INTRODUCTION TO ALGORITHMS AND DATA STRUCTURES

Definition: - An algorithm is a Step By Step process to solve a problem, where each

step indicates an intermediate task. Algorithm contains finite number of steps that
leads to the solution of the problem.
Properties /Characteristics of an
Algorithm:- Algorithm has the following
basic properties
• Input-Output:- Algorithm takes ‘0’ or more input and produces the required
output.This is the basic characteristic of an algorithm.
• Finiteness:- An algorithm must terminate in countable number of steps.
• Definiteness: Each step of an algorithm must be stated clearly and unambiguously.
• Effectiveness: Each and every step in an algorithm can be converted in to
programming language statement.
• Generality: Algorithm is generalized one. It works on all set of inputs and
providesthe required output. In other words it is not restricted to a single input
value.
Categories of Algorithm:
Based on the different types of steps in an Algorithm, it can be divided into three
categories, namely
• Sequence
• Selection and
• Iteration
Sequence: The steps described in an algorithm are performed successively one by one
without skipping any step. The sequence of steps defined in an algorithm should be
simple and easy to understand. Each instruction of such an algorithm is executed,
because no selection procedure or conditional branching exists in a sequence
algorithm.
Example:
// adding two
numbersStep 1: start
Step 2: read a,b
Step 3: Sum=a+b
Step 4: write Sum
Step 5: stop
Selection: The sequence type of algorithms are not sufficient to solve the problems,
which involves decision and conditions. In order to solve the problem which involve
decision making or option selection, we go for Selection type of algorithm. The general
format of Selection type of statement is as shown below:
if(condition)
Statement-1;
else
Statement-2;
The above syntax specifies that if the condition is true, statement-1 will be executed
otherwise statement-2 will be executed. In case the operation is unsuccessful. Then
sequence of algorithm should be changed/ corrected in such a way that the system
will re- execute until the operation is successful.
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Iteration: Iteration type algorithms are used in solving the problems which involves
repetition of statement. In this type of algorithms, a particular number of statements
are repeated ‘n’ no. of times.
Example1:
Step 1 : start
Step 2 : read n
Step 3 : repeat step 4 until
n>0 Step 4 : (a) r=n mod 10
(b) s=s+r
(c) n=n/1
0Step 5 : write s
Step 6 : stop
Performance Analysis an Algorithm:
The Efficiency of an Algorithm can be measured by the following metrics.
i. Time Complexity and
ii. Space
Complexity.i.Time
Complexity:
The amount of time required for an algorithm to complete its execution is its time
complexity. An algorithm is said to be efficient if it takes the minimum (reasonable)
amount of time to complete its execution.
ii. Space Complexity:
The amount of space occupied by an algorithm is known as Space Complexity. An
algorithm is said to be efficient if it occupies less space and required the minimum
amount of time to complete its execution.
1. Write an algorithm for roots of a Quadratic Equation?
// Roots of a quadratic
EquationStep 1 : start
Step 2 : read a,b,c
Step 3 : if (a= 0) then step 4 else step 5
Step 4 : Write “ Given equation is a linear
equation “Step 5 : d=(b * b) _ (4 *a *c)
Step 6 : if ( d>0) then step 7 else step8
Step 7 : Write “ Roots are real and
Distinct” Step 8: if(d=0) then step 9 else
step 10
Step 9: Write “Roots are real and
equal”Step 10: Write “ Roots are
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Imaginary” Step 11: stop

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2. Write an algorithm to find the largest among three different numbers entered by user
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Declare variables a,b
and c.Step 3: Read variables a,b
and c.
Step 4: If a>b
If a>c
Display a is the largest
number.Else
Display c is the largest number.
Else
If b>c
Display b is the largest
number.Else
Display c is the greatest number.
Step 5: Stop
3. Write an algorithm to find the factorial of a number entered by user.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Declare variables n,factorial and i.
Step 3: Initialize
variables
factorial←1
i←1
Step 4: Read value of n
Step 5: Repeat the steps until
i=n5.1: factorial←factorial*i
5.2: i←i+1
Step 6: Display
factorialStep 7: Stop
4. Write an algorithm to find the Simple Interest for given Time and Rate of Interest .
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read P,R,S,T.
Step 3: Calculate
S=(PTR)/100Step 4: Print S
Step 5: Stop
ASYMPTOTIC NOTATIONS
Asymptotic analysis of an algorithm refers to defining the mathematical
boundation/framing of its run-time performance. Using asymptotic analysis, we can
very well conclude the best case, average case, and worst case scenario of an
algorithm.
Asymptotic analysis is input bound i.e., if there's no input to the algorithm, it is
concluded to work in a constant time. Other than the "input" all other factors are
considered constant.
Asymptotic analysis refers to computing the running time of any operation in
mathematical units of computation. For example, the running time of one operation
is computed as f(n) and may be for another operation it is computed as g(n2). This
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means the first operation running time will increase linearly with the increase in n
and the running time of the second operation will increase exponentially when n
increases. Similarly, the running time of both operations will be nearly the same if n
is significantly small.

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The time required by an algorithm falls under three types −
• Best Case − Minimum time required for program execution.
• Average Case − Average time required for program execution.
• Worst Case − Maximum time required for program execution.
Asymptotic Notations
Following are the commonly used asymptotic notations to calculate the running
timecomplexity of an algorithm.
• Ο Notation
• Ω Notation
• θ Notation
Big Oh Notation, Ο
The notation Ο(n) is the formal way to express the upper bound of an algorithm's
running time. It measures the worst case time complexity or the longest amount of
time an algorithm can possibly take to complete.

For example, for a function f(n)

Ο(f(n)) = { g(n) : there exists c > 0 and n0 such that f(n) ≤ c.g(n) for all n > n0. }
Omega Notation, Ω
The notation Ω(n) is the formal way to express the lower bound of an algorithm's
running time. It measures the best case time complexity or the best amount of time
an algorithm can possibly take to complete.

For example, for a function f(n)

Ω(f(n)) ≥ { g(n) : there exists c > 0 and n0 such that g(n) ≤ c.f(n) for all n > n0. }
Theta Notation, θ
The notation θ(n) is the formal way to express both the lower bound and the upper
bound of an algorithm's running time. It is represented as follows −
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θ(f(n)) = { g(n) if and only if g(n) = Ο(f(n)) and g(n) = Ω(f(n)) for all n > n0. }
DATA STRUCTURES
Data may be organized in many different ways logical or mathematical model of a
program particularly organization of data. This organized data is called “Data
Structure”.
Or
The organized collection of data is called a ‘Data Structure’.

Data Structure=Organized data +Allowed operations

Data Structure involves two complementary goals. The first goal is to identify and
develop useful, mathematical entities and operations and to determine what class of
problems can be solved by using these entities and operations. The second goal is to
determine representation for those abstract entities to implement abstract
operations on this concreterepresentation.

Primitive Data structures are directly supported by the language ie; any operation is directly
performed in these data items.
Ex: integer, Character, Real numbers etc.
Non-primitive data types are not defined by the programming language, but are
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instead created by the programmer.

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 Linear data structures organize their data elements in a linear fashion, where
data elements are attached one after the other. Linear data structures are very easy
to implement, since the memory of the computer is also organized in a linear
fashion. Some commonly used linear data structures are arrays, linked lists, stacks
and queues.
In nonlinear data structures, data elements are not organized in a
sequential fashion. Data structures like multidimensional arrays, trees, graphs, tables
and sets are some examples of widely used nonlinear data structures.
Operations on the Data Structures:
Following operations can be performed on the data structures:
1. Traversing
2. Searching
3. Inserting
4. Deleting
5. Sorting
6. Merging
1. Traversing- It is used to access each data item exactly once so that it can be processed.
2. Searching- It is used to find out the location of the data item if it exists in the given
collection of data items.
3. Inserting- It is used to add a new data item in the given collection of data items.
4. Deleting- It is used to delete an existing data item from the given collection of data
items. 5. Sorting- It is used to arrange the data items in some order i.e. in ascending
or descending order in case of numerical data and in dictionary order in case of
alphanumeric data.
6. Merging- It is used to combine the data items of two sorted files into single file in
the sorted form.
STACKS AND QUEUES

STACKS
A Stack is linear data structure. A stack is a list of elements in which an element may
be inserted or deleted only at one end, called the top of the stack. Stack principle is
LIFO (last in, first out). Which element inserted last on to the stack that element
deleted first from the stack.
As the items can be added or removed only from the top i.e. the last item to be
added to a stack is the first item to be removed.
Real life examples of stacks are:

Operations on stack:
The two basic operations associated with stacks are:
1. Push
2. Pop
While performing push and pop operations the following test must be conducted
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 on the stack.
a) Stack is empty or not b) stack is full or not
1. Push: Push operation is used to add new elements in to the stack. At the time of
addition first check the stack is full or not. If the stack is full it generates an error
message "stack overflow".

2. Pop: Pop operation is used to delete elements from the stack. At the time of
deletion first check the stack is empty or not. If the stack is empty it generates an
error message "stack underflow".
All insertions and deletions take place at the same end, so the last element
added to the stack will be the first element removed from the stack. When a
stack is created, the stack base remains fixed while the stack top changes as
elements are added and removed. The most accessible element is the top and the
least accessible element is the bottom of the stack.
Representation of Stack (or) Implementation of stack:
The stack should be represented in two ways:
1. Stack using array
2. Stack using linked list
1. Stack using array:
Let us consider a stack with 6 elements capacity. This is called as the size of the stack.
The number of elements to be added should not exceed the maximum size of the
stack. If we attempt to add new element beyond the maximum size, we will
encounter a stack overflow condition. Similarly, you cannot remove elements
beyond the base of the stack. If such is the case, we will reach a stack underflow
condition.
1. push():When an element is added to a stack, the operation is performed by push().
Below Figure shows the creation of a stack and addition of elements using push().

m,

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 Initially top=-1, we can insert an element Algorithm: Procedure for push():
in to the stack, increment the top value
i.etop=top+1. We can insert an element Step 1: START
in to the stack first check the condition is Step 2: if top>=size-1 then
stack is full or not. i.e top>=size-1. Write “ Stack is
Otherwise add the element in to the Overflow”Step 3: Otherwise
stack.void push() 3.1: read data value
{ ‘x’3.2: top=top+1;
int x; 3.3: stack[top]=x;
if(top >= n-1) Step 4: END
{printf("\n\nStackOverflow..");
return;
} else
{ printf("\n\nEnter data: ");
scanf("%d", &x); stack[top] = x;
top = top + 1;
printf("\n\nData Pushed
into the stack");
} }
2. Pop(): When an element is taken off from the stack, the operation is performed by
pop(). Below figure shows a stack initially with three elements and shows the
deletion of elements using pop().

We can insert an element from the stack, decrement the top value i.e top=top-1.
We can delete an element from the stack first check the condition is stack is empty or not.
i.e top==-1. Otherwise remove the element from the stack.

Void pop() Algorithm: procedure pop():

{ Step 1: START
If(top==-1) Step 2: if top==-1 then
{ Write “Stack is
Printf(“Stack is Underflow”); Underflow”Step 3: otherwise
} 3.1: print “deleted
else element”3.2: top=top-1;
{ Step 4: END
printf(“Delete data
%d”,stack[top]); top=top-1;
}
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 }

3. display(): This operation performed display the elements in the stack. We display
the element in the stack check the condition is stack is empty or not i.e top==-
1.Otherwise display the list of elements in the stack.

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 void display() Algorithm: procedure pop():
{ Step 1: START
If(top==-1) Step 2: if top==-1 then
{ Write “Stack is
Printf(“Stack is Underflow”); Underflow”Step 3: otherwise
} 3.1: print “Display elements
else are”3.2: for top to 0
{ Print
printf(“Display elements ‘stack[i]’Step 4: END
are:);for(i=top;i>=0;i--)
printf(“%d”,stack[i]);
}
}

Source code for stack operations, using array:

#include<stdio.h
>
#inlcude<conio.
h>
int
stack[100],choice,n,top,x,i;
void push(void);
void pop(void);
void
display(void);int
main()
{
top=-1;
printf("\n Enter the size of
STACK[MAX=100]:"); scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\n\t STACK OPERATIONS USING ARRAY");
printf("\n\t 1.PUSH\n\t 2.POP\n\t 3.DISPLAY\n\t
4.EXIT");do
{
printf("\n Enter the
Choice:");
scanf("%d",&choice);
switch(choice)
{
case 1:
{
push()
;
break;
}
case 2:
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 {
pop();
break
;
}
case 3:
{
display()
;break;
}
case 4:
{
printf("\n\t EXIT POINT
");break;
}
default:
{
printf ("\n\t Please Enter a Valid Choice(1/2/3/4)");
} } }
while(choice!=4
);return 0;
}
void push()
{
if(top>=n-1)
{
printf("\n\tSTACK is over flow");
} else
{
printf(" Enter a value to be
pushed:");scanf("%d",&x);
top++;
stack[top]=
x;
} }
void pop()
{
if(top<=-1)
{
printf("\n\t Stack is under flow");
}
else
{
printf("\n\t The popped elements is
%d",stack[top]); top--;
}
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}
void display()
{
if(top>=0)
{
printf("\n The elements in STACK
\n");for(i=top; i>=0; i--)
printf("\n%d",stack[i]);
printf("\n Press Next
Choice");
}
else
{
printf("\n The STACK is empty");
} }

2. Stack using Linked List:

We can represent a stack as a linked list. In a stack push and pop operations are
performed at one end called top. We can perform similar operations at one end of
list using top pointer. The linked stack looks as shown in figure.

Applications of stack:
1. Stack is used by compilers to check for balancing of parentheses, brackets and braces.
2. Stack is used to evaluate a postfix expression.
3. Stack is used to convert an infix expression into postfix/prefix form.
4. In recursion, all intermediate arguments and return values are stored on the
processor’sstack.
5. During a function call the return address and arguments are pushed onto a stack
and on return they are popped off.
Converting and evaluating Algebraic expressions:
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An algebraic expression is a legal combination of operators and operands. Operand
is the quantity on which a mathematical operation is performed. Operand may be a
variable like x, y, z or a constant like 5, 4, 6 etc. Operator is a symbol which signifies a
mathematical or logical operation between the operands. Examples of familiar
operators include +, -, *, /, ^ etc.
An algebraic expression can be represented using three different notations. They
are infix,postfix and prefix notations:
Infix: It is the form of an arithmetic expression in which we fix (place) the arithmetic
operator in between the two operands.
Example: A + B
Prefix: It is the form of an arithmetic notation in which we fix (place) the
arithmeticoperator before (pre) its two operands. The prefix notation is called as
polish notation.
Example: + A B
Postfix: It is the form of an arithmetic expression in which we fix (place) the
arithmetic operator after (post) its two operands. The postfix notation is called as
suffix notation and is also referred to reverse polish notation.
Example: A B +
Conversion from infix to postfix:
Procedure to convert from infix expression to postfix expression is as follows:
1. Scan the infix expression from left to right.
2. a) If the scanned symbol is left parenthesis, push it onto the stack.
b) If the scanned symbol is an operand, then place directly in the postfix
expression (output).
c) If the symbol scanned is a right parenthesis, then go on popping all the items
from the stack and place them in the postfix expression till we get the matching
left parenthesis.
d) If the scanned symbol is an operator, then go on removing all the operators
from the stack and place them in the postfix expression, if and only if the
precedence of the operator which is on the top of the stack is greater than (or
greater than or equal) to the precedence of the scanned operator and push the
scanned operator onto the stack otherwise, push the scanned operator onto the
stack.
The three important features of postfix expression are:
1. The operands maintain the same order as in the equivalent infix expression.
2. The parentheses are not needed to designate the expression unambiguously.
3. While evaluating the postfix expression the priority of the operators is no longer relevant.
We consider five binary operations: +, -, *, / and $ or ↑ (exponentiation). For these
binary operations, the following in the order of precedence (highest to lowest):

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Evaluation of postfix expression:
The postfix expression is evaluated easily by the use of a stack.
1. When a number is seen, it is pushed onto the stack;
2. When an operator is seen, the operator is applied to the two numbers
that arepopped from the stack and the result is pushed onto the stack.
3. When an expression is given in postfix notation, there is no need to
know anyprecedence rules; this is our obvious advantage.
QUEUE
A queue is linear data structure and collection of elements. A queue is another
special kind of list, where items are inserted at one end called the rear and deleted at
the other end called the front. The principle of queue is a “FIFO” or “First-in-first-
out”.
Queue is an abstract data structure. A queue is a useful data structure in
programming. It is similar to the ticket queue outside a cinema hall, where the first
person entering the queue is the first person who gets the ticket.
A real-world example of queue can be a single-lane one-way road, where the vehicle
enters first, exits first.

More real-world examples can be seen as queues at the ticket windows and bus-
stops and our college library.
The operations for a queue are analogues to those for a stack; the difference is that
the insertions go at the end of the list, rather than the beginning.
Operations on QUEUE:
A queue is an object or more specifically an abstract data structure (ADT) that
allows the following operations:
• Enqueue or insertion: which inserts an element at the end of the queue.
• Dequeue or deletion: which deletes an element at the start of the
queue.Queue operations work as follows:
1. Two pointers called FRONT and REAR are used to keep track of the first
and lastelements in the queue.
2. When initializing the queue, we set the value of FRONT and REAR to 0.
3. On enqueing an element, we increase the value of REAR index and place
the new element in the position pointed to by REAR.
4. On dequeueing an element, we return the value pointed to by FRONT and
increasethe FRONT index.
5. Before enqueing, we check if queue is already full.
6. Before dequeuing, we check if queue is already empty.
7. When enqueing the first element, we set the value of FRONT to 1.
8. When dequeing the last element, we reset the values of FRONT and REAR to 0.

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Representation of Queue (or) Implementation of Queue:
The queue can be represented in two ways:
1. Queue using Array
2. Queue using Linked List
1. Queue using Array:
Let us consider a queue, which can hold maximum of five elements. Initially the
queue isempty.

Now, insert 11 to the queue. Then queue status will be:

Next, insert 22 to the queue. Then the queue status is:

Again insert another element 33 to the queue. The status of the queue is:

Now, delete an element. The element deleted is the element at the front of the
queue.Sothe status of the queue is:

Again, delete an element. The element to be deleted is always pointed to by the

FRONTpointer. So, 22 is deleted. The queue status is as follows:

Now, insert new elements 44 and 55 into the queue. The queue status is:

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Next insert another element, say 66 to the queue. We cannot insert 66 to the queue
as the rear crossed the maximum size of the queue (i.e., 5). There will be queue full
signal. The queue status is as follows:

Now it is not possible to insert an element 66 even though there are two vacant
positions in the linear queue. To overcome this problem the elements of the queue
are to be shifted towards the beginning of the queue so that it creates vacant
position at the rear end. Then the FRONT and REAR are to be adjusted properly. The
element 66 can be inserted at the rear end. After this operation, the queue status is
as follows:

This difficulty can overcome if we treat queue position with index 0 as a position that
comesafter position with index 4 i.e., we treat the queue as a circular queue.

Queue operations using array:

a.enqueue() or insertion():which inserts an element at the end of the queue.
void insertion() Algorithm: Procedure for insertion():
{ Step-1:START
if(rear==max) Step-2: if rear==max then
printf("\n Queue is Write ‘Queue is
Full");else full’Step-3: otherwise
{ 3.1: read element
printf("\n Enter no ‘queue[rear]’Step-4:STOP
%d:",j++);
scanf("%d",&queue[rear++
]);
}
}

b.dequeue() or deletion(): which deletes an element at the start of the queue.

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 void deletion() Algorithm: procedure for deletion():
{ Step-1:START
if(front==rear) Step-2: if front==rear then
{ Write’ Queue is
printf("\n Queue is empty"); empty’
} Step-3: otherwise
else 3.1: print deleted
{ elementStep-4:STOP
printf("\n Deleted Element is
%d",queue[front++]);
x++;
}}
c.dispaly(): which displays an elements in the queue.
void deletion() Algorithm: procedure for deletion():
{ Step-1:START
if(front==rear) Step-2: if front==rear then
{ Write’ Queue is
printf("\n Queue is empty"); empty’
} Step-3: otherwise
else 3.1: for i=front to rear
{ then3.2: print ‘queue[i]’
for(i=front; i<rear; i++) Step-4:STOP
{
printf("%d",queue[i]);
printf("\n");
}
}
}

2. Queue using Linked list:

We can represent a queue as a linked list. In a queue data is deleted from the front
end and inserted at the rear end. We can perform similar operations on the two ends
of alist. We use two pointers front and rear for our linked queue implementation.
The linked queue looks as shown in figure:

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Applications of Queue:
1. It is used to schedule the jobs to be processed by the CPU.
2. When multiple users send print jobs to a printer, each printing job is kept in the
printing queue. Then the printer prints those jobs according to first in first out (FIFO)
basis.
3. Breadth first search uses a queue data structure to find an element from a graph.
CIRCULAR QUEUE
A more efficient queue representation is obtained by regarding the array Q[MAX] as
circular. Any number of items could be placed on the queue. This implementation of
a queue is called a circular queue because it uses its storage array as if it were a circle
instead of a linear list.
There are two problems associated with linear queue. They are:
• Time consuming: linear time to be spent in shifting the elements to the
beginning of the queue.
• Signaling queue full: even if the queue is having vacant
position.For example, let us consider a linear queue status as

follows:

Next insert another element, say 66 to the queue. We cannot insert 66 to the queue
as the rear crossed the maximum size of the queue (i.e., 5). There will be queue full
signal. The queue status is as follows:

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This difficulty can be overcome if we treat queue position with index zero as a
position thatcomes after position with index four then we treat the queue as a
circular queue.
In circular queue if we reach the end for inserting elements to it, it is possible to
insert newelements if the slots at the beginning of the circular queue are empty.
Representation of Circular Queue:
Let us consider a circular queue, which can hold maximum (MAX) of six elements.
Initially the queue is empty.

Now, insert 11 to the circular queue. Then circular queue status will be:

Insert new elements 22, 33, 44 and 55 into the circular queue. The circular queue status is:

Now, delete an element. The element deleted is the element at the front of the
circular queue. So, 11 is deleted. The circular queue status is as follows:

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Again, delete an element. The element to be deleted is always pointed to by the
FRONT pointer. So, 22 is deleted. The circular queue status is as follows:

Again, insert another element 66 to the circular queue. The status of the circular queue is:

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Now, insert new elements 77 and 88 into the circular queue. The circular queue status is:

Now, if we insert an element to the circular queue, as COUNT = MAX we cannot

add theelement to circular queue. So, the circular queue is full.
Operations on Circular queue:
a.enqueue() or insertion():This function is used to insert an element into the circular
queue.In a circular queue, the new element is always inserted at Rear position.

void insertCQ() Algorithm: procedure of insertCQ():

{
int data; Step-1:START
if(count Step-2: if count==MAX then
==MAX) Write “Circular queue is
{ full” Step-3:otherwise
printf("\n Circular Queue is Full"); 3.1: read the data
} element3.2:
else CQ[rear]=data
{ 3.3 : rear=(rear+1)%MAX
printf("\n Enter data: 3.4 :
");scanf("%d", &data); count=count+1 Step-
CQ[rear] = data; 4:STOP
rear = (rear + 1) %
MAX;count ++;
printf("\n Data Inserted in the Circular
Queue ");
}
}
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b.dequeue() or deletion():This function is used to delete an element from the
circularqueue. In a circular queue, the element is always deleted from front
position.
void deleteCQ() Algorithm: procedure of deleteCQ():
{
if(count ==0) Step-1:START
{ Step-2: if count==0 then
printf("\n\nCircular Queue is Empty.."); Write “Circular queue is
} empty”Step-3:otherwise
else 3.1: print the deleted
{ element3.2:
printf("\n Deleted element from front=(front+1)%MAX
Circular Queue is %d ", CQ[front]); 3.3:
front = (front + 1) % count=count-1Step-
MAX;count --; 4:STOP
}
}

c.dispaly():This function is used to display the list of elements in the circular queue.
void displayCQ() Algorithm: procedure of displayCQ():
{
int i, j; Step-1:START
if(count Step-2: if count==0 then
==0) Write “Circular queue is
{ empty”Step-3:otherwise
printf("\n\n\t Circular Queue is Empty 3.1: print the list of
"); elements3.2: for i=front to
} j!=0
else 3.3: print CQ[i]
{ 3.4:
printf("\n Elements in Circular Queue i=(i+1)%MAXStep-
are:"); 4:STOP
j = count;
for(i = front; j != 0; j--)
{
printf("%d\t",
CQ[i]);i = (i + 1) %
MAX;
}
}
}

Deque:
In the preceding section we saw that a queue in which we insert items at one end
and from which we remove items at the other end. In this section we examine an
extension of the queue, which provides a means to insert and remove items at both
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ends of the queue. This data structure is a deque. The word deque is an acronym
derived from double-ended queue. Below figure shows the representation of a
deque.

deque provides four operations. Below Figure shows the basic operations on a deque.
• enqueue_front: insert an element at front.
• dequeue_front: delete an element at front.
• enqueue_rear: insert element at rear.
• dequeue_rear: delete element at rear.

There are two variations of deque. They are:

• Input restricted deque (IRD)
• Output restricted deque (ORD)
An Input restricted deque is a deque, which allows insertions at one end but allows
deletions at both ends of the list.
An output restricted deque is a deque, which allows deletions at one end but allows
insertions at both ends of the list.
Priority Queue:
A priority queue is a collection of elements such that each element has been
assigned a priority. We can insert an element in priority queue at the rare position.
We can delete an element from the priority queue based on the elements priority
and such that the order in which elements are deleted and processed comes from
the following rules:
26
1. An element of higher priority is processed before any element of lower priority.
2. Two elements with same priority are processed according to the order in which
they were added to the queue. It follows FIFO or FCFS(First Comes First serve)
rules.We always remove an element with the highest priority, which is given by the
minimal integer priority assigned.

A prototype of a priority queue is time sharing system: programs of high priority are
processed first, and programs with the same priority form a standard queue. An
efficient implementation for the Priority Queue is to use heap, which in turn can be
used for sorting purpose called heap sort.
Priority queues are two types:
1. Ascending order priority queue
2. Descending order priority queue
1. Ascending order priority queue: It is Lower priority number to high priority
number.Examples: order is 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10
2. Descending order priority queue: It is high priority number to lowest priority
number.Examples: Order is 10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1
Implementation of Priority Queue:
Implementation of priority queues are two types:
1. Through Queue(Using Array)
2. Through Sorted List(Using Linked List)
1. Through Queue (Using Array): In this case element is simply added at the rear
end asusual. For deletion, the element with highest priority is searched and then
deleted.

2. Through sorted List (Using Linked List): In this case insertion is costly because the
element insert at the proper place in the list based on the priority. Here deletion is
easy since the element with highest priority will always be in the beginning of the list.

27
 1. Difference between stacks and Queues?
stack Queue
s s
1. A stack is a linear list of elements in 1. A Queue is a linerar list of elements in
which the element may be inserted or whichthe elements are added at one end
deleted at one end. and deletes the elements at another end.
2. In stacks, elements which are 2. . In Queue the element which is
inserted last is the first element to be insertedfirst is the element deleted first.
deleted. 3. Queues are called FIFO (First In
3. Stacks are called LIFO (Last In FirstOut)list.
FirstOut)list. 4. In Queue elements are removed in
4. In stack elements are removed in the same order in which thy are
reverse order in which thy are inserted. inserted.
5. suppose the elements a,b,c,d,e 5. Suppose the elements a,b,c,d,e are
are inserted in the stack, the inserted in the Queue, the deletion of
deletion of elements will be elements will be in the same order in which
e,d,c,b,a. thy are inserted.
6. In stack there is only one pointer to 6. In Queue there are two pointers one
insert and delete called “Top”. for insertion called “Rear” and another
7. Initially top=-1 indicates a stack is for deletion called “Front”.
empty. 7. Initially Rear=Front=-1 indicates a
8. Stack is full represented by the Queue isempty.
conditionTOP=MAX-1(if array index 8. Queue is full represented by the
starts from ‘0’). conditionRear=Max-1.
9. To push an element into a stack, 9. To insert an element into Queue,
Top isincremented by one Rear isincremented by one.
10. To POP an element from 10. To delete an element from Queue, Front
stack,top isdecremented by one. is

28
 UNIT-III LINEAR
LIST
INTRODUCTION
Linear Data
Structures:

29
Linear data structures are those data structures in which data elements are accessed
(read and written) in sequential fashion (one by one). Ex: Stacks, Queues, Lists, Arrays
Non Linear Data Structures:
Non Linear Data Structures are those in which data elements are not accessed in
sequential fashion.
Ex: trees, graphs
Difference between Linear and Nonlinear Data Structures
Main difference between linear and nonlinear data structures lie in the way they
organize data elements. In linear data structures, data elements are organized
sequentially and therefore they are easy to implement in the computer’s memory. In
nonlinear data structures, a data element can be attached to several other data
elements to represent specific relationships that exist among them. Due to this
nonlinear structure, they might be difficult to be implemented in computer’s linear
memory compared to implementing linear data structures. Selecting one data
structure type over the other should be done carefully by considering the
relationship among the data elements that needs to be stored.
LINEAR LIST
A data structure is said to be linear if its elements form a sequence. A linear list is a
list that displays the relationship of adjacency between elements.
A Linear list can be defined as a data object whose instances are of the form (e 1, e2,
e3…en) where n is a finite natural number. The ei terms are the elements of the list
and n is its length. The elements may be viewed as atomic as their individual
structure is not relevant to the structure of the list. When n=0, the list is empty.
When n>0,e1 is the first element and en the last. Ie;e1 comes before e2, e2 comes
before e3 and so on.
Some examples of the Linear List are
• An alphabetized list of students in a class
• A list of exam scores in non decreasing order
• A list of gold medal winners in the Olympics
• An alphabetized list of members of Congress
The following are the operations that performed on the Linear List
✓ Create a Linear List
✓ Destroy a Linear List
✓ Determine whether the list is empty
✓ Determine the size of the List
✓ Find the element with a given index
✓ Find the index of a given number
✓ Delete, erase or remove an element given its index
✓ Insert a new element so that it has a given index
A Linear List may be specified as an abstract Data type (ADT) in which we provide a
specification of the instance as well as of the operations that are to be performed.
The below abstract data type omitted specifying operations to create and destroy
instance of the data type. All ADT specifications implicitly include an operation to
create an empty instance and optionally, an operation to destroy an instance.

30
Array Representation: (Formula Based Representation)
A formula based representation uses an array to represent the instance of an object.
Each position of the Array is called a Cell or Node and is large enough to hold one of
the elements that make up an instance, while in other cases one array can represent
several instances. Individual elements of an instance are located in the array using a
mathematical formula.
Suppose one array is used for each list to be represented. We need to map the
elements of a list to positions in the array used to represent it. In a formula based
representation, a mathematical formula determines the location of each element. A
simple mapping formulas is
Location (i) = i-1

This equation states that the ith element of the list is in position i-1 of the array. The
below figure shows a five element list represented in the array element using the
mapping of equation.
To completely specify the list we need to know its current length or size. For this
purpose we use variable length. Length is zero when list is empty. Program gives the
resulting C++ class definition. Since the data type of the list element may vary from
application to application, we have defined a template class in which the user
specifies the element data type T. the data members length, MaxSize and element
are private members are private members, while the remaining members are public.
Insert and delete have been defined to return a reference to a linear list.
Insertion and Deletion of a Linear List:
Suppose we want to remove an element ei from the list by moving to its right down
31
by 1.For example, to remove an element e 1=2 from the list,we have to move the
elements e2=4, e3=8,and e4=1,which are to the right of e1, to positions 1,2 and 3 of
the array element. The below figure shows this result. The shaded elements are
moved.

To insert an element so that it becomes element I of a list, must move the existing element
ei and all elements to its right one position right and then put the new element into
position I of the array. For example to insert 7 as the second element of the list, we
first move elements e2 and e3 to the right by 1 and then put 7 in to second position 2
of the array. The below figure shows this result. The shaded elements were moved.

Linked Representation And Chains

In a linked list representation each element of an instance of a data object is
represented in a cell or node. The nodes however need not be component of an
array and no formula is used to locate individual elements. Instead of each node
keeps explicit information about the location of other relevant nodes. This explicit
information about the location of another node is called Link or Pointer.
Let L=(e1, e2, e3…en) be a linear List. In one possible linked representation for this
list, each element ei is represented in a separate node. Each node has exactly one
link field that is used to locate the next element in the linear list. So the node for e i
links to that for ei+1, 0<=i<n-1. The node for en-1 has no need to link to and so its
link field is NULL. The pointer variables first locate the first node in the
representation. The below figure shows the linked representation of a List=(e1, e2,
e3…en).

32
Since each node in the Linked representation of the above figure has exartly one link,
the structure of this figure is called a ‘Single Linked List’.the nodes are ordered from
left to right with each node (other than last one) linking to the next,and the last node
has a NULL link,the structure is also called a chain.
Insertion and Deletion of a Single Linked List:
Insertion Let the list be a Linked list with succesive nodes A and B as shown in below
figure.suppose a node N id to be inserted into the list between the node A and B.

In the New list the Node A points to the new Node N and the new node N points to
the nodeB to which Node A previously pointed.
Deletion:
Let list be a Linked list with node N between Nodes A and B is as shown in the
following figure.

33
In the new list the node N is to be deleted from the Linked List. The deletion occurs
as the link field in the Node A is made to point node B this excluding node N from its
path.

DOUBLE LINKED LIST (Or) TWO WAY LINKED LIST

In certain applications it is very desirable that list be traversed in either forward
direction or Back word direction. The property of Double Linked List implies that
each node must contain two link fields instead of one. The links are used to denote
the preceding and succeeding of the node. The link denoting the preceding of a node
is called Left Link. The link denoting succeeding of a node is called Right Link. The list
contain this type of node is called a “Double Linked List” or “Two Way List”. The
Node structure in the Double Linked List is as follows:

Lptr contains the address of the before node. Rptr contains the address of next node.
Data Contains the Linked List is as follows.

34
In the above diagram Last and Start are pointer variables which contains the address
of last node and starting node respectively.
Insertion in to the Double Linked List:Let list be a double linked list with successive
modes A and B as shown in the following diagram. Suppose a node N is to be inserted
into the list between the node s A and B this is shown in the following diagram.

35
As in the new list the right pointer of node A points to the new node N ,the Lptr of
the node ‘N’ points to the node A and Rptr of node ‘N’ points to the node ‘B’ and
Lpts of node B points the new node ‘N’
Deletion Of Double Linked List :- Let list be a linked list contains node N between
the nodesA and B as shown in the following diagram.

Support node N is to be deleted from the list diagram will appear as the above
mention double linked list. The deletion occurs as soon as the right pointer field of
node A charged, so that it points to node B and the lift point field of node B is
changed. So that it pointes to node A.
Circular Linked List:- Circular Linked List is a special type of linked list in which all the
nodes are linked in continuous circle. Circular list can be singly or doubly linked list.
Note that, there are no Nulls in Circular Linked Lists. In these types of lists, elements
can be added to the back of the list and removed from the front in constant time.
Both types of circularly-linked lists benefit from the ability to traverse the full list
beginning at any given node. This avoids the necessity of storing first Node and last
node, but we need a special representation for the empty list, such as a last node
variable which points to some node in the list or is null if it's empty. This
representation significantly simplifies adding and removing nodes with a non-empty
list, but empty lists are then a special case. Circular linked lists are most useful for
describing naturally circular structures, and have the advantage of being able to
traverse the list starting at any point. They also allow quick access to the first and
36
last records through a single pointer (the address of the last element)
Circular single linked list:

Circular linked list are one they of liner linked list. In which the link fields of last
node of the list contains the address of the first node of the list instead of contains a
null pointer.
Advantages:- Circular list are frequency used instead of ordinary linked list because
in circular list all nodes contain a valid address. The important feature of circular list
is as follows.
(1) In a circular list every node is accessible from a given node.
(2) Certain operations like concatenation and splitting becomes more efficient in
circular list.
Disadvantages: Without some conditions in processing it is possible to get into an
infinite Loop.
Circular Double Linked List :- These are one type of double linked list. In which the
rpt field of the last node of the list contain the address of the first node ad the left
points of the first node contains the address of the last node of the list instead of
containing null pointer.

Advantages:- circular list are frequently used instead of ordinary linked list because
in circular list all nodes contained a valid address. The important feature of circular
list is as follows.
(1) In a circular list every node is accessible from a given node.
(2) Certain operations like concatenation and splitting becomes more
efficientin circular list.
Disadvantage:-Without some conditions in processes it is possible to get in to an infant glad.

37
Difference between single linked list and double linked list?

Single linked list(SLL) Double linked list(DLL)

1. In Single Linked List the list will be 1. In Double Linked List the list will be
traversedin only one way ie; in forward. traversed in two way ie; either forward
2. In Single Linked List the node contains and backward
onelink field only. 2. In Double Linked List the node contains
3. Every node contains the address of twolink fields.
nextnode. 3. Every node contains the address of
4. The node structure in Single linked list nextnode as well as preceding node.
is as follows: 4.the node structure in double linked list is
as
follows:
2. Difference between sequential allocation and linked allocation? OR Difference between
Linear List and Linked List?OR Difference between Arrays and Linked List?

Array Linked
s List
1. Arrays are used in the predictable 1. Linked List are used in the
storage requirement ie; exert amount of unpredictable storage requirement ie;
data storage required by the program can exert amount of data storage required by
be determined. the program can’t be determined.
2. In arrays the operations such as 2. In Linked List the operations such
insertionand deletion are done in an as insertion and deletion are done
inefficient manner. more efficient manner ie; only by
3. The insertion and deletion are done changing thepointer.
bymoving the elements either up or 3. The insertion and deletion are done
down. byonly changing the pointers.
4. Successive elements occupy 4. Successive elements need not
adjacentspace on memory. occupy adjacent space.
5. In arrays each location contain DATA 5. In linked list each location contains
only dataand pointer to denote whether the
6. The linear relation ship between the next element present in the memory.
data elements of an array is reflected by 6. The linear relation ship between the
the physical relation ship of data in the data elements of a Linked List is reflected
memory. by the Linked field of the node.
7. In array declaration a block of 7. In Linked list there is no need of
memory space is required. suchthing.
8.There is no need of storage of 8. There is need for an element
pointer or lines (node) tospecify whether the next
node is formed.

38
UNIT-IV SORTING AND SEARCHING
Sorting is a technique of organizing the data. It is a process of arranging the records, either in
ascending or descending order i.e. bringing some order lines in the data. Sort methods are
very important in Data structures.
Sorting can be performed on any one or combination of one or more attributes
present in each record. It is very easy and efficient to perform searching, if data is
stored in sorting order. The sorting is performed according to the key value of each
record. Depending up on the makeup of key, records can be stored either numerically
or alphanumerically. In numerical sorting, the records arranged in ascending or
descending order according to the numeric value of the key.
Let A be a list of n elements A1, A2, A3 .............. An in memory. Sorting A refers to the
operation of rearranging the contents of A so that they are increasing in order, that is,
so that A1 <=A2 <=A3 <=…………….<=An. Since A has n elements, there are n! Ways that
the contents can appear in A. these ways corresponding precisely to the n!
Permutations of 1,2,3, n. accordingly each sorting algorithm must take care of these n!
Possibilities.
Ex: suppose an array DATA contains 8elements as follows:
DATA: 70, 30,40,10,80,20,60,50.
After sorting DATA must appear in memory as follows:
DATA: 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Since DATA consists of 8 elements, there are 8!=40320 ways that the numbers
10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80 can appear in DATA.
The factors to be considered while choosing sorting techniques are:
• Programming Time
• Execution Time
• Number of Comparisons
• Memory Utilization
• Computational Complexity
Types of Sorting Techniques:
Sorting techniques are categorized into 2 types. They are Internal Sorting and External
Sorting.
Internal Sorting: Internal sorting method is used when small amount of data has to be
sorted. In this method , the data to be sorted is stored in the main memory
(RAM).Internal sorting method can access records randomly. EX: Bubble Sort, Insertion
Sort, Selection Sort, Shell sort, Quick Sort, Radix Sort, Heap Sort etc.
External Sorting: Extern al sorting method is used when large amount of data has to
be sorted. In this method, the data to be sorted is stored in the main memory as well
as in the secondary memory such as disk. External sorting methods an access records
only in asequential order. Ex: Merge Sort, Multi way Mage Sort.
Complexity of sorting Algorithms: The complexity of sorting algorithm measures the
running time as a function of the number n of items to be stored. Each sorting
algorithm S will be made up of the following operations, where A1, A2, A3 An
contain the
items to be sorted and B is an auxiliary location.
• Comparisons, which test whether Ai < Aj or test whether Ai <B.
• Interchanges which switch the contents of Ai and Aj or of Ai and B.
39
 • Assignment which set B: Ai and then set Aj := B or Aj:= Ai
Normally, the complexity function measures only the number of comparisons,
since the number of other operations is at most a constant factor of the number of
comparisons.
SELECTION SORT
In selection sort, the smallest value among the unsorted elements of the array is
selected in every pass and inserted to its appropriate position into the array. First, find
the smallest element of the array and place it on the first position. Then, find the
second smallest element of the array and place it on the second position. The process
continues until we get the sorted array. The array with n elements is sorted by using n-
1 pass of selection sort algorithm.
• In 1st pass, smallest element of the array is to be found along with its
indexpos. then, swap A[0] and A[pos]. Thus A[0] is sorted, we now
have n -1 elements which are tobe sorted.
• In 2nd pas, position pos of the smallest element present in the sub-array
A[n-1] is found. Then, swap, A[1] and A[pos]. Thus A[0] and A[1] are
sorted, we now left with n-2 unsorted elements.
• In n-1th pass, position pos of the smaller element between A[n-1] and
A[n-2]is to be found. Then, swap, A[pos] and A[n-1].
Therefore, by following the above explained process, the elements
A[0],A[1], A[2], ... , A[n-1] are sorted.
Example: Consider the following array with 6 elements. Sort the elements of the
array byusing selection sort.
A = {10, 2, 3, 90, 43, 56}.

Pass Pos A[0] A[1] A[2] A[3] A[4] A[5]

1 1 2 10 3 90 43 56
2 2 2 3 10 90 43 56
3 3 2 3 10 90 43 56
4 4 2 3 10 43 90 56
5 5 2 3 10 43 56 90

Sorted A = {2, 3, 10, 43, 56, 90}

Complexity
Complexity Bes Average Case Worst Case
t
Cas
e
Time Ω(n) θ(n2) o(n2)

Space o(1)

40
 Algorithm
SELECTION SORT (ARR, N)
Step 1: Repeat Steps 2 and 3 for K = 1 to
N-1Step 2: CALL SMALLEST(A, K, N, POS)
Step 3: SWAP A[K]
with A[POS] [END OF
LOOP] Step 4: EXIT
BUBBLE SORT
Bubble Sort: This sorting technique is also known as exchange sort, which
arranges values by iterating over the list several times and in each iteration the larger
value gets bubble up to the end of the list. This algorithm uses multiple passes and in
each pass the first and second data items are compared. if the first data item is
bigger than the second, then the two items are swapped. Next the items in second
and third position are compared and if the first one is larger than the second, then
they are swapped, otherwise no change in their order. This process continues for
each successive pair of data items until all items are sorted.
Bubble Sort Algorithm:
Step 1: Repeat Steps 2 and 3 for
i=1 to 10 Step 2: Set j=1
Step 3: Repeat while j<=n
(A)
if a[i] < a[j] Then
interchange a[i] and
a[j] [End of if]
(B) Set j = j+1
[End of Inner Loop]
[End of Step 1 Outer
Loop] Step 4: Exit
INSERTION SORT
Insertion sort is one of the best sorting techniques. It is twice as fast as Bubble
sort. In Insertion sort the elements comparisons are as less as compared to bubble
sort. In this comparison the value until all prior elements are less than the compared
values is not found. This means that all the previous values are lesser than compared
value. Insertion sort is good choice for small values and for nearly sorted values.
Working of Insertion sort:
The Insertion sort algorithm selects each element and inserts it at its proper position
in a sub list sorted earlier. In a first pass the elements A 1 is compared with A0 and if
A[1] and A[0] are not sorted they are swapped.
In the second pass the element[2] is compared with A[0] and A[1]. And it is inserted
at its proper position in the sorted sub list containing the elements A[0] and A[1].
Similarly doing ith iteration the element A[i] is placed at its proper position in the
sorted sub list, containing the elements A[0],A[1],A[2], A[i-1].
To understand the insertion sort consider the unsorted Array A={7,33,20,11,6}.
The steps to sort the values stored in the array in ascending order using Insertion
sort are given below:
41
 7 33 20 11 6

Step 1: The first value i.e; 7 is trivially sorted by itself.

Step 2: the second value 33 is compared with the first value 7. Since 33 is greater
than 7, so no changes are made.
Step 3: Next the third element 20 is compared with its previous element (towards
left).Here 20 is less than 33.but 20 is greater than 7. So it is inserted at second
position. For this 33 is shifted towards right and 20 is placed at its appropriate
position.
7 33 20 11 6
7 20 33 11 6
Step 4: Then the fourth element 11 is compared with its previous elements. Since 11
is less than 33 and 20 ; and greater than 7. So it is placed in between 7 and 20. For
this the elements 20 and 33 are shifted one position towards the right.
7 20 33 11 6
7 11 20 33 6
Step5: Finally the last element 6 is compared with all the elements preceding it.
Since it is smaller than all other elements, so they are shifted one position towards
right and 6 is inserted at the first position in the array. After this pass, the Array is
sorted.
7 11 20 33 6
6 7 11 20 33
Step 6: Finally the sorted Array is as follows:
6 7 11 20 33
ALGORITHM:
Insertion_sort(ARR,SIZE)
Step 1: Set i=1;
Step 2: while(i<SIZE)
Set
temp=ARR[i]
J=i=1;
While(Temp<=ARR[j] and
j>=0)Set ARR[j+1]=ARR[i]
Set j=j-1
End
While
SET ARR(j+1)=Temp;
Print ARR after ith
passSet i=i+1
End while
Step 3: print no.of passes i-1
Step 4: end
Advantages of Insertion Sort:
• It is simple sorting algorithm, in which the elements are sorted by
considering one item at a time. The implementation is simple.
• It is efficient for smaller data set and for data set that has been substantially
42
 sorted before.
• It does not change the relative order of elements with equal keys
• It reduces unnecessary travels through the array
• It requires constant amount of extra memory space.
Disadvantages:-
• It is less efficient on list containing more number of elements.
• As the number of elements increases the performance of program would be slow
Complexity of Insertion Sort:
BEST CASE:-
Only one comparison is made in each pass.
The Time complexity is O(n2).

WORST CASE:- In the worst case i.e; if the list is arranged in descending order, the
number of comparisons required by the insertion sort is given by:
1+2+3+… .................... +(n-2)+(n-1)= (n*(n-1))/2;
= (n2-n)/2.
The number of Comparisons are O(n2).
AVERAGE CASE:- In average case the numer of comparisons is given by
2 3 (n−2) (n−1) n∗(n−1)
1 + + +⋯+ + = =(n2-n)/4 = O(n2).
2 2 3 2 2 2∗2
Program:
/* Program to implement insertion sort*/
#include<iostream.h
>#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int
a[10],i,j,n,t;
clrscr();
cout<<”\n Enter number of elements to be
Sort:”;cin>>n;
cout<<”\n Enter the elements to be Sorted:”;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
cin>>a[i];
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{ t=a[i];
J=I;
while((j>0)&&(a[j-1]>t))
{ a[j]=a[j-1];
J=j-1;
}
a[j]=t;
}
cout<<”Array after Insertion sort:”;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<”\n a[i]”;
43
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Enter number of elements to sot:5
Enter number of elements to sorted: 7 33 20 11 6
Array after Insertion sort: 6 7 11 20 33.

QUICK SORT
The Quick Sort algorithm follows the principal of divide and Conquer. It first
picks up the partition element called ‘Pivot’, which divides the list into two sub lists
such that all the elements in the left sub list are smaller than pivot and all the
elements in the right sub list are greater than the pivot. The same process is applied
on the left and right sub lists separately. This process is repeated recursively until
each sub list containing more than one element.
Working of Quick Sort:
The main task in Quick Sort is to find the pivot that partitions the given list into two
halves, so that the pivot is placed at its appropriate position in the array. The choice
of pivot as a significant effect on the efficiency of Quick Sort algorithm. The simplest
way is to choose the first element as the Pivot. However the first element is not good
choice, especially if the given list is ordered or nearly ordered .For better efficiency
the middle element can be chosen as Pivot.
Initially three elements Pivot, Beg and End are taken, such that both Pivot and Beg
refers to 0th position and End refers to the (n-1)th position in the list. The first pass
terminates when Pivot, Beg and End all refers to the same array element. This
indicates that the Pivot element is placed at its final position. The elements to the
left of Pivot are smaller than this element and the elements to it right are greater.
To understand the Quick Sort algorithm, consider an unsorted array as follows. The
steps to sort the values stored in the array in the ascending order using Quick Sort
are given below.

8 33 6 21 4
Step 1: Initially the index ‘0’ in the list is chosen as Pivot and the index variable Beg
and End are initiated with index ‘0’ and (n-1) respectively.

Step 2: The scanning of the element starts from the end of

the list.
A[Pivot]>A[En
d]i.e; 8>4
so they are swapped.

44
Step 3: Now the scanning of the elements starts from the beginning of the list. Since
A[Pivot]>A[Beg]. So Beg is incremented by one and the list remains unchanged.

Step 4: The element A[Pivot] is smaller than A[Beg].So they are swapped.

Step 5: Again the list is scanned form right to left. Since A[Pivot] is smaller than
A[End], sothe value of End is decreased by one and the list remains unchanged.

Step 6: Next the element A[Pivot] is smaller than A[End], the value of End is
increased byone. and the

ALGORITHM
Step 1: Select first element of array as Pivot
Step 2: Initialize i and j to Beg and End elements respectively
45
Step 3: Increment i until A[i]>Pivot.
Stop
Step 4: Decrement j until A[
j]>PivotStop
Step 5: if i<j interchange A[i] with A[j].
Step 6: Repeat steps 3,4,5 until i>j i.e: i crossed j.
Step 7: Exchange the Pivot element with element placed at j, which is correct
place forPivot.
Advantages of Quick Sort:
• This is fastest sorting technique among all.
• It efficiency is also relatively good.
• It requires small amount of memory
Disadvantages:
• It is somewhat complex method for sorting.
• It is little hard to implement than other sorting methods
• It does not perform well in the case of small group of elements.
Complexities of Quick Sort:
Average Case: The running time complexity is O(n log n).
Worst Case : Input array is not evenly divided. So the running time complexity is O(n2 ).
Best Case: Input array is evenly divided. So the running time complexity is O(n logn).
MERGE SORT
The Merge Sort algorithm is based on the fact that it is easier and faster to
sort two smaller arrays than one large array. It follows the principle of “Divide and
Conquered”. In this sorting the list is first divided into two halves. The left and right
sub lists obtained are recursively divided into two sub lists until each sub list contains
not more than one element. The sub list containing only one element do not require
any sorting. After that merge the two sorted sub lists to form a combined list and
recursively applies the merging process till the sorted array is achieved.
Let us apply the Merge Sort to sort the following list:

13 42 36 20 63 23 12
Step 1: First divide the combined list into two sub lists as follows.

Step 2: Now Divide the left sub list into smaller sub list

Step 3: Similarly divide the sub lists till one element is left in the sub list.

Step 4: Next sort the elements in their appropriate positions and then combined
the sub lists.

Step 5: Now these two sub lists are again merged to give the following sorted sub list
46
of size 4.
Step 6: After sorting the left half of the array, containing the same process for the
right sublist also. Then the sorted array of right half of the list is as follows.

Step 7: Finally the left and right halves of the array are merged to give the sorted
array asfollows.

Advantages:
• Merge sort is stable sort
• It is easy to understand
• It gives better performance.

Disadvantages:
• It requires extra memory space
• Copy of elements to temporary array
• It requires additional array
• It is slow process.
Complexity of Merge Sort: The merge sort algorithm passes over the entire list and
requiresat most log n passes and merges n elements in each pass. The total number
of comparisons required by the merge sort is given by O(n log n).
External searching: When the records are stored in disk, tape, any secondary
storage then that searching is known as ‘External Searching’.
Internal Searching: When the records are to be searched or stored entirely within the
computer memory then it is known as ‘Internal Searching’.
LINEAR SEARCH
The Linear search or Sequential Search is most simple searching method. It
does not expect the list to be sorted. The Key which to be searched is compared with
each element of the list one by one. If a match exists, the search is terminated. If the
47
end of the list is reached, it means that the search has failed and the Key has no
matching element in the list.
Ex: consider the following Array A
23 15 18 17 42 96 103
Now let us search for 17 by Linear search. The searching starts from the first
position.Since A[0] ≠17.
The search proceeds to the next position i.e; second position A[1] ≠17.
The above process continuous until the search element is found such as
A[3]=17.Here the searching element is found in the position 4.

Algorithm: LINEAR(DATA, N,ITEM, LOC)

Here DATA is a linear Array with N elements. And ITEM is a given item of information. This
algorithm finds the location LOC of an ITEM in DATA. LOC=-1 if the search is unsuccessful.
Step 1: Set DATA[N+1]=ITEM
Step 2: Set LOC=1
Step 3: Repeat while (DATA [LOC] !=
ITEM)Set LOC=LOC+1
Step 4: if LOC=N+1 then
Set LOC= -1.
Step 5: Exit

Advantages:
• It is simplest known technique.
• The elements in the list can be in any order.
Disadvantages:
This method is in efficient when large numbers of elements are present in list
because timetaken for searching is more.
Complexity of Linear Search: The worst and average case complexity of Linear search is
O(n), where ‘n’ is the total number of elements present in the list.

BINARY SEARCH
Suppose DATA is an array which is stored in increasing order then there is an
extremely efficient searching algorithm called “Binary Search”. Binary Search can be
used to find the location of the given ITEM of information in DATA.
Working of Binary Search Algorithm:
During each stage of algorithm search for ITEM is reduced to a segment of elements
of DATA[BEG], DATA[BEG+1], DATA[BEG+2], .............. DATA[END].
Here BEG and END denotes beginning and ending locations of the segment under
considerations. The algorithm compares ITEM with middle element DATA[MID] of a
segment, where MID=[BEG+END]/2. If DATA[MID]=ITEM then the search is
successful. and we said that LOC=MID. Otherwise a new segment of data is obtained
as follows:
i. If ITEM<DATA[MID] then item can appear only in the left half of the
segment. DATA[BEG], DATA[BEG+1], DATA[BEG+2]
So we reset END=MID-1. And begin the search again.
ii. If ITEM>DATA[MID] then ITEM can appear only in right half of the
48
 segment i.e. DATA[MID+1], DATA[MID+2], DATA[END].
So we reset BEG=MID+1. And begin the search again.
Initially we begin with the entire array DATA i.e. we begin with BEG=1 and
END=nOr
BEG=lb(Lower
Bound)
END=ub(Upper
Bound)
If ITEM is not in DATA then eventually we obtained END<BEG. This condition signals that the
searching is Unsuccessful.
The precondition for using Binary Search is that the list must be sorted one.
Ex: consider a list of sorted elements stored in an Array A is

Let the key element which is to be searched is 35.

Key=35
The number of elements in the list n=9.
Step 1: MID= [lb+ub]/2
=(1+9)/2
=5

Key<A[MID]
i.e. 35<46.
So search continues at lower half of the
array.Ub=MID-1
=5-1
= 4.

Step 2: MID= [lb+ub]/2

=(1+4)/2
=2.

Key>A[MID]
i.e. 35>12.
49
 So search continues at Upper Half of the
array.Lb=MID+1
=2+1
= 3.
Step 3: MID= [lb+ub]/2
=(3+4)/2
=3.

Key>A[MID]
i.e. 35>30.
So search continues at Upper Half of the
array.Lb=MID+1
=3+1
= 4.
Step 4: MID= [lb+ub]/2
=(4+4)/2
=4.

ALGORITHM:
BINARY SEARCH[A,N,KEY]
Step 1: begin
Step 2: [Initilization]
Lb=1; ub=n;
Step 3: [Search for the ITEM]
Repeat through step 4,while Lower bound is less than Upper Bound.
Step 4: [Obtain the index of middle
value]MID=(lb+ub)/2
Step 5: [Compare to search for
ITEM]If Key<A[MID] then
Ub=MID-1
Other wise if Key >A[MID]
thenLb=MID+1
Otherwise write “Match
Found”Return Middle.
Step 6: [Unsuccessful Search]
write “Match Not
Found”
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Step 7: Stop.

Advantages: When the number of elements in the list is large, Binary Search
executed fasterthan linear search. Hence this method is efficient when number of
elements is large.
Disadvantages: To implement Binary Search method the elements in the list
must be in sorted order, otherwise it fails.
Define sorting? What is the difference between internal and external sorting
methods? Ans:- Sorting is a technique of organizing data. It is a process of
arranging the elementseither may be ascending or descending order, ie; bringing
some order lines with data.

Internal sorting External sorting

1. Internal Sorting takes place in the 1. External sorting is done with additional
main memory of a computer. external memory like magnetic tape or
hard
disk
2. The internal sorting methods are 2. The External sorting methods are
applied to small collection of data. applied only when the number of data
elements to be sorted is too large.
3. Internal sorting takes small input 3. External sorting can take as much as
large input.
4. It means that, the entire collection of 4. External sorting typically uses a sort-
data to be sorted in small enough that merge strategy, and requires auxiliary
the sorting can take place within main storage.
memory.
5. For sorting larger datasets, it may be 5. In the sorting phase, chunks of data
necessary to hold only a chunk of data in small enough to fit in main memory are
memory at a time, since it wont all fit. read, sorted, and written out to a
temporary file.
6. Example of Internal Sorting algorithms 6. Example of External sorting
are algorithmsare: - Merge Sort, Two-way
:- Bubble Sort, Internal Sort, Quick Sort, merge sort.
Heap Sort, Binary Sort, Radix Sort,
Selection sort.
7. Internal sorting does not make use of 7. External sorting make use of extra
extra resources. resources.

Justify the fact that the efficiency of Quick sort is O(nlog n) under best case?
Ans:- Best Case:-
The best case in quick sort arises when the pivot element divides the lists into two
exactly equal sub lists. Accordingly
i) Reducing the initial list places '1' element and produces two equal sub lists.
ii) Reducing the two sub lists places '2' elements and produces four equal sub lists
and sonon.
Observe that the reduction step in the k th level finals the location of 2(k-1)
51
elements, hence there will be approximately log n levels of reduction. Further, each
level uses at most 'n' comparisons, So f(n) = O(n log n).Hence the efficiency of quick
sort algorithm is O(nlog n) under the best case.
Mathematical Proof:- Hence from the above, the recurrence relation for quick sort
under best case is given by
T(n)=2T(n/2) + kn
By using substitution method , we
getT(n)=2T(n/2)+Kn
=2{ 2T(n/4)+k.n/2}+kn
=4T(n/4) + 2kn
.
.
.
In general
T(n)= 2kT(n/2k) + akn // after k
substitutions The above recurrence relation continues
until n=2k , k=logn
By substituting the above values , we get
T(n) is O(nlogn)
Quick sort, or partition-exchange sort, is a sorting algorithm that, on
average, makes O(n log n) comparisons to sort n items. In the worst case, it makes
O(n2) comparisons, though this behavior is rare. Quick sort is often faster in practice
than other O(n log n) algorithms. Additionally, quick sort’s sequential and localized
memory references work well with a cache. Quick sort is a comparison sort and, in
efficient implementations, is not a stable sort. Quick sort can be implemented with
an in-place partitioning algorithm, so the entire sort can be done with only O(log n)
additional space used by the stack during the recursion. Since each element
ultimately ends up in the correct position, the algorithm correctly sorts. But how long
does it take.
The best case for divide-and-conquer algorithms comes when we split
the input as evenly as possible. Thus in the best case, each sub problem is of size
n/2.The partition step on each sub problem is linear in its size. Thus the total effort
in partitioning the 2k problems of size n/2k is O(n).
The recursion tree for the best case looks like this:

The total partitioning on each level is O(n), and it take log n levels of perfect
partitions to get to single element sub problems. When we are down to single
elements, the problemsare sorted. Thus the total time in the best case is O(nlogn) .
52
 UNIT-V
TREES AND BINARY TREES
TREES

INTRODUCTION
In linear data structure data is organized in sequential order and in non-linear data
structure data is organized in random order. A tree is a very popular non-linear data
structure used in a wide range of applications. Tree is a non-linear data structure
which organizes data in hierarchical structure and this is a recursive definition.
DEFINITION OF TREE:
Tree is collection of nodes (or) vertices and their edges (or) links. In tree data
structure, every individual element is called as Node. Node in a tree data structure
stores the actual data of that particular element and link to next element in

hierarchical structure.

Note: 1. In a Tree, if we have N number of nodes then we can have a maximum

of N-1 number of links or edges.
2. Tree has no cycles.
TREE TERMINOLOGIES:
1. Root Node: In a Tree data structure, the first node is called as Root Node. Every
tree must have a root node. We can say that the root node is the origin of the tree
data structure. In any tree, there must be only one root node. We never have

multiple root nodes in a tree.

2. Edge: In a Tree, the connecting link between any two nodes is called as EDGE. In a
tree with 'N' number of nodes there will be a maximum of 'N-1' number of edges.

53
3. Parent Node: In a Tree, the node which is a predecessor of any node is called as
PARENT NODE. In simple words, the node which has a branch from it to any other
node is called a parent node. Parent node can also be defined as "The node which
has child / children".

Here, A is parent of B&C. B is the parent of D,E&F and so on…

4. Child Node: In a Tree data structure, the node which is descendant of any node is
called as CHILD Node. In simple words, the node which has a link from its parent node
is called as child node. In a tree, any parent node can have any number of child
nodes. In a tree, all the nodes except root are child nodes.

5. Siblings: In a Tree data structure, nodes which belong to same Parent are
called as SIBLINGS. In simple words, the nodes with the same parent are called
Sibling nodes.

54
6. Leaf Node: In a Tree data structure, the node which does not have a child is
called as LEAF Node. In simple words, a leaf is a node with no child. In a tree data
structure, the leaf nodes are also called as External Nodes. External node is also a
node with no child. In a tree, leaf node is also called as 'Terminal' node.

7. Internal Nodes: In a Tree data structure, the node which has atleast one child is
called as INTERNAL Node. In simple words, an internal node is a node with
atleast one child.

In a Tree data structure, nodes other than leaf nodes are called as Internal Nodes.
The root node is also said to be Internal Node if the tree has more than one node.
Internal nodes are also called as 'Non-Terminal' nodes.

8. Degree: In a Tree data structure, the total number of children of a node is

called as DEGREE of that Node. In simple words, the Degree of a node is total
number of children it has. The highest degree of a node among all the nodes in a tree
is called as 'Degree of Tree'
55
 Degree of Tree is: 3

9. Level: In a Tree data structure, the root node is said to be at Level 0 and the
children of root node are at Level 1 and the children of the nodes which are at Level
1 will be at Level 2 and so on... In simple words, in a tree each step from top to
bottom is called as a Level and the Level count starts with '0' and incremented by one
at each level (Step).

10. Height: In a Tree data structure, the total number of edges from leaf node to a
particular node in the longest path is called as HEIGHT of that Node. In a tree, height
of the root node is said to be height of the tree. In a tree, height of all leaf nodes is
'0'.

11. Depth: In a Tree data structure, the total number of egdes from root node to a
particular node is called as DEPTH of that Node. In a tree, the total number of edges
from root node to a leaf node in the longest path is said to be Depth of the tree. In
56
simple words, the highest depth of any leaf node in a tree is said to be depth of that
tree. In a tree, depth of the root node is '0'.

12. Path: In a Tree data structure, the sequence of Nodes and Edges from one node
to another node is called as PATH between that two Nodes. Length of a Path is total
number of nodes in that path. In below example the path A - B - E - J has length 4.

13. Sub Tree: In a Tree data structure, each child from a node forms a subtree
recursively. Every child node will form a subtree on its parent node.

TREE REPRESENTATIONS:
A tree data structure can be represented in two methods. Those methods are as follows...
1. List Representation
2. Left Child - Right Sibling Representation
Consider the following tree...

57
1. List Representation
In this representation, we use two types of nodes one for representing the node with
data called 'data node' and another for representing only references called
'reference node'. We start with a 'data node' from the root node in the tree. Then it
is linked to an internal node through a 'reference node' which is further linked to any
other node directly. This process repeats for all the nodes in the tree.
The above example tree can be represented using List representation as follows...

2. Left Child - Right Sibling Representation

In this representation, we use a list with one type of node which consists of three
fields namely Data field, Left child reference field and Right sibling reference field.
Data field stores the actual value of a node, left reference field stores the address of
the left child and right reference field stores the address of the right sibling node.
Graphical representation of that node is as follows...

In this representation, every node's data field stores the actual value of that node. If
that node has left a child, then left reference field stores the address of that left child
node otherwise stores NULL. If that node has the right sibling, then right reference
field stores the address of right sibling node otherwise stores NULL.

The above example tree can be represented using Left Child - Right Sibling
representation as follows...
58
 BINARY TREE:

In a normal tree, every node can have any number of children. A binary tree is a
special type of tree data structure in which every node can have a maximum of 2
children. One is known as a left child and the other is known as right child.

A tree in which every node can have a maximum of two children is called Binary Tree.
In a binary tree, every node can have either 0 children or 1 child or 2 children but not
more than 2 children.In general, tree nodes can have any number of children. In a
binary tree, each node can have at most two children. A binary tree is either empty
or consists of a node called the root together with two binary trees called the left
subtree and the right subtree. A tree with no nodes is called as a null tree

Example:

TYPES OF BINARY TREE:

1. Strictly Binary Tree:
In a binary tree, every node can have a maximum of two children. But in strictly
binary tree, every node should have exactly two children or none. That means every
internal node must have exactly two children. A strictly Binary Tree can be defined as
follows...
A binary tree in which every node has either two or zero number of children is called
Strictly Binary Tree
Strictly binary tree is also called as Full Binary Tree or Proper Binary Tree or 2-Tree.

59
 Strictly binary tree data structure is used to represent mathematical expressions.
Example

2. Complete Binary Tree:

In a binary tree, every node can have a maximum of two children. But in strictly
binary tree, every node should have exactly two children or none and in complete
binary tree all the nodes must have exactly two children and at every level of
complete binary tree there must be 2level number of nodes. For example at level 2
there must be 22 = 4 nodes and at level 3 there must be 23 = 8 nodes.
A binary tree in which every internal node has exactly two children and all leaf nodes are
at same level is called Complete Binary Tree.
Complete binary tree is also called as Perfect Binary Tree.

3. Extended Binary Tree:

A binary tree can be converted into Full Binary tree by adding dummy nodes to
existingnodes wherever required.
60
The full binary tree obtained by adding dummy nodes to a binary tree is called as
Extended Binary Tree.
In above figure, a normal binary tree is converted into full binary tree by adding
dummynodes.
4. Skewed Binary Tree:
If a tree which is dominated by left child node or right child node, is said to be a
SkewedBinary Tree.
In a skewed binary tree, all nodes except one have only one child node. The
remaining node has no child.

In a left skewed tree, most of the nodes have the left child without
corresponding right child.
In a right skewed tree, most of the nodes have the right child without
corresponding leftchild.
Properties of binary trees:
Some of the important properties of a binary tree are as follows:
1. If h = height of a binary tree, then
a. Maximum number of leaves = 2h
b. Maximum number of nodes = 2h + 1 - 1
2. If a binary tree contains m nodes at level l, it contains at most 2m nodes at level l + 1.
3. Since a binary tree can contain at most one node at level 0 (the root), it can
contain atmost 2l node at level l.
4. The total number of edges in a full binary tree with n node is n –
BINARY TREE REPRESENTATIONS:
A binary tree data structure is represented using two methods. Those methods
are asfollows...
1. Array Representation
2. Linked List Representation
Consider the following binary tree...

61
1. Array Representation of Binary Tree
In array representation of a binary tree, we use one-dimensional array (1-D
Array) torepresent a binary tree.
Consider the above example of a binary tree and it is represented as follows...

To represent a binary tree of depth 'n' using array representation, we need one
dimensionalarray with a maximum size of 2n + 1.
2. Linked List Representation of Binary Tree
We use a double linked list to represent a binary tree. In a double linked list, every
node consists of three fields. First field for storing left child address, second for
storing actual data and third for the right child address.
In this linked list representation, a node has the following structure...

The above example of the binary tree represented using Linked list representation is
shownas follows...

BINARY TREE TRAVERSALS:

Unlike linear data structures (Array, Linked List, Queues, Stacks, etc) which have only
one logical way to traverse them, binary trees can be traversed in different ways.
Following are the generally used ways for traversing binary trees.
When we wanted to display a binary tree, we need to follow some order in which all
the nodes of that binary tree must be displayed. In any binary tree, displaying order
of nodes depends on the traversal method.
Displaying (or) visiting order of nodes in a binary tree is called as Binary Tree Traversal.
There are three types of binary tree traversals.
1. In - Order Traversal
2. Pre - Order Traversal
3. Post - Order Traversal
1. In - Order Traversal (left Child - root - right Child):

62
In In-Order traversal, the root node is visited between the left child and right child. In
this traversal, the left child node is visited first, then the root node is visited and later
we go for visiting the right child node. This in-order traversal is applicable for every
root node of all sub trees in the tree. This is performed recursively for all nodes in
the tree.
Algorithm:
Step-1: Visit the left subtree, using
inorder. Step-2: Visit the root.
Step-3: Visit the right subtree, using inorder.

In the above example of a binary tree, first we try to visit left child of root node 'A',
but A's left child 'B' is a root node for left subtree. so we try to visit its (B's) left child
'D' and again D is a root for subtree with nodes D, I and J. So we try to visit its left
child 'I' and it is the leftmost child. So first we visit 'I' then go for its root node 'D' and
later we visit D's right child 'J'. With this we have completed the left part of node B.
Then visit 'B' and next B's right child 'F' is visited. With this we have completed left
part of node A. Then visit root node 'A'. With this we have completed left and root
parts of node A. Then we go for the right part of the node A. In right of A again there
is a subtree with root C. So go for left child of C and again it is a subtree with root G.
But G does not have left part so we visit 'G' and then visit G's right child K. With this
we have completed the left part of node C. Then visit root node 'C' and next visit
C's right child 'H' which is the rightmost child in the tree. So we stop the process.
That means here we have visited in the order of I - D - J - B - F - A - G - K - C - H using
In- Order Traversal.
2. Pre - Order Traversal ( root - leftChild - rightChild ):
In Pre-Order traversal, the root node is visited before the left child and right child
nodes. In this traversal, the root node is visited first, then its left child and later its
right child. This pre-order traversal is applicable for every root node of all subtrees in
the tree. Preorder search is also called backtracking.
Algorithm:
Step-1: Visit the root.
Step-2: Visit the left subtree, using
preorder. Step-3: Visit the right subtree,
using preorder.

63
In the above example of binary tree, first we visit root node 'A' then visit its
left child 'B' which is a root for D and F. So we visit B's left child 'D' and again D is a
root for I and
J. So we visit D's left child 'I' which is the leftmost child. So next we go for visiting D's
right child 'J'. With this we have completed root, left and right parts of node D and
root, left parts of node B. Next visit B's right child 'F'. With this we have completed
root and left parts of node A. So we go for A's right child 'C' which is a root node for
G and H. After visiting C, we go for its left child 'G' which is a root for node K. So next
we visit left of G, but it does not have left child so we go for G's right child 'K'. With
this, we have completed node C's root and left parts. Next visit C's right child 'H'
which is the rightmost child in the tree. So we stop the process.
That means here we have visited in the order of A-B-D-I-J-F-C-G-K-H using Pre-Order
Traversal.
3. Post - Order Traversal ( leftChild - rightChild - root ):
In Post-Order traversal, the root node is visited after left child and right child. In
this traversal, left child node is visited first, then its right child and then its root
node. This is recursively performed until the right most nodes are visited.
Algorithm:
Step-1: Visit the left subtree, using
postorder. Step-2: Visit the right subtree,
using postorderStep-3: Visit the root.

Here we have visited in the order of I - J - D - F - B - K - G - H - C - A using

Post-OrderTraversal.

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65