Engineering Physics 1

Dr. M. K. Srivastava
Department of Physics
Indian Institute of Technology- Roorkee

Module-01
Lecture 03
Double Refraction

Okay, this is the third lecture of the five lecture series on polarization. In this last lecture which
was the second one, we studied Malus law.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:39)

Which defines the intensity of the transmitted beam when a plane polarized light passes through
a polarizer, this intensity is proportional to the square of the cos of the angle between the
direction of vibration in the incident light and the past direction of the analyzer. We also
considered superposition of two electromagnetic waves under different conditions.

That it waves having electric field in the same direction, or electric field in perpendicular
direction and with varying phase difference between them. In the present lecture, which is the
third one in the series, we shall consider phenomena of double refraction; we shall look at
dichroism and study the working of Nicol prism. Let us start with the double refraction. Now, the
superposition of two plane polarized waves under different conditions.
(Refer Slide Time: 1:56)
As described earlier in the last lecture can be experimentally studied and analyzed by using the
phenomena of double refraction and crystals of calcite and quartz.
(Refer Slide Time: 2:15)

In general, all crystals except those belonging to the cubic system or anisotropic to a greater or
lesser degree. Anisotropic means different properties in different directions that is, the properties
vary with the direction. Calcite and quartz are very common examples of anisotropic crystals.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:44)
Chemically calcite is calcium carbonate CaCo3, while quartz is a pure silica, silicon dioxide;
both of these show simple type of anisotropy which characterizes uniaxial crystals.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:07)

In these crystals, there is a single direction called the optic axis which is an axis of symmetry
with respect to both the crystal form and the arrangement of atoms. If any property such as for
example heat conductivity is measured for different directions.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:30)
In such a crystal it is found to be the same along any line perpendicular to the optic axis which is
the symmetry axis. It changes with angles reaching a maximum or minimum along the optic axis.
Now, both of these crystals the calcite and quartz are transparent to visible as well as ultraviolet
light. That is why they are of interest to us in this study. When it beam of ordinary unpolarized
light is incident on a calcite or quartz crystal.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:20)

There are in addition to the reflected beam, two refracted beams. Remember, two refracted
beams in place of the usual single one. For example, which is observed for example, in glass or
any other isotropic material, this phenomena is called double refraction or birefringence.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:50)
The beam which travels undeviated for normal incidence is known as the ordinary ray usually
abbreviated as the o-ray and obeys Snell's law of refraction. Snell's law is the ratio of the sine of
the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction, is constant; does not depend on the
angle of incidence. It also does not depend on the direction of propagation. And the incident ray,
the refracted ray and normal to the surface, they are all in the same plane.

On the other hand the second beam second refracted beam which in general does not obey Snell's
laws is known as the extraordinary ray, usually abbreviated as the e-ray.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:57)

Here the incident beam is getting spitted into two. One is called the ordinary; the other is called
the extraordinary. If the two opposite phases of this crystal or parallel, I have shown in the figure.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:24)
The two refracted rays emerged parallel to the incident beam and therefore parallel to each other.
Inside the crystal however, the ordinary ray is always found to be in the plane of incidence, as
happens in any isotropic material. That is a normal situation which is very common. However,
this is true for the extraordinary ray only for some special directions. In general, this is not true
for the extraordinary ray.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:08)

If the incident light is normal to the surface of the crystal the extraordinary ray will be reflected
at some angles, that is not zero. Note this is a very special feature. The incident beam is normal
the extraordinary ray will be reflected at some angle that is not zero. And will come out parallel
to but displaced from the incident beam. The ordinary ray will pass through straight
underweighted which is usually the case, which it really should be the case because the angle of
incidence is zero. The angle of reflection cannot be anything but zero.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:48)

Now, if we put a polarizer behind the calcite crystal and rotate the polarizer about the line NN
prime, then, for two positions of the polarizer, when the passed axis is perpendicular to the plane
of the screen the e-ray will be completely blocked. And only the o-ray will pass through because
the direction of vibrations in the o-ray is along the pass direction of the polarizer that is getting
through.

For the extraordinary ray, the direction of vibrations is perpendicular to the pass direction of the
polarizer it is getting blocked. Remember, Malus law goes of 90 degrees is zero.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:37)
That is the situation in this figure, on the other hand, when the pass axis of the polarizer is in the
plane of the screen along the line PP prime.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:52)

Then, the o-ray will be completely blocked and only the e-ray will pass through. Situation has
just interchanged for them if we rotate the crystal about NN prime, then, the e-ray will also rotate
about it. Actually the tip of the extraordinary ray will describe a circle whose center will be given
by the ordinary ray. Another thing to be noted, both the rays, the ordinary and the extraordinary
are plane polarized. Remember, the incident beam was unpolarised.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:51)

The double refraction in uniaxial crystals disappears, when the light is made to enter the crystals,
so that it travels along the optic axis which is the symmetry axis. That is the reason, no
separation of the ordinary and extraordinary ray in this case. This is the case when the
propagation is along the optic axis.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:16)

The velocity of the ordinary ray is same in all directions. This is a very usual case that does not
depend on the directions as it happens in all isotropic materials; whereas the velocity of the
extraordinary ray is different in different directions. These are given by the following equations:
(Refer Slide Time: 10:38)

v of ro = c upon no, this is for the ordinary ray 1 upon v of re that is the inverse of the velocity
for the extraordinary ray is given by sine square theta divided by c by ne square + cos square
theta divided by c of no square this for the extraordinary ray here. And no and ne are the
refractive indices of the crystal for the ordinary and for the extraordinary respectively. And theta
is the angle that the ray makes with the optic axis. We have assumed the optic axis to be parallel
to the z axis here.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:31)

The c by no and c by ne are the velocities of the extraordinary ray when it propagates parallel
and perpendicular to the optic axis; parallel to the optic axis means theta =0. Perpendicular to the
optic axis means theta equal to Pi by 2. Let us consider the equation of an ellipse in the zx plane.
That is z square upon a square + x square upon b square = 1 where a and b are proportional to the
velocities of the ordinary and the extraordinary rays, c upon no and c upon ne respectively.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:30)

In polar coordinates Rho theta z and x are given by z = Rho cos theta and x = Rho sine theta and
the equation of the ellipse which is given above can then be written in the form, 1 upon Rho
square = cos is square theta upon a square + sine square theta upon b square.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:05)

In three dimensions this will represent an ellipsoid of revolution with the optic axis as the axis of
revolution. Remember, optic axis is the symmetry axis.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:23)

Thus, if we plot v of r e as a function of theta, we will obtain an ellipsoid of revolution because

For a negative crystal like calcite n of e less than n of o and therefore v of re for this direction
theta equal to PI by 2 = c of ne which is greater than v of ro. In this case, the minor axis of the
ellipsoid will be along the optic axis and lie side of revolution will be outside the sphere.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:12)

On the other hand, for a positive crystal like quartz ne is greater than no and v of re therefore for
theta equal to PI by 2 is greater than v of ro. The major axis will now be along the optic axis and
ellipsoid of revolution will lie inside the sphere.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:33)
These are given in these pictures. The ellipsoid of revolution and the sphere, they are known as
velocity ray surfaces. For both waves, now that is important.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:52)

For both waves ordinary and extraordinary the space and time dependence of the electric field E,
electric displacement D, magnetic induction B, magnetic field H, see all these quantities
appeared in the Maxwell's equations. So, all of these can be assumed to be of the plane wave
form e raised to the power ik dot r - Omega t for a plain monochromatic wave. Here k denotes
the propagation vector and represents the direction normal to the phase fronts.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:39)
In general, the k vector for the o and the e waves will be different. But D dot k is 0 for both o and
the e rays. This means the electric displacement D is always perpendicular to the k vector and for
this reason the direction of D is chosen as the direction of vibration. If we assume that z axis to
be parallel to the optic axis then,
(Refer Slide Time: 17:17)

D dot z will be equal to zero for the o wave. On top of this, D dot k is 0 anyway. Thus for the
ordinary wave, the D vector that is the direction of vibration is at right angles to the optic axis as
well as to k. This means the direction of vibrations for the ordinary ray it has right angles to the
plane containing the optic axis and the vector k. For the e wave on the other hand, directed
displacement vector D lies in the plane containing k and the optic axis along with the condition
that D dot k is 0.
Let us consider the general propagation in a doubly refracting crystal. Let us consider incident
wave, incident normally on a uniaxial crystal like calcite.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:30)

Without loss of generality we can always choose the optic axis to lie in the plane of the screen as
shown in the figure. Two orientations of the optic axis are shown.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:46)

A, B and C, D or the incident rays; BD line is the line of intersection of the incident wave front
and the plane of the screen. Once the light enters the material, we find that there is splitting. The
points B and D are touched at the same time. Remember, the beam is incident normally.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:34)
Now, in order to determine the ordinary ray, we draw A sphere with point B at center and radius c
upon no. Remember, c upon no is the speed of the ordinary ray. Similarly, we draw another
sphere of the same radius because both these spheres are originating at the same instant. The
points B and D become, they become active at the same time. So that is why the radius is same
for this field is starting from the point D.

These two spheres represent the wavelet is starting from the points B and D respectively after
some time. The common tangent plane to these spheres is shown as O O prime which represents
the wave front at that time corresponding to the ordinary refracted ray. Note that the dots show
the direction of vibrations.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:39)
The direction of the electric displacement vector D which are perpendicular to k and to the optic
axis as pointed out earlier. Remember, we are talking about the ordinary ray.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:04)

In order to determine the extraordinary ray, we draw an ellipse centered at the point B with this
minor ax= c upon no along the optic axis and with the major ax= c upon ne perpendicular to the
optic axis. The lips wider revolution is obtained by rotating the ellipse about the optic axis which
is the symmetry axis. Similarly, we draw another ellipsoid of revolution from the point D
identical in shape, identical in size. Remember, the points B and D become active at the same
time.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:53)

The common tangent plane to these ellipsoids which will be perpendicular to k is shown as E E
prime in the figure. This is the wave front corresponding to the extraordinary ray. If you join the
point B to the point of contact O then, corresponding to the incident ray AB the direction of the
ordinary ray in the crystal will be along BO.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:29)

Similarly, if we go in the point B to the point of contact E between the ellipsoid of revolution and
the tangent plane EE prime, then, the corresponding to the incident ray AB the direction of the
extraordinary ray will be along BE.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:55)

Note that the direction of k is same here for both o and e waves. Both are along BO.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:11)
However, if we have a narrow beam of light incident as AB, the ordinary ray will propagate
along BO while the extraordinary ray will propagate in a different direction BE, the distance will
between them will go on increasing.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:35)

Obviously, if we have a different direction of the optic axis as shown in the lower part of the
figure, then, although the direction of the ordinary ray will remain the same as it should.
Remember, the ordinary will satisfy the Snell's laws of refraction the extraordinary ray will
propagate in a different direction now.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:00)
This is because of erection optic axis a change and they have, it have changed the orientation of
the ellipsoid of revolution. Now, if we ray is incident normally on a calcite crystal and if the
crystal is rotated about the normal then, the optic axis.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:30)

And extraordinary ray will also rotate about the normal on the periphery of a cone. The tip of the
extraordinary ray will be described by a circle. So, for the ordinary ray is concerned, it remains
unchanged all the time. The effective index and n of re corresponding to the extraordinary ray
propagating along a direction making an angle theta with the optic axis is given by.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:062)
n of re = c upon v of re which = the square root of no square cos s square theta + ne square sine
square theta this means that on the optic axis theta = 0, n of re = no. That is for the ordinary and
perpendicular to the optic axis theta = PI by 2 n of re = ne.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:52)

As pointed out earlier, the direction of vibration for the ordinary ray is normal to the optic axis
and the vector k. As such the directions of these vibrations in this case, will be normal to the
plane of the screen and that is why they have been shown as dots in the figure. For the
extraordinary they are in the same plane and they have been shown by short arrows.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:31)
That occurs as x-ray extraordinary rays perpendicular to k and lies as I pointed out earlier just
now in the plane containing the extraordinary ray and the optic axis.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:40)

Thus an incident ray will split up into two rays propagating in different directions within the
crystal and when they leave, we will obtain two pain polarized beams polarized in perpendicular
directions and traveling parallel to each other and also separated from each other. We shall now
consider some special cases.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:19)
In the above we have taken the optic axis to make an arbitrary angle with the normal to the
surface of the crystal.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:42)

We shall now consider special cases, the normal incidence again but with the optic axis in the
plane of incidence and parallel to the crystal surface or in the plane of incidence perpendicular to
the crystal surface or perpendicular to the plane of incidence and parallel to the crystal surface.
Let us consider these one by one. First we take up optic axis in the plane of incidence and
parallel to the crystal surface.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:17)
The optic axis here lies along MN. AB is the incident plane wave front of the rays falling
normally on the surface MN of calcite.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:28)

PR is the refracted wave front for the ordinary ray and QS for the extraordinary ray. They have
been described earlier; we follow the same construction here.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:51)
The wave fronts PR and QS are parallel to each other. The ordinary and extraordinary rays travel
along the same direction but with different velocities in the crystal. In calcite the extraordinary
rays rolls faster than the ordinary ray. A phase difference naturally gets introduced between them
as they propagate in the crystal.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:25)

See the lower part of the figure shows the wave fronts and the direction of vibrations for the
ordinary and the extraordinary beams respect to the plane containing the beam and the optic axis.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:41)
Now, let us consider the second possibility, optic axis perpendicular to the plane of incidence and
parallel to the crystal surface.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:57)

AB is again incident wave front of the rays falling normally on the calcite surface MN. The form
of the wave front, for the ordinary and the extraordinary rays are shown in the figure. Both are
spheres.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:29)
The radius of the ordinary wave front is vo into t; that of the extraordinary is ve into t where t the
time elapsed after the waves originated from the points A or B. PR is the refracted wave front for
the ordinary rays QS is for extraordinary rays. They have been obtained up in the same way as in
the earlier case. The ordinary and extraordinary rays travel with different velocities along the
same direction.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:05)

In this case, both the ordinary and extraordinary rays obeys the standard laws of refraction is
Snell's laws. Because we finally see the wave fronts are is spherical in this geometry. Again note
the direction of vibrations for the ordinary and extraordinary beams given in the lower part of the
figure for the extraordinary ray they are in the plane containing the propagation and the optic
axis. For the present case this plane is perpendicular to the screen. And therefore vibrations for
the extraordinary rays are shown as dots.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:51)

In the above two cases, if the incident wave is polarized perpendicular to the optic axis, it will
propagate as an ordinary wave with velocity c upon no. And there will be no extraordinary wave.
On the other hand, if the incident wave is polarized and polarized parallel to the optic axis, it will
propagate as an e wave with velocity c over ne. And there will be no ordinary wave. Let us now
take an the third case.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:38)

Optic axis in the plane of incidence and perpendicular to the crystal surface: The optic axis has
been shown as a dashed line. AB is incident plane wave front as in the earlier cases of the rays
falling normally on the surface of the crystal MN as before.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:04)

The optic axis is in the plane of incidence and perpendicular to the surface of the crystal. As I
said earlier, it is shown in the figure as the dashed line;
(Refer Slide Time: 33:24)

The spherical and ellipsoidal wavelets originating from the point A touch each other at P
similarly those originating from the point B touch each other at R. There is no separation of the
ordinary and the extraordinary rays.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:47)
Both travel with the same velocity along the optic axis, remember, which is the symmetry axis.
Here, the refractive index for the extraordinary ray along AQ = the refractive index for the
ordinary ray. The vibrations shown in the lower part of the figure are in the plane of the screen
for the extraordinary ray and perpendicular to it for the ordinary ray just following the same
arrangement as in the earlier cases. Let us now consider yet another interesting phenomena.
(Refer Slide Time: 34:33)

The phenomena of Dichroism: You see, there are certain crystals and minerals which are doubly
refracting; but they have another special property and that is they have the property of absorbing
the ordinary and the extraordinary rays unequally. And in this way, a plane polarized light is
produced, at least in principle. The crystals having this property are called dichoric and the
phenomena is known as dichroism. Tourmaline is a dichroic crystal.
(Refer Slide Time: 35:17)

This figure shows the passage of an unpolarized beam to a tourmaline crystal. It progressively
absorbs the horizontal vibrations which correspond here to the ordinary ray with a result that by
the time the beam comes out,
(Refer Slide Time: 35:38)

The horizontal vibrations are almost completely absorbed while the extraordinary ray which has
vertical vibrations here passes through without much attenuation. The tourmaline crystal is
sometimes used to serve as a polarizer or as an analyzer. Now, we come to another interesting
device work as a polarizer, Nicol prism.
(Refer Slide Time: 36:16)
There is another method for eliminating one of the polarized beams ordinary or extraordinary.
This is through total internal reflection and letting the other one to pass through and thus making
a polarizing device. It is a very ingenious method. We know that the two beams have different
ray velocities and as such the corresponding refractive indices are different.
(Refer Slide Time: 36:55)

If one can sandwich a layer of a material whose refractive index lies between the above two
refractive indices, then, for one of the beams, incidence will be at a rarer medium. And for the
other, it will be at a denser medium.
(Refer Slide Time: 37:27)
This principle is used in Nicol prism which consists of a calcite crystal cut in such a way that for
the beam for which the sandwich material is a rarer medium, the angle of incidence is greater
than the critical angle.
(Refer Slide Time: 37:40)

Now, this particular beam will be eliminated by total internal reflection. This is happening here
for the ordinary ray. See, the dashed outline in the figure corresponds to the natural crystal.
(Refer Slide Time: 37:57)
The front face is slightly etched to change the angle from 71 degrees to 68 degrees a layer of
Canada balsam has been introduced in the diagonal plane of the crystal as shown in the figure.
This material is not doubly refracting and its refractive index is 1.55 which is, intermediate
between refractive index for the ordinary which is 1.65836 and ne refractive index for the
extraordinary 1.4864.

So, Canada balsam offers a rarer medium for the ordinary ray. The crystal is cut in such a way so
that the angle of incidence at the Canada balsam layer is more than the critical angle.
(Refer Slide Time: 39:00)

And the ordinary ray which is meeting a rarer medium, Canada Balsam layer, undergoes total
internal reflection at the layer and is then absorbed by the sides of the crystal. The extraordinary
component passes through and the beam emerging from the crystal is plane polarized. So, we
have a simple polarizing device, okay. With this, we have come to the end of this lecture.