International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 53 (2024) 40–48

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International Journal of Hydrogen Energy

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he

Advancing production of hydrogen using nuclear cycles – integration of

high temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGR) with solid oxide
electrolyzers (SOE)
J. Kupecki a, b, c, *, J. Hercog a, b, K. Motyliński a, b, J. Malesa d, D. Muszyński d, E. Skrzypek d,
M. Skrzypek d, A. Boettcher d, G. Tchorek a, b
a
Center for Hydrogen Technologies (CTH2), Institute of Power Engineering - National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
b
Institute of Power Engineering - National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
c
National Fuel Cell Research Center (NFCRC), University of California, Irvine, Irvine, USA
d
National Centre for Nuclear Research, Otwock, Poland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Dr F Gallucci The work presented in the paper focuses on the investigation of coupling high-temperature gas-cooled nuclear
reactor (HTGR) with solid oxide electrolyzers (SOE) for large-scale production of hydrogen. In the analysis, four
cases related to loads of the nuclear reactor were under consideration. These included operation at the nominal
load (100%), as well part-load operation (25, 50 and 80%).
Paper presents the assessment of several alternative modes of operation of the HTGR-SOE hybrid. It can be
concluded that under the given assumptions, electrical loading of the electrolyzer can be varied between 5 and
31 A (for 25% and 100% load of HTGR, respectively), and the corresponding voltage is in the range from 1.03 to
1.29 V. In terms of the size of the hydrogen production island, the electric power of the electrolysis was in the
range from 12.42 to 96 MW, while the heat necessary to operate the SOE was provided by the steam cycle of the
HTGR. The work provides qualitative and quantitative assessment of the possibility of generating hydrogen in a
hybrid system which addresses the off-design operation of the nuclear reactor.

1. Introduction • reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by at least 55%

compared to 1990 emissions,
The current geo-political situation accelerates the energy transition • at least 32% of renewable energy sources in the gross final energy
towards renewables, and expedite the efforts related to diversification of consumption,
source of energy carriers. At the same time, global economies expect • increase in energy efficiency by 32.5%,
rapid growth of the share of renewable energy sources, including • completion of the EU internal energy market.
intermittent solar and wind in the energy mix. In order to fully utilize
their potential, sufficient energy storage systems (ESS) are required to The key solution for tackling climate change is the so-called Paris
provide support for deep penetration of renewables and reduce the level Agreement, concluded in December 2015 during the COP21 including
of curtailment. the need to keep the increase in global average temperature below 2 ◦ C
Poland’s climate and energy strategy is in line with the policy of the compared to the pre-industrial levels [1,2].
European Union. In 2014, the European Council endorsed four 2030 One of the ways to act for climate protection and counteracting
targets for the entire EU, which in subsequent years during the annual greenhouse gas emissions may be the implementation of HTGRs as a
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP21-27) zero-emission source of electricity, and reliable heat for industry.
have been revised and include:

* Corresponding author. Center for Hydrogen Technologies (CTH2), Institute of Power Engineering - National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland.
E-mail address: jakub.kupecki@ien.com.pl (J. Kupecki).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.12.017
Received 30 July 2023; Received in revised form 12 November 2023; Accepted 3 December 2023
Available online 12 December 2023
0360-3199/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
J. Kupecki et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 53 (2024) 40–48

1.1. Polish roadmap for high temperature gas cooled reactors University, China. The outlet helium coolant temperature is 750 ◦ C. The
HTR-10 has been used to demonstrate the inherent safety features and is
The main premise for the development and implementation of high- a test facility for development of a larger power module, i.e. HTR-PM.
temperature gas-cooled reactor technology is the demand for heat, HTR-PM (High-Temperature gas-cooled Reactor Pebble-bed Module) is
which in Europe is distributed at the level of 600–900 TWh/year in the a commercial demonstration unit for electricity production (power
temperature ranges below 250 ◦ C, between 250 and 550 ◦ C, and above output of 210 MWe) [4]. The twin reactor modules drive a single turbine
1,000 ◦ C, with rather small demand between 550 ◦ C and 1,000 ◦ C. The configuration. Single reactor module (250 MWt) is a pebble bed type
lowest range may be satisfied by Light Water Reactors (LWRs). However, high temperature gas cooled reactor with outlet helium coolant tem­
industrial installations using these temperatures are generally small and perature of 750 ◦ C. The HTR-PM demonstrator was connected to the grid
dispersed, which makes the use of nuclear reactors difficult. The district and began producing power in December 2021 [5]. In December 2022,
heating sector offers significant opportunities, which in several coun­ the HTR-PM plant reached initial full power with stable operation under
tries use waste heat from large power reactors. The source of the urban the mode of two reactors [6]. Following the HTR-PM demonstration
heat reactors could be SMRs (Small Modular Reactors) - LWR type, but plant, commercial deployment of HTR-PM based on batch construction
thanks to the inherent safety features, HTGRs can be built closer to is planned, named HTR-PM600 (six reactor modules coupled to one
human settlements. Steam at temperature around 500 ◦ C is the standard steam turbine) [4,6,7].
heat carrier in many large industrial plants, mainly chemical. HTGRs
could replace gas-fired or coal-fired boilers while maintaining existing 2. The basic features of HTGRs
installations, including turbines producing electricity for the plant. The
demand of Polish industry for steam at such temperature is about 6.5 The design of the HTGR was developed to fulfill the two basic needs
GWt in total, in several locations [3,4]. of the energy market consumers: their electricity and process heat de­
The implementation of HTGRs as industrial heat source requires mand. These impose the constraints on the HTGR system and reactor
some modifications to national law, but also preparation of organiza­ itself. The result is the high temperature within the reactor core, which
tional and technical instruments. Appropriate strategies and solutions becomes the unique feature of HTGR when compared to reactors oper­
were carried out under strategic Polish program of scientific research ated worldwide. The outlet temperature of coolant in the reactor core
and development work: “Social and economic development of Poland in can reach up to 950 ◦ C [8]. This makes the design of HTGR system
the conditions of globalizing markets”, within the national project: unique and suitable for various applications, which benefit from the
GOSPOSTRATEG-HTR: Preparation of legal, organizational and tech­ inherently high efficiency [8,9].
nical instruments for the HTR implementation in Poland (years The reactor is designed to be operated with pressurized coolant (in
2019–2022). Its second phase included the implementation of the pre­ this case helium) and graphite as a structural material, which simulta­
viously developed procedures by incorporating them into the system of neously plays a role of moderator. In terms of neutronics, the neutron
approvals and permits. Preparation to the licensing process of the HTGR, leakage is limited by the use of radial (on the core perimeter), bottom
based on the research reactor, was an objective of the project. Research and top graphite reflectors, metallic core barrels and thermal shields
reactor is a necessary step before deployment of a HTGR for industrial (additional internal structures). This reflector design feature increases
application. One of the key results of the project was pre-conceptual the neutron economy and, at the same time, limits the Reactor Pressure
design of the 40 MWt research HTGR, named TeResa. Vessel (RPV) exposure to the neutron flux and bounds its damaging ef­
fect [15]. The fission takes place in the core on the (typically) enriched
1.2. Review of projects related to HTGRs UO2 fuel ceramic encapsulated particles – TRISO-coated particles [10,
11] and is controlled by the Control Rods System, with neutron
The modern HTGR is a helium-cooled graphite-moderated nuclear absorptive material (i.e. B4C) [11,12]. The TRISO particles in form of
fission reactor using fully ceramic tri-structural isotropic (TRISO) coated fuel spheres coated with porous carbon, pyrolytic carbon and silicon
fuel particles. This technology is characterized by inherent safety fea­ carbide are very resistant type of fuel to postulated accident events ex­
tures, excellent fission product retention in TRISO fuel, high- pected in the HTGRs, which exclude the possibility of core melt [13].
temperature coolant output suitable for the delivery of industrial pro­ The different layer serves to limit the fission product releases (noble
cess heat [1], high thermal efficiency, economic competitiveness, and gases, I, Ag, Sr, Cs etc.), both by trapping radionuclides inside and being
proliferation resistance. HTGRs can be built with power outputs that are impermeable for them in majority of conditions. It is expected that the
typical of small and medium-sized or modular reactors (SMRs). SMRs fission products will almost completely be retained in the TRISO parti­
are defined as advanced nuclear reactors that have a power capacity of cles till a fuel temperature of around 1,600 ◦ C [14,15].
up to 300 MWe per unit. One subset of SMRs are the microreactors which The reactor itself can be designed as Pebble-Bed or Prismatic (PBR,
are designed to generate electrical power typically up to 10 MWe. PMR respectively), what affects the way to solve the matter of the ge­
HTGRs are primarily dedicated to the cogeneration of electricity and ometry of the fuel and the moderator. In the PBR the fuel (in the form of
process heat, e.g. hydrogen production. TRISO and number of 104 order) is dispersed in the graphite material
Currently, there are three operating HTGRs, i.e. two experimental and surrounded by the graphite shell. These balls – pebbles (60 mm dia.
reactors HTTR (Japan) and HTR-10 (China), and one full-scale demon­ [16]) are arranged in the core stochastically surrounded by the graphite
strator HTR-PM (China). reflector and supplied continuously during the reactor operation from
HTTR (High Temperature engineering Test Reactor) is a 30 MWt the top, while discharge at the bottom. The flow of the pebbles enables
experimental prismatic block type high temperature gas-cooled reactor to keep the constant power profile in the core and limits the operation
of Japan Atomic Energy Agency. The unique future of this reactor is the downtime in the NPP lifetime for refueling process [17].
outlet helium coolant temperature of 850–950 ◦ C which might be a high On the reactor side, the helium coolant is usually directed to the core
temperature process heat source for several industrial fields. In 2021 by the uprising flow over the Reactor Pressure Vessel wall inner surface.
HTTR has restarted its operation after post-Fukushima safety review by This design solution allows to limit its temperature at low acceptable
the Nuclear Regulation Authority in conformity with new regulatory value during normal operation states. Next, helium flows from the top to
requirements [2]. The recent Japanese national Green Growth Strategy the bottom of the reactor core resulting possible temperature rise of
[3] includes actions to demonstrate massive and low-cost carbon-free 500–600 ◦ C [8,13]. The flow is directed at the outlet duct, which is
hydrogen production by 2030 using the high temperature heat from the connected to the steam generator primary side (for steam-generating
HTTR facility. plants), where it gives off heat to the secondary side medium or the
HTR-10 is a 10 MWt experimental pebble bed type HTGR in Tsinghua primary coolant is used in the gas turbine to produce electricity (for only

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J. Kupecki et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 53 (2024) 40–48

electricity producing plants). Afterwards, the pressure of low tempera­ i. Production of inorganic chemicals,
ture (~325 ◦ C) coolant is increased in the compressor unit. For that ii. Potassium or nitrogen-based fertilizers processes,
reason, the HTGR system can be integrated either with the steam iii. Production of basic organic chemicals,
generator or gas turbine [18–20]. Selection between coupling with iv. Mineral oil and gas refineries, and
Rankine or Brayton cycle determines the system design and its v. Wood/furniture/paper factories [26].
functionality.
In the HTGR-Brayton cycle the nuclear power plant (NPP) will be These applications require heat delivered at temperature level from
equipped with a gas turbine and helium flow from the core directed 250◦ C to 550◦ C. Therefore, the concept of the energy conversion system
directly at it. The possible design of the power conversion unit could be a in HTGR-based plant is developed to provide steam at ca. 550◦ C and
single shaft helium gas turbine connected to the helium compressor and pressure up to 138 bars which matches with the design of standard
generator [21]. This solution is expected to be utilized for the only turbine-generators. The secondary cooling circuit might be therefore
electricity generating operation mode for the NPP. This therefore limits made of typical components available in the market, without a need for
the application of HTGR-Brayton for systems which are designed to advanced materials and structures. The only exception is the steam
delivered heat or steam for other processes, including operation in generator which serves as an interface between the primary reactor
combined heat and power units. When the choice of the thermodynamic cooling circuit and the secondary side. In such a design the steam which
cycle becomes Rankine cycle, the HTGR system will be separated into drives the turbo-generator is used to produce electricity only to cover the
two sides: primary and secondary. Their main roles respectively are to auxiliary power consumption of the NPP. Steam delivered to end-user
produce energy in the form of heat and to transfer this heat to the sec­ may be used for technological processes and for electricity production
ondary medium, which in the vast majority of systems is based on a as well.
liquid-liquid steam-generator [22]. The steam generator delivers steam As Poland is about to build and commission the first commercial
which drives the generator coupled to the turbine or it can be ducted via reactor, the approach to deployment of the technology is different when
several heat exchangers (including reboilers) when heat is drawn from compared to countries which already operate NPPs. Instead of estab­
the NPP [8]. lishing an industrial-scale demonstrator a low power HTGR plant will be
The proposed small scale 40 MWt research reactor TeResa is a built first. It will help to pave the way for the successful deployment of
technology demonstrator based on PMR. It is based on the previously industrial reactors in successive steps [27]. However, in the case of low
described characteristics of the PMR HTGR and relies on the design of power research and demonstration plant the utilization of produced heat
GEMINI + reactor [23]. is more complex. The power level chosen for TeResa is 40 MWt, that is
The TeResa reactor is a pre-concept of a prismatic HTGR with 40 good to test and demonstrate all solutions applied for the nuclear reactor
MWth thermal power., developed based on the GEMINI + solutions, with and associated equipment. However, the amount of produced heat is too
scaled down power It is a helium-cooled, graphite-moderated reactor large to be consumed by local facilities. Therefore, it is proposed to
with a thermal neutron spectrum. The TeResa design also anticipated construct a small-scale industrial plant for demonstration of coupling
the need to provide steam, which in the future can be used for a wide with nuclear cogeneration facility. Such a situation encourages coupling
variety of applications at the NCBJ’s site, including district heating, the plant with energy storage system which can be based on production
electricity generation, and in the next possibly for hydrogen production of synthetic fuels. Here hydrogen becomes an interesting energy carrier
or other applications. which can potentially play a pivotal role in decarbonizing industries as
The thermal energy generated in the core is removed by a downward well as the transportation sector. For that reason, coupling hydrogen
flow of helium coolant, which is heated up from 325 ◦ C to an average production with HTGR demonstration plant was chosen for detailed
value of 750 ◦ C. The hot coolant is transported from the reactor vessel analysis.
outlet via the coaxial duct to the steam generator. The simplified process diagram of TeResa HTGR is presented in
The helium flow is induced by a helium circulator located at the top Fig. 1. Heat generated in the reactor is withdrawn by helium circulating
of the steam generator. The helium coolant pressure at circulator in the primary cooling system. In the steam generator heat is transferred
discharge is 6 MPa. In the steam generator, the heat is transferred to the to the secondary water-steam circuit. Part of live steam drives the tur­
water/steam cycle. The helium coolant parameters allow for the pro­ bine coupled with generator, and after condensation is pumped to feed
duction of steam with a temperature of 540 ◦ C and pressure of 13.8 MPa. steam generator though the regeneration and feedwater part of the
The TeResa reactor core uses TRISO fuel, i.e., a particulate fuel with circuit. Other part of live steam stream is directed to reboiler where heat
ceramic multi-layer coatings surrounding a UO2 kernel. TRISO particles is transferred to water and steam of tertiary circuit. That steam (process
are randomly dispersed in a cylindrical graphite matrix (fuel compact, steam) can be delivered to the end user at separate industrial plant,
1.245 cm in diameter and 5 cm in height) with a packing fraction of outside of the nuclear facility. The reboiler provides good separation of
15%. The fissile fuel kernels are enriched in 12% U-235. process steam from potentially contaminated media circulating in pri­
The active core consists of 31 fuel columns arranged on a uniform mary and secondary circuits. Even better separation is foreseen for water
triangular pitch and assembled as three rings around central fuel column in district heating. An additional intermediate closed circuit transfers
with a nominal 2 mm gap between each. The fuel column comprises a heat from the turbine discharge to the district heat exchanger. Detailed
stack of six fuel blocks. A single fuel block is a hexagonal prism of 36 cm analysis of the potential integration with hydrogen production was
across the flats and 80 cm in height. There are two types of fuel blocks, conducted in frame of GOSPOSTRATEG HTR project.
standard blocks (fully fueled) and control blocks (with control rod In the project it was assumed that steam produced in reboiler will be
channels). The active core is surrounded by two rings of the replaceable utilized in the conventional industrial facility as process heat and sub­
side reflector and the permanent side reflector. There are top and bottom strate for hydrogen production. Analyses of radioactive release during
replaceable reflector structures (graphite blocks) above and below the normal operation as well accident conditions present that the industrial
active core. facility can be placed in the vicinity of the nuclear facility, according to
general safety codes and standards.
Three products of operation of for HTGR demonstrator can be
2.1. Process outline named: (i) electricity, (ii) low temperature heat for central heating
network, and (iii) high temperature heat for hydrogen production pro­
The original concept of a GEMINI + nuclear cogeneration plant as­ cess. In order to fulfill the role of a technology demonstrator, the reactor
sumes that heat is utilized by an existing industrial plant [23–25]. The should be able to operate steadily and continuously, similarly to in­
following industrial sectors were considered for its integration: dustrial units. The time between refueling should be no shorter than one

42
J. Kupecki et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 53 (2024) 40–48

Fig. 1. Process diagram of TeResa cogeneration plant.

year and reloading of fuel should be reasonably fast, typically no longer the flexible hydrogen production island coupled with the TeResa facil­
than 4–6 weeks. Such operational capabilities allow application of the ity. The paper focuses entirely on the production of hydrogen in
produced heat for practical purposes. In the case of TeResa, it will be electrolyzers.
electricity for HTGR auxiliary power consumption and to cover the
heating needs of the facilities of the National Centre for Nuclear 3. Hydrogen in the context of energy sector
Research (NCBJ). Both needs (electricity and heat) vary on hourly, daily,
weekly and monthly basis. Demand for heat between the summer and Hydrogen comes to the discussion on energy storage systems as a
winter season varies substantially, and this needs to be addressed in the potential solution which is now becoming a new vector for various in­
design of the system. dustries, especially those which are energy- and emission intensive.
Current and future needs for electricity and heat at the NCBJ campus Moreover, hydrogen can be used in applications which cannot be elec­
are estimated as: trified, providing therefore a unique opportunity for conversion from
Electricity demand: fossil fuels to near-zero or zero-emission energy sources.
Hydrogen is widely used around the world as fuel in the power,
• HTGR: 3.5–4.0 MWe (max. 14 MWt) process gas or substrate in refining processes, chemical plants, metal­
• NCBJ campus in Świerk: 2.0–2.5 MWe (max. 8.75 MWt) lurgical and other industries. There are several methods to produce
hydrogen such as steam reforming of hydrocarbons, gasification of coal
Heat demand (for heating purposes): or biomass, hydrogen separation from coke-oven gas and electrolysis.
The latter is currently gaining a lot of attention as the potential source of
• NCBJ campus in Świerk: maximum 9 MWt (at the peak of the heating zero- and low-emission hydrogen.
season) In order to decarbonize the energy, industrial and transport sectors
and to fulfill the European emission goals, the most preferable method is
The remaining amount of heat (min. ca. 9 MWt) can be potentially the use of high-efficiency electrolyzers. According to several of recent
used for hydrogen production. When coupled with the nuclear cycle it forecasts (IRENA, European Union, DNV, Rystad Energy), by 2050 the
should help to stabilize the operation of the reactor and accommodate generation of hydrogen in electrolyzers powered by renewable energy
the heat produced by reactor (nominally 40 MWt). It is recommended to sources (RES) will account for approx. 72% of the total production
operate the reactor at constant power and change the power of three [28–31]. Additionally, International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)
heat sinks according to current needs. This defines several modes of assumes that over 100 million tons of electrolysis-based hydrogen will
operation. However, it should be noted that the parameters of the pri­ be traded internationally every year until mid-century via pipelines or
mary coolant do not change when the power of reactor is modulated. ships carrying ammonia [32]. Fig. 2 presents the expected hydrogen
The coolant mass flow rate is adjusted instead. Similarly, in the sec­ trade channels based on existing agreements and commitments.
ondary circuit it is assumed that parameters of live steam produced in It is expected that at least half of hydrogen produced in 2050 will be
steam generator are constant, but its mass flow rate might vary. transported using the existing natural gas networks, which by then will
As the consequence of the above, the task was formulated to propose be adapted to transport hydrogen. It is expected that this will become

43
J. Kupecki et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 53 (2024) 40–48

Fig. 2. An expanding network of hydrogen trade routes, plans and agreements [32].

the cheapest option to transport pure hydrogen with costs estimated at gas-tight solid electrolyte prevents mixing of the hydrogen and oxygen
$0.08–0.12/kg per 1,000 km in 2050. The remaining part can be gases produced during electrolysis, resulting in a purer hydrogen
transported in various ways, including chemically bounded hydrogen, product.
for example in synthetic fuels such as ammonia. The efficiency of the electrolyzers can be assessed by comparing the
demand for electricity needed to produce a reference amount of
hydrogen, which was shown in Table 1. Additionally, in Table 1, pros
3.1. Electrolytic production of hydrogen and cons for each electrolysis technologies are also presented. The
attached data clearly indicate that electrolyzers based on solid oxide
Electricity from renewable energy sources is currently the most electrochemical cells are the dominant technology in terms of lower
favorable form of generation, but it is strongly dependent on the current energy consumption and better efficiency of H2 production.
weather conditions and therefore problematic due to the need to In March 2022, BloombergNEF [33] published the report suggesting
maintain the balance between the production and demand. The use of that the price of supplied hydrogen of 6.59 USD/kg is already sufficient
storage systems is necessary to fully explore the potential of renewables to make ammonia from electrolysis-based hydrogen cheaper than
periods of mismatch between the production and supply. It can help to ammonia from H2 generated via methane steam reforming method.
improve the economic potential intermittent energy sources and add to Bloomberg also pointed out that the prices of renewable energy in
the resiliency of electrical grids with high penetrations of RES. countries such as Spain, India and China make it possible to further
Energy storage systems can be based on hydrogen which becomes a reduce the prices of hydrogen from RES-powered electrolyzers. In
new vector in various sectors and enables reduction of the level of addition, the capital expenditures and costs of electrolysis are expected
curtailment of renewables. The gas can be used in the energy sector as a to fall over the next decade as technology develops. It is expected that
fuel, especially in systems which generate electricity and heat in com­ costs of producing hydrogen via electrolysis will drop significantly in the
bined systems. This makes it possible to reduce the consumption of coming decade, making it competitive with other methods by 2030.
primary energy in small and medium-size systems. The key factor is the Thus, hydrogen from renewable sources will be cheaper to produce than
efficiency of hydrogen production systems as well as the carbon foot­ hydrogen generated from natural gas with carbon capture and storage.
print of the process. According to the BloombergNEF forecast [33], a list of individual
The electrolysis is based on the electrochemical reaction in which countries where the production of hydrogen from electrolysis will be
water is split into hydrogen and oxygen. Currently, the most mature and more profitable than using steam reforming with CO2 capture is pre­
fully commercialized technologies for electrochemical production of sented in Fig. 3.
hydrogen are the alkaline and polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM)
electrolyzers. However, these two are complemented by the third
technology which is at the earliest stage of development. Solid oxide 3.2. Integration of SOE with HTGR
electrolysis is currently under rapid development, and the exhibit the
highest efficiency. However, this technology is demonstrated at the scale Taking into account the potential of solid oxide electrolysis and the
of megawatts, while PEM and alkaline electrolyzers are present in the design of high temperature gas-cooled reactor the concept for inte­
size above 20 MW. It is important to highlight that thanks to the all- grating the two was proposed. The concept of coupling based on both the
ceramic structure and the use of solid electrolytes, SOE operates at electrical and thermal integration of the nuclear cycle with electro­
higher temperatures. Operation above 600 ◦ C makes it possible to chemical process. Fig. 4 presents the simplified process diagram of the
reduce the terminal voltage of SOE, reducing the energy input required HTGR-SOE hybrid.
in electrolysis. Additionally, SOE can operate at high current densities, Steam generated in the reboiler is directed to the electrolysis system,
resulting in higher hydrogen production rates compared to low tem­ where it is mixed with partially recirculated hydrogen. In the current
perature electrolyzers. Another advantage of SOE is their potential to study, molar composition of the gas delivered to the fuel part of the
generate high purity hydrogen. This can be achieved due to the direct stacks was 95% H2O and 5% of H2. Adding small amount of hydrogen to
feeding of steam into the cathodic compartments of an electrolyzers. The the electrolysis process realized in SOE modules is crucial in order to

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J. Kupecki et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 53 (2024) 40–48

Table 1
Type of electrolyzers.
Electrolyzer Pros Cons Energy
consumption
(electricity),
kWh/kgH2

Alkaline • the oldest and • low gas purity 49–60

most common • low power density
type of • low outlet hydrogen
electrolysis pressure
• commercially • limited modulation
available and work dynamics
technology
• 100 MW class
installations are
being built

PEM • higher current • two times lower 50–65

density compared service life compared
to alkaline cells to alkaline
• greater • higher CAPEX
modulation range compared to alkaline
• ability to work electrolyzers
under dynamic • need to use of noble
load changes metals as catalysts
• 10 MW class
installations

SOE • possibility of • early stage of up to 45

integration with commercialization
Fig. 3. A brief summary presenting time frame of electrolysis-based hydrogen
industrial • higher CAPEX costs
processes, compared to alkaline to be more cost competitive comparing to steam reforming with carbon capture
including steam and PEM based and storage installations for selected countries in Europe, Asia, America, Africa
cycles of power electrolysis systems and the Middle East [33].
units
• possibility of
simultaneous
module and delivered to the reboiler.
electrolysis of
water vapor and 4. Methodology
carbon dioxide
(co-electrolysis)
The numerical study was oriented at the qualitative and quantitative
• high gas purity
• low sensitivity to assessment of the efficiency of system which generates hydrogen in
impurities in HTGR-SOE couple. Additionally, the analysis was focused on sizing of
water/steam electrolysis island in order to match with the available heat from the
• very high current/ nuclear cycle. With such an approach, it was possible to investigate the
power densities
integration of nuclear reactor which is thermally integrated with high
• no precious metals
acting as a catalyst temperature electrolyzer operated at different current densities. The
• no liquid methodology was based on varying electrical loading of the stack to
electrolyte match with the modulation of the reactor. In the current study, two
scenarios were under consideration:
maintain reduction atmosphere on the cathode, which has direct impact
(a) HTGR generates electric power for its own needs and delivers
on the cells resilience. This stream is heated in the heat exchanger by the
only high temperature steam (440 ◦ C) to the electrolysis module.
gases leaving fuel part of the SOE module. Air is delivered to the system
Electricity to SOE is supplied from an external source. Cases with
by the air blower, which increases its pressure slightly above atmo­
different production of steam by HTGR (from 25% to 100%) were
spheric level in order to overcome all pressure losses in the installation.
analyzed. In this case, the limiting factor for the size of SOE-based
Due to the properties of the electrolysis reaction, air is used as a sweep
installation is the amount of steam delivered to the electrolyzer.
gas that sucks the oxygen ions that passed through the electrolyte. Air
Given the maximum steam utilization factor, and the range of
also is heated in the heat exchanger by the enriched oxidant leaving the
current density of SOE, the sizing of electrolyzer was possible.
SOE module. Depending on the operating point of the SOE stacks, it can
(b) HTGR supplies SOE-based system with both electricity and steam
operate in three different modes: (i) endothermic, (ii) exothermic, or
available at 500 ◦ C. Different amount of electric power was
(iii) thermoneutral. When the electrolyzer operates at low electric cur­
delivered to electrolyzer, in the range from 1 to 2.5 MW. In this
rent, it might be necessary to deliver additional heat to the SOE. This is
scenario the amount of available electricity was the limiting
done by rising the temperature of gases entering the anodic and cathodic
factor for sizing of the electrolysis island.
compartments of a stack. This is typically done using integrated electric
heaters. Their role is to maintain stable temperature across the stack.
The key component of hydrogen production module is the electro­
Not all of the steam which enters SOE is converted in the electro­
lyzer. There are several publications describing alternative approaches
chemical reaction, thus the gas leaving the electrolyzer contains both H2
to modeling solid oxide electrolysis [34–36], but in the current study
and non-reacted H2O. In order to maintain relatively high purity of the
numerical model of SOE was based on equivalent electric circuit. Such
generated hydrogen, the remaining steam has to be cooled down and
an approach was chosen because the analysis was oriented at
condensed in a dedicated heat exchanger. In the following step part of
system-level study of the HTGR-SOE couple without detailed insight into
hydrogen is recirculated to the inlet of SOE and mixed with fresh steam.
spatial distribution of processes taking place at the micro-scale. The
The condensed water is mixed with the fresh water from conditioning

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J. Kupecki et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 53 (2024) 40–48

Fig. 4. Concept diagram of SOE-based installation.

methodology was previously proposed by Milewski et al. [37] and oxidant compartments of SOE.
proven to be a suitable tool for system-level studied of SOE stacks [38].
RT po2,cathode
In the approach, material parameters of the electrodes and electro­ Emax = ln (3)
4F po2,anode
lyte are implemented in the model. The reference solid oxide cells which
were studied are supported by the 400 μm thick fuel electrode composed where:
of NiO/YSZ. Materials which make the oxygen electrode and the elec­ R - universal gas constant.
trolyte are LSC and YSZ, respectively. Such a selection corresponds to Steam Utilization (SU) factor defines how much of the incoming
the state-of-the-art technology. Complete set of cells parameters is pre­ steam is electrochemically converted to hydrogen and oxygen. Ionic and
sented in Table 2. electronic resistances (r1 and r2 , respectively) were determined based on
Solving the equivalent electric circuit, based on Ohm’s and Kirchoff’s the properties of material which is used for the cells. These were prop­
Laws, results in a formula described by Eq. (1) which makes it possible to erties were taken into account in Eq. (1).
compute the voltage of SOE, operated under given conditions. The mathematical representation of the SOE module was imple­
Emax + imax • r1 •SU mented in the model of the HTGR-SOE hybrid and was used to simulate
ESOE = (1)
r1
(1 − SU)+1 operation of the system in two aforementioned scenarios. In simulations
r2
several assumptions related to the SOC stack were introduced. Table 3
where: summarized the key parameters used in the model of electrolysis.
Emax - maximal cell voltage, imax - maximal current density, SU -
steam utilization factor and r1 , r2 - ionic and electronic resistances, 5. Results and discussion
respectively.
The maximum current density which can be supplied to the elec­ Results which were obtained from the numerical analysis of the two
trolyzer is calculated based on Farady’s Law, according to Eq. (2). scenarios are presented in Tables 4 and 5. The nominal power of solid
oxide electrolyzer which can be used under given assumptions related to
n • F • ṅH2O
imax = (2) the modulation of the HTGR are presented. Voltage of SOE was
A computed based on the current density which varies with the modula­
where: tion of electrolysis island. Additionally, the auxiliary power
F - Faraday’s constant of 96,485C/mol, A - active area of the cell,
ṅH2O - steam molar flow and n - number of electrons used in the elec­ Table 3
trochemical reaction. For the steam electrolysis reaction n = 2. Parameters of the SOE module.
The maximum voltage is determined by the Nernst equation (see Eq. Parameter Specification
(3)) and includes partial pressure of oxygen at the outlet of both fuel and SOE module operating temperature 680 ◦ C
Cell active area 92 cm2
Composition of gas entering fuel electrode 95:5, H2O:H2 (molar ratio)
Table 2 Composition of gas entering oxidant electrode Air
Parameters of the solid oxide cell. Maximum steam utilization factor 80%
Maximum temperature of inlet gasses 720 ◦ C (sealing
Layer Material Thickness Area
limitations)
Fuel electrode (support) NiO/YSZ 400 μm 11x11 cm Isentropic efficiency of the blower 30%
Oxygen electrode LSC 15 μm 10x10 cm SOE supply efficiency 95%
Electrolyte YSZ 5 μm 10x10 cm Average electric efficiency of balance of plant 90%
Barrier GDC 1.5 μm 10x10 cm components

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J. Kupecki et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 53 (2024) 40–48

Table 4
Scenario 1 results - reactor supplies only steam.
Element Unit Electrolyzer system parameters

HTGR load % 100 80 60 40 25

Electric load of SOE A 31 24.8 18.5 12 5
Single cell voltage V 1.29 1.25 1.19 1.15 1.03
Electrolyzer power MWe 96 74.39 52.85 32.11 12.42
Air blower power req. MWe 0.76 1.14 1.43 1.81 1.14
Electric heater (air) power MWe 4.5 12.52 19.17 27.54 15.5
Electric heater (fuel) power MWe 1.56 1.85 1.36 0.84 0.33
System power MWe 108.1 93.94 77.75 64.19 30.17
Produced hydrogen kg/h 2,800 2,240 1,670 1,080 450
Electric efficiency % 86.31 79.43 71.59 56.24 49.86

Table 5
Scenario 2 results - reactors supplies electricity and steam.
Element Unit Electrolyzer system parameters

Power available for the electrolysis MWe 2.5 2 1.5 1

island
Electric load of SOE cell A 32.5 26 14 8
Single cell voltage V 1.3 1.26 1.14 1.07
Electrolyzer power MWe 2.32 1.8 0.88 0.47
Fig. 6. Amount of heat received from the reboiler to produce water steam for
Air blower power req. kWe 10.81 10.54 40.52 35.66
Electric heater (air) power req. kWe 46.13 79.56 520.2 457.9
the electrolyzer, for different system power requirements.
Electric heater (fuel) power req. kWe 14.6 31 21.73 11.85
Produced hydrogen kg/h 67 54 29 17 under such assumptions electrolyzers operated with single cell voltage
Electric efficiency % 89.11 88.81 63.85 54.83
below 1.29 V. This number corresponds with the endothermic mode of
operation which means that an additional amount of heat has to be
consumption of the system was calculated and the power of the anodic delivered to the installation. This electricity will be consumed by electric
blower, and the demand of electricity by the heaters located in the air heaters located upstream of the electrolyzer. Additionally, in Scenario 1
and fuel side of SOE were determined. The total power of the electrolysis it was assumed that preheated steam at 440 ◦ C is delivered to the SOE
island was computed for scenario 1 and 2. Moreover, the amount of part of the system. The limited amount of heat from the reboiler affect
hydrogen which can be generated was determined and the electric ef­ the amount of steam that can be produced. The high-temperature elec­
ficiency of the electrolysis island is given. trolyser, due its technical limitations, can use only 80% in the electro­
In scenario 1 the relation between the amount of heat received from chemical reaction. When lower amount of preheated steam is present in
the reboiler and the SOE system power for different HTGR reactor load is the SOE, electric load also has to be reduced in order not to exceed the
presented in Fig. 5. assumed steam utilization ratio. In such cases, the characteristics of
In scenario 2 the amount of heat received from the reboiler to pro­ electrolyser are linear and thus its power requirements changes in
duce water steam for the electrolyzer, for different system power re­ similar way.
quirements is shown in Fig. 6. Actual demand for heat for SOE is a function of cell voltage, which is
Based on the results it was determined that when the load of the characterized as second-order polynomial, thus there is a maximum
HTGR is reduced (scenario 1) or the amount of electric power available value which cannot be exceeded. The electric heaters which are present
for SOE-based hydrogen generation is limited (scenario 2) the smaller in the HTGR-SOE couple are sized in such a way that the temperature of
amount of steam can be supplied to the electrochemical reaction. It gases entering SOE cannot exceed 720 ◦ C. In this case an increased
should be noted that changes of each of the parameters have a linear amount of heat is required to maintain the operating temperature of
impact on the resulting value. This can be explained by the fact that electrolysis island. Moreover, additional amount of air needs to be
delivered to the system. This steam is preheated using electric heaters
located in the anodic line. This solution allows to maintain proper
control of the installation. While electrolyser is working in endothermic
conditions, more heat has to be delivered to the electrochemical device
in order to maintain its operating temperature. This is mainly controlled
by the use use of air electric heater and blower. Their rising power de­
mands are key factors that influence the overall system efficiency, which
also shows that it is crucial to keep nominal and thermoneutral oper­
ating conditions of the electrolyser.

6. Conclusion

Taking into account EU zero-emission energy strategy, deployment

of HTGRs for industrial application, e.g. hydrogen production, is one of
the promising option. The method for sizing solid oxide electrolyzer
which is integrated thermally with research HTGR TeResa facility was
analyzed in this paper. Presented results of simulations covered two
scenarios of coupling high temperature electrolyzer with the nuclear
cycle. Four different levels of modulation were considered in the steady-
Fig. 5. Relation between the amount of heat received from the reboiler and the state analysis of the nuclear cycle-based large-scale hydrogen
SOE system power, for different HTGR reactor load.

47
J. Kupecki et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 53 (2024) 40–48

production unit which can generate up to 2,800 kg H2/h. [5] Tsinghua University. World’s first HTR-PM nuclear power plant connects to grid.
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