for-profit online service
these opinions will be taken into account in providers
government or industry’s planning and decision-
making processes.  Public library online facilities
 Private online facilities, including internet
Community groups can also develop electronic
democracy projects using commercial or not-for-  Volunteers with technical knowledge and
profit online servers to develop the technical understanding
information infrastructure needed to set up web
pages, email list administration, etc. Can be used for:
Objectives:
Electronic democracy aims to engage more
members of the public in expressing their opinions  Discover community issues
on a website, via email, or through other  Develop community capacity
electronic communications options, in order to
influence planning and decision making
Outcomes:
Electronic democracy has increased the number
and variety of people who exercise their  Medium (2–12 people)
democratic rights through comments sent to  Individual
decision-making bodies with regard to proposals
and issues. Audience size:
 Large (> 30)
Uses/strengths:
 Creates a virtual public space where people Time required:
can interact, discuss issues and share ideas.  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
 Allows citizens to participate at their own  Short (< 6 weeks)
convenience.
 Can reach a potentially large audience readily.

Skill level/support required: date information to those who have
 Low (No special skills) registered an interest, and also invite them to
add their signatures to submissions,
Cost:
alternative proposals, etc.
 High (> AUD$10,000)
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000) 8. Set up your own online dialogue through your
website. Counting the number of people who
visit the site can provide useful data for
authorities who need to know how many
people are concerned, or what kinds of issues
Innovation level: are of concern to the community.
9. Investigate whether government newsgroups
Method: offer newsgroup space for local electronic
1. Set up a core group of volunteers/participants democracy projects. Newsgroups provide the
interested in developing e-democracy, seeking core of information exchange and global
people with a diverse mix of skills and topical discussions.
experience.
10. Don’t forget to let the traditional media know
2. Explore and use existing opportunities for about your e-democracy project. An article in
contributing individual and group opinions on, the news (radio, television or print) will let
or information about, specific issues including people know of your project and its address.
feedback on websites, tele-voting, online
dialogues, and using the feedback options on
online government services. Provide search
engines with sufficient data (from broad
categories such as ‘off-shore fishing’ to
specific categories such as the name of the
area (e.g. ‘Bateman’s Bay’) to see what other
information/ opportunities are available).
3. Set up your own website providing
information about your organisation, links to
other sites that may provide background
information.
4. Develop a clear and concise mission or

purpose statement to form the basis of public
interest and awareness through wide
distribution.
5. Keep your site well organised and up to date.

Use standard HTML formatting to make the
site as inclusive as possible.
6. Provide details of subscribe/unsubscribe
procedures.
7. Include new email contact details in your

public email lists so that you can report up-to-

3.17. Expert Panel  Public input may not be available.
 Used mostly where specialised knowledge is
Description: required rather than public opinion.
Expert panels are engaged when highly specialised  A highly skilled moderator is required.
input and opinion are required for a project.
Generally, a variety of experts are engaged based  Expertise in relevant and complementary
on various fields of expertise to debate and discuss areas will be needed to produce an ‘expert
various courses of action and make opinion’ which will be credible with the public,
recommendations. Expert panels are not as and which can be drawn on in the case of legal
interactive as Fishbowls (where expert panels are action.
seen as the fish in the bowls). They are used often
Resources required:
when the issue is highly contentious and decisions
are likely to have possible legal ramifications or  Publicity
where the best possible results (based on  Venue rental
expertise) are required (See Fishbowls).
 Catering
Objectives:  Staffing
Expert panels allow citizens to hear a variety of  Moderator/facilitator
informed (expert) viewpoints from which to decide
on recommendations or courses of action in  Experts
relation to an issue or proposal.  Recorders
Outcomes:  Audio and visual recording and amplification

Expert panels help participants to come to  Overhead projector
agreement on an issue, or to develop a series of  Data projector
recommendations on a proposal or community
 Video
environmental issue. Such recommendations or
proposals can then be forwarded to decision-  Slide projector
making bodies.  Projection screen
Uses/strengths:  Furniture
 Useful when an issue is complex and  Children’s requirements
contentious.
Can be used for:
 Useful where conflict exists to provide
opinions which may have more credibility, and  Engage community
hence may assist in resolving the conflict.  Discover community issues
 Useful when a variety of opinions is present,  Develop community capacity
to provide a credible alternative opinion,  Develop action plan
based on credible expertise.
 Useful when the possibility of legal
ramifications is present, as the experts’ report  Build alliances, consensus
or opinions may carry weight in any future
court case.
Special considerations/weaknesses:  Individual
 Experts can be expensive.
Audience size:
 A long lead time may be needed to book
appropriate experts.  Large (> 30)
 Format of the panel must encourage  Medium (11–30)
participation and dialogue between all
Time required:
panellists.
 Generally, this is used at the conclusion of
participatory program where all available Skill level/support required:
information has been considered.

Cost:
 High (> AUD$10,000)
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
Innovation level:
Method:
1. Select panellists on the basis of expertise,
ensuring issues/groups of relevance are
represented.
2. Allow time for contacting experts for the

panel, and negotiating a mutually suitable
time. For very busy people, this can mean
planning some months in advance.
3. Employ a skilled and unbiased moderator.
4. Provide background briefing information to

panellists.
5. Determine ground rules for the panel.
6. Allow public input if possible and appropriate

(see also Fishbowls).
7. Determine course of action.
8. Present the outcomes of the panel
discussions.

3.18. Field Trips  Number of participants is limited by logistics.
 Potentially attractive to protesters.
Description:
Field trips are organised trips where participants Resources required:
visit physical sites. They are a venue for providing  Publicity
information and, at times, opportunities for  Venue rental
participant input. Public input is possible when
other participative activities are combined with  Catering
the field trip. A popular technique for  Staffing
environmental, planning and design-related
participation processes, field trips are especially
useful as a complement to conference  Experts
presentations, or when written work such as  Recorders
reports are inappropriate.
 Photographer
Objectives:  Printed public information materials
Field trips aim to let people to ‘see for themselves’  Response sheets
the place where a development is proposed to be
placed, or to have a demonstration of a technique  Children’s requirements
(e.g. water quality testing) in the environment  Entertainment and events
where the technique can be tried, and where it is
 Duty of care
most able to be seen, remembered, and
understood.  Insurance

Field trips provide people with an understanding  Showcase product, plan, policy
about a place and/or practice that allows them to  Engage community
incorporate a new method into their practice, or
to provide informed opinions on a proposal or  Communicate an issue
issue.
Uses/strengths:  Large (> 12 people)
 Used when the issue being considered has a  Medium (2–12 people)
geographic focus.
 Individual
 Used when a large number of stakeholders
are involved in the process. Audience size:
 Used where participants require information  Large (> 30)
or education and these are best provided or  Medium (11–30)
explained on-site.
 Small (≤ 10)
 Used when a demonstration will be more
effective than presentations. Time required:
 Adds transparency and education to the  Long (> 6 months)
process of participation.  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
 Provides opportunity for rapport with key
stakeholders.
 Creates greater public knowledge of issues
and processes.  Medium (Computer & other expertise)
Special considerations/weaknesses: Cost:

 Costly if a large number of experts are  Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
engaged to present on site.  Low (< AUD$1,000)
 Larger numbers of participants require large
number of staff/facilitators.

 Low (Information only) 12. Pay attention to duty of care/safety issues. If
site is difficult to access or contains elements
Innovation level:
of risk, make necessary preparations to avoid
accidents with an emphasis on participants
Method: with disabilities.
1. Publicise the field trip.
13. Organise catering if appropriate.
2. Select times that suit the largest number of
14. Ensure toilets are available.
participants (e.g. select from after hours for
full-time workers, daytime for retirees or
parents with small children).
3. Field trips can run from several hours to full

days to allow the greatest number of
participants to attend (depending on the time
participants can spare, distance to be
travelled, availability of expertise and/or case
studies).
4. Advertise the agenda and times of key

presentations in appropriate place (e.g. local
media, posters at local stores and libraries).
This will allow participants to attend for
shorter periods if necessary, and will allow
them to choose sessions of interest.
5. Ensure adequate staff on site to provide

assistance. For example, give directions, be
available for first aid, organise food and drink
(set-up and clean away), etc.
6. Create and display signs that publicise the

location of field trip through attachment of
maps/directions with a pre-posted agenda.
7. Ensure all publicity (signs, media releases,

brochures) provide directions from major
routes near the site.
8. Allow time for participants to approach
experts for one-to-one discussions.
9. Provide printed public information materials
during the field trip for interested
participants.
10. Appoint staff to act as note takers during the
discussions.
11. Provide feedback forms/survey/response
sheets to facilitate public input.

3.19. Fishbowl  Requires organisers to be committed to a
creative and ‘from the edge’ approach to
Description: consulting.
A technique used to increase participation and  People must be able to operate from beyond
understanding of issues. The fishbowl represents their comfort zones.
an inner group of participants in a roundtable  Requires intensive set-up and publicity.
format involved in a decision-making process that
is ‘witnessed’ by a larger group who have the  Skilled facilitators should be hired.19
opportunity for input and questioning (see also:
Resources required:
Expert Panels, and Samoan Circles). The fishbowl
can be adapted with the use of role-playing  Publicity
techniques to highlight conflicts and alliances, the  Venue rental
patterns that connect different points of view and
 Catering
the previously unrecognised linkages between
different aspects of issues or problems. The  Staffing
fishbowl process can be modified to allow  Moderator/facilitator
participants from the wider audience to join the
roundtable.17  Expert
 Recorders
Objectives:
 Gophers
The fishbowl process aims to increase people’s
understanding of other people’s perspectives on  Other
an issue or proposal, and to allow them to make  Audio and visual recording and amplification
connections and recognise links that may have
been hidden.
 Printed public information materials
Outcomes:
 Response sheets
Fishbowls can make a large group feel that their
viewpoint has been represented in the discussion, even  Data projectors
when they have not themselves had any input. Because  Video
they hear and see other people’s contributions, they
know whether the issues that are important to them  Slide projector
have been considered. As well, participants and  Projection screen
observers will leave the fishbowl process with a greater
understanding of the range of opinions and experiences  Furniture
that exist within their community on a particular issue or
proposal. This provides community groups with options
for building on commonalities and sharing resources. Can be used for:
Uses/strengths:  Engage community
 Highly applicable when consultation (and/or  Discover community issues
interaction) with the broader community is  Develop community capacity
required.
 Can be used to build trust with the community
by creating a sense of transparency in decision  Build alliances, consensus
making.
 Can illuminate decisions through focused and  Medium (2–12 people)
creative dialogue.18
Audience size:
 Large (> 30)
 Works best where presentations are brief.
 Medium (11–30)
17 Sarkissian, W, Perlgut, D & Ballard, E (eds.) (1986)
Time required:
participation handbook: resources for public involvement  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
in the planning process, Impacts Press, Roseville, NSW
18 ibid 19 ibid

 Short (< 6 weeks)

Cost:
 High (> AUD$10,000)
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
Innovation level:
Method:
1. Canvass people to be invited to the meeting in
advance to determine the fishbowl team.
2. Book venue.
3. Hire a facilitator.
4. Advertise event.
5. Brief participants and the facilitator on the
aims and objectives of the session.
6. Provide a technical briefing for participants if

required.
7. Support participants with role descriptions.
8. Structure time for the interactions between
the ‘actors’ and the ‘audience’.
9. Can alternate between ‘experts’ in the

fishbowl and members of the public. Each of
the two groups can pick up on the issues and
ideas expressed by the other.
10. Record issues raised by individuals and report
back in the plenary sessions.
11. Debrief the participants and the facilitator.
12. Compile a report and distribute to participants

and relevant authorities.

3.20. Focus Groups  Produces ideas that would not emerge from
surveys/questionnaires, because the focus
Description: group allows opportunity for a wider range of
Focus groups are used for exploratory studies, and comments.
the issues that emerge from the focus group may
be developed into a questionnaire or other form of
survey to verify the findings. Relatively  Such small groups may not be representative
inexpensive, focus groups can provide fairly of the community response to an issue.
dependable data within a short time frame. Focus  May be confronting for some to be open
groups are a technique used to find out what about their opinions depending on how well
issues are of most concern for a community or people know one another.
group when little or no information is available.
 People must be able to operate within their
They allow people to answer questions, but also to
comfort zones.
bounce ideas off one another, and hence provide
more detailed information as people share and  Requires careful selection to be a
elaborate on their issues. representative sample (similar age range or
status etc.).
Where large-scale objective information is needed,
a minimum of four focus groups and as many as 12  Skilled facilitators should be hired.
may be needed to collect all the information
Resources required:
needed. Using independent researchers to run
groups and analyse data will ensure objectivity for  Venue rental
organisations which need to maintain transparent  Moderator/facilitator
processes.
 Recorders
Objectives:  Depending on age group, may require child
Focus groups aim to discover the key issues of care
concern for selected groups. Discovering these  May use audiovisual or audio recording of
issues can help determine which of a number of discussion.
options is the preferred way forward, or to
determine what are the concerns that would Can be used for:
prevent a proposal going ahead. The focus group  Showcase product, plan, policy
may also be undertaken to discover preliminary
issues that are of concern in a group or  Engage community
community, and on which to base further research  Discover community issues
or consultation.  Communicate an issue
Outcomes: Number of people required to help organise:
Focus groups should deliver detailed knowledge of  Medium (2–12 people)
the issues that concern a specific demographic or
community.  Individual
Uses/strengths: Audience size:

 Highly applicable when a new proposal is  Medium (11–30)
mooted and little is known of community  Small (≤ 10)
opinions.
Time required:
 Can be used to develop a preliminary concept
of the issues of concern, from which a wider  Long (> 6 months)
community survey may be undertaken.  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
 Can be used for limited generalisations based
on the information generated by the focus
group.  High (Specialist skills)
 Particularly good for identifying the reasons Cost:
behind people’s likes/dislikes.
 Low (< AUD$1,000)

Innovation level:
Method:
1. Randomly select 6–10 people affected by or
interested in the community issue, to make up
the focus group.
2. Book venue and arrange catering if meeting

goes across a meal time.
4. Prepare preliminary questions.
5. Send reminders to participants with time,

date, venue and questions.

7. Establish ground rules: keep focused, maintain

momentum, get closure on questions
8. Encourage shy participants if they feel anxious
about revealing their opinions/feelings.
9. Engage a co-facilitator to record issues raised
by individuals (may use audio, audiovisual,
and/or written notes).
10. Debrief the participants and the facilitator.
11. Compile a report of proceedings for the
organisers, and offer a copy to the
participants.

3.21. Future Search Conference  Requires the engagement of an experienced
facilitator to be successful.
Description:  Can be difficult to gain complete commitment
A two-day meeting where participants attempt to (to attend or to agree on outcomes) from all
create a shared community vision of the future. It participants.
attempts to bring together those with the power  Large time frame (two to three days) may
to make decisions with those affected by the affect the availability of
decisions, to try to agree on a plan of action. The volunteers/participants.
future search conference can also be used to focus
on the future of an organisation, a network of Resources required:
people or a community. Participants are
 Publicity
encouraged to explore the past, present and
future and make action plans based on common  Venue rental
ground.20  Catering
A future search conference helps a group of  Moderator/facilitator
people to develop a series of options for the  Experts
future, and agree on a plan of action, which,
because participants include those with the power  Recorders
to make it happen as well as those who will be  Artists
affected, should be able to be implemented.  Photographer
Outcomes:  Audio and visual recording and amplification
A future search conference will develop a feasible  Overhead projectors
plan which incorporates the needs and wishes of
those affected as well as those of the decision-
making agencies or departments. Such a plan  Response sheets
should allow a community or group to reach a  Data projectors
preferred future vision.
 Video
Uses/strengths:  Slide projector
 The search conference is useful in identifying  Projection screen
issues at the early stages of a project or
process.  Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins,
etc.)
 It assists in identifying key or priority issues.
 Furniture
 Can provide guidance on how the
participation process should be run.  Children’s requirements
 Can provide advice on who to involve in the Can be used for:
participation process and gain support for
ongoing involvement.
 Discover community issues
 Can empower individuals to become better
informed, and better able to express their  Develop community capacity
opinions.  Develop action plan
 Useful when participation of large groups is  Communicate an issue
desirable and an open forum is sought.
 Can be logistically challenging given the
number of potential participants.
Audience size:
‘Community participation in practice’, The community  Large (> 30)
in the planning process, Impacts Press, Roseville, NSW

Time required:  Discussing the implementation of the
 Medium (6 weeks – 6 months) desirable future, based on current
circumstances and resources.22
Skill level/support required: 8. Record issues raised by individuals and report
 High (Specialist skills) back in the plenary sessions.
Cost: 9. Compile a report of proceedings.
 High (> AUD$10,000)
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
Innovation level:
Method:
1. Canvass people to be invited to be part of the
future search.
2. Book venue.
4. Advertise event.

6. Provide a background briefing for participants

if required.
7. Conduct discussion. One methodology for

conducting the discussion is outlined by
Emery,21 a pioneer of the technique, who
identifies five stages to the process:
 External environment: ‘the futures we are

currently in’ are described by the
participants.
 Desirable futures: groups construct a list
of desirable futures that build upon the
current situation.
 Desirable futures are transmitted into
more explicit pictures.
 Testing desirable futures against the
reality of the current situation and the
criteria generated earlier in the meeting.

21Emery M & Purser R (1996) The search conference: a ‘Community participation in practice’, The community
powerful method for planned organizational change and participation handbook: resources for public involvement
community action, Jossey-Bass Publisher, San Francisco in the planning process, Impacts Press, Roseville, NSW

3.22. Information Contacts  Contact people must be well briefed in what
information is appropriate for release.
Description:  All external contacts should be logged.
Establishing information contacts who are
identified as the official liaison person(s) for the Resources required:
public and the media, can help members of the  Appropriately trained staff
community find information quickly and
 Electronic communications for checking
effectively. The nature of some participation
details, logging contacts, etc.
processes is extensive, therefore it can be worth
ensuring central information contacts who have  Comfortable workroom close to facilities with
the skills they need, know the process of telephones, desks, chairs, etc.
participation inside out; and are well versed in
Can be used for:
project information, that they know the key
stakeholders and stakeholder groups and are able  Showcase product, plan, policy
to answer questions quickly with a high level of  Discover community issues
accuracy and authority.
Objectives:
Information contacts provide a single, well-
informed source from which the public can obtain  Medium (2–12 people)
information.  Individual
Outcomes: Audience size:

Information contacts should ensure good-quality,  Large (> 30)
correct and consistent information is given to all
enquirers. Time required:
Uses/strengths:
 Can link stakeholders with technical experts.
 Ensures people don’t get ‘the run around’ Skill level/support required:
when they call.  High (Specialist skills)
 Controls information flow and promotes
Cost:
information consistency.
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
 Conveys image of accessibility.
 Useful when consultation process is intensive Participation level:
and widespread.  Low (Information only)
 Gives the contact person(s) a good sense of Innovation level:
stakeholder opinion.
 Useful in making suggestions for future
consultation activities given understanding of Method:
stakeholder concerns. 1. Select and appoint person(s) with appropriate
 Good for building up trust among all parties. public relations skills and knowledge of public
Special considerations/weaknesses: participation processes.
 Organising group must be committed to and 2. Publicise person by name with relevant
prepared for prompt and accurate responses.
contact points: phone, in person and via
 May filter public message from technical staff email.
and decision makers.
3. Brief person on role and provide them with
 Contact people require strong interpersonal
skills. appropriate background information.
 Contact people should be briefed first about 4. Maintain a log of contacts.
major project issues.

5. Regularly meet with central information
contact to develop a sense of stakeholder
concerns.

3.23. Information Hotline Special considerations/weaknesses:
 Must be adequately advertised to be
Description: successful.
An information hotline offers pre-recorded  If staffed by volunteers, can be time
information on a project via the telephone and/or consuming.
access to project team staff members who can
answer questions or provide additional  Works best if you can afford to set up an easy-
information and assistance. to-remember phone number.
 Designated contact must have sufficient
Objectives: knowledge of the project to be able to answer
An information hotline aims to deliver accurate, questions quickly and accurately.
consistent information over the telephone to
 May limit a project officer from performing
those who wish or need to know about an issue or other tasks.
event.
Resources required:
Outcomes:
 Staff.
An information hotline can ensure that those who
need to know are informed quickly, easily and  Comfortable workroom with desks,
efficiently (e.g. at times of a natural disaster when telephones, and computer access for
relatives want to know the whereabouts and recording contacts, tracking updated
safety of their family members). information, and contacting expert sources.
 Polite, brief, up-to-date recorded message
Uses/strengths:
giving details of the project, proposal or issue,
 Offers an inexpensive and simple device for and inviting further enquiries.
publicity, information and public input.
Can be used for:
 Provides a good service to the public by
preventing people ‘doing the run around’ to  Showcase product, plan, policy
access project information.  Discover community issues
 Can serve as a link between the citizens and  Communicate an issue
the municipality’s government.
 It is easy to provide updates on project
activities.  Large (> 12 people)
 Can describe ways the community can  Medium (2–12 people)
become involved.  Individual
 Can offer a report-in point for volunteers who
act as extra observers in reporting on events Audience size:
(e.g. pollution, litter, beached whales, etc).  Large (> 30)
 Offers a reasonably low cost for set up and Time required:
updates.
 Portrays an image of ‘accessibility’ for an
organisation, department or group.
 Can be an avenue for citizens to feel more Skill level/support required:
involved in their community.  Medium (Computer & other expertise)
 Also can be a great way to catch illegal
Cost:
polluters or to stop accidental spills that might
otherwise go unnoticed (e.g. people may feel  Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
more comfortable to ‘dob in’ a polluter when
they are speaking to the people responsible Participation level:
for monitoring such activities via the relatively  Low (Information only)
anonymous hotline, whereas they would not
do this in person, or if they had to write a Innovation level:
letter).  Low (Traditional)

Method:
1. Determine the information to be recorded
and timetable of updates to the service (if
applicable).
2. Plan for advertising the number, which may
include having stationery and flyers printed,
or a stamp with the hotline number that can
be stamped onto all outgoing printed
correspondence or promotional material.
3. Set up a hotline number for callers by

recording message and hooking up to the
phone line. Record information that will
answer the most commonly asked questions.
4. Set up a toll-free number for non-local callers.
5. Advertise the number in the media, and

ensure it is on all your outreach material.
6. Offer the option of being put through to a
specific person for more details.
7. Appoint staff to answer questions.
8. Brief and train the person nominated to

ensure they can access all information, have
contact details of who to ask for information
on specific aspects of the project, and have a
pleasant telephone manner, even with
difficult callers.
9. Record calls/common complaints/concerns in

telephone journal for your records and input
to the participation process.

3.24. Information Repository Number of people required to help organise:
Description:
Information repositories are formed when project
information is stored in a centralised public place Audience size:
where members of the community can access the  Large (> 30)
information. Popular places for information
repositories include public libraries, schools, city Time required:
halls and council offices. Typically, the repository  Long (> 6 months)
should house all the project information
appropriate for public access and act as a dispatch  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
centre for project information.
Objectives:  High (Specialist skills)
To provide one central, well-advertised venue (or a  Medium (Computer & other expertise)
specific number of venues) at which all
information about an event, historical study, or Cost:
proposal can be accessed.  High (> AUD$10,000)
Outcomes:  Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
The information repository becomes an invaluable Participation level:
resource wherein members of the community can
gain information on a wide range of aspects of an
issue, event or proposal. Innovation level:
Uses/strengths:  Low (Traditional)
 Where a large quantity of project information Method:
is being generated, the repository is useful in
1. Select materials suitable for repository.
limiting the need for multiple copies (similar
to libraries). 2. Select a suitable location that is centralised,
 Information repositories can double as accessible by public transport, and set up in a
distribution centres for project information.
way that will allow the material to be easily
 Can illustrate the levels of interest in a used.
project, and who is using the material, if log of
users is kept through a ‘sign-in’ system. 3. Publicise the existence of the repository
through a range of publicity techniques.
 Generally not well used by the public, if not in 4. Reiterate the existence of the repository at
an easily accessible, well-publicised location. public consultation sessions.
 Staff at the repository must know the location
5. Staffing: staff require basic library skills,
of the materials and be able to answer basic
project questions. interpersonal skills and the knowledge and
ability to answer basic project questions (can
Resources required:
use existing staff if housing repository in a
 Publicity
public library or staffed space).
 Venue with good storage and display areas
and room to access material (carrels or tables 6. Maintain a log of visitors.
and chairs)
7. Consistently add information to the
 Staff repository.
Can be used for: 8. Maintain for the duration of the project.
9. Use as distribution centre for project
information.

3.25. Interactive TV  Can develop a rich and diverse online
community, but may baffle the non-expert
Description: users, and so limit inclusiveness.
Interactive television is a form of electronic Resources required:
democracy where television acts as a conduit for
information on an issue and as a prompt for public  Community television
opinion on an issue. Public opinion is usually  Telephone staff
received via telephone calls or email/websites that
 Computer-based recording systems
record information. In some cases, the call acts as
a vote on a particular issue. Can be used for:
Objectives:  Showcase product, plan, policy
Interactive TV aims to use television as a medium  Engage community
for voting on issues, expressing opinions, and  Discover community issues
knowing that these votes and opinions will be
recorded and distributed to the larger community.
This provides an audiovisual element to the voice  Communicate an issue
of industry, government and community groups.
Outcomes:  Large (> 12 people)
Interactive TV will enable people to vote on almost  Medium (2–12 people)
everything via their television, which, as a familiar
‘tool’, increases the chances of more people taking Audience size:
up this option. As a result, a larger range of people  Large (> 30)
may express opinions about, or influence decisions
about, community issues and proposals, including Time required:
some sections of the community who may not
otherwise have participated.
Uses/strengths:
 Useful for reaching a wide audience.
 Useful when an issue is very important to the
majority of the community. Cost:
 Useful when a large sample of the  High (> AUD$10,000)
population’s opinion is required.
 Citizen TV may become more available,
accessible and familiar than e-democracy  Medium (Opinions noted)
internet options.
Innovation level:
 Allows TV viewers to share their opinions,  High (Innovative)
needs and ideas.
 Can be useful for education campaigns Method:
(e.g. health campaigns). 1. Still in the developmental stages, interactive
 Can combine with web and online chat rooms TV is often used commercially for viewer
to allow community members to exchange voting on programs and products, but the
ideas in real time.
technology also makes it possible for citizens
Special considerations/weaknesses: to be actively involved in voting and
 The technology is highly expensive. commenting on community issues.
 Can limit the number of detailed responses. 2. Requires provision of interactive TV, not for
 Can be difficult to present issues in an sports or shopping, but for local organisations
unbiased manner.
and the public to participate in ‘their’
 May be attractive to certain sectors of the
community local interactive TV.
community and not others.

3. Can involve the use of qwerty-handsets within
people’s living rooms, or phoning or emailing
into the station on a particular topic.
4. Viewers can then suggest topics, interviewees,
and other directions that the community
interactive TV might explore.

3.26. Interactive Video Display  Offer agencies flexibility in controlling and
directing where a message goes.
Kiosks
 If well sited, can reach people who do not
Description: normally attend hearings or meetings.
Stand-alone kiosks that present a large amount of  Deliver information to the user.
information using a computer and touch screen/  Offer a variety of issues to explore, images to
mouse for navigation through the information view, and topics to consider.
located within the kiosk. Interactive video displays
and kiosks are similar to automatic teller  Elicit specific responses, acting as a survey
machines, offering menus for interaction between instrument.
a person and a computer. Information is provided  Enable the user to enter a special request to
through a presentation that invites viewers to ask the sponsoring agency or join a mailing list.
questions or direct the flow of information.
 Are used in a variety of locations and may be
Viewers activate programs by using a touch-
either stationary or mobile.
screen, keys, a mouse, or a trackball. Software
used in interactive video displays and kiosks is  Allow a great deal more information to be
highly specialised, storing information on CD-ROM made available and can be developed similarly
or floppy disks that allow retrieval of specific to web pages and navigated in a similar way.
information based on directions from the viewer. Therefore, a lot more information can be
By contrast, hardware requirements are fairly made available through kiosks than stand-
minimal, requiring relatively simple computer alone displays.
equipment.23
Objectives:  Sophisticated information programs make
Interactive video display kiosks aim to deliver interactive displays expensive.
information via a multimedia presentation. This  Takes time to set up (one year for planning,
media is suitable for those not able to read the fundraising and setting up).
language, those who prefer visual as well as verbal
cues, and is one that appeals to all age groups. The  After construction and installation, staff
interactive elements, and the sense of a video commitments are relatively limited.
game to the presentation, will elicit responses  Any new technology involving machines may
from people who may not otherwise participate in cause unease.
a planning or decision-making process.  Software purchase is a high up-front cost.
Outcomes:  Maintenance costs are incurred.
Well set-up interactive video display kiosks provide  Potential vandalism is a factor in site
a multimedia option for finding information about selection.
an event, issue or proposal, through a ‘click and
 Liability issues may be associated with
find’ process, rather than having to scroll through
location of displays.
a great deal of information to find just what is
wanted.  Strategic siting of interactive programs is
imperative. They should be located where
Uses/strengths: large numbers of people frequent.
 Can elicit preferences from people who do not
otherwise participate. Resources required:
 Sophisticated hardware and software
 Complement staff availability.
 Expert programmers to set up interactive
 Can provide printed messages.
display and keep updated/troubleshoot and
 Provide information from an agency to the repair
public.
 Technicians to install near ISDN or cable
 Collect information from the public for agency connections
analysis.
 Regular policing to prevent vandalism
23Department of Transportation (1997) Public
Can be used for:
involvement and techniques for transportation decision-
making, US Department of Transportation, Washington.  Showcase product, plan, policy

 Engage community 4. Develop material in similar ways to web
 Discover community issues pages, so they can be navigated in a similar
 Develop community capacity way.
 Communicate an issue 5. Seek limited public input through the inclusion
Number of people required to help organise: of electronic surveys, however manipulation is

 Large (> 12 people) a possibility and results should be regarded
with care.
Audience size:
6. Specialist software and industrial designers
 Large (> 30)
are required.
Time required:

Cost:
 High (>AUD$10,000)
Innovation level:
Method:
1. Conduct local meetings to determine whether
interactive video would be a viable option for
your community. The interactive video
network might serve a number of community
needs, such as teaching shortages in rural
communities, and as well build the
community’s capacity to participate in
decision making in relation to issues of
community concern.
2. Contact communications providers and

government agencies for funding and
sponsorship for the project (e.g.
telecommunications companies may lay fibre
optics as part of their community service
obligations). Sponsorship is more likely if a
number of agencies can present a case for
using the systems (e.g. Natural Resources and
Education Departments).
3. In setting up displays on a community issue,
present materials in ways that are simple,
graphically interesting, and easily understood.

3.27. Key Stakeholder Resources required:
 Trained interviewers.
Interviews
 Recording methods (may be audio, hand-
Description: written or computer-aided records, but should
Interviews with key stakeholders with expertise be unobtrusive, so the focus is on the content
relevant to a particular community issue are and conversation).
lengthy, one-to-one interviews that may last an  May need a professional typist to transcribe
hour or two, and require specialist skill to use the tapes and hand-written notes, as this is time
time effectively, and to elicit relevant and specific consuming.
information.
Can be used for:
The interviewer should be able to gain insights
from a ‘casual’ conversation so the person being  Engage community
interviewed does not get too narrow in addressing  Discover community issues
a single point (unless you want a lot of information
about a specific issue). This interviewing technique
is like the technique in focus groups, because you  Build alliances, consensus
can keep asking questions until you get a
satisfactory response. These are expensive and Number of people required to help organise:
hard to do well, but they are very good sources of  Medium (2–12 people)
information and are especially useful when it is
important to understand the views of certain Audience size:
people (because of their position or their  Medium (11–30)
expertise).  Small (≤ 10)
Objectives: Time required:
Stakeholder interviews aim to elicit detailed  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
information and opinions on an issue through
wide-ranging discussion rather than specific Skill level/support required:
questioning.  High (Specialist skills)
Outcomes:
Cost:
Stakeholder interviews provide a broad overview
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
of the interviewees’ opinions about a specific topic
that may reveal hidden concerns or ideas that Participation level:
would not be expressed in response to a set
number of specific questions.
Innovation level:
Uses/strengths:
 Useful for targeting key stakeholders who
have specific knowledge about an issue. Method:
 Provides opportunity to get understanding of 1. Select interviewees according to designated
concerns and issues of key stakeholders. criteria (areas of expertise, representation of
 Can be used to determine how best to groups, complementary skills for committees).
communicate with the public.
2. Arrange times and places for interviewing.
 Can be used to determine the best members
of consultative committees. Better quality information will be forthcoming
if the interviewee is in a familiar setting, so it
may be easier for the interviewer to go to
 Can be expensive.
them.
 Can be time consuming.
 Interviewers must engender trust or risk 3. Ensure uninterrupted time for at least one
negative response to the format. hour.
 Requires skilled interviewers.

4. Check all equipment and take spare tapes,
batteries, pens, etc. to avoid any interruptions
during the interview.

3.28. Kitchen Table Discussion  Needs a diversity of interests to be invited.
 Best for small group discussions (8–10
Description: people).
Small meetings within the neighbourhood, usually
at someone’s home or a local coffee shop. These Resources required:
settings make the meeting informal and  Possible venue rental
participants tend to respond to the more relaxed  Catering
surrounds. Because they are informal, participants
generally are more willing to discuss issues and  Staffing
dialogue is maximised.  Hired facilitators, or volunteers with
A kitchen table discussion group is a small facilitation skills
collection of people who get together in  Children’ s requirements (e.g. child minding)
someone’s home to talk, listen and share ideas on
subjects of mutual interest. The host often begins Can be used for:
by reminding everyone that there are no right or  Showcase product, plan, policy
wrong ideas, and that everyone’s contribution is
valuable. The host also encourages people to
listen, to ask clarifying questions, and to avoid  Discover community issues
arguing or interrupting.  Develop community capacity
Kitchen table discussion groups can be a prime  Develop action plan
vehicle for social change. Kitchen table discussions
are now going online, and are being held around
virtual kitchen tables where anyone can join in to  Build alliances, consensus
discuss an issue (see Electronic Democracy).
Objectives:  Medium (2–12 people)
Kitchen table discussion aims to encourage people  Individual
to continue discussing an issue until all members
have had a chance to be heard, and provide an Audience size:
opportunity of sharing not only opinions, but  Large (> 30)
information and alternatives for community
proposals or issues.  Medium (11–30)
 Small (≤ 10)
Outcomes:
Kitchen table discussion builds a sense of Time required:
community, provides a venue for sharing, and may  Long (> 6 months)
generate feedback and submissions on community  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
issues and proposals.
Uses/strengths:
 Maximises two-way dialogue.
 If issue is likely to be contentious, provides an Cost:
ideal setting to scope for early conflicts.  Low (< AUD$1,000)
 Maximises the likelihood of engagement in
debate and allays likelihood of conflict
because held in ‘neutral turf’ setting.  Medium (Opinions noted)
 Builds social networks within the community.  Low (Information only)
Special considerations/weaknesses: Innovation level:

 Needs organisers/facilitators who are polite  Low (Traditional)
and relaxed.
Method:
 Requires creativity and resource investigation 1. If a kitchen table discussion arises informally,
to reach a large number of people.
those who wish to follow up on this

opportunity should seek advice on how best
to encourage participation and how to handle
the issues/ information that arise. The
informal beginnings can be discouraged if the
person or people organising further
discussions do not understand how to ensure
all members of the discussion feel that their
opinion will be taken seriously, valued and can
be freely expressed.
2. Kitchen table discussions can be formally

planned to reach targeted groups by
advertising the venue and time.
3. Because these discussions reach groups that
are not attracted to formal participation
programs, sensitivity must be used in
organising and facilitating meetings so as to
encourage continued participation.
4. Select a centralised, neutral space (not

affiliated with any one interest group in the
locality).
5. Use informal neighbourhood networks to

organise the first round of events.
6. Set ground rules about respecting others’

opinions, and recording all issues for further
discussion.
7. Needs sensitive handling to ensure no one

dominates the discussion, and all opinions are
valued.
8. Encourage group to record the outcomes of
discussions and feed back into a broader
participation program.
9. Encourage ongoing discussions.
10. Use these discussions as a means of gauging
ongoing public response to a participation
program.

3.29. Media Releases  The size of media releases limits the amount
of real content that can be incorporated.
Description:  Media releases have a better chance of being
Project information released to various media accepted if they have an element of
corporations. Media releases are seen as being controversy or risk, however an organisation
official and reflecting the corporation/group/ or group may not wish to focus on possible
agency position or the outcome of a project. They negative outcomes or risks.
can also be used to raise awareness and generate
publicity. Resources required:
 Volunteers/staff
Objectives:
Media releases aim to get the widest possible Can be used for:
coverage for a community issue or proposal  Showcase product, plan, policy
through the publication or broadcasting of the
information in the release. It may also elicit further
enquiries by the media organisation about the  Discover community issues
issue, or the group or agency that put out the  Communicate an issue
release.
Outcomes:
Wider awareness of an issue or proposal can be
achieved if the media release is published or  Medium (2–12 people)
broadcast, and if the essential information is  Individual
retained.
Audience size:
Uses/strengths:  Large (> 30)
 Can disseminate information quickly to a large
number of people. Time required:
 Can be a predetermined method of  Long (> 6 months)
notification.
 Can raise publicity and awareness.  Medium (Computer & other expertise)
 Can help an organisation or community group
to make contact with the media. Cost:
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
 Can alert media organisations to an issue/
event and may encourage their active Participation level:
participation through civic journalism.
Innovation level:
 Difficult to retract, should any changes occur.
 Should be written in a journalistic style (see
Method). Method:
 May not be used if more exciting news events 1. Determine the main news angle you wish to
take priority. communicate.
 May be re-written and key facts/emphasis
2. Check deadlines for local publications/
changed.
television/radio bulletins to ensure media
 Media organisations may become interested
in an aspect of the project/issue that is not release is received in time to be published
the focus of public concern. before the event. Some local newspapers
 Media releases are competing with thousands have a Friday deadline for the following
of other incoming news items, and have a Wednesday publication date. Radio programs
better chance of being used if they are sent
may need to check the spokesperson to see
directly to a journalist who has had previous
friendly contact with the sender.

whether they will be suitable for on-air 6. If offering interviews, make it clear whether
interview, etc. this is an exclusive for one media outlet (could
3. On average, send releases two weeks before be one print, one radio and one television, as
events, except to magazines which may have a these do not see one another as competing).
two- to three-month lead time for publication. This can encourage coverage of your issue,
whereas a general media conference may not
4. Follow news style:
be well attended.
 Keep the focus local (with local
spokespeople) for local papers. 7. Track coverage to see how and when your
information is published.
 Send only major capital city issues or
statewide issues to state papers; only 8. Be sure to write and thank the journalist, to
national issues (and use national
develop a relationship that may encourage
spokespeople) for national papers/
magazines. them to work with your organisation in
 Use short sentences. Each sentence tracking progress on the issue/project, and
should be a separate paragraph. hence keep the community informed.
 Use active sentences: ‘the group has
decided’, not ‘It has been decided’.
 Avoid jargon and difficult words (keep it
simple).
 Write about your group: ‘The group will
hold a poster competition at the
Centralville Town Hall on Wednesday,
23 January’.
 First paragraph of no more than 25 words
telling briefly who, what, where, when
and why about the event, issue or project.
 If using quotes in the body of the release,
quote credible spokespeople and identify
them with their positions in the
organisation.
 Keep information clear and unambiguous.
 Keep releases short, no longer than one
page. If the media want more
information, they will contact you.
 If for a community notices column, check
the required size and format of items
(may be 30 words or less).
 Include in the media release the date the
release was written, and a contact name
and phone number for someone who is
easily contacted during office hours.
5. Check whether the media prefers email (most
do now), or whether you can distribute your
release via the Australian Associated Press
(AAP) network (this will reach an Australia-
wide audience).

3.30. Mediation and have the authority to be flexible in their
solutions.
Negotiation
 Needs to get beyond set ‘positions’ (I/we are
Description: only willing to do this or that) and look at the
interests of all parties (what they are trying to
Negotiation is the process of searching for an
achieve in broad general terms (e.g. do we
agreement that satisfies various parties. An
agreement may be reached either through a want clean sand, clean water, access to the
barter or through real negotiation. A barter allows beach etc.) to create mutually satisfying
outcomes.
only one party, the one in a position of power, to
‘win’. The other party is forced to accept  Needs all parties to agree to objective criteria
something of lesser value. A real negotiation by which to assess the ‘fairness’ of solutions.
implies a ‘win-win’ situation in which all parties are  Can be time consuming; could take months of
satisfied. meetings to find a mutually satisfactory
Mediation is the attempt to help parties in a outcome.
disagreement to hear one another, to minimise  ‘Win-win’ is not guaranteed.
the harm that can come from disagreement
(e.g. hostility or ‘demonising’ of the other parties) Resources required:
to maximise any area of agreement, and to find a  Publicity
way of preventing the areas of disagreement from
interfering with the process of seeking a  Venue rental
compromise or mutually agreed outcome.  Catering
Negotiation and mediation aims to deal with  Moderator/facilitator
conflict in a creative and positive way, and to find  Expert
a solution or a way for people to hear and
 Recorders
appreciate the differences between their
perspectives.  Audio and visual recording and amplification
Outcomes:
etc.)
With negotiation and mediation, contentious
issues can be discussed and agreements found in  Furniture
which differing opinions are considered and  Children’s requirements
included.
Can be used for:
 Generally used when normal participation  Discover community issues
methods fail.
 Attempts to provide a ‘win-win’ outcome
rather than settling on a single course of  Develop action plan
action.  Build alliances, consensus
 Can improve satisfaction of all parties.
 May allow areas of convergence (areas where  Medium (2–12 people)
there are some mutual goals or agreements).
Audience size:
 Large (> 30)
 Generally requires a specialist moderator who
is independent.  Medium (11–30)
 Moderators can be costly, and their lack of Time required:

knowledge of the content can be a drawback  Long (> 6 months)
in the kinds of questions posed.
 Works best when the parties concerned are
engaged; less well when a representative is
asked to negotiate, as they may not feel they

Skill level/support required:  Gathering information: ask for
 High (Specialist skills) information from the other party to
clarify their position.
Cost:  Making the cake bigger: offer alternatives
 High (> AUD$10,000) that may be agreeable to the other party,
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000) without changing the terms.
 Commitments: formalise agreements
Participation level: orally and in writing before ending the
 High (Stakeholders participate in decision) negotiation.
Innovation level: 4. Negotiate: be sensitive and quick to adapt to

 High (Innovative) changing situations, but do not lose sight of
the objective. Avoid confrontational positions
Method:
and try to understand the interests of the
Negotiation and mediation are highly specialised
activities and a simplistic methodology is not other party. Some aspects that could interfere
available. Specialists are generally required for with the negotiation are:
negotiation and mediation. Other sources of
 Personal positions and interests.
information are outlined on the UNICEF site. The
following excerpt has been provided as an  Psychological and emotional aspects of
introduction: the persons (place, placement of chairs,
body language, gestures, etc.).
1. Analyse the interest of the parties: this is
 Difficulties in communication (differences
important to understand the perceptions, the
in languages, different meanings of the
style of negotiation, and the interests and same words, etc.).
principles of the counterparts, as well as one’s
own.
2. Plan the negotiation, and determine:
 What are the expectations from the

negotiation?
 What are the terms of the negotiation?
 What are the non-negotiable terms and
what can be modified?
 What is the minimum that an agreement
can be reached on?
 What is the negotiation strategy?
 What are the most important interests of
the other parties?
 How does one interact with or manage
people?
3. Select the appropriate negotiation technique
from among the following:
 Spiralling agreements: begin by reaching a

minimum agreement, even though it is
not related to the objectives, and build,
bit by bit, on this first agreement.
 Changing of position: formulate the
proposals in a different way, without
changing the final result.

3.31. Mind Mapping Because of the large amount of association
involved, they can be very creative, tending to
Description: generate new ideas and associations that have not
The human brain is very different from a been thought of before. Every item in a map is, in
computer. Whereas a computer works in a linear effect, a centre of another map. The creative
fashion, the brain works associatively as well as potential of a mind map is useful in brainstorming
linearly – comparing, integrating and synthesising sessions. You only need to start with the basic
as it goes. Association plays a dominant role in problem as the centre, and generate associations
nearly every mental function, and words and ideas from it in order to arrive at a large
themselves are no exception. Every single word number of different possible approaches. By
and idea has numerous links attaching it to other presenting your thoughts and perceptions in a
ideas and concepts. spatial manner and by using colour and pictures, a
better overview is gained and new connections
Mind MapsTM, developed by Tony Buzan, are an can be made visible.
effective method of note-taking and useful for the
generation of ideas by associations. To make a Uses/strengths:
mind map, one starts in the centre of the page A mind map has a number of advantages over the
with the main idea, and works outward in all linear form of note-taking:
directions, producing a growing and organised
structure composed of key words and key images.  The centre with the main idea is more clearly
Key features are: defined.
 The relative importance of each idea is clearly
 Organisation of ideas
indicated. More important ideas will be nearer
 Key words form the basis of the map the centre.
 Association/linkages  The links between key concepts will be
 Clustering/grouping of ideas immediately recognised.
 Visual Memory – Print the key words, use  Recall and review will be more effective and
colour, symbols, icons, 3D-effects, arrows and more rapid.
outlining groups of words  Addition of new information is easy.
 Originality – every mind map needs a unique  Each map will look different from other maps,
centre aiding recall.
 Conscious involvement  In the more creative areas of note making, the
open-ended nature of the map will enable the
Objectives: brain to make new connections far more
Mind maps are a way of representing associated readily.
thoughts with symbols rather than with
extraneous words – something like organic Special considerations/weaknesses:
chemistry. The mind forms associations almost  Mind maps should not be used as a planning
instantaneously, and ‘mapping’ allows you to write or decision-making tool.
your ideas more quickly than expressing them
 Resist the temptation to formally structure
using only words or phrases.
your mind map – just let the ideas flow.
Outcomes:  Mind maps should also not be used to present
The key outcome of a mind map is a map of information to others who were not involved
information organised in the way the brain itself in its creation. They may not necessarily
functions. Like ideas and themes are linked, and follow the thought patterns that underpin its
key words stand out, enabling the user to sort creation.
large amounts of data and ideas into a format that  Mind maps are most effective at the individual
can then be easily used elsewhere. level as they reflect the users thought
Mind maps are beginning to take on the same patterns. With many users in the one mind
structure as memory itself. Once a mind map is map, the tool will not be as effective.
drawn, it seldom needs to be referred to again.
Resources required:
Mind maps help organise information.
 Paper

 Coloured pens
 Space to create
Can be used for:


 Individual
Audience size:
 Small (≤10)
Time required:
Cost:
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
Innovation level:
Method:
1. Start with a coloured image in the centre.
2. Use images throughout your mind map.
3. Words should be printed.
4. The printed words should be on lines, and

each line should be connected to other lines.
5. Words should be in ‘units’ one word per line,
allowing each word to have free hooks and
giving more freedom and flexibility.
6. Use colours to enhance memory, delight the
eye and stimulate the right cortical processes.
7. The mind should be left as ‘free’ as possible.
You will probably think of ideas faster than
you can write.

3.32. MODSS (Multi-objective  Needs to have been sufficiently used to be
validated and minimise software bugs.
Decision Support Systems)
Resources required:
Description:
 Computers, programmers, good-quality data
Multi-objective decision support systems
technology allows programs to be developed that  Wide range of expertise
focus on management effects in environmental Can be used for:
issues. This technology is part of the science of
environmental management, which recognises  Develop community capacity
that natural and social systems are dynamic,  Develop action plan
interlinked and unpredictable, and need complex
systems that allow flexible responses. Number of people required to help organise:
Management that uses rigid control mechanisms  Large (> 12 people)
can contribute to the breakdown of socio-
ecological systems. Hence, newer approaches Audience size:
stressing flexibility and responsiveness have  Large (> 30)
developed, and decision support technology has
 Medium (11–30)
developed that allows for the interconnectedness
of ecological systems. Such computer programs Time required:
describe the multiple effects of any change, and
provide a structured approach to selecting a
management plan based on a group’s preferences  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
and tradeoffs.24
Objectives:  High (Specialist skills)
MODSS technology creates programs that can
address widespread, significant problems, and Cost:
engage stakeholders in considering the best  High (> AUD$10,000)
compromise in complex environmental issues
where there are many, often conflicting, criteria. Participation level:
Outcomes:
MODSS offers better solutions that allow flexible Innovation level:
responses to complex environmental issues.  High (Innovative)
Uses/strengths: Method:
 Can offer ways to assess a variety of options 1. Determine the issue or management decision
and their consequences in a complex that needs to be addressed.
environmental issue.
2. Review existing databases, programs and
 Can be incorporated into existing computer
programs and operating systems, simply options.
adding the components that are needed for
3. Using a program such as The Facilitator, add
decision-making support.
on the decision support tools needed.
 Can provide a structured approach to engage
stakeholders in complex environmental issues 4. Trial the Decision Support tool.
where there are many, and possibly
conflicting, criteria to consider. 5. Modify as needed to develop an operational
tool for natural resource management
decision making.
 Can be very high cost for specialist
programming.
 Can exclude those who are not computer
literate.
24 Based on Heilman et al, 2000

3.33. Newspaper Inserts Resources required:
 Staff to prepare, lay out and deliver insert
Description: material
An insert is a fact sheet that can be disseminated  Expertise in journalistic or advertising style or
via a local newspaper. Inserts achieve high-level writing and layout
publicity for a project and normally are used at the
commencement of a project. They create interest, Can be used for:
describe the issue being considered and outline  Showcase product, plan, policy
opportunities for public involvement in the
participation process. Newspaper supplements can  Engage community
serve similar purposes, but cover the issue in more  Communicate an issue
detail through features articles and/or
advertisements. They can be a paid advertising Number of people required to help organise:
arrangement, or can be put together by news staff  Large (> 12 people)
in the public interest. Such supplements may
include feedback opportunities, and may outline
opportunities for public involvement.  Individual
Objectives: Audience size:

Newspaper inserts aim to reach and inform the  Large (> 30)
majority of people in a targeted geographic area
about an issue or proposal. Time required:
Outcomes:
Newspaper inserts will increase awareness of a Skill level/support required:
proposal or issue, even though many inserts will  High (Specialist skills)
not be read.  Medium (Computer & other expertise)
Uses/strengths: Cost:
 Achieves high-level publicity.  High (> AUD$10,000)
 Provides information.  Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
 When a large number of potential
stakeholders exist. Participation level:
 When a large number of people are affected
by a development decision (e.g. road works/ Innovation level:
planning scheme preparation).
 Outlines opportunities for public involvement
in a participation process. Method:
1. Decide the size, cost and number of inserts by
determining the potential number of
 Content should be simply stated, concise and
unambiguous. stakeholders, and how these match with the
 Content should provide basic information (do delivery areas of the newspaper.
not overload with too much information). 2. Decide on your key messages, including
 Contact information should be provided. methods for public participation.
 Cost may be a factor if the newspaper charges
3. Write your information in simple, concise and
for the inserts, or insists on advertising.
unambiguous language.
 If undertaken as a community service, rather
than a commercial transaction, distribution 4. Outline major events and the duration of the
depends on the newspapers willingness to participation process.
insert the flyers, leaflets, etc.
5. Include contact information (i.e. key project
staff [by name], information hotline numbers,

location of information repository [if any],
phone, email and website addresses).
6. If possible, use trained layout help to ensure

the inserts attract interest and are easy to
read.
7. Record contact made as a result of the insert,

and add to project mailing list.
8. Use to report project outcomes as well as
publicising the process.

3.34. Nominal Groups Resources required:
 Publicity
Description:
 Venue rental (meeting room with table to
Nominal group technique is a process in which a accommodate groups of 5-9 members).
group of people become a group in name only.
This technique aims to eliminate social and  Catering
psychological dynamics of group behaviour which  Staffing
can inhibit individual creativity and participation in  Moderator/facilitator
group decisions. Everyone is given a structured
opportunity to participate. Nominal group  Experts
technique is a way of organising a meeting to  Recorders
enhance its productivity. Its purpose is to balance
 Gophers
and increase participation, to use different
processes for different phases of creative problem  Artists
solving and to reduce the errors in aggregating  Photographer
individual judgments into group decisions. It is
especially useful for problem identification,  Other
problem solving and program planning.  Audio and visual recording and amplification
Objectives:  Overhead projectors
Nominal group technique aims to increase  Data projectors

participation in problem identification, problem  Video
solving and program planning, and to make sure
 Slide projector
that participants represent a balance of the range
of opinions available within a community or group.  Projection screen
 A flip chart or newsprint for each group.
Outcomes:
Nominal group technique facilitates creative  Roll of masking tape.
problem solving and delivers group decisions that  Pack of 3 × 5 cards for each table.
incorporate individual judgments with greater  Felt pens for each table.
accuracy.
 Paper and pencil for each participants.
Uses/strengths:  Response sheets
 Highly effective workshop activity.
Can be used for:
 Ensures input from all participants.
 Elicits a wide range of responses.
 Useful for determining democratically derived
outcomes.  Develop action plan
 Useful for fact-finding, idea generation, or  Communicate an issue

solutions.  Build alliances, consensus
Special considerations/weaknesses: Number of people required to help organise:
 Good facilitators are required.  Large (> 12 people)
 Rules need to be clear at outset.  Medium (2–12 people)
 The wording of questions must be
Audience size:
unambiguous and clear.
 Large (> 30)
 Not for routine business, bargaining,
predetermined outcome, or groups requiring  Medium (11–30)
consensus.
Time required:
 Can be difficult to convince people to use  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
nominal groups for the first time.
 Explanations help to overcome this resistance, Skill level/support required:
but a successful experience helps much more.  High (Specialist skills)

Cost:  Preliminary vote on priorities: silent,
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000) independent (10 minutes).
 Meeting break.
 Discussion of the preliminary vote (20–40
minutes).
Innovation level:  Final vote on priorities: silent
 High (Innovative) independent (10 minutes).
 Listing and agreement on prioritised
Method:
items.
1. Advertise group meeting of three to four
hours.
2. Select participants to ensure a mix of
interests/ community groups/social
levels/age/gender, etc.
3. Hire facilitator skilled in nominal group
meeting process. Success of the process
depends on thorough preparation by the
facilitator.
4. Leaders should clarify the questions to be

asked, considering what key information they
need. Pre-test the question before the
meeting. Remember, global questions
stimulate global answers. Emotional
information (likes/dislikes, etc.) must be asked
for directly.
5. For larger groups, organise into subgroups

(seven to nine people) on the same or
different topics, depending on the range of
issues.
6. The facilitator should follow the full step-by-
step process, which can include the silent
generation and balloting of ideas used
strategically in a wide variety of situations and
taking relatively little time (e.g. for quick
agenda setting).
7. Choose from the following steps, and follow
the process:
 Silent generation of ideas in writing (10–

20 minutes).
 Recorded round-robin listing of ideas on
chart (20–40 minutes).
 A very brief discussion and clarification of
each idea on the chart (20–40 minutes).

3.35. Open House (or Open  Builds credibility.
Days, Drop-In Centres) Special considerations/weaknesses:

 Attendance is difficult to predict at an open
Description:
house. Therefore, it is important to advertise
Open houses provide information, a forum for in a number of ways that target different
understanding people’s concerns and discussing sections of the community and select the
issues, as well as opportunities for follow up or location carefully.
feedback (see Displays and Exhibits). A relatively
informal event designed to allow people to drop in  It is possible to move the location of the open
and obtain information at their convenience. house on a regularly scheduled basis.
Usually, the open house includes display  Often, the concerns of a small number of
information and presentation material, people are well articulated at this forum.
complemented by printed handout materials and
 Lower attendance may mean that fewer
the presence of the sponsor’s staff to meet with people are informed. You need to use other
and answer people’s questions one-on-one. Brief methods to reach a wider audience.
presentations should also be made at regular
times to inform guests.  The low-key nature of an open house may also
restrict people from asking questions and
Objectives: participating in discussions.
An open house aims to provide one venue for  Public input can be difficult to document, and
people to visit where they can speak to staff or may only be reported as hearsay.
members of the organisation, and obtain a variety
 Protesters may use the opportunity to disrupt
of information about an institution, issue or
the event.
proposal.
 Usually more staff-intensive than a meeting.
Outcomes:
 May not provide the opportunity to be heard
Those who visit during an open house will be more that some of the public may expect.
familiar with the venue, will know more about the
operations and intention of the organisation or Resources required:
group that set up the open house, and may be  Publicity
more informed about an issue or proposal.
 Venue rental
Uses/strengths:  Catering
 Useful when a large number of potential  Staffing
stakeholders exist and the issue is of concern
to the wider community. Alternatively, it can  Moderator/facilitator
be used to target a particular group.
Can be used for:
 Frequently used as a lead-in to another  Showcase product, plan, policy
participation activity and achieves early
publicity for that activity.  Engage community
 Can also be used to provide feedback at the  Discover community issues
completion of a public participation exercise.  Communicate an issue
 Can fit people’s personal timetables.
 Where the issue is contentious, it provides a
relaxed forum where conflict is less likely to
occur.  Medium (2–12 people)
 Fosters small group and one-on-one Audience size:
discussions.
 Large (> 30)
 Allows other team members to be drawn on
to answer difficult questions. Time required:
 Meets information and interaction needs of  Long (> 6 months)
many members of the public who are not  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
attracted to typical public meetings.

Skill level/support required: available to answer questions and record
 Medium (Computer & other expertise) comments.
Cost: 5. The publicity of the open house is also

 High (>AUD$10,000) important to its success so advertising is
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000) necessary. The location, opening times and
 Low (< AUD$1,000) purpose of the open house should be
publicised in the media. The open house
should be left open as long as possible to
allow as many of the public to use the facility
as possible.
Innovation level:
Method:
1. The five steps to a successful open house are
as follows:
 Understand your objective and develop a

work plan
 Schedule a place and time
 Advertise
 Develop the display and supporting
materials
 Set up
2. Consider the target audience and your
objectives to decide whether an open house is
the most appropriate public participation tool
for the issue being discussed.
3. Some of the considerations in developing the

workplan include the cost of the display, how
to convey information on the display, how
much time it will take to design and produce
the display and how the display materials can
be transported from place to place.
4. The choice of a central and easily accessible
location is critical in the success of the open
house. Organisers should maintain a low-key
presence and make everyone feel welcome.
They should also consider the needs of the
particular audience (if there is a target group
for the open house). The opening times
should be flexible and change in response to
the preference of the public. Comment sheets
should be provided and staff should be

3.36. Open Space Technology Special considerations/weaknesses:
 Facilities should be flexible to accommodate
Description: variable group sizes.
A radical participatory approach developed by US  A powerful theme or vision statement is
management consultant Harrison Owen in the needed to generate topics.
1980s. Stated simply, open space technology
allows participants to offer topics for discussion  A large number of participants are involved in
and others to participate according to their the process (up to 500).
interest.  The most important issues can sometimes be
lost in the discussion.
The theory behind open space technology is that
people will take ownership of issues they wish to  It can sometimes be difficult to get accurate
address. records of results.
The open space technology operates on the Resources required:
following four principles:
 Venue with room for a large gathering space,
1. Whoever comes are the right people. plus up to 10 smaller breakout spaces, which
offers shelter in case of rain, heat, etc.
2. Whatever happens is the only thing that could
 Facilitator trained in open space technology
have. techniques.
3. Whenever it starts is the right time.  Publicity (which for a large gathering may
25 include a website on which topics or themes
4. When it’s over, it’s over.
can be predetermined).
Objectives:  Website or other means to disseminate
outcomes or issues papers.
Open space technology aims to provide an event
which is relevant, timely and participatory. Its Can be used for:
relevance is determined by the participants, who
determine the agenda, the length of the event,  Discover community issues
and the outcomes.  Develop community capacity
Outcomes:  Communicate an issue
The open space technology event puts people of Number of people required to help organise:
like interests in touch with one another, allows  Medium (2–12 people)
people to exchange views and to understand a
wider range of viewpoints, and provides a sense of Audience size:
empowerment to shape the world towards the  Large (> 30)
kind of future the participants might desire.
Time required:
Uses/strengths:
 Appropriate for use where there is a need for
new ideas and the prevailing climate is Skill level/support required:
characterised by uncertainty, ambiguity and a
low level of trust.
 Because there is a limited set of rules, the
process is driven by the participants. Cost:
 Absence of ‘control’ of the process means  Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
participants must be prepared to go where
the process takes them. Participation level:
 Includes immediate summary and discussion.  Low (Information only)
 Provides a structure by giving participants Innovation level:
opportunities and responsibilities to create a
valuable product or an experience.

Method: and ensure widespread dissemination to all
1. Determine whether the open space those who took part, and all those likely to
technology process is the most appropriate make a decision.
technique for your situation, considering the
people who are likely to take part and their
preferences and attitudes, and the venues
available to you.
2. Select venue, facilitators and prepare
information (open space technology can be
successfully used in conjunction with other
techniques such as conferences and
workshops).
3. Publicise the event.
4. Describe process and rules to the participants,
as outlined below:
 Principles: Whoever comes are the right

people: Whatever happens is the only
thing that could have: Whenever it starts
is the right time: When it’s over, it’s over.
 Law of two feet: people are honour
bound to walk away from proceedings
and sessions which they believe are
irrelevant.
 Follow due process.
5. One by one, each person who wishes to, steps
into the centre of the circle and announces
their name and topics they feel passionate
enough about to be willing to lead a break-out
session on that topic.
6. Each passionate person writes the topic on a
piece of paper along with time and venue for
a discussion.
7. Following announcements of topics by
passionate people, the market place becomes
open. The marketplace is a wall where all the
topics, times and venues are posted to allow
participants to decide which session to sign up
to.
8. Those who announced the topics facilitate the
individual discussions and appoint people to
record minutes on provided computers.
9. Reconvene into the larger group and report

back, or combine reports into one document

3.37. Participant Observation Special considerations/weaknesses:
 This method is limited, and needs to be used
Description: in conjunction with other methods for
Participant observation is a method of collecting collecting information (e.g. surveys, public
information about the operation of, and attitudes meetings, and/or displays and exhibits).
existing in, a community through a researcher  Depends on the ability of the researcher/
living in the area for an extended period.26 consultant to correctly observe and draw
The participant observer becomes known within appropriate conclusions.
the community, and gets to know the community  Can create concern in the community.
in a more intimate and detailed way than
 Not recommended for use in isolation but in
someone who simply comes to do a survey and
conjunction with other tools and techniques,
then departs. The participant observer
to offset any bias or inaccuracy in the
consequently is given much more detailed
observer’s conclusions.
information, and may identify specific issues and
assist groups to address these by developing  Applicable to a wide variety of issues.
mutually agreed principles and practices.  Particularly useful as a technique where the
issue is contentious or controversial.
Objectives:
A participant observer is placed in a community  Takes a long time.
with the aim of collecting more detailed Resources required:
information about a community’s habits, opinions
and issues and with a view to developing planning  Staff
and policies that better incorporate the  Publicity
community’s needs and wishes.
 Accommodation
Outcomes:  Observation locations (may include a location
Information about a community collected by a for a storefront drop-in centre)
participant observer can ensure that planning and  Record-keeping facilities (computers,
decision making incorporate community needs notebooks)
and opinions, and will therefore be more
 Venues and resources for public meetings (see
acceptable and more useful to the community.
Workshops)
Uses/strengths:
Can be used for:
 Can develop greater understanding of
sensitive situations.
 Can be used before developing a consultation
program in cases where the nature of  Discover community issues
community issues is not known to agencies.  Develop community capacity
 Can be used for scoping information and  Develop action plan
determining key players when the issue is
contentious or controversial.  Communicate an issue
 Can assist in the development of a more Number of people required to help organise:
thoughtful consultation program because  Medium (2–12 people)
participant observation is usually conducted
incognito. Can allow the development of  Individual
consultation processes that suit the subject
Audience size:
community.
 Large (> 30)
Time required:
26 Sarkissian, W, Perlgut, D & Ballard, E (eds.) (1986)  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
participation handbook: resources for public involvement Skill level/support required:
in the planning process, Impacts Press, Roseville, NSW  High (Specialist skills)

Cost:
 High (> AUD$10,000)
Innovation level:
Method:
1. Researcher lives in or regularly visits the site/
suburb/organisation.
2. Observations are made by the researcher
regarding opinions or reactions to particular
issues.
3. Researchers should state their intentions
openly, and integrate themselves into the
community.
4. The conclusions drawn by the researcher
depend largely on the researcher’s abilities,
and should be seen within this context.
5. Generally, participant observation should be
combined with actual participation techniques
to be of any value.

3.38. Photovoice  If photos are pasted onto a larger poster type
presentation, can be difficult to store and
Description: protect (may need photocopies taken for
Photovoice is a process of collecting information storage/distribution).
and expressing issues and concerns through
Resources required:
photos. Photovoice has three main goals:
 Disposable cameras
 To enable people to record and reflect their
 Publicity
community’s strengths and concerns.
 Venue rental
 To promote critical dialogue and knowledge
about personal and community issues through  Catering
large and small group discussions of  Staffing
photographs.
 To reach policy makers.
 Expert
Photovoice is highly flexible and can be adapted to
specific participatory goals (such as needs  Recorders
assessment, asset mapping, and evaluation),  Gophers and others
different groups and communities, and distinct
 Audio and visual recording and amplification
policy and community issues.
Objectives:
 Data projectors
Photovoice aims to add a visual element to
 Video
participatory processes, and can assist in engaging
the community in planning and policy issues.  Slide projector
Outcomes:
Photovoice provides tangible evidence of the  Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins,
visual aspects of an issue or proposal (e.g. before etc.)
and after photographs of an eroded beach) and  Furniture
provides a visual record of the suggestions and  Children’s requirements
decisions.
Can be used for:
Uses/strengths:
 Provides pictorial evidence of community
issues (a picture being worth a thousand  Discover community issues
words).  Develop community capacity
 Provides an alternative means of expression  Develop action plan
which may help include those who are more
visual than literate.
 Allows detailed information to be collected
from individual participants. Number of people required to help organise:
 Provides a snapshot of an area or issue from  Medium (2–12 people)
which to develop indicators and to gauge
 Individual
changes/responses.
 Can easily be used in the media (print/ Audience size:
television/interactive audiovisual  Large (> 30)
technologies).
Time required:
 Can be costly (e.g. photo printing costs).
 Requires staffing and the coordination of
participants.  High (Specialist skills)

Cost:
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
Innovation level:
Method:
The stages of photovoice include:
1. Conceptualising the problem.
2. Defining broader goals and objectives.
3. Recruiting policy makers as the audience for
photovoice findings.
4. Training the trainers.
5. Conducting photovoice training (for
participants).
6. Devising the initial theme(s) for taking
pictures.
7. Taking pictures.
8. Facilitating group discussion.
9. Critical reflection and dialogue.
10. Selecting photographs for discussion.
11. Contextualising and storytelling.
12. Codifying issues, themes, and theories.
13. Documenting the stories.
14. Conducting the formative evaluation.
15. Reaching policy makers, donors, media,

researchers and others.
16. Conducting participatory evaluation of policy

and program implementation.

3.39. Planning4real  Specific projects are identified and
implementation is set in motion.
Description:  Has advantages for those who are more
Planning4real offers local people a ‘voice’ to bring visual/ tactile in their approach.
about an improvement to their own
 Can help bridge language barriers in mixed
neighbourhood or community.27 Local people language areas.
begin by constructing a three-dimensional model
of their neighbourhood or catchment area. From Special considerations/weaknesses:
this, they construct their vision of their ideal
 Requires commitment from decision makers
neighbourhood or catchment by placing
to follow through on suggestions.
suggestions cards on a three-dimensional model,
then sorting and prioritising the suggestions. The  Needs commitment from participants to stay
model of the neighbourhood or catchment is for two-and-a-half hours to participate in the
made so that it can be moved from venue to whole process.
venue, allowing more people to participate. Used  Can be expensive to develop a three-
since the late 1970s in Britain, this planning tool is dimensional model.
now used throughout the world. Participants are
 If building a model with volunteers and found
largely intended to be from the target community,
materials, can take three months to collect
with government officials, local councillors, and
materials and create the model in easily
professionals present to answer questions, when
movable sections.
requested.
 Can take two to three months for follow up
Objectives: and feedback.
Planning4real aims to increase community
involvement and knowledge of proposed changes Resources required:
or planning issues through allowing them to place  Publicity
their suggestions and concerns directly on to a  Workshop location must be large enough to
three-dimensional model; this also increases the accommodate the model (common
chance that planning and decision making will be community spaces are preferred)
made with a fuller knowledge and understanding
of community issues and needs.  Catering
 Staffing
Outcomes:
Planning4real delivers a design or plan that
incorporates community needs and issues, and  Experts
that will therefore be more acceptable and useful  Recorders
to the community, and will give the community a
 Gophers
sense of ownership of the plan that may
incorporate elements of community monitoring  Artists
and maintenance.  Photographer
Uses/strengths:  Modelling equipment: Sheets of polystyrene
 Provides a three-dimensional model that may are suggested as the model base, glued to
help people better envisage the changes cardboard or other hardboard for stability
suggested for the neighbourhood.  Props for working in groups (markers, pins,
 Offers a hands-on approach that allows tape, glue and access to photocopying
participants to visualise the preferred future facilities for duplication)
for an area.  Tables/chairs
 Particularly effective in mobilising community  Children’s requirements.
support and interest.
Can be used for:
27Neighbourhood Initiatives Foundation (1995) A  Engage community
practical handbook for ‘planning for real’ consultation
exercise, Neighbourhood Initiatives Foundation, Telford,  Discover community issues
UK

 Develop community capacity 5. Hold public meetings where cut-outs are
 Develop action plan placed on the model as a way to identify
 Communicate an issue issues of concern to the community.
Number of people required to help organise: 6. Form small, ad hoc ‘working parties’ around
 Large (> 12 people) these issues (e.g. traffic, shopping facilities,
 Medium (2–12 people) play areas, work opportunities, coastal zone
management and planning). These working
Audience size:
parties then meet to work out details and to
Large (> 30)
negotiate between conflicting interests and
Time required: priorities, using a ‘now, soon, later’ chart as a
 Long (> 6 months) guide.
Skill level/support required: 7. Plan a series of activities to develop a
 High (Specialist skills) momentum that continues into specific
Cost: practical proposals. Sufficient time is needed
 High (> AUD$10,000) for an effective exercise. Three months is

suggested for the initial stage of mobilisation,
setting up a steering group, building the
model and publicising the sessions.
Innovation level: 8. Circulate steps taken in local newsletter
 High (Innovative) and/or media.
Method:
1. Hire a knowledgeable moderator to start the
process, although a community member with
some background in community development
could readily pick up the key concepts through
the ‘kit’ which is sold by the Neighbourhood
Initiatives Foundation.
2. Assemble the three-dimensional model of the

neighbourhood from lightweight material and
in easily transportable sections (ask
volunteers, a local club, students, or others as
a way to involve key people). The model is
usually best at a scale of 1:200 or 1:300, which
allows people to identify their own home.
3. Use the model to publicise public meetings, by
taking it around shopping centres and
community meeting points for about two
weeks to generate interest and begin the
process of identifying problems and
opportunities.
4. Begin training sessions with a few local
residents to familiarise them with the process.

3.40. Poster Competitions  Generates ideas.
 Excellent for children’s participation.
Description:
 Can encourage people to seek more
Poster competitions raise awareness of issues and information.
participation programs (e.g. a poster competition
about caring for our catchment or water quality or Special considerations/weaknesses:
water conservation will elicit ideas that generate
 May need descriptions to explain the concept
discussion and can lead to planning to incorporate
portrayed on the posters.
these ideas). Posters provide visual, colourful,
simple ways to communicate community issues  Where posters are developed by school
and events, and are suitable for display in children or members of the public, may not
community spaces. Poster competitions that cover all aspects of an issue/process/project
display children’s work can reflect the attitudes of (may need some knowledgeable staff to
much of the community as children between accompany a display of the works to answer
certain ages tend to reflect their parents’ ideas. questions).
Poster competitions can generate publicity and  May need continual staffing to watch display
provide information (see Interactive Displays). to avoid vandalism and explain the display
(see above).
Objectives:
 Competitions can cause ill will if the judging is
Poster competitions aim to engage the
considered to be unfair.
community’s interest in an issue, reveal
community issues, and raise awareness of an issue Resources required:
in a way that is visual, inclusive, and fun.
 Staffing
Outcomes:  Publicity
Poster competitions provide a visual display of  Judges/prizes
current states of community knowledge of an
issue, community expectations and visions, and  Venue for display
provide an opportunity to answer questions about
Can be used for:
that issue.
 Provides basic information about a process,
project or document in a fast, concise and
clear way.  Communicate an issue
 Can allow easy updates on an issue/process/ Number of people required to help organise:
project.
 Can create publicity for an issue/event.
Audience size:
 If the poster competition is displayed in public
spaces, they can provide easy ways for people  Large (> 30)
to get information.
Time required:
 Provides easier ways to absorb information  Long (> 6 months)
for those more comfortable with pictures than
words (and those from other cultures who  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
speak languages other than the dominant
language).
 Can be humorous, interesting, colourful and
may include cartoons and diagrams.  Medium (Computer & other expertise)
 Provides an informal gauge of community Cost:
attitudes to issues.
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
 Creates interesting graphic material for the
project. Participation level:
 Can lead to greater participation.  Medium (Opinions noted)

Innovation level:
Method:
1. Determine issues/aspect for poster
competition and the community groups to be
asked to participate. Encourage participation
from all ages and community groups.
2. Set timeframe for poster competition (one

month), size of posters, media, due date and
where they are to be delivered. Specify how
many words for any captions/explanations.
3. Advertise competition, with details of where,

when and how to deliver the posters, and how
they will be judged, and where the finalists
will be displayed.
4. Select an appropriate local personality/
politician to announce the winners.
5. Sort posters and determine which are suitable

for display. Advise contributors whose posters
have been selected for display and where they
can be seen.
6. Invite the media to the judging, and announce
winners.
7. Provide options for visitors to the poster
display to make comments/provide feedback.
8. Prepare a report on the issues raised in the

posters and the feedback, and forward this to
relevant authorities.

3.41. Printed Information  There is no guarantee that the materials will
be read.
Description:  If mailed, the guarantee of being read is only
Printed material is still one of the easiest ways to as good as the mailing list itself; mailing lists
publicise and provide information on a need regular updating to avoid wasted time,
project/issue, or publicise a participation process energy and paper.
such as an event or meeting. Popular forms  Appearance of the material should be visually
include: fact sheets, flyers, newsletters, brochures, interesting but should avoid a ‘sales’ look .
issues papers, reports, surveys etc. These can be
single purpose or be produced as a series for  Can be lost if included with many other flyers
distribution (e.g. newsletters). Printed material can and bill stuffers (consider using coloured
be distributed hand to hand, made available for paper and bold headlines if mailing as a bill
the public to pick up, or mailed out either directly stuffer, to ensure this is not just binned
to a select mailing list, or included as ‘bill stuffers’ without reading).
with regular mail-outs such as utility bills, rates  Without visual elements, this can exclude
notice or other regularly posted bills. those who are not print literate.
Printed information aims to provide easily scanned  Staff or volunteers with expertise in writing,
details, in words and drawings, to inform a editing and layout
community about an issue or proposal. Printed
 Paper
information can be easily handed out and carried
away.  Printing
 Postage
Outcomes:
Printed material, whether handed out, dropped Can be used for:
into letterboxes, distributed by mail, or mailed out  Showcase product, plan, policy
with other material, is one of the easiest and most
familiar methods for increasing awareness of an  Communicate an issue
issue and/or soliciting responses to an issue or
proposal.
Uses/strengths:  Medium (2–12 people)
 Printed public information materials can
combine the needs of publicity with Audience size:
information and allow for minor public input.  Large (> 30)
 They can reach a large amount of people
Time required:
through mailing or via the availability of the
information to the public.  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
 If comment sheets or questionnaires are Skill level/support required:
included the material can allow for limited
public input to a project.
 Can facilitate the documentation of the public Cost:
participation process.  High (> AUD$10,000)
 Can be a low-cost means of publicity.  Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
 Can be economically distributed by doubling
up with existing mail-out lists.
Innovation level:
 The problem with most printed materials is
the limited space available to communicate  Low (Traditional)
complicated concepts.
 Needs time to decide on text, visuals,
proofread, print and fold.

Method: read. Deliver/arrange for printer to deliver to
1. Available budget, and the use of other agency/department who will stuff and
publicity methods and tools for distributing distribute.
project information, will determine just what
type of printed material will best suit your
need.
2. Plan your messages well. Provide regular

updates, but do not bombard people with
information.
3. Develop the material with the following

considerations in mind
 Make it eye catching (colour, photos,

cartoons)
 Make it simple and easy to understand
 Provide points of contact, such as the
name of a central information contact or
details of the participation program
 Avoid a ‘sales’ look
 Do not overload with information.
4. Limited public input can be sought through
printed public information materials by the
inclusion of surveys and questionnaires or
comment/response sheets.
5. Enclosing a stamped, addressed envelope (or

email address/website) with mail-outs will
improve the return of comments for posted
materials.
6. The material should be easily available to the
public and be accessible from a number of
locations.
7. It is critical that the information outlines the

public’s role in the participation process or
opportunities for participation.
8. Keep mailing lists up to date and check for
duplication to save money, time and paper.
9. If distributing as a bill stuffer, speak to
agency/ department which distributes bills
and find out when they need the material in
order to go out in the appropriate mail-out,
and in what format. Check what else is being
distributed with bills, and decide whether
your flyer will have a good chance of being

3.42. Prioritisation Matrix Resources required:
 Publicity
Description:
 Venue rental
A prioritisation matrix is a technique used to
achieve consensus within a specific group of  Catering
participants about an issue. The matrix helps rank  Staffing
problems or issues (usually generated through  Moderator/facilitator
brainstorming or other techniques) by a particular
criterion that is important to the project, as  Experts
defined by the participants. This allows  Recorders
participants to clearly see which issues are the
 Gophers
most important to work on solving first.
Prioritisation matrices are used to determine what  Artists/photographer
participants consider to be the most pressing  Audiovisual recording equipment and
issues.28 amplification
A prioritisation matrix can use whatever resources  Overhead projectors
are available to create a table of issues and boxes
 Data projectors
for participants to cast their ‘votes’. Tools can
include whiteboards, computer databases, or  Video
twigs and stones in a field trip setting. The  Slide projector/screen
important thing is to list all the issues, to
determine the frequency with which problems  Printed public information sheets
arise in relation to an issue, the importance the  Response sheets
people give to this, and to count the votes to  Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins,
determine what is seen by the majority of people etc.)
as a priority.
 Furniture
Objectives:  Children’s requirements
 A prioritisation matrix produces a community
view of the priorities in relation to a Can be used for:
community issue or proposal.  Engage community
Outcomes:  Discover community issues

 A prioritisation matrix provides a measurable  Develop community capacity
basis for determining the important issues for  Develop action plan
a community (e.g. what priority they give to
foreshore revegetation and/or continuing
beachfront development). Number of people required to help organise:
Uses/strengths:  Medium (2–12 people)
 Can assist in defining the most important  Individual
issues in participation projects with many
issues. Audience size:
 Large (> 30)
 Provides a democratic and transparent device
for determining priorities.  Medium (11–30)
 Can provide a focus for action. Time required:
Special considerations/weaknesses:  Short (< 6 weeks)
 Setting up criteria can be problematic, if the Skill level/support required:
brainstorming process raises a large number
of issues.  Low (No special skills)
 Some issues may not be considered because Cost:

they are not raised by participants.  Low (< AUD$1,000)
28 http://erc.msh.org/quality [accessed 15/10/2014]

 Innovation level:
Method:
1. Conduct a brainstorming session on issues
that participants wish to explore in relation to
a proposal, plan or community service (See
the Brainstorming tool to learn how to
conduct group brainstorming).
2. Fill out the prioritisation matrix chart with the
group:
issue/frequency/importance/feasibility/ total
points
3. In the first column, write down the issues that

were mentioned in the brainstorming session.
4. In the second to fourth columns, define your
criteria. Examples of some typical criteria are:
 Frequency: how frequently does/will this

issue affect the participants? Does it
occur often or only on rare occasions?
 Importance: from the point of view of the
users, what are the most important issue?
Add the issues that the organising agency
or group wants to address?
 Feasibility: how realistic is it that you can
find a way to address this issue? Will it be
easy or difficult?
You can choose other criteria if they
better fit the situation you are discussing
(e.g. cost, environmental impact [high to
low], number of affected persons can act
as criteria). For a more quantitative
comparison, you could use cost, amount
of time, or other numerical indicators. It is
also possible to use number values for
each criterion and provide a rank out of
10 for each criterion. Collating total
numbers for all criteria against issue can
indicate the issues of highest priority
5. Rank/Vote: Each participant now votes once
in each of the boxes. Total all the votes
together. The totals help you see clearly how
to identify the priorities.29
29 ibid

3.43. Public Conversation project that will allow the plan to be improved or
modified to take these into account. They can also
Description: reveal the thinking behind polarised viewpoints,
Public conversation and/or individual discussion which provides the possibility for people to work
are informal consultations that allow you to talk to together in a consultative process who might
participants in a direct and personal manner. otherwise be disruptive or distract the focus from
Informal consultation techniques such as these the desired outcome.
support more formal consultation techniques by Uses/strengths:
identifying key issues, attitudes, skills and
knowledge. The personal level of discussion of  Can help identify individuals and groups who
these tools is generally not possible under more should be consulted as well as how they
formal consultation approaches and a greater should be notified or invited.
appreciation of project issues can emerge as a  Can help gather information and understand
consequence. Such informal discussions allow a people’s viewpoints prior to formalised
free-ranging discussion around the issues which programs.
may reveal issues or attitudes that would not  Maintains and establishes good community
come to light through more structured surveys relations.
which may begin with a preconceived notion of
who and what is relevant to the issue.  Directly involves individuals.
As well, public conversations can be facilitated  Offers insight into issues prior to the
with a view to reducing polarisation on development of a consultation program, or
contentious issues. Such conversations have been may suggest alternative approaches.
categorised: Talking with the enemy (Boston
Sunday Globe, 28 January 2001) where this
technique was used to encourage those who  Can be costly.
supported abortion, and those opposed, to begin a  Can be time consuming.
dialogue with the intention of preventing further
 Time and cost constraints can limit the
violence after the killing of doctors in the US. number of participants.
Environmental issues can also generate fiercely
opposed factions which undertake violent, or  Discussions may be difficult to incorporate
potentially violent, actions like driving spikes into into participation findings.
trees that are to be cleared. Through engaging the  Opinions may not be representative.
opposing factions in a series of ongoing informal
discussions with professional facilitation, some Resources required:
understanding of one another’s viewpoints can be  Facilitator
established, and this can assist a more formal
 Staff
process of consultation by focusing attention on
the issues rather than the actions or assumed  Volunteers
misdemeanours of the ‘other side’.  Unobtrusive recording mechanisms
Public conversations may involve lay and (audiotape, notebook, computers)
professional speakers.
Can be used for:
Objectives:  Engage community
To identify issues that are of relevance to  Discover community issues
community groups or members who are affected
by or interested in an issue. This may include
revealing the reasoning behind groups or  Build alliances, consensus
individuals taking very polarised positions, with a
view to finding ways for those who are polarised in Number of people required to help organise:
this way to hear one another’s viewpoints and be  Medium (2–12 people)
able to work together.  Individual
Outcomes: Audience size:
Public conversations will reveal unknown issues  Large (> 30)
and aspects of community views on a plan or
 Medium (11–30)

Time required: 6. If such a discussion is part of a decision-
 Medium (6 weeks – 6 months) making process, describe the final
recommendations and reasons that come
from the public discussion.
Cost:
 High (> AUD$10,000)
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
Innovation level:
Method:
Individual discussions
1. Approach people who are potential
stakeholders in the following ways:
 On the telephone
 On the street
 At places of work
 In public places
2. Identify yourself and ask if the person is
interested in discussing the issue.
3. Arrange venue, times.
4. Allow the participant flexibility in steering the

discussion to areas of their interest
5. Take notes (or tape/type notes).
6. Use findings to modify a participation program
and/or target specific stakeholder groups.
Group public conversations
1. Identify the issue or issues to be discussed.
2. Advertise public meeting time and issue.
3. Hire a facilitator who can bring a non-
adversarial approach to the discussion.
4. Record discussion points.
5. Write up and distribute a report of the
discussions, acknowledging the differing
viewpoints and highlighting areas of overlap
and difference.

3.44. Public Involvement  Act as a volunteer speakers’ bureau.
Volunteers  Stretch a limited budget.

 Having public involvement volunteers can
Description: also:
Public involvement volunteers are people from the  Expand possibilities for community
community who are temporarily enlisted to assist participation. More volunteers offer more
in developing and implementing a public choices for meeting community groups at
involvement program. These volunteers can take a place of their choosing, which increases
on various roles according to the nature of the the number of participants in a planning
participation program (e.g. they might show process.
people around a facility or site, hand out or
letterbox drop information brochures, engage  Help the organisation understand
passers-by in a survey, answer telephone queries community viewpoints.
or undertake a telephone survey).  Help the community understand the issue
Public involvement volunteers would normally and/or process.
have an interest in the issue or the community,  Add vigour to the public involvement
and be willing to assist. Such volunteers will process.
extend the staffing for an event or outreach  Help assemble a community perspective
without a great deal of additional cost. For on a project or program.
example, if dunes are being stripped of vegetation
and eroded, a public awareness campaign may be  Add a level of person-to-person
needed to enlist community involvement in communication.
planning and acting to revegetate and protect the  Bridge communication gaps.
foreshores. The volunteers need to be clear about
 Offer an advantage in eliciting concerns
the purpose of the event or process, and to be
and issues.
well briefed at the outset and kept up to date so
that they can undertake their work effectively.  Help identify people for leadership
positions.30
Objectives:
The purpose for the organising committee or Special considerations/weaknesses:
group may be to expand the available people to  The organising agency or group has less
staff an event or activity without increasing the control over unpaid volunteers.
budget. However, the volunteers may find that  These techniques do not substitute for
participating increases their skills and knowledge, professional staff involvement.
and therefore there can be a gain for all parties
 Volunteer loses credibility and standing in the
Outcomes: community if things go awry.
Outreach can be extended further and more work  Must allow some training time and costs.31
undertaken in a campaign or project; as noted
above, the volunteers can also become more Resources required:
skilled and informed as a result of participating.  Staff
Uses/strengths:  Telephones
 Public involvement volunteers can help a  Computers/printing
group or agency that is undertaking a public  Trainers in the skills or knowledge needed by
information campaign or a public consultation volunteers.
process. For example, public involvement
volunteers may be enlisted to do the Can be used for:
following:  Showcase product, plan, policy
 Handle general administration (fold,  Communicate an issue
staple, telephone, file)
 Staff open days or open house. 30Department of Transportation (1997) Public
involvement and techniques for transportation decision-
 Distribute material door-to-door or at making, US Department of Transportation, Washington
meetings. 31 ibid

Number of people required to help organise: may include: public speaking practice and
 Medium (2–12 people) feedback, meeting facilitation, media liaison,
writing reports, entering data.
Audience size:
 Large (> 30) 4. Appoint a coordinator for volunteers. This
person will be responsible for liaising with
Time required:
volunteers to ensure they are clear what is
expected of them, when and where. This
Skill level/support required: person would be the central information point
 High (Specialist skills) for further queries, or for letting organisers
Cost: know if a volunteer cannot do what they have
 Low (< AUD$1,000) undertaken to do.
Participation level: 5. Provide a budget for volunteer work which

 Low (Information only) includes costs of background briefing papers,
handouts, transport, accommodation, phone
Innovation level:
calls made from home, and other out-of-
pocket costs incurred by volunteers.
Method:
1. Plan to recruit and train volunteers before you
need them. These may be members of
partnership agencies, consultants,
researchers, agency board members, local
government members, or community
residents.
2. Plan what you can achieve with the number of
volunteers available. Match your volunteers’
capacities to the task they will be given. For
example, those who are confident public
speakers could be sent to speak to public
meetings or local government
representatives. Those with secretarial skills
could be allocated to typing information
sheets and/or creating databases to record
feedback and information received. Those
with media skills could work on developing
promotional materials. In an open house
situation, volunteers can be shown the facility
or site and key issues explained so that they
can effectively usher community groups
around the site.
3. Organise training for your volunteers, which

should be simple and should continue
throughout the campaign or event, as new
information or issues are discovered. Training

3.45. Public Meeting  Disseminates detailed information and
decisions throughout the community.
Description:  Provides opportunities for exploring
A meeting is a coming together of people for a alternative strategies and building consensus.
specific purpose. The meeting can involve a large
number of people, or a smaller (under 10) number Special considerations/weaknesses:
of people who focus on a specific problem or  Unless well facilitated, those perceived as
purpose. Meetings generally have a facilitator who having power within the community, or those
encourages two-way communication, and a who are most articulate and domineering in
recorder who records suggestions and issues that their verbal style can dominate the meeting.
are revealed at the meeting.
 Participants may not come from a broad
Public meetings provide a good focal point for enough range to represent the entire
media interest in an event, and photos can provide community.
a visual indicator or levels of interest and the  Organisers must be aware of potential
range of people who attended. Public meetings conflicts.
are often the springboard for a movement or for
the establishment of a common-interest group  Community members may not be willing to
which will continue to act on the issues raised and work together.
suggestions made.  May not achieve consensus.
Public meetings are familiar, established ways for  Can be time and labour intensive.
people to come together to express their opinions,
hear a public speaker, or plan a strategy. They can Resources required:
build a feeling of community and attendance levels  Venue rental
provide an indicator of the level of interest within  Catering
a community on a particular issue.
 Staffing
Smaller focus group meetings can be made up of
people with common concerns who may not feel
confident speaking up in a larger public gathering  Overhead projectors
(e.g. women, those who speak English as a second  Data projectors
language, Indigenous groups). In a separate venue,
these people can speak comfortably together,  Video
share common issues and a common purpose. The  Slide projector
findings from focus group meetings can be
presented to larger group meetings, giving a
‘voice’ to those in the community who are unable  Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins,
to speak up in a larger meeting (See also Focus etc.)
Groups).  Children’s requirements
Objectives: Can be used for:
Public meetings are held to engage a wide  Showcase product, plan, policy
audience in information sharing and discussion.
Outcomes:
Public meetings increase awareness of an issue or
proposal, and can be a starting point for, or an  Medium (2–12 people)
ongoing means of engaging, further public Audience size:
involvement.
 Large (> 30)
Uses/strengths:
Time required:
 Allows the involvement and input of a wide
range of people  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
 Can develop consensus for action on complex  Short (< 6 weeks)

issues that affect the broad community. Skill level/support required:

Cost:  Advertise weekly in local media
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000) 5. Book a venue and arrange catering with
 Low (< AUD$1,000) flexibility as to numbers as attendance is
difficult to predict:
 Low (Information only)  Venue should be neutral territory
 Provide no alcohol
Innovation level:
 Low (Traditional)  Provide refreshments at the conclusion of
the meeting
Method: 6. Timing: Conduct the meeting at a time where
1. Establish why you need to consult the the largest number of participants can attend.
community. Do not hold a public meeting or
7. Inform participants of chairperson/facilitator/
consult unnecessarily – this wastes people’s
guest speakers.
time, and may create disinterest for the
future. 8. Determine the conduct of the meeting:
2. Consider the circumstances of the community  Work closely with the chair
and the issues.  General format is presentation followed
by question time
3. Schedule a series of meetings. A suggested
 Present agenda
series follows:
 Field questions
 Meeting 1:  Record comments
 Introduce project and key personnel
9. Considerations:
 Supply project information
 Widely advise the ways feedback from
 Allow the community to ask questions the community is being incorporated into
and identify issues of concern the project. Avoid allowing the meeting to
be taken over by a vocal community
 Provide contact points
members
 Identify groups with specific concerns for  Be prepared to change tack during the
targeted consultation meeting
 Meeting 2:  Cater for people with disabilities or from
 Break between meetings allows
non-English speaking backgrounds
participants to consider views and  Never lose your temper
concerns  Set up early32
 Reintroduce project
 Activate good listening skills
 Clarification and expansion of issues
 Meeting 3:
 Information and feedback on how issues
and concerns are being met
 Presentation at the conclusion of a

project or make recommendations for the
community’s consideration
 Discuss ongoing participation in the 32 Sarkissian, W, Perlgut, D & Ballard, E (eds.) (1986)
process ‘Community participation in practice’, The community
4. Publicise and advertise the meeting: in the planning process, Impacts Press, Roseville, NSW

3.46. Questionnaires and Special considerations/weaknesses:
 Generally only useful for qualitative data.
Responses
 Low response rates can bias the results. Can
Description: involve follow up telephone calls and letters
Questionnaires are the basic research tool used to to encourage returns.
collect information, and are usually developed and  Needs a return envelope/freepost address to
tested to ensure that they are easily understood encourage participation.
and will collect the information required.
Questionnaires ensure that exactly the same  Depends on a high degree of literacy.
questions are presented to each person surveyed,  Wording of questions needs to be
and this helps with the reliability of the results. unambiguous to avoid bias, and should be
Questionnaires can be delivered via face-to-face pre-tested on a sample audience to ensure
interviews, telephone interviews, self-complete that you receive the information you desire.
forms, mail-outs or online. Questionnaires can be
distributed by email as well as posted or faxed. Resources required:
Response sheets can be collected at a workshop,  Staff or volunteers
or can be picked up at a workshop and mailed  Access to expertise in developing
back. These can also be mailed out in ways that questionnaires
reduce postage costs, when they are included in
routine mail-outs such as the distribution of fact  Small trial group for trialling questionnaire
sheets or accounts. and ensuring that the data you collect is the
data you are seeking.
Objectives:
Can be used for:
Questionnaires and response sheets are a measure
of community opinion and/or issues at a certain  Engage community
time or in a certain area.  Discover community issues
Questionnaires and response sheets provide  Medium (2–12 people)
information on which to base decisions about
 Individual
planning and management of community and/or
natural resources. Audience size:
Uses/strengths:  Large (> 30)
Questionnaires offer the following advantages: Time required:
 Less personal than interviewing, their  Short (< 6 weeks)
anonymity can encourage more honest
answers. Skill level/support required:
 Works well to reach respondents who are  Low (No special skills)
widely scattered or live considerable distances
Cost:
away.
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
 Provides information from those unlikely to
attend meetings and workshops. Participation level:
 Permits expansion of the mail list.  Low (Information only)
 Can be used for statistical validation.
Innovation level:
 Allows results to be extrapolated by  Low (Traditional)
subgroups.
 Allows the respondent to fill out at a Method:
convenient time. 1. Draft questions. Keep as short as possible.
 More economical and less labour intensive 2. Trial questions with a small sample (pilot
than interviews and telephone surveys as they
group) to determine whether they are
provide larger samples for lower total costs.

unbiased, straightforward and not open to
misinterpretation.
3. Indicate the purpose of the questionnaire at

outset.
4. Include qualitative data (e.g. age, sex, address,

education etc.) to allow for further
extrapolation of the results.
5. Include any new names/addresses in the
mailing list.
6. Send out with printed information materials.
7. If the budget allows, provide free mail reply

(stamped addressed envelope; freepost
mailbox, etc.) to improve responses.
8. Document responses as part of the public

involvement process.

3.47. Role Plays  Can insult unless treated in a light-hearted
manner.
Description:  Participants often require encouragement to
An activity where participants take on designated take on another’s role.
roles and act out characters according to
 Requires clear direction that the role-playing
predetermined situations, followed by an is now over, and ensure that everyone knows
evaluation of the activity. People may choose from that they are now speaking for themselves
a range of set roles (e.g. local council environment alone, or confusion can ensue. Having badges
planner, environmentalist, surfrider, developer,
or costumes that are taken off at the end of
natural resource manager and Chamber of the role-play can help this process.
Commerce member). By getting people to take on
a role that may be unfamiliar to them, this process  Needs a skilled facilitator with experience of
enhances understanding of the issue from another role playing and debriefing.
perspective. However, role-playing requires skilled
Resources required:
facilitation, and everyone must be ‘debriefed’ and
clearly directed to step out of role and return to  Publicity
their own persona before leaving the exercise, or  Venue rental
confusion can ensue.
 Catering
Highly useful as an ice-breaker, to get people
 Staffing
talking and interacting with one another about the
issue, and also to gain some empathy for the  Moderator/facilitator
position of other stakeholders.  Recorders
Role playing can involve risks. A person must try to  Gophers
understand another’s point of view to the extent
 Other
that they can act in ways that are appropriate and
recognisable.  Audio and visual recording and amplification
Objectives:
 Response sheets
Role plays help people see other viewpoints, and
the range of different perspectives that may affect  Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins,
decisions and planning in relation to natural etc.)
resources. To develop team-building as people see  Furniture
how different roles are necessary in the total
natural resource management perspective.  Children’s requirements

Role plays provide greater awareness of other  Build alliances, consensus
people’s roles in a group, or in relation to an issue
or proposal, and the relevance or importance of
these roles.  Large (> 12 people)
Uses/strengths:
 Participants can take risk-free positions and Audience size:
view situations from other perspectives.  Large (> 30)
 Great as an ice-breaker.  Medium (11–30)
 Leads to greater understanding of issues.
Time required:
 Can be a fun activity that encourages team  Short (< 6 weeks)
building within the participation program.
 Good for scoping the extent of conflicts. Skill level/support required:
 People may have little appreciation of other’s Cost:
positions.  Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)

Participation level: 7. Follow up the activity with a debriefing
 Medium (Opinions noted) session that seeks to clarify the variety of
potential positions as a precurser to the actual
Innovation level:
participation process.
8. Make clear the point at which the role play is
Method:
over: allow people to say any last things ‘in
1. Determine all the agencies or individuals that
role’, then make it clear that when they return
are likely to influence a particular issue
to their own seat they return to being
(e.g. commercial organisations, government
themselves.
agencies, non-government organisations,
community ‘personalities’) and develop
badges, lists or costumes to develop a number
of roles to make for interesting interactions.
2. Assign roles. Generally, greatest success

occurs when people opposed to one another
take on each other’s roles, thus allowing them
to put themselves into the other person’s
position. This works best when there is some
visual indicator or the role being played (e.g. a
cap or badge).
3. Describe a scenario that introduces the issue

in a non-threatening way. This technique can
cause conflict when used for a contentious
issue, so ensure that trained facilitators are
available to defuse any confrontations and
address the conflict in more constructive
ways.
4. Treat the activity as a light-hearted exercise

and encourage participation by indicating the
lack of consequence from the activity.
5. The person playing the role may be advised by

someone with experience in the role they are
playing (e.g. a resident who is playing a
natural resource manager may be advised by
someone experienced in management in that
area). Role plays are then adlibbed, based on
the understanding of the activities/attitudes
of the person whose role they are taking.
6. Facilitate the role play to maximise
understanding of other’s positions. Hence, ask
participants why they take a position, or
express a certain opinion, while in role.

3.48. Samoan Circles Can be used for:
Description:
The Samoan circle is a leaderless meeting intended
to help negotiations in controversial issues. While  Build alliances, consensus
there is no ‘leader’, a professional facilitator can Number of people required to help organise:
welcome participants and explain the seating
arrangements, rules, timelines and the process. As  Medium (2–12 people)
with the Fishbowl process, the Samoan circle has
Audience size:
people seated in a circle within a circle, however
only those in the inner circle are allowed to speak.  Large (> 30)
The inner circle should represent all the different  Medium (11–30)
viewpoints present, and all others must remain
silent. The process offers others a chance to speak Time required:
only if they join the ‘inner circle’.  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
Objectives: Skill level/support required:
Samoan circles are similar to Fishbowls.  High (Specialist skills)
The aim to stimulate active participation by all
Cost:
parties interested in or affected by an issue, and
allows insights into different perspectives on an  Low (< AUD$1,000)
issue
Outcomes:  Low (Information only)
All present at a Samoan circle hear the range of
Innovation level:
opinions and ideas expressed, and are therefore
better informed on the issue, and the aspects of  Low (Traditional)
the issue that are under debate. Those who do not
Method:
speak nonetheless have the chance to hear
whether someone else expresses their views, and 1. Set room up with centre table surrounded by
the chance to speak out if someone in the ‘inner concentric circles of chairs.
circle’ steps out and allows them to take their
place. 2. Arrange roving microphones.
3. Select one or two representatives for each of

Uses/strengths:
 Works best with controversial issues. the views present to constitute the core of the
Samoan Circle.
 Can avoid severe polarisation.
 Allows a large number of people to be 4. Seat these people in a semicircle surrounded
involved in discussing a controversial issue. by two to four open chairs.
Special considerations/weaknesses: 5. Clarify that once the discussion begins, the

 Dialogues can stall or become monopolised. facilitator may withdraw and watch as a silent
 Observers may become frustrated with their observer or facilitate the discussion.
passive role.
6. Before the discussion begins, arrange for the
Resources required: facilitator to announce the rules and ask for
 Suitable venue to take central table with agreement from all:
concentric circles
 People in the larger group can listen, but
 Roving microphones there is no talking, booing, hissing or
 Staff clapping.
 Facilitators  Anyone from the larger group who wishes
 Recorders to join the conversation may do so by
coming forward at any time and taking

one of the ‘open chairs’ on either end of
the semicircle.
7. Indicate that the discussion may begin with a
brief statement from each representative and
then proceeds as a conversation.
Representatives discuss issues with each other
as the larger group listens.
8. Record viewpoints expressed and

commonalities identified, and agreements or
outcomes reached.

3.49. Scenario Testing Special considerations/weaknesses:
 Agreement may not be reached on what is the
Description: ‘right’ scenario to include (if the questions are
Scenarios are a way of developing alternative controversial).
futures based on different combinations of  Scenarios must be recognised as possibilities
assumptions, facts and trends, and area where only, not firm predictions.
more understanding is needed for your particular
scenario project. They are called ‘scenarios’ Resources required:
because they are like ‘scenes’ in the theatre – a  Publicity
series of differing views or presentations of the
same general topic. Once you see several  Venue rental
scenarios at the same time, you better understand  Catering
your options or possibilities.
 Staffing
Scenario testing is useful to:  Moderator/facilitator
 Identify general, broad, driving forces, which  Experts
are applicable to all scenarios
 Recorders
 Identify a variety of PLAUSIBLE trends within
 Gophers
each issue or trend (trends that vary
depending on your assumptions so you get  Artists
positive and negative perspectives)  Photographer and other audio and visual
 Combine the trends so you get a series of recording and amplification
scenarios (for example, mostly positive trends  Overhead projectors
identified in relation to an issue would give a
positive scenario).  Data projectors
Scenario testing’s greatest use is in developing an  Video

understanding of the situation, rather than trying  Slide projector
to predict the future.33  Projection screen
Objectives:  Printed public information materials
Scenario testing is a way to test alternative  Response sheets
(hypothetical) futures so as to make better choices
today.
etc.)
Outcomes:  Furniture
Generally, scenario testing would deliver three  Children’s requirements
scenarios: a positive (or optimistic), negative (or
pessimistic), and neutral (or middle of the road) Can be used for:
scenario. These allow a more realistic assessment  Showcase product, plan, policy
of future possibilities which does not assume
either the best or worst outcomes. The scenarios  Engage community
could also include an unlikely event but one that  Discover community issues
would have a large impact were it to occur.
Uses/strengths:  Develop action plan
 Avoids having to model complex situations.
 Allows you to alter combinations and play
‘what if’ games (e.g. change the assumption
and see what happens).  Medium (2–12 people)
 Provides understanding of events and possible Audience size:
combinations.
 Large (> 30)
33
Time required:
http://ag.arizona.edu/futures/tou/tut2-
buildscenarios.html [accessed 15/10/2014]  Short (< 6 weeks)

Skill level/support required: this study. Each scenario should be about one
 High (Specialist skills) page.
Cost:
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
Innovation level:
Method:
1. Invite participants who have knowledge of, or
are affected by, the proposal or issue of
interest.
2. Invite participants to identify the underlying

paradigms or unwritten laws of change, trends
or driving forces, and collect into general
categories (e.g. economy, socio-political and
wildcards or uncertainties).
3. Consider how these might affect a situation,

either singly or in combination, using these
steps:
 Review the big picture

 Review general approaches to future
studies
 Identify what you know and what you
don’t know
 Select possible paradigm shifts and use
them as an overall guide
 Cluster trends and see which driving
forces are most relevant to your scenario
4. Create alternative scenarios (similar to
alternate scenes in a play) by mixing wildcards
with trends and driving forces. Keep the
number of scenarios small (four is ideal
because it avoids the either/or choice of two,
and the good/bad/medium choice of three).
5. Write a brief report that states assumptions
and future framework; provides observations
and conclusions, gives a range of possibilities,
and focuses on the next steps coming out of

3.50. Search Conference  Achieves completion of a task in two or three
days (and sometimes evenings) that would
Description: take months if left to specialised analysts and
A search conference is a large-group task-oriented experts.
‘conversation’.34
Search conferences emphasise face-to-face  Focus is on learning, not teaching.
interaction among stakeholders to create a new
 Conflict and differences are acknowledged,
community. The process of meeting and discussion
but not dealt with.
engenders new ideas. The venue and seating plan
of the conference are designed to engender  Equal status of participants is supported.
conversation and good relationship building.  Personal commitment and ownership are
Search conferences have been used to help emphasised.
organisations to merge when they have differing  Self-managing teams are used.
visions and to bring together trade experts to
 Shared meaning is developed.
develop curricula based on their tradecraft and
skills. In a community setting, search conferences  Can be logistically challenging.
have allowed ‘ordinary’ citizens to use their local  Can be time consuming (two to three days).
knowledge in developing plans for economically
depressed regions. Resources required:
Search conferences are held over one or more full  Publicity
days, during which participants explore ambiguity  Venue rental
and difference in the interests of forwarding
research and action.  Catering
 Staffing
Objectives:
Search conferences seek future plans or visions
that are practical and can be implemented for an  Experts
organisation, community or environment.  Recorders
Outcomes:  Gophers
The search conference will identify specific actions  Artists/photographer
which must be taken. Empowering the people  Audiovisual recording equipment and
responsible to make these changes allows search amplification
conferences to produce much more useful results
than standard strategic planning methods.  Overhead projectors
 Data projectors
Uses/strengths:
 Video
 Develops creative and achievable strategies.
 Produces collaborative and participative
approaches.  Printed public information sheets
 Generates consensus.  Response sheets
 Develops shared values.  Props for working in groups (pens, paper, pins,
etc.)
 Develops commitment to strategies
formulated.  Furniture
 Combines formulation and implementation.  Children’s requirements
 Integrates cultural, regional and/or value Can be used for:

differences.  Engage community
34Emery, M & Purser ,R (1996) The search conference: a
powerful method for planned organizational change and
community action, Jossey-Bass Publisher, San Francisco

Number of people required to help organise: The Conference:
 Large (> 12 people) The search conference: (1 full day or more). The
 Medium (2–12 people) participants will share information, discuss issues,
and complete a series of small and large group
Audience size: tasks, which culminate in a strategic goal-setting
 Large (> 30) and action-planning session. These tasks should
encompass the following:
Time required:
1. Analyse the environment (background,
possible future, what is working/not working)
2. Analyse the ‘SYSTEM’ – what routines,
Skill level/support required: practices, restrictions, rules and structures
 High (Specialist skills) influence the present known community
 Medium (Computer & other expertise) issues, the community itself and its
Cost: environment.
 High (> AUD$10,000) 3. Plan how our system can best flourish, within
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000) our environment (this should develop realistic
Participation level: action plans engendered through new
 High (Stakeholders participate in decision) understandings).
Implementation:
Innovation level:
 High (Innovative) 1. Follow-up session(s): This is a time to
celebrate individual and group successes.
Method:
Evaluate the ultimate success of the
Search conferences have three broad stages: pre-
planning; the conference; and implementation. conference by how easily the action plans can
be implemented. Progress is assessed and
Pre-planning:
plans are modified as needed.
1. First planning session: (6-8 hours) Determine
whether a search conference will meet your 2. People are given roles and deadlines set.
needs. If it will, decide on the conference 3. The action plans are put into practice.
themes and purpose, arrange a venue and
draw up an invitation list.
2. Secure keynote speakers. Their presence

should break the ice and set the flavour of the
event, but not dominate it.
3. Second planning session: (3-4 hours) This
serves as a progress ‘check-in’ and a time to
redirect efforts if necessary. Questions are
answered and all conference plans are
finalised. It is best to hold this session with the
facilitator present, however, when travel costs
are a major concern it is possible to substitute
an extensive telephone conference call
between the planning group and the
facilitator.

3.51. Shopfront  Catering
 Staffing
Description:
 Facilitators
Shopfronts (or site offices) are attempts to
improve participation in programs by bringing a  Recorders
participatory venue into a heavily used public area,  Overhead projectors
such as a main street or shopping centre. They are
 Data projectors
designed to allow people to drop in at their
convenience and therefore display materials are  Video
usually provided along with project staff to answer  Slide projector
questions. They have a relaxed atmosphere and
can act as a semi-permanent meeting place /  Projection screen
kitchen table discussion forum so providing  Printed public information materials
refreshments is recommended. Shop fronts run for  Response sheets
the duration of a participation program. While
many of the objectives and outcomes of  Props for working in groups (pens,
shopfronts are similar to those of an open house,  paper, pins, etc.)
an open house is usually at an existing site or
 Furniture
establishment, whereas shopfronts can be set up
wherever they will attract the target audience.  Children’s requirements
This may be in the main street, in a shopping
centre, or in accommodation that is temporarily Can be used for:
rented for the occasion.  Showcase product, plan, policy
Objectives:
Shopfronts or site offices provide a temporary  Discover community issues
‘headquarters’ where people can come for  Communicate an issue
information or to see and talk to the people who
are knowledgeable about or planning about an Number of people required to help organise:
issue or project.  Large (> 12 people)
Outcomes:  Medium (2–12 people)

Shopfronts can produce a better informed Audience size:
community, and allow people to feel greater
 Large (> 30)
ownership of a process, organisation, or
community. Time required:
Uses/strengths:  Long (> 6 months)
 To access participants who are not generally  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
interested in formal participation programs.
 To improve public relations.
 For convenience.
Cost:
 To facilitate informal participation.
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
 To locate project stakeholders.
 Community members may not consider this a
legitimate avenue to have a say.  Low (Information only)
 The shopfronts can be easily targeted by Innovation level:
activists.  Medium (Some new elements)
Resources required:
Method:
 Publicity 1. Select a centralised venue that has a lot of
 Venue rental passer-by traffic. Usually owners of vacant

shops are very happy to lease over short
periods of time.
2. Select staff/volunteers with strong public

relations skills and knowledge of the project
and participatory processes (i.e. who will
encourage people to chat and discuss issues
and be aware of offering different feedback
options).
3. Provide display materials, printed public
information materials, technical reports,
maps, photographs etc. that will be provide all
sectors of the community with a means to
understand the issues or proposals.
4. Advertise the variety of opportunities for

public participation throughout the
participation program.
5. Provide a variety of opportunities for

feedback, including speaking person-to-
person, filling in feedback sheets and
contacting email/website addresses.
6. Provide adequate seating and consider visitors

comfort (e.g. drinks, toilets, childcare,
accessibility).
7. Staff should record visits to document
participation process and to note issues,
concerns and suggestions and report these to
the organisation/organisers.

3.52. Simulation (electronically Outcomes:
Electronic simulation gives a chance to ‘trial’ a
generated) change and its consequences prior to
Description: implementation of those changes, without
affecting the community or environment. Testing
Simulations attempt to display the outcomes of
the consequences allows modification of
particular choices through changing the inputs to a
suggested changes or innovations to produce a
computer model that simulates the likely
better outcome for the environment and
outcomes of a system with choices. Simulation can
community.
also be set up as games (e.g. the Quest Envision
programs that encourage community participation Uses/strengths:
through games where they make choices, and are
Gives better results, even with limitations, when
then given feedback on the consequences of those
you cannot make simple extrapolations or modify
choices).
trends or non-linear processes.
This participation method uses mathematical
Offers the option to change the conditions and see
relationships to explain a system (e.g. the
what would happen under a variety of
regulations to do with vegetation clearing and
assumptions. The latter are `what if’ options, and
proposed changes to legislation) and then when it
you learn a great deal about the subject and its
is understood, extrapolations into the future can
future possibilities by determining which changes
be made. The overriding consideration is that you
cause what type (and how big) of an effect.
‘know and understand’ the system you are trying
to model. In relatively simple systems, or those Special considerations/weaknesses:
that have been used a long time and have many
 Model results are only as good as the model
revisions from experience (like current economic
and the assumptions on which it is based.
forecasting), the relationships can be modelled
fairly accurately.  Very expensive to set up, including data for
validation.
Two major components are:
 Assumes an understanding of all variables.
 Knowing the relationships relative to what
event is connected to what other event(s).  Need trained programmers and technical
staff.
 The relative magnitude of that relationship.
In anything but a very simple model, the Resources required:
interactions and feedback loops (results of one  Staff, computers, specialists
step affect an earlier step) are very difficult to  Publicity
determine. This is especially true for models that
predict more than a few years. For complex  Venue rental
situations, it is nearly impossible to model  Catering
accurately both the relationships and their  Staffing
magnitude when appropriate feedback loops are
considered.  Moderator/facilitator
Electronically generated simulations can be set up  Experts

in such a way that they are accessible and  Recorders
understandable to the general public, or may be  Gophers
designed for technical and professional use in
determining the consequences of a projected  Artists/photographer
change in regulations or laws.  Audiovisual recording equipment and
amplification
Objectives:
Electronic simulation allows broad scenarios to be
given a ‘virtual trial run’ on a computer that allows  Data projectors
the consequences to be observed and considered,  Video
and decisions made. Simulations can allow testing
of the environmental consequences of choices and  Slide projector/screen
decisions to an entire catchment area.  Printed public information sheets
 Response sheets

etc.)
 Furniture
Can be used for:


Audience size:
 Large (> 30)
Time required:

Cost:
 High (> AUD$10,000)
Innovation level:
Method:
1. Collect background information on issue or
scenario.
2. Determine as many factors and influences as
possible, and possible/probable outcomes of
changes.
3. With the assistance of programmers, set up

model to allow simulations.
4. Invite representatives of relevant groups to
view and discuss the scenarios.
5. Discuss understanding and insights gained.
6. If relevant, develop future planning options
based on preferred scenarios.

3.53. Sketch Interviews  Suggested that catering be supplied and an
informal atmosphere is facilitated.
Description:
Resources required:
A visualisation technique applicable to planning,
design and problem solving. This tool provides for  Publicity
the visual articulation of ideas facilitated through  Venue rental
drawings and sketches. Sketch interviewing allows  Catering
the participant to articulate ideas that are not
easily expressed through words and the  Staffing
interaction between facilitator and participant  Facilitators
allows for the refinement and modification of the
 Recorders
ideas visually to avoid misinterpretation.
 Artists
Sketch interviews can be used in conjunction with
surveys.  Photographer
 Audio and visual recording and amplification
Objectives:
Sketch interviews aim to provide a visual
etc.)
perspective to the process of community
consultation by providing people with paper and  Furniture
pens to sketch their ideas. This process may allow  Children’s requirements
inclusion of those unable to express their views in
writing or speaking (those who lack confidence, or Can be used for:
have poor language skills or English as a second  Showcase product, plan, policy
language).
Outcomes:  Discover community issues
Sketch interviews provide tangible illustrations of
community visions and issues, and allow inclusion
of those who feel more comfortable making  Develop action plan
sketches of their ideas.  Communicate an issue
Uses/strengths: Number of people required to help organise:
 Highly applicable to planning and design or  Large (> 12 people)
where visual communication using images is
preferred to text-oriented consultation.
 Where participants are uncomfortable in Audience size:
traditional participation forums.  Large (> 30)
 Where participants are more comfortable in  Medium (11–30)
communicating ideas visually.
 Small (> 11)
 Flexibility in venue: can be conducted on-site
or at any number of venues. Time required:
 Facilitators require some drawing/sketching
ability and the interpersonal skills to work Skill level/support required:
closely with participants.
 Medium (computer & other expertise)
 Limitations to the number of participants
given the need for one-on-one or small group Cost:
interactions.  Low (< AUD$1,000)
 Costly and time consuming if large numbers of
facilitators and participants are required. Participation level:
 Need to articulate the purpose of the exercise
and the role of the sketches.

Innovation level:
Method:
1. Publicise the sketch interviews through a
number of publicity tools.
2. Arrange for facilitators with drawing (as well

as interpersonal) skills to be present.
3. Schedule a meeting time on site or at a
location convenient to the participants.
4. During interviews:
 Provide an overview of the purpose of the

exercise.
 Describe the role of the sketches in the
project or process.
 Provide catering and refreshments
 Conduct interviews one-on-one or in very
small groups.
 Pin up all the sketches and have
participants present their ideas to the
larger group to maintain a sense of
ownership.
 Ask the group: ‘Where to from here?’
Describe opportunities for ongoing
involvement or where the sketches are
being used in the consultation process or
project.

3.54. Snowball Sampling  Participation process should be drafted prior
to the sampling to encourage participation
Description: from potential contacts.
Snowball sampling is an approach for locating Resources required:
information-rich key informants.35 Using this
approach, a few potential respondents are  Staff
contacted and asked whether they know of  Telephones
anybody with the characteristics that you are
 Recording materials (notebooks, audiotapes)
looking for in your research. For example, if you
wanted to interview a sample of Can be used for:
vegetarians/cyclists/people with a particular
disability/people who support a particular political
party etc., your initial contacts may well have  Discover community issues
knowledge (e.g. through a support group) of  Develop community capacity
others.
Snowball sampling is not a stand-alone tool; the
tool is a way of selecting participants and then Number of people required to help organise:
using other tools, such as interviews or surveys.  Medium (2–12 people)
Having identified those with the skills and/or
knowledge or characteristics you require, you Audience size:
would then approach these people to invite them  Large (> 30)
to participate in a community consultation
 Medium (11–30)
process.
Time required:
Objectives:
Snowball sampling is designed to identify people
with particular knowledge, skills or characteristics  Short (< 6 weeks)
that are needed as part of a committee and/or
consultative process. Snowball sampling uses Skill level/support required:
recommendations to find people with the specific  Medium (Computer & other expertise)
range of skills that has been determined as being
useful, as such, snowball sampling aims to make Cost:
use of community knowledge about those who  Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
have skills or information in particular areas.  Low (< AUD$1,000)
Outcomes: Participation level:
Snowball sampling allows you to identify the  High (Stakeholders participate in decision)
resources within a community and to select those
people best suited for the needs of a project or Innovation level:
process.  Low (Traditional)
Uses/strengths:
Method:
 Helps to determine stakeholders. 1. Draft up a participation program (likely to be
 Increases the number of participants in subject to change, but indicative).
process.
2. Approach stakeholders and ask for contacts.
 Builds on resources of existing networks.
 Determines stakeholders unknown to you. 3. Gain contacts and ask them to participate.
Special considerations/weaknesses: 4. Community issues groups may emerge that

 Choice of initial contacts is most important. can be included in the participation program.
5. Continue the snowballing with contacts to
gain more stakeholders if necessary.
35
Patton, M (1990) Qualitative evaluation and research
methods, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, California

6. Ensure a diversity of contacts by widening the
profile of persons involved in the snowballing
exercise.

3.55. Speakout (version 1)  The discussion may be difficult to incorporate
into a formal consultation program.
Description:
Resources required:
A speakout is an event where a group of people
give testimony about a particular issue. The people  Publicity
speaking can be ‘experts’ giving factual  Venue rental
information to educate the audience and media,  Catering
or they can be lay people who are personally
affected by the issue talking about their lives, or a  Staffing
combination of both.36  Facilitators
Speakouts/soapboxes can be organised events or  Recorders and other audio and visual
events that are arranged by participants. They are recording and amplification
a venue for public comment and debate and are
usually informal with a limited agenda. Formally
organised speakouts/soapboxes should be relaxed  Data projectors
and should not attempt to steer a discussion and  Video
hence set an agenda.
 Slide projector
Objectives:  Projection screen
Speakouts aim to provide people with specific  Printed public information materials
information on an issue with a venue in which to
share their expertise. In this way, speakouts  Response sheets
determine issues and gain insight into various  Furniture
perspectives in relation to a community issue or
proposal.
Can be used for:
Outcomes:
Speakouts allow participants to express their views
to a wide audience, and result in a wider airing of  Discover community issues
views, and greater awareness of other people’s  Develop community capacity
contributions to a particular process or issue.
Speakouts open up possibilities of collegiate action
when participants are experts working in similar Number of people required to help organise:
fields
Uses/strengths:  Individual
 Useful when conflicting viewpoints exist.
Audience size:
 Useful when debate is required to refine
understanding of issues.  Large (> 30)
 Useful when a particular group or individuals  Medium (11–30)

are affected by a project. Time required:
 Can educate.  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
 Allows organisers to meet people and develop
networks. Skill level/support required:
 Can be difficult to direct (often speakouts Cost:
occur because groups feel their voices are not  Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
being heard).  Low (< AUD$1,000)
 Popular with activists, and may not have a
balance of opinions. Participation level:
36http://www.actupny.org/YELL/zine/speakout.html
[accessed 15/10/2014]

Innovation level:
Method:
1. Identify the issue of interest.
2. Book venue and invite experts.
3. Publicise speakout/soapbox.
4. Take care of legal and other responsibilities.
5. Hire facilitator.
6. Organise recorders.
7. Explain time limits to each speaker (five
minutes maximum).
8. After the event, prepare statement/report for

media and authorities.

3.56. Speakout (version 2)  Best if another person is available to type up
topics ‘on the go’ rather than waiting to the
Description: end of the session.
This speakout variation was designed by Wendy  Credibility can be compromised by people
Sarkission to ensure that ‘all the voices are heard’. wanting to use the event to promote a
In this version, the main emphasis is on particular point of view. These can be
establishing an environment in which individuals organisers as well as associated special
feel comfortable and able to give their views on a interest groups wanting to ‘set up a stall’. This
range of topics. All community members are is not the place unless carefully structured.
invited to attend the nominated venue and give
their view on the selected topics. Their input is Resources required:
documented and later collated and circulated. It is  Venue (e.g. library, hall, tent, sheltered
a productive and useful alternative to a public outside place)
meeting in which only a few people are given the
 Personnel (e.g. ‘listeners’ and ‘scribes’ for
opportunity to actually speak, the majority there each topic)
only to listen. They are particularly useful where
there are a number of sub-topics around a main  Tables and chairs
theme or issue affecting a wide number of  Butcher’s paper
stakeholders.
 Pens
The two major elements are:
Can be used for:
 A ‘listener’ and a ’scribe’ is allocated for each
sub-topic.
 The venue is open over a period of time or
series of times (such as a weekend and some  Develop community capacity
evenings).  Develop action plan
Whilst there might be information made available  Build alliances, consensus
about the theme for the event, the main purpose
is to hear what stakeholders’ views are about the Number of people required to help organise:
sub-topics. They are not a mechanism for trying to  Medium (2–12 people)
convince stakeholders of a particular viewpoint.
Audience size:
Objectives:
 Large (> 30)
For community members to be able to have their
say on a topic in a safe and friendly environment Time required:
that is flexible to their daily timetable.  Short (< 6 weeks)
Outcomes:
Organisers get to hear a wide variety of views
 Low (No specialist skills)
around a number of topics or sub- topics of an
issue, while members of the community get to be Cost:
heard.
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
Uses/strengths:
 Use instead of a public meeting.
 Great for getting people’s input.
 Good to demonstrate that people have been
listened to. Innovation level:
 Medium (Some new elements) Low
Special considerations/weaknesses: (Traditional)
 Needs ‘facilitators’ as the listeners and
scribes, not specialists on the topic. Method:
1. The organisers identify a number of ‘hot’
issues or topics that they would like members

of the community to consider and have input
into.
2. A suitable location, such as a hall, library or

other accessible public place, is rented for a
period of time (e.g. one or two days).
3. A table and flip chart are provided for each

topic, together with a ‘listener’ and a ‘scribe’.
This is most important, and comprises the
largest organisational part of the project.
4. The event is advertised, and members of the

public invited to attend at their convenience
over the allocated time.
5. Community members go to each topic table

that interests them, the listener ‘actively
listens’ to what they have to say, with the
scribe writing it down on the flip chart. No
attempt is made to enter into a dialogue
around the topic, the role of the listener being
to ensure that the participant remains ‘on
topic’, and expresses their view for the scribe
to write it down.
6. At the end of the time period, the comments

collected from all participants are ‘themed’ by
the organisers, and the results distributed.

3.57. Stakeholder Analysis  Build alliances, consensus
(CLIP) Number of people required to help organise:

 Individual
Description:
Stakeholder analysis is an essential part of Audience size:
developing a useful engagement plan. CLIP  Large (> 30)
(Collaboration/Conflict, Legitimacy, Influence,
Power) is both a powerful tool and a process for  Medium (11–30)
providing insights into the stakeholders of a  Small (≤ 10)
project. It is especially useful for more complex
projects, with a large and diverse range of Time required:
stakeholders.  Short (< 6 weeks)
Objectives: Skill level/support required:

The tool aims to assist a community engagement  High (Specialist skills)
planner to more fully understand the stakeholders
in a project, and their relationships with each
other. Cost:
Outcomes:  Low (< AUD$1,000)
Using the CLIP tool will enable a more targeted Participation level:
approach to community engagement, resulting in
a more effective process.
Uses/strengths:
 Provides detailed stakeholder analysis.
 Best for complex projects. Innovation level:
 Can make a simple project complicated. Method:
1. Develop a list of stakeholders in your project
 Needs to be remembered that it is only a
method of organising value judgements, and and write their names in the second column of
not a science. Worksheet B – Stakeholder Collaboration and
 Results in not only making but also recording Conflict Matrix.
value judgements about people, which
requires careful consideration as to what 2. Working through your list of stakeholders
happens to the material generated. from top to bottom, consider their
 Can become an end in itself, making busy relationship with each of the other
work for bureaucrats needing to demonstrate stakeholders listed from left to right, from
that they are ‘doing something’.
their perspective (the same two stakeholders
Resources required: may have very different perspectives of their
 Pens relationship). Use the appropriate symbol to
 Paper indicate whether the relationship is one of
 Copies of Worksheet B – Stakeholder collaboration, conflict, mixed/neutral or
Collaboration and Conflict Matrix and unknown.
Worksheet C – Stakeholder Profile Card from
Book 2: the engagement planning workbook 3. Make copies of Worksheet C – Stakeholder
Profile Card for each of your stakeholders.
Can be used for:
 Engage community 4. Enter the name of the stakeholder, the
 Develop community capacity reference number and the stakeholders they

are in collaboration or conflict with from the
Collaboration and Conflict Matrix.
5. Enter the goal for engaging this stakeholder as

it relates to your overall project objective.
6. Rate the control or resources the stakeholder

can use to promote or oppose the project
objectives. Give each stakeholder a rating for
each individual means of power, and then give
them an overall score. If the stakeholder has
medium to high power overall, tick the
column with a ‘P’.
7. Rate the interests of each stakeholder – their
potential net gains or losses arising from the
project. Give the stakeholder a rating for net
gains or losses, including an overall score. If
the stakeholder has medium to high potential
net gains or losses, tick the column with the
‘I’.
8. Rate the degree to which the other
stakeholders recognise the rights,
responsibilities and resolve of the stakeholder.
Give each stakeholder a rating for these three
measures of legitimacy, and then give them an
overall score. If the stakeholder has medium
to high legitimacy overall, tick the column
with the ‘L’.
9. Based on whether you ticked the ‘P’, ‘I’ and ‘L’
for the stakeholder’s power, interests and
legitimacy, circle the appropriate CLIP
descriptor. For example, if a stakeholder has
medium to high power and interests but low
or no legitimacy, the CLIP score is ‘PI’ and the
CLIP descriptor is ‘forceful’.
10. Based on your CLIP descriptor, develop your
engagement plan to use the appropriate level
of engagement for each stakeholder. Use the
suggested level of engagement at the bottom
of the Stakeholder Profile Card as a guide.

3.58. Stakeholder Analysis require limited monitoring or evaluation, but are
of low priority.
(Stakeholder Matrix)
Description:
Stakeholder analysis is an essential part of
developing a useful engagement plan. A common
method of stakeholder analysis is a stakeholder
matrix. This is where stakeholders are plotted
against two variables. These variables might be
plotting the level of ‘stake’ in the outcomes of the
project against ‘resources’ of the stakeholder.
Another is the ‘importance’ of the stakeholder
against the ‘influence’ of the stakeholder. The
concept is the same, though the emphasis is
slightly different. Objectives:
Boxes A, B and C are the key stakeholders of the To provide a clearer understanding of stakeholders
project. The implications of each box is and, as a result, provide insights as to how best to
summarised below: engage them.
Box A Outcomes:
These are stakeholders appearing to have a high Better community engagement plans and project
degree of influence on the project, who are also of outcomes.
high importance for its success. This implies that
the implementing organisation will need to Uses/strengths:
construct good working relationships with these  Use for projects either in the early stages, or
stakeholders, to ensure an effective coalition of with a group developing a stakeholder plan.
support for the project. Examples might be the Not as rigorous or as time consuming as a CLIP
senior officials and politicians or trade unions. analysis.
Box B Special considerations/weaknesses:
These are stakeholders of high importance to the  All analytical tools are only models. The tool is
success of the project, but with low influence. This dependant on subjective data, and will vary
implies that they will require special initiatives if according to the person and situation being
their interests are to be protected. An example used. It should probably not be a public
may be traditionally marginalised groups (e.g. document.
Indigenous people, youth, seniors), who might be
beneficiaries of a new service, but who have little Resources required:
‘voice’ in its development.  Paper
Box C  Stakeholder Matrix (see above)
These are stakeholders with high influence, who Can be used for:
can therefore affect the project outcomes, but
whose interests are not necessarily aligned with  Engage community
the overall goals of the project. They might be  Develop action plan
financial administrators, who can exercise
considerable discretion over funding Number of people required to help organise:
disbursements. This conclusion implies that these  Individual
stakeholders may be a source of significant risk,
and they will need careful monitoring and Audience size:
management.  Large (> 30)
Box D  Medium (11–30)

The stakeholders in this box, with low influence  Small (≤ 10)
on, or importance to, the project objectives, may
Time required:

 Medium
Cost:
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
Innovation level:
Method:
1. Make a list of all stakeholders.
2. Write the name of each stakeholder on a post-

it note or index card.
3. Rank the stakeholders on a scale of one to

five, according to one of the criteria on the
matrix, such as ‘interest in the project
outcomes’ or ‘interest in the subject’.
4. Keeping this ranking for one of the criteria,

plot the stakeholders against the other criteria
of the matrix. This is where using post-it notes
or removable cards are useful.
5. Ask the following questions:
 Are there any surprises?

 Which stakeholders do we have the most/
least contact with?
 Which stakeholders might we have to
make special efforts to ensure
engagement?

3.59. Stakeholder Analysis  Small (≤ 10)
(Venn Diagrams) Time required:

Description:
Stakeholder analysis is an essential part of Skill level/support required:
developing a useful engagement plan. Venn  Medium
diagrams are a simple tool to provide a visual
‘map’ of the relationships between stakeholders. Cost:
Used either on its own, or as part of a broader  Low (< AUD$1,000)
stakeholder analysis, this technique can provide
useful insights for a project development team. It Participation level:
is especially useful when working in a facilitated  High (Stakeholders participate in decision)
group, as it allows group members the opportunity
to discuss their individual understandings of the  Medium (Options noted)
relationships between stakeholders, and come to a  Low (Information only)
common understanding.
Innovation level:
Objectives:  Medium (Some new elements)
To provide a visual image of the relationships
between stakeholders.
Method:
Outcomes:
1. Make a list of all stakeholders.
A better understanding of the influence and
relationships between stakeholders in a project. 2. Rank stakeholders on a scale of one to five
Uses/strengths: according to a common criterion, such as
 When working with a group developing a ‘interest in the project outcomes’ or ‘interest
project it is especially useful in generating in the subject’.
discussion around on the topic of relationships
between stakeholders. 3. Write the name of each stakeholder on the
 Time efficient. card circle that corresponds to the importance

of the stakeholder. The more important, the
Special considerations/weaknesses: larger the circle.
 Allow an hour creating the various card circles
in advance. 4. Take two of the largest circles, and place them
to illustrate the level of relationship between
Resources required:
them. If no relationship, the circles will be
 Coloured card circles, about five sizes, five of
each size, ranging from 50 mm to 300 mm separate. If a slight relationship, one will
diameter overlap the other a small amount. If a high
relationship, they will almost cover each
Can be used for:
other. Working from the largest to the
smallest, keep adding each card circle in such
a way that it illustrates the relationships
between it and the other stakeholders.
Questions that the map can be used to elicit
answers being:
 Are there any surprises?
 Individual
 Which stakeholders have the most
Audience size: influence?
 Large (> 30)  Which stakeholders do we have the most/
least contact with?
 Medium (11–30)

 Which stakeholders might we have to
make special efforts to ensure
engagement?

3.60. Study Circles Uses/strengths:
 Allows citizens to gain ownership of the
Description: issues, discover a connection between
The study circle is a simple process for small-group personal experiences and public policies, and
deliberation. For example, a study circle might be gain a deeper understanding of their own and
formed to discover more about a specific interest others’ perspectives and concerns.
(e.g. the vegetation in a particular area, or more  Since the dialogue does not promote one
about a process like community involvement in particular point of view or try to persuade
water quality monitoring). people to take a specific action, potential
A study circle comprises 10–15 people who meet coalition partners can usually find ways to
regularly over a period of weeks or months to work through ownership issues, mistrust, or
address a critical public issue in a democratic and genuine disagreement.
collaborative way.  Fosters new connections among community
A study circle is facilitated by a person/facilitator members that lead to new levels of
who is there not to act as an expert on the issue, community action.
but to serve the group by keeping the discussion  Can create new connections between citizens
focused, helping the group consider a variety of and government, both at an institutional level
views, and process difficult questions. and at the level of parents and teachers,
community members and social service
A study circle examines many perspectives.
providers, residents and police officers.
The way in which study circle facilitators are
trained and discussion materials are written gives Special considerations/weaknesses:
everyone ‘a home in the conversation’ and helps  Building a coalition that represents many
the group deliberate on the various views and points of view takes time and effort.
explore areas of common ground. A study circle
 This kind of coalition building for democratic
progresses from a session on personal experience
participation requires leadership, a working
(‘how does the issue affect me?’) to sessions
knowledge of community dynamics, and a
providing a broader perspective (‘what are others
willingness to learn by trial and error.
saying about the issue?’) to a session on action
(‘what can we do about the issue here?’). Resources required:
Study circles can take place within organisations,  Venue
such as schools, unions, or government agencies.  Facilitator
Yet, they have their greatest reach and impact
when organisations across a community work  Publicity
together to create large-scale programs. These  Background information
community-wide programs engage large numbers
 Food (can be ‘bring a plate’ if not catered)
of citizens in a community – in some cases
thousands – in study circles on a public issue such Can be used for:
as race relations, crime and violence, or an
environmental education issue.37
Objectives:
Study circles provide a venue for in-depth, regular,
lengthy discussions that allow exchange of  Communicate an issue
information on a particular topic or issue.  Build alliances, consensus

Study circles develop better informed citizens who  Medium (2–12 people)
are then in a better position to manage their local
 Individual
natural resources, or to contribute to planning
initiatives in relation to these resources. Audience size:
 Medium (11–30)
37http://www.pbs.org/ampu/sc.html [accessed
15/10/2014]

Time required: a topic of community interest and invite
 Medium (6 weeks – 6 months) people.
 Short (< 6 weeks) 6. Aspects of the topic can be determined from
Skill level/support required: one meeting to the next, depending on
 Low (No special skills) current issues or specific aspects of interest to
the group.
Cost:
 Low (< AUD$1,000) 7. Facilitators should try to move the group from
the personal to seeing the issue within the
wider systems at work within their
community.
Innovation level:
Method:
1. Identify an issue of broad community concern.
Some of the issues communities have started
with include race relations, crime and
violence, understanding environmental
impact statements, or exploring the issues
involving proposed developments.
2. Let people start where they are. It must be

clear from the outset that the dialogue is not
just for conservatives, or for liberals, or for
‘the civic crowd’ or for any one group. By
bringing personal stories and experiences into
the discussions early on, the dialogue will
naturally welcome people of all backgrounds
and points of view.
3. Arrange a venue for study circles, and
determine whether there will be one
facilitator, or shared facilitation within the
group.
4. For large, community-wide study groups, build

a broad coalition to implement and sponsor
the dialogue. Community members will get
involved in the dialogue when people they
know and respect make it clear that their
participation is essential.
5. For small-scale study circles, an individual or
group within a grassroots organisation
(churches, neighbourhood associations,
businesses, schools, and clubs) need only find

3.61. Submissions  With the advent of electronic submissions,
avoid sending multiple submissions.
Description:
Resources required:
Submissions are intended to allow participants to
respond to proposals or ideas in some detail. They  Staff/volunteers
are used widely in urban planning development
Can be used for:
decisions and are intended to allow interested
parties to make detailed responses to  Showcase product, plan, policy
development proposals in this context. They can  Engage community
be used in a broader context to allow the
community to have their say or present their ideas
in written detail. Submissions may be in the form  Communicate an issue
of a letter, a short document or a substantial
paper.
They may include appendices and other
supporting documents. The best submissions are  Medium (2–12 people)
those that provide reasons and justifications for  Individual
specific comments.
Audience size:
Objectives:  Large (> 30)
Submissions allow interested community members
 Medium (11–30)
or groups to make a detailed response to a
proposal, which would usually be a development Time required:
or resource management proposal.
Outcomes:  Short (< 6 weeks)
Submissions provide government agencies and
decision makers with more detailed information Skill level/support required:
on which to base planning or development  High (Specialist skills)
decisions.  Medium (Computer & other expertise)
Uses/strengths:  Low (No special skills)
 Allows a group to provide details of their
Cost:
position on an issue.
 High (> AUD$10,000)
 Can satisfy statutory or legal requirements.
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
 Allows people to have a say.
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
 Review of written response submissions helps
get a sense of the range of concerns of Participation level:
interested parties, their contact details and a  Low (Information only)
mailing list for subsequent project
information. Innovation level:
Special considerations/weaknesses:  Low (Traditional)
 They are passive in nature. The Method:

communication is one way and there is no 1. Keep an alert for calls for submissions from
chance for discussion.
government departments or other
 They are mainly used by persons with a
significant stake in a project. organisations responsible for management
decisions in areas of direct concern to your
 Requires time and energy, often with short
timelines, which may discourage under- community. Any individual or organisation can
resourced community groups. make a submission to a parliamentary
 Communication is limited to the written form. committee.
 Is not well used as a participation tool.

2. When possible, designate a group to work on
the submission and allow plenty of time to
develop a well thought-out, clearly argued
statement of your position, with explanations
and reasons for the attitudes and positions
adopted.
3. Ensure your submission meets the terms of
reference in the call for submission.
4. Check the requested format (e.g. the
Australian Government requests that
submissions be printed on A4 paper,
electronic submission on disc or CD-ROM in
Microsoft Word). In printed submissions,
include a cover page with a title that clearly
indicates what your submission is about, the
full name of your organisation, and contact
details (return address and telephone
numbers). On the next page, include a brief
summary of the main points in the
submission. Submissions should be signed,
and clearly indicate whether the individual is
signing on behalf of an organisation, or
submitting a personal opinion. Add any
helpful documentation in an appendix.
5. If a request for submissions has a very short
lead time, consider what you can do. One
page with your key concerns (with
explanations) and your preferred outcome, is
better than no communication at all.
6. Ensure that submissions are delivered to the
correct address and by the due date.
7. Request feedback on the submission process,

and any decision and outcomes that result.

3.62. Surveys  Can derive varied information from the
results.
Description:  Can help in future planning.
Surveys are a method used to collect information
from a specific population. Surveys are used to Special considerations/weaknesses:
gauge the level of public information about an  Poorly constructed surveys produce poor
issue and provide a ‘snapshot’ of attitudes and results.
ideas at a particular time. They can be used to
 Can be expensive if surveying a large
determine community attitudes or target a
audience.
particular group.
 Care must be taken that wording of questions
Surveys can be used to collect broad general is unambiguous to prevent skewed results.
information from or about a large audience or
specific information from targeted groups. Surveys  Care is needed in sampling to make sure
can seek information that can be quantitative representative samples are taken.
(facts and figures) and/or qualitative (opinions and  Surveys with tick boxes are the fastest and
values). Surveys can use questionnaires to collect easiest to process, however this limits the
information, and these can be delivered through detail in the information collected.
face-to-face interviews, self-completion written
 Can be seen as ‘counting heads’ without
forms, telephone surveys, or electronic surveys.
necessarily telling you what is in them.
(See also Questionnaires and Response Sheets.)
For a well-conducted survey using a large, random Resources required:
sample, surveys are usually high cost. Small-scale  Staff/volunteers
surveys using opportunistic sampling and
volunteers can be relatively low cost, but may not Can be used for:
produce results that can be generalised beyond  Engage community
the specific people sampled. Sampling so that you  Discover community issues
can generalise from your results to the general
community or a specific segment of the  Communicate an issue
community requires expert knowledge.
Objectives:  Medium (2–12 people)
Surveys are designed to collect information from  Individual
community groups in relation to a particular issue
or issue. The results of the surveys provide Audience size:
information about the demographics and/or  Large (> 30)
opinions of a specific group of people. This
information can permit decision-making bodies to Time required:
make better informed decisions or to better  Long (> 6 months)
inform the community in relation to an issue or
proposal.
Outcomes: Skill level/support required:

Surveys provide information about a community
and its opinions (e.g. a survey can indicate the  Medium (Computer & other expertise)
number of people who support or oppose specific
proposals, their reasons and their demographics). Cost:
 High (>AUD$10,000)
Uses/strengths:
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
 Provides traceable data.
 Low (< AUD$1,000)
 Can serve an educational purpose.
 When properly constructed using good Participation level:
sampling techniques can reach a broad,  Medium (Opinions noted)
representative public or targeted group.
Innovation level:

Method:
1. Find out what is already known, and what
relevant surveys are being done or planned
elsewhere. This will avoid duplication, and will
help establish what you need to find out from
your survey.
2. Talk to locals with strong views and local

knowledge to sharpen the focus of the
questions.
3. Survey writing is a skill that improves with

practice and feedback, so seek expert advice
on the pitfalls and requirements of survey
writing, but rely on your own understanding
of the issue or topic.
4. Preliminary investigations (e.g. focus groups

or interviews) with people on a ‘convenience’
basis (outside the town hall, or in a shopping
centre) can help to develop some of the
issues/range of questions needed.
5. Determine how the information is to be

obtained. Surveys can be done by asking
people questions through the mail (see
Questionnaires) in personal interviews, or by a
combination of methods.
6. Select your target audience. How will you
sample them? What stratas of the society or
organisation do you need to reach? How will
you ensure that your survey gives a
representation of the ideas of the group?
7. Draft the questionnaire or interview guide.
8. Trial this with a pilot study to ensure the

answers will give you the information you
wanted (check readability and clarity of
questions).
9. Undertake the survey.
10. Collate and analyse the results.
11. Write a report and make available to those
surveyed to appropriate authorities and to the
media. If the report is lengthy and/or detailed,
provide a synopsis of the key points.

3.63. Technical Assistance Time required:
Description:
Technical assistance is intended to provide the
public with understanding of complex issues and Skill level/support required:
concepts. Publicising the availability of technical  High (Specialist skills)
assistance adds transparency and positive public
relations to a public participation process. Often Cost:
technical issues associated with a project are  High (> AUD$10,000)
complex and stakeholders require one-on-one
discussions to improve their understanding or gain Participation level:
information.  Low (Information only)
Objectives: Innovation level:
Technical assistance aims to provide accurate and  Low (Traditional)
informed advice on complex issues and concepts.
Method:
Outcomes:
1. Advertise the name of the person providing
Technical assistance offers consistent, accurate
information that increases community technical assistance and their specialisation so
understanding of an issue or proposal. the public can directly access the person (at
predetermined times) and discuss the issue to
Uses/strengths:
improve understanding.
 Builds credibility and helps address public
concerns. 2. Brief staff and train in public consultation.
 Can be effective as a conflict resolution They need to be polite, courteous and patient
technique where facts are clarified.
with all callers, regardless of their attitude or
 Assists in the dissemination of information. level of understanding.
 Availability of resources can be limited.
 Technical experts may resent working with
members of the community.
 Can be costly if outside experts are required
to provide assistance.
Resources required:
 Suitably trained and knowledgeable staff
 Publication facilities for reports/publications
 Telephone/computer communications
facilities
Can be used for:


 Individual
Audience size:
 Large (> 30)

3.64. Technical Reports and Resources required:
 Staff
Discussion Papers
Description:
 Access to layout and publication expertise/
Technical reports can outline research and policy facilities (reports produced for public access
findings, and can also be used to outline proposals. should be as brief as possible and include a
The most popular format is the discussion paper balance of words/illustrations/maps)
which, when combined with calls for submissions,
can provide both information and public input. Can be used for:
Consultation activities often require plain language  Communicate an issue
documents that ensure technical information is
presented comprehensively to a wide range of Number of people required to help organise:
stakeholders. Technical reports are widely used for  Large (> 12 people)
this purpose.
Objectives:
Audience size:
Technical reports give detailed information on
complex or technical issues.  Large (> 30)
Outcomes: Time required:

Technical reports provide background information  Medium (6 weeks – 6 months)
that can be used in making decisions about
complex issues, or that allows good-quality,
accurate information to be provided to those  High (Specialist skills)
members of the community who are interested or
Cost:
affected by a proposal or issue.
 High (>AUD$10,000)
Uses/strengths:
 Can provide a large number of people and
organisations with information.  Low (Information only)
 Can be well thought out and prepared by Innovation level:
those with considerable knowledge, interest
and expertise in the issue.
 Provides for a thorough explanation of project Method:
issues. 1. Consider the target audience, the agency or
Special considerations/weaknesses: group budget, and production costs, to

 Some participants may find the reports too determine the appropriate media via which to
detailed. distribute the report (e.g. internet, print or
 Can be costly to produce. CD-ROM).
 Unless clearly written, can cause confusion. 2. Prepare mailing list, in accordance with access
 Generic nature may not make it relevant to to addresses and the scope of the mail-out.
local issues.
3. Prepare the reports and discussion papers
 Cannot ensure people have received, read or
understood the information. using simple language with an emphasis on
visual communication.
 Some people are not comfortable responding
in writing. 4. Publicise the availability of the reports and/or
 Time consuming to develop. discussion papers. If options are available, ask
 Time allowances for people to prepare in what form (email, print, website address or
responses. CD-ROM) the person would like to receive the
 Follow up consultation activities are generally material.
required.

5. Provide opportunities for submission of
responses, that is, allow sufficient time for
detailed consideration and development of
responses, and provide a variety of ways for
the responses to be delivered (post, drop off
points, or email).
6. Provide contact details for people with
queries.
7. Advise on the opportunities for participation.
8. Collate and monitor responses.

3.65. Telephone Trees Uses/strengths:
 Allows a group to reach all those who need
Description: quick notification of an event or proposal, and
Telephone trees allow a message to be conveyed to reach them quickly by telephone.
by a number of people simultaneously when it is  Can allow a quick survey of people’s
necessary to speak to a large number of people responses to the event or proposal at the
quickly about an event, issue or proposal. same time that people are notified.
Telephone trees rely on each person on a
committee undertaking to telephone a number of  Ensures that people have heard about an
specific people. These may be those people who important event, because you have
cannot be reached by email, or those who check immediate confirmation when you speak to
their email infrequently but who need to know them.
urgently. If one person calls 10 people, and each of  Can be useful in community emergencies
those 10 call another 10 people, you can reach a (e.g. closure of schools caused by severe
hundred people with only two ‘rounds’ of calls. weather conditions).
Another way of organising a telephone tree is for
each person to agree to telephone one person, Special considerations/weaknesses:
and that person telephones one person, and so on,  This is more costly and time consuming than
so that the message is spread sequentially, and no sending one email to an electronic mailing list.
one person has to spend their time or money
 Telephoning may involve some time if the
making a number of calls. caller has to keep calling until they reach their
An agreed message can then be spread quite targeted audience.
quickly, and the expense and/or time involved in  Electronic telephone trees deliver their
telephoning can be shared by all members of the messages via an automated voice which may
committee. not reach the desired recipient.
Electronic telephone tree products are now
Resources required:
available commercially that provide organisations
with the opportunity to deliver information to  Staff or volunteers
each member of a group with the push of a  Telephone
button. The telephone then automatically
continues to dial and deliver the messages to each  Agreed lists of names and phone numbers
of the designated numbers. The main drawback is Can be used for:
that the automated voice delivers the message
regardless of who picks up the telephone, and
there is no way of ensuring that the message gets  Engage community
to the intended recipient.  Discover community issues
As well, an electronic message option which allows  Develop action plan
a large number of telephones to be reached is
sending messages from one computer to a number  Communicate an issue
of mobile telephones using text messaging. This is Number of people required to help organise:
helpful where a team of workers all have mobile
telephones out in the field.  Large (> 12 people)
Objectives:
Telephone trees allow information to reach a Audience size:
number of people by telephone in the shortest  Large (> 30)
possible time.
Time required:
Outcomes:  Long (> 6 months)
A telephone tree ensures that people have been
given a message or piece of information, so that Skill level/support required:
there is a clear understanding of the issue, and of  Low (No special skills)
how many people have been informed.
Cost:
 Low (< AUD$1,000)

Innovation level:
Method:
1. Decide if the issue or proposal is important
enough to require urgent notification.
2. If urgent notification is required, you might

combine email mailing lists and telephone
trees to reach all affected people.
3. Starting with a core group or organising
committee, agree on who will telephone
whom, and ensure that names and telephone
numbers are correct.
4. If in a work situation, people may telephone

from their own desks or in an emergency or
polling situation, a bank of telephones may be
set up with operators working through their
agreed lists. If in a volunteer situation,
volunteers may telephone from their own
homes or from an organisation’s office or
shopfront.
5. When all those on the list have been
telephoned, and especially when it is vital that
all those affected are reached, callers should
report back to the organising committee who
can take other steps to contact anyone who
has not been able to be reached.

3.66. Visioning  When completed, visioning presents a
democratically derived consensus.
Description:  Using games such as Wheel of Coastal Fortune
Visioning exercises are used to define and help as a visioning tool offers the following
achieve a desirable future. Visioning exercises are advantages:
regularly used in urban and strategic planning and  Can access sections of the population
allow participants to create images that can help who are typically disempowered in
to guide change in the city. The outcome of a traditional consultative processes
visioning exercise is a long-term plan, generally
with a 20–30 year horizon. Visioning exercises also  Can be used to assess willingness to pay
provide a frame for a strategy for the achievement to preserve specific environmental
of the vision. Alternatively, some visioning tools attributes or willingness to accept the loss
may be used to promote thought and encourage of these attributes
discussion of future land use and planning options,  Can involve a broad range of participants
without the need to create a future-orientated (in demographic terms).
document.
Games can be developed to do this. For instance,
the Wheel of Coastal Fortune, a game in which  Organisation of the visioning exercise can be
participants post cards to decide where facilities costly.
will be sited, is a planning exercise which  Vision can be difficult to transfer into strategy
encourages a holistic approach to planning and and policy
considering the impacts from the whole catchment
 In relation to using the Wheel of Coastal
area on the coastal zone (See also Scenario
Fortune with visioning: playing the game
Testing).
when visioning presents problems in
Objectives: recording and analysing data and interpreting
social preferences for land use management.
Visioning aims to develop a preferred future
(It is important to be clear about the
scenario.
questions or issues to be addressed so that
Outcomes: these can be incorporated into the game
design as simply as possible.)
Visioning develops future scenarios, together with
the steps that are needed to achieve this vision, Resources required:
and a group of participants who have ownership of
 Recorders
the vision, and therefore have a reason to help
make this happen.  Resources for group participation
(paper/pens/ tables/chairs)
Uses/strengths:
 Food
 Use when integration between issues is
required. Can be used for:
 Use when a wide variety of ideas should be  Engage community
heard  Discover community issues
 Use when a range of potential solutions is  Develop community capacity
needed.
 Visioning encourages participation for
developing a long-range plan.
 Visioning is an integrated approach to policy  Build alliances, consensus
making. With overall goals in view, it helps Number of people required to help organise:
avoid piecemeal and reactionary approaches
to addressing problems. Visioning uses  Large (> 12 people)
participation as a source of ideas in the Audience size:
establishment of long-range policy. It draws
upon deeply held feelings about overall  Large (> 30)
directions of public agencies to solicit opinions Time required:
about the future.

 Medium (6 weeks – 6 months) parks, native forest, high-rise development,
tourist developments, sewage outlets,
shopping centres, wetland reserves, etc.)
Develop boxes or cans into which these cards
Cost: can be slotted, marked with the various
 High (> AUD$10,000)
natural resources of the region (e.g. island,
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000) wetlands, native forest, town, beach, forested
 Low (< AUD$1,000) hills) with two fewer receptacles than there
Participation level: are cards. Two cards will be jettisoned by each
 High (Stakeholders participate in decision) player.
Innovation level: 4. Ask for volunteers, provide each with a full

 High (Innovative) range of cards to ‘post’ and invite them to
consider how they will match the facilities
Method:
with the most suitable environments. They
In a typical visioning exercise a facilitator asks
participants to close their eyes and imagine they may throw out two cards each, and can post
are walking along their shoreline as they would only one card per environment (can).
like to see it in 15 years. What do they see? What
do the buildings look like? Where do people 5. Once people have made their choices, record
gather? How do they make decisions? What are what was placed in each site, and invite the
they eating? Where are they working? How are group to comment on these choices.
they travelling? What is happening on the street?
Where is the centre of the neighbourhood? How 6. Invite the participants to discuss what was
do green space and water fit into the picture? easy and what was difficult about the process,
What do you see when you walk around after
what they learned, and how they might use
dark?
the game in the future.
People record their visions in written or pictorial
form: in diagrams, sketches, models, photographic
montages and written briefs. Sometimes a
professional illustrator helps turn mental images
into drawings of the city that people can extend
and modify. To play games such as Wheel of
Coastal Fortune, which promote thought and
encourage discussion of future land use and
planning options without developing any
documentation, the following steps are taken:
1. The kit can be borrowed from the developer
of the game, Katrina Luckie, or, with enough
preparation time and funds, you could make
your own.
2. Develop a map of the coastal zone beginning
in the hinterland and flowing down to the sea.
This should be sturdy and able to be
transported for frequent use, and may be in
the form of a patchwork rug, or a model in
segments.
3. Develop cards that indicate the facilities likely

to be proposed for the area (e.g. national

3.67. Websites  Many people are still not web literate.
 Its success as a participatory tool is still
Description: relatively unknown.
Websites that contain project information,  Information overload and poor design can
announcements and documents can use various prevent people from finding what they need.
media formats. The array of computer software
and graphics packages and capacity of the internet Resources required:
as a publicity tool and information source and
 Staff
forum for public input or electronic democracy is
expanding, increasing the application of this  Internet access
participatory tool.  Web design skills
Websites are particularly useful for people in
Can be used for:
remote areas accessing project information and
are more effective than information repositories in  Showcase product, plan, policy
this regard.  Communicate an issue
As well, websites make ideal community Number of people required to help organise:
noticeboards for small organisations and provide
sources for interaction when they invite feedback  Medium (2–12 people)
and provide email addresses or chat options. They  Individual
are easily updated and can be used to dispatch
information with relative ease. The internet and Audience size:
websites are emerging consultation tools and their  Large (> 30)
applications and number of users continue to
expand. (See also Electronic Democracy.) Time required:
Objectives:
A website aims to make information available, Skill level/support required:
freely and in forms that are easily accessible (click  High (Specialist skills)
and go information, multimedia options for
accessing information, and/or the option of Cost:
collecting and/or providing feedback).  High (> AUD$10,000)
Outcomes:  Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000)
A website allows community groups, industry and Participation level:
government agencies to obtain information
quickly, effectively, and at low cost, that will assist
their members to undertake whatever tasks need Innovation level:
to be done. Websites provide the chance to inform
a wider range of people about issues and to invite
the website visitors to become involved in some Method:
way.
1. Contact a web designer, or find someone
Uses/strengths: within the organisation with web design skills.
 Can provide publicity, information and limited
2. Discuss the ‘architecture’ – all the levels of
public input.
information, links and illustrations available
 Capable of reaching very large numbers with
enormous amounts of information. and necessary to inform and engage the user.
 Offers a low-cost way of distributing larger 3. Do some background research, web surfing in
documents. your chosen area or field. Discover what
 Offers a highly accessible forum for posting works well on other websites, what they
project updates.
cover, what they omit, and use this
Special considerations/weaknesses: information to improve your own website.
 Many people still cannot access the web.

4. Trial the website before releasing it to the
public. A bad experience with a website can
mean people do not return. Ensure all links
are working, and that the material scrolls
smoothly with minimum delays.
5. Launch the website with suitable coverage in
the media, in newsletters, and in a public
forum
6. Ensure that you have alternative
communication options for those who are not
web literate or do not have access to the
internet.
7. Place the website address on all
correspondence and other printed material
from the organisation.

3.68. Workshops  Fosters small group or one-on-one
communication.
Description:  Offers a choice of team members to answer
A structured forum where people are invited to difficult questions.
work together in a group (or groups) on a common
 Builds ownership and credibility for the
problem or task. The goals are to resolve issues outcomes.
and build consensus for action, rather than
provide information and answer people’s  Maximises feedback obtained from
questions. participants.
If the workshop is intended as a community event Special considerations/weaknesses:

focusing on a community issue, the selection of  Ability to draw on other team members to
participants is determined by knowledge, answer difficult questions.
expertise or by selecting a cross-section of views.
Alternatively, workshops can be organised to  Builds credibility.
target particular groups (e.g. young people,  Fosters public ownership in solving the
women). problem.
Workshops require a facilitator who is able to  Hostile participants may resist what they may
engage all participants in the discussion. perceive as the ‘divide and conquer’ strategy
Workshops are a participatory tool that are best of breaking into small groups.
used with smaller numbers of participants.  Facilitators need to know how they will use
The Ontario Public Consultation Guide suggests a the public input before they begin the
workshop can meet three key objectives of the workshop.
public consultation program:  Several small group facilitators are usually
 Understanding the public: workshops allow needed.38
you to learn in detail the views and
Resources required:
suggestions of participants.
 Publicity
 Discussing the issues: other viewpoints and
ideas and possible solutions can be heard in a  Venue rental
non-confrontational atmosphere.  Catering
 Building consensus for action: participants can  Staffing
have a free-flowing discussion of new
approaches that can lead to group decisions
or positions.  Experts
A variety of tools can be used in a workshop.  Recorders
These include many of the tools listed in this  Gophers
toolbox (e.g. focus groups, visioning).
 Artists/photographer
Objectives:  Audiovisual recording equipment and
Workshops aim to bring participants together in a amplification
structured environment (that is, through large and  Overhead projectors
small-group activities, discussions, and reflection)
to plan, decide or overcome difficulties.  Data projectors
 Video
Outcomes:
Workshops can deliver a report, opinions,
suggestions or plans that have been  Printed public information sheets
collaboratively developed and agreed to by all  Response sheets
participants, on an issue or proposal.
Uses/strengths: etc.)
 Excellent for discussion of criteria or analysis  Furniture
of alternatives.

 Children’s requirements  Relationships between participants.
Can be used for:  Topic to be considered.

 Engage community  Clear definition of current situation,
including decisions already made.
 Area of topic to be covered, with the
 Develop community capacity questions and problems requiring
 Develop action plan participants to be involved in and
 Communicate an issue developing solutions.
2. Identify and book appropriate location
(including wall space for posting notes and
cards, tea/coffee area, required break-out
areas), tables and chairs.
3. Arrange suitable catering.
Audience size:
4. Arrange transport/child care/special facilities
 Large (> 30)
for target participants.
 Medium (11–30)
5. Supply special equipment.
 Small (≤ 10)
6. Approve facilitators running sheet design.
Time required:
 Medium (6 weeks – 6 months) 7. Enable and ensure target participants attend.
Skill level/support required: 8. Introduce the facilitator on the day.
 Medium (Computer & other expertise) Responsibility of the facilitator:
Cost: 1. Collect brief from organiser.

 High (> AUD$10,000) 2. Ensure that participants are not expected to
 Medium (AUD$1,000 – AUD$10,000) ‘rubber stamp’ decisions already made (other
 Low (< AUD$1,000) than confirming those decisions), or provide
unrealistic outputs for the time available.
 High (Stakeholders participate in decision)  Detail design of the day, identifying what
participants will be required to consider,
Innovation level: and methodology for this to be achieved
 Low (Traditional) (running sheet).
 Ensure that organiser has carried out all
Method: functional aspects as above.
Responsibility of the organiser:
 Run the event.
1. Engage and brief facilitator. Brief to comprise:
 Write up and provide organiser with
 Date, time and expected duration of proceedings within agreed timeline.
workshop.
 Description of target participants.

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Effective Engagement: building relationships with

community and other stakeholders

The engagement toolkit

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0

ISBN BOOK 1 1 74152 241 2

1The former Coastal CRC was based in Queensland and

1 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

 Does the tool match your overall program

2 http://www.iap2.org [accessed 15/10/2014]

2 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

4 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

4 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

5 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

Outcomes: Can be used for:

6 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

7 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

Objectives: Time required:

8 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

6. Do not criticise or evaluate during the

7. Record ideas no matter how unrealistic, until

8. Record all ideas on a whiteboard or projector

9. Encourage ‘spark off’ associations from other

9 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

Objectives: Resources required:

 Allows sponsor to reach a large number of Audience size:

10 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

11 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

Uses/strengths:  May be time and labour intensive if the issue

Can be used for:

12 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

Number of people required to help organise: formation.

 Large (> 12 people) 8. The organising group or agency should work

Time required: 11. Use a consistently credible process.

13 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

Can be used for:

14 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

Skill level/support required:

3. Provide expert witnesses to brief the jury who

15 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

In this way, civic journalism is encouraging citizens Skill level/support required:

16 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

4. Keep contact with key journalists to

3. Invite politicians to discuss issues with citizen

4. Encourage citizens to develop options and

17 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

Resources required: Skill level/support required:

18 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

3. Provide low-cost or free activities (rides,

4. Advertise and publicise the event with

6. Determine appropriate consultative activities

19 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

Skill level/support required:

20 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

21 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

Uses/strengths: Can be used for:

 Profiles can highlight the gaps in our  Communicate an issue

22 Effective Engagement Book 3: the engagement toolkit

 What is the purpose of the community

 What are the key questions to be