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GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES: A MINI-REVIEW

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 ejpmr, 2022,9(4), 188-192 SJIF Impact Factor 6.222
Review Article
Ghosh et al. EUROPEAN JOURNAL European
OF PHARMACEUTICAL
Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Research
AND MEDICAL RESEARCH ISSN 2394-3211

www.ejpmr.com EJPMR

GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES: A MINI-REVIEW

Debarpita Bhattacharya1, Partha Sarathi Singha2 and Debosree Ghosh1*

1
Department of Physiology, Government General Degree College, Kharagpur II, P.O Madpur, Dist - Paschim
Medinipur, Pin: 721149, West Bengal, India.
2
Department of Chemistry, Government General Degree College, Kharagpur II, P.O Madpur, Dist - Paschim
Medinipur, Pin: 721149, West Bengal, India.

*Corresponding Author: Dr. Debosree Ghosh

Department of Physiology, Government General Degree College, Kharagpur II, P.O Madpur, Dist - Paschim Medinipur, Pin: 721149, West
Bengal, India.

Article Received on 27/02/2022 Article Revised on 23/02/2022 Article Accepted on 15/03/2022

ABSTRACT
The Gastrointestinal hormones (GIH) are a group of hormone secreted by the endocrine cells distributed in the
various organs of the digestive system. These GIH are known to control various functions of the digestive organs
which includes gastric an intestinal movements and secretions of various digestive juices. [1] Some of these GIH
such as secretin, gastrin and cholecystokinin are reported to act as neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in the
central and peripheral nervous system.[2,3,4] These GIH have some extra-GI functions , many of which are not yet
clearly known. Some of these can regulate the brain to regulate the food intake while others are known to regulate
proliferation of certain cells. Receptors of these GIH are reported to be expressed also in various tissues other than
in the GI system.GIH have valuable diagnostic and therapeutic uses.[5]

KEYWORDS: Cholecystokinin, Gastrin, Gastrointestinal hormones, neuromodulators, neurotransmitters, secretin.

INTRODUCTION are known to regulate the rate of nutrient absorption in

The Gastrointestinal hormones can be divided into our intestinal lumen.[9,11]
certain main groups based upon their chemical structure.
These are, Gastrin–cholecystokinin family, Secretin End products of food digestion i.e., amino acids, fatty
family , Somatostatin family, Motilin family and acids, glucose etc., are known to act as stimulants for
Substance P. Gastrin and cholecystokinin belong to the local enteroendocrine cells [ECCs] and are thus
Gastrin-cholesystokinin family. Secretin, glucagon, responsible for regulation of the secretion of GIH. The
vasoactive intestinal peptide and gastric inhibitory GI Tract has the ability to sense the composition of the
peptides belong to the Secretin family.[6] Somatostatin food in our gut. Sensing of nutrients by the ECCs
family is constituted of certain peptide hormones among involves a series of signaling pathways which includes
which somatostatin is the prime one which is known to ion channels, secondary messenger molecules, G-protein
inhibit the release of the pituitary somatotropin (growth coupled receptors, nutrient transporters etc.[11] EECs are
hormone) and inhibits the release of glucagon and insulin known to respond to certain microbial products produced
from the pancreas of animals which are starving.[7] locally in our gut.[12] EECs also respond to lipid
Motilin is a 22 amino acid polypeptide hormone and is metabolites in the gut and thus provide signals which are
the prime member of the motilin family of hormones. actually speak about long-term dietary history.[13]
Motilin is secreted by the M cells, or microfold cells,
found in Peyer's patches in the intestine.[8] Studies reveal that based on the type of hormones
produced, EECs are broadly categorized into distinct cell
These GIH also termed as „Gut Hormones‟ have key types. EECs are known to release two important gut
roles in the regulation of metabolism in our body. These hormones which play significant role in the regulation of
hormones work on various tissues involved in the glucose homeostasis and appetite. Those are glucagon-
regulation of intestinal functions. They are known to be like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent
associated with the regulation of insulin secretion, insulinotropic polypeptide (formerly known as gastric
nutrient absorbtion, secretion of digestive juices, nutrient inhibitory peptide, GIP).[11] EECs which release GIP are
assimilation and food intake.[9] These GIH are produced classified traditionally as K- cells and those that release
by cells scattered along the entire length of the intestinal GLP-1 are traditionally classified as and L-cells.[14]
epithelium. These enteroendocrine glands are known to Various studies reveal that there is a good extent of
secret 30 hormones into the blood stream.[10] The gut overlap between EECs in the proximal small intestine
hormones generate signals which are related to and also which express GLP-1 and GIP. Individual EECs can

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Ghosh et al. European Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Research

express a much broader range of gut hormones than parietal cells of the stomach and aids in gastric motility.
originally believed.[15] The highest number of K-cells It is primarily released by G cells located in the gastric
which produce GIP are found in the proximal small pits in the pyloric antrum of the stomach, during a meal
intestine, primarily in the duodenum. On the other hand, [Fig.1].[17] Gastrin secretion is known to be induced by
highest density of L-cells which produce GLP-1 are vagal stimulation, distention and digested protein.[18]
reported to be located in the distal small intestine and Endocrine cells in the pancreas, the pituitary and the
colon.[16] extrantral G cells are also known to produce gastrin.[17-19]
Studies show that the prime targets of gastrin are the
In this review we will briefly discuss about some of the parietal cells of the stomach which produce HCl. The
prime GIH and their functions. other prime targets of gastrin are the enterochromaffin-
like (ECL) cells which produce histamine. Gastrin works
GASTRIN either directly or by binding to its receptors.[20,21] Gastrin
Gastrin is a peptide hormone. This hormone was first is also known to be a key „growth regulator‟ in the gut
identified in 1906 by Ekins.[11] This hormone stimulates mucosa and is associated with the development of
secretion of acid mainly HCl that is secreted by the various GI cancers.[22]

Fig. 1: Cite of secretion of gastrin and its action.

Calcium, small peptides and aromatic amino acids in a report presence of extra antral secretin. Secretin has been
meal are the stimulants for secretion of gastrin.[23] found to be present in the hypothalamo-hypophyseal axis
Negative regulation of gastrin depends on the low pH and this secretin is known to regulates water homeostasis
level following acid secretion.[24] Studies show that throughout in the body.[30] Secretin is structurally similar
gastrin is stored as progastrin in the G cells.[25] It is also to that of glucagon with respect to the position of amino
reported that all forms of gastrin have equal effects on acid residues and is a polypeptide hormone.[29] Secretin
the gastrin receptors leading to the deduction that post is also structurally similar to vasoactive intestinal peptide
transcriptional modification has no effect on the function (VIP) and gastric inhibitory peptide (PHI-27), which are
or effectiveness of the peptide hormone.[26] The the members of the secretin family.[31,32] Secretin is
biologically active form of gastrin are the G-17 and G-34 known to exert trophic effects in several cell types.[29]
amino acid peptides containing tyrosine residues at The hormone is known to exert pharmacological impacts
carboxyl terminus.[26] on a number of organs which include the heart, kidney,
lung, and brain.[33] Secretin is reported to have inhibitory
SECRETIN effects on the gastric acid secretion and also on food-
Secretin is also a polypeptide hormone. It contains 27 stimulated gastrin release.[34] Secretin has inhibitory
amino acids residues.It was identified by Bayliss and effects on upper small intestinal motility and lower
Starling in 1902.[27] It is secreted by the duodenal mucosa esophageal sphincter pressure.[34] Studies reveal that
in response to the presence of chyme from stomach Secretin plays an important role in management of blood
[Fig.2.]. The prime function of seretin is the regulation of glucose following ingestion of glucose. Secretin induces
the secretion of pancreatic juice [Fig.2.]. It regulates the release of insulin from the pancreatic endocrine cells
pancreatic exocrine secretion of fluid and bicarbonate.[28] following ingestion of glucose.[35]
It regulates gastric acid secretion, gastric motility and
secretion of the biliary epithelium in the liver.[29] Studies

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Ghosh et al. European Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Research

CHOLECYSTOKININ CCK- B. CCK- A is found to be primarily located

Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a peptide hormone of the in GI tract whereas CCK-B is located mainly in the
intestinal system responsible for stimulating the central nervous system (CNS). CCK is known to
digestion of fat and protein.[36] Cholecystokinin , be responsible for inducing satiety sensation in the
officially called pancreozymin, is synthesized and hypothalamus. CCK is reported to have tropic
secreted by EECs in the duodenum , the first segment of effect on pancreas. [38]
the small intestine and is secreted into the blood
following intake of a meal.[37] Circulating CCK act by Initially CCK was identified as a 33 amino acid
binding with its receptors expressed on various organs peptide but later on , various length of CCK have
including the gall bladder, pancreas, smooth muscle etc. been isolated from the brain, intestine and blood.
The main functions of CCK are gall bladder All forms of CCK have been reported to be
contraction, relaxation of sphincter of Oddi, expressed by the same gene. CCK ranging in size
increased pancreatic enzyme secretion and from CCK-58 to CCK-8 have similar biological
decreased gastric emptying [Fig.2.]. [38] CCK activities.[39]
receptors are of two types mainly, CCK- A and

Fig. 2: Stimulatory (+) effects of Secretin, Cholecystokinin (CCK) and Gastrin and inhibitory (-) effect of
Enterogastron.

SOME OTHER GUT HORMONES the histamine and gastrin. Pharmacological dose of
Caerulein gastrone is reported to improve digestion naturally.[41]
Caerulein is a ten amino acid oligopeptide that stimulates
smooth muscle and increases digestive secretions. Urogastrone
Caerulein is deceptive with biological activity on GI It is a polypeptide hormone that has been isolated mainly
smooth muscle contraction and pancreatic and gastrin from men and dog urine. Urogatrone is a potent inhibitor
secretion . It was first observed in the skin of Australian of gastric acid secretion. It is known to intercept the
green frog , later it was identified in the South American gastric secretion in response to cholinergic drugs.[41]
Hylid frog.
Villikinin
It is a ten amino acid oligopeptide that stimulates smooth This hormone is secreted from the mucosa of the upper
muscle and increases digestive secretions . It stimulates small intestine. It stimulates villi in the small intestine.[42]
gastrin, biliary and pancreatic secretion and certain
smooth muscle. It is generally used in humans for the Enterocrinin
contraction of gallbladder during cholecystography.[40] This hormone is also postulated to be secreted from the
Gastrone intestinal lumen .It is known to stimulate the intestinal
Mucous membrane of human stomach contains a glands and increase the secretion of intestinal juice.[43]
substance called gastrone . It‟s secretion is stimulated by

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Ghosh et al. European Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Research

CONCLUSION Hormones. Gastroenterology Res. 2019; 12(5): 233-

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