Guide to the study of

Theravada Buddhism

Book 3

Dhamma and Abhidhamma

Published by the
Colombo YMBA Sri Lanka
 First Edition - 2006
Second Edition - 2009
Third Edition - 2013
Fourth Edition - 2017

ISBN - 978 - 955 - 8554 - 08 - 01

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No Part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

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 PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE TO THE FOURTH EDITION
It is both my privilege and pleasure to issue this Message to the
Fourth Edition of “Guide to the Study of Theravada Buddhism Book –
3” intended to cover the syllabus prescribed for Senior Part I Level of
the Dhamma and Abhidhamma Examinations conducted by the Colombo
Young Men’s Buddhist Association (YMBA). The demand for a fourth
edition is eloquent testimony to the popularity and acclaim the text book
received from the teachers and students of Budddha Dhamma.

The Colombo YMBA has been conducting Dhamma /

Abhidhamma examinations in English since 1948, originally targeted
to serve foreign students of countries such as Singapore, Malaysia and
UK. Participation of local students in this examination is a recent
development that emerged with rapid increase of English Medium Schools
in Sri Lanka. It is gratifying to note that the number of local candidates
is increasing year by year. YMBA can justifiably claim to be fulfilling its
obligation of promoting the study of The Buddha Dhamma among the
young students in the true spirit of a moral training and not simply a
secular exercise.

I sincerely appreciate the enthusiasm shown by Buddhist temples

both in Sri Lanka and abroad in this endevour and the dedication shown
by volunteer teachers in lending their services in the task of Propagating
Dhamma Education. This is a noble act of Dhamma Dana extolled by
the Buddha.

May the Blessings of Noble Triple Gem be with All.

16.06.2017 Sumedha Amerasinghe

President,
Colombo YMBA
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION
The First Edition of this text book titled “Guide to the study of
Theravada Buddhism Book 3” designed to cover the syllabus prescribed
for the Senior Part I Level of the Dhamma / Abhidhamma Examinations
conducted by the Colombo Young Men’s Buddhist Association, was
published in 2006. With the growing demand for the book that demonstrates
the popularity of our text books, we now have the opportunity to present
to the students and teachers of Dhamma Schools the Fourth Edition of the
book, within a period of ten years.

I am pleased to announce that the Colombo YMBA has been

fulfilling its obligation to provide suitable text books to the students
preparing to sit the examinations conducted by the YMBA

I appreciate with gratitude the support extended by the Dhamma

Schools and the Teachers at these schools, who render a selfless
service by imparting the Dhamma in the true spirit of a moral training.
May the Blessings of the Noble Triple Gem be with All.

16.06.2017 Nalin J. Abeyesekere

Secretary Dhamma Examinations.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION OF DHAMMA

CHAPTER PAGE

A SUMMARY OF THE CONTENTS OF BOOK 2 1

SIX HERETICAL TEACHERS 3

RETREAT DURING THE RAINY SEASON AND THE KATHINA CEREMONY 5

DAILY ROUTINE OF THE BUDDHA 7

APPOINTMENT OF A PERSONAL ATTENDANT 9

ANTAGONISM TOWARDS THE BUDDHA 11

PROMULGATION OF THE RULES OF DISCIPLINE FOR

BHIKKHUS AND BHIKKHUNIS 13

THE MINISTRY OF THE BUDDHA 15

LAST DAYS OF THE BUDDHA 17

SOCIAL ETHICS OF BUDDHISM 21

KARMA AND VIPAKA 28

DHAMMAPADA 34

FORTY OBJECTS OF MEDITATION 38

FETTERS (SANYOJANA) 47

PROOF OF REBIRTH 52

NIVARANA (MENTAL HINDRANCES) 56

vii
 Dhamma Section

Mainly for
Senior Level - Part I

English Dhamma Examination of the Colombo YMBA

by

P. Wattegama, M.A.(Kel), M.A. (BPU) and P. Mahanama

ix
 A SUMMARY OF THE CONTENTS OF

BOOK 2 – RECAPITULATION

SECTION ON DHAMMA
As a Preface to Book 3, a summary of the contents of Book 2 is presented by way of
recapitulation. Life of the Buddha is an essential component of any syllabus
prescribed for Dhamma School Examinations. The period prescribed for Junior
Level Part II and covered in Book 2 is the twenty years following Enlightenment
called the 'First Bodhi' during which period t h e Buddha was vigorously
active in missionary pursuit and spent the 'Rain Retreat' in as many as 15
different places.

The Book opens with a brief account of the historical, social and religious
background in which Bodhisattva Gauthama was born. The prescribed period
however begins with Renunciation of the Bodhisattva. Having renounced
Bodhisattva (Prince Siddharta) assumes an ascetic role and dedicates himself to
the search for the Truth of Existence. The narrative present vividly details of
the rigorous search for Truth of Ascetic Siddhartha, Teachers for brief periods, his
companions, and the final struggle from which He emerged victorious as the
Buddha.

Details of the Seven weeks after Enlightenment, the Buddha's visit to Isipatana and
the preaching of the First Sermon, Dhammacakkappavattan Sutta follow. After the
Rain Retreat the Buddha converts householder Yasa, his father and his fifty four
friends. The next task of the Buddha was to initiate missionary activity with the
sixty Arahants ordained by now.

From Isipathana the Buddha proceeded to Uruvela where He converted the three
Jatila brothers with their one thousand followers. By now eight months have
elapsed from Enlightenment and the Buddha visited Sri Lanka for the first time on
Duruthu Full Moon Day. T h e Buddha paid the second visit to Sri Lanka in the
sixth year after Enlightenment to settle a dispute between two Naga Kings and
the third visit in the eighth year. Essential details are given in the relevant
narratives.

During the period of twenty five years ending with Parinibbana (called the
Second Bodhi) the Buddha spent eighteen Rain Retreats at Jetavanaramaya and
six at Poorvaramaya and was throughout ministered to by Ven. Ananda Thera.
The establishment of the Bhikkhuni Order has been dealt with in full detail.
Students are provided with a summary of the Special knowledges and powers of
the Buddha. The account on the Vinaya Pitaka gives the textual composition
1
of the Pitaka with an elegant summary of the contents of each component
text. Brahma Viharas (Divine Abidings) are splendidly explained drawing
material from a variety of sources with due emphasis of their social and moral
significance. Ten Paramis (perfections) are explained with a summary of the
moral scope of each combined with a Jataka story illustrating the fulfilment of
each Perfection by the Bodhisattva in a previous birth. The Four Noble
Truths forming the essence of the Buddha's teaching are presented with full
detail. A facet of the history of Buddhism is given in the Chapter on
Theravada Buddhist Councils which recapitulates the First Three Councils
dealt with in Book 1, and deals with comprehensively the Fourth, Fifth and
Sixth Theravada Buddhist Councils prescribed for Junior Level Part II
examination. The twelve stanzas of the Dhammapada prescribed for the
Examination are explained with their English translations.

Section on Abhidhamma

The Section on Abhidhamma covers the topics of the Syllabus prescribed for
Junior Level Part II Examination.

The Account being with a classification of the Mental Factors (Cetasika) into
four Groups as follows,

(i) Universal (Sabba citta sādhārana)

(ii) Occasional (Pakinnaka)

(iii) Unwholesome (Akusala)

(iv) Beautiful (Sobhana)

It further explains the concepts of Sampayoga naya and Sangaha naya.

Sampayoga naya takes each Mental Factor and indicates in what consciousnesses
each is present and not present.

Under Sangaha naya each consciousness is taken and the Mental factors that
go to form each consciousness are identified. The Section concludes with a
skillfully condensed summary of the most inexplicable doctrine in Buddhism,
Nibbana.

2
 SIX HERETICAL TEACHERS
Contemporaneous with the Buddha there were, in India, several other religious
teachers who professed their own faiths and were engaged in promulgating
them among the populace counting, in the case of some, considerable
followings of adherents. Out of them, six designated as "Six heretical
teachers" feature prominently in the Buddhist texts which give brief
accounts of their teachings. The six teachers were Purana Kassapa,
Makkhali Gosala, Ajitha Kesakambali, Pakudha Kaccayana, Sanjaya
Belatthiputta and Nigantha Nataputta. Their teachings (according to
Samannaphala Sutta) may be summarised as below:

Purana Kassapa
Purana Kassapa was an 'Akiriyavadi' (believer in non-action; one who denies
Kamma and result). He declared that no wholesome result accrues to the
doer of a moral act nor any unwholesome result to the doer of an immoral
act. A being has no consciousness; when one is destroyed no evil is done.
Beings are eternal. Striving for liberation by moral development is futile.

Makkhali Gosala
Makkhali Gosala was an 'Ajivaka' (ascetic sect). He held the view that there
was no cause or condition either for the defilement of beings or for the
purification of beings. The world and beings are formed without causes or
conditions, spontaneously by intrinsic nature. Everything happens according
to pre-determined fate. When beings exhaust their continuity of births and
deaths, misery ends. He too denied Kamma and result. He was an
'Ahetukavadi (acausalist or fatalist).

Ajita Kesakambali
Ajitha Kesakambali was a materialist. He also denied Kamma and result and
a world beyond the present world. All beings get annihilated where they are
after death with no transmigration to another birth. Man is made up of four
elements. When he dies the four elements return to their places. He believed
in the ten points which formed the 'Ten-point heresy (Dasa vatthu miccha ditthi)
which the Buddha rejected.

Pakudha Kaccayana
Pakudha Kaccayana held that there were seven elements of matter, earth, water,
fire, air, happiness, pain and soul. One who stabs a person with a sword does
not kill but drives the sword through seven elements.

3
Beings are not the creations of any one and they survive eternally. Their lives
cannot be changed.

Nigantha Nathaputta
Nigantha Nathaputta (also known as Mahavira) was perhaps the most prominent
of the six teachers. He was a naked ascetic and the ruling Patriarch of the Jaina
Sect. Nigantha Nathaputta claimed to be a jina (epithet used for the Buddha)
and the followers came to be designated as Jaina. Jainism, as a religion had its
Canon, a monastic Order with a Code of Discipline and establishments and a
following of adherents. He accepted Kamma and result but his was a concept
of mechanistic Kamma where volition played no part. Physical act
superseded mental act. Jains practiced asceticism and non-violence in
extreme form. They held the view that plants were living organisms and
destruction of plants was sin. Nigantha Nathaputta claimed the power of
omniscience (Sabbannuta nana) pervading at all times.

Sañjaya Bellatthiputta
The philosophy of Sanjaya Bellatthiputta was 'irresolution on all subjects'.
He was a prevaricator who avoided giving definite answer to any doctrinal
question. He is described as an 'Amaravikkhepavadi' who slipped away from
questions' in the manner of an eel'.

QUESTIONS
1. Explain in brief three main doctrines preached by the heretical teachers
during the time of the Buddha that were contrary to the teachings of the
Buddha.

2. Explain the terms (a) Akiriyavadi (b) Ascetic practice.

3. Outline the doctrines preached by Nigantha Nathaputta.

4
 RETREAT DURING THE RAINY SEASON AND
THE KATHINA CEREMONY

The retreat during the Rainy Season traditionally known as “Vassavasa” is a

monastic practice observed by the Sangha under the Vinaya rules which require
every Fully-ordained Bhikkhu to remain in residence in a monastery (without
going out on customary visits and for the collection of alms food) for three
months during the rainy season.

It was a practice of monastic conduct prescribed by the Buddha quite early in

the institutional development of the Sasana. This injunction of the Buddha
appears to have been influenced by considerations of personal comfort of the
Bhikkhus as well as responsiveness to public comment. The early Bhikkhus
who scrupulously adhered to the original exhortation of the Buddha to remain
constantly in circuit among the lay-folk promoting their welfare continued
their outdoor visits even during periods of heavy rain sacrificing their personal
comfort. It is recorded in the Vinaya Text that Buddhist lay-folk commented
disapprovingly of this habit of Bhikkhus traversing the countryside all three
seasons, exposing themselves to torrents in rainy weather, in the process,
trampling small creatures and treading on growing herbs pointing out that
other ascetics observed the rain retreat, and even birds rested in their nests
during rainy season. When these utterences were heard by the Buddha, He
admonished the bhikkhus and said, —approve, Bhikkhus, of your spending the
retreat.” He followed this injunction later with specifications of the period of
time, manner, suitable habitations, etc. for spending the Retreat.

The Retreat should commence on the day following the Full Moon Day of the
month of Esala and terminate on the Full Moon Day of the month of Vap. A
Bhikkhu taking the vow of Retreat should remain in residence at the Monastery
continuously during this period and should not be away from such place
for more than seven days and that too for an approved purpose. Another
important ritual that developed later was the ceremonious offering of a special
robe called the „Kathina Civara‟ to the community of Bhikkhus who duly spent
the Rain Retreat. The termination of the Rain Retreat is marked by another
ceremony called the „Pavarana‟. Rain Retreat is compulsory for all fully ordained
Bhikkhus.

It is evident that the Rain Retreat rule, apart from providing for the living
comforts of the Bhikkhus, renders the conduct of the Sangha more agreeable to
the people, and promotes the unity of the Sangha fulfilling three objectives of
promulgating the vinaya. The offering of a Kathina robe which is possible only

5
once in a year is classified as an act of great merit. During the first twenty years
of His Ministry (Known as the first Sambodhi) the Buddha spent the rainy
seasons at the following places:

1st year - Isipatana, Baranes

2nd year - Veluvanarama in Rajagaha
3rd year - Veluvanarama in Rajagaha
4th year - Veluvanarama in Rajagaha
5th year - Mahavana in Vesali
6th year - Mankula Pabbatha (rock)
7th year - Tavatimsa heaven (preaching Abhidhamma)
8th year - Bhesakala vana (forest)
9th year - City of Kosambi
10 th year - Parileyya Forest
11th year - Ekanala Brahamin Village
12th year - Veranja
13th year - Caliya Pabbata
14th year - Jetavanarama in Savatthi
15th year - Kapilavatthu Nigrodharama
16th year - Kindgom of Alavi
17th year - Rajagaha, Veluvanarama
18th year - Caliya Pabbata (rock)
19th year - Caliya Pabbata (rock)
20th year - Rajagaha, Veluvanarama

From the twenty first year till Parinibbana the Buddha spent 18 rainy seasons
at Jetavanarama and 6 rainy seasons at Pubbarama, both in the city Savatthi.

QUESTIONS
1. Why did the Buddha prescribe the Rain Retreat (Vassavasa) for
the Bhikkhhus?

2. Give in brief the rules prescribed for the observance or „Rain

Retreat‟ (Vassavasa).

3. Explain the term „Kathina Civara‟ (Robe offered after Rain Retreat).

6
 DAILY ROUTINE OF THE BUDDHA

The Buddha was unique religious teacher who lived a simple but busy
and active life. He devoted His full day to the tasks of His religious mission
taking minimum time for rest ablution and collection of alms-food,
observing with unfailing regularity a fixed daily routine. During every moment
of His dedicated time the Buddha was either engaged outwardly in the sacred
tasks aimed at moral upliftment of mankind or absorbed, inwardly, in
experiencing the bliss of Nibbana.

Daily routine of the Buddha comprised five periods, two spanning the day time
and three spanning the night. Forenoon Session lasted from dawn (6.00 a.m.)
to noon and the Afternoon Session lasted from noon to dusk (6.00 p.m.). The
night was divided into three Watches each of four hours duration.

(1) Forenoon Session

Rising early before daybreak the Buddha enters into the Ecstasy of Great
Compassion and surveys the world to see whether there was anyone to
whom He could be of service. There would invariably be someone calling for
The Buddha‟s sympathy. The Buddha would proceed to the presence of such
person and extend necessary comfort and solace. Returning to the
monastery the Buddha would either visit the residence of a devotee on
invitation or if there was no such invitation set out on customary round for
collection of alms-food, either alone or accompanied by Bhikkhus. Alms-
giving at a devotee‟s house is always followed by a Dhamma sermon, and
conferment of merits to the donors and their departed relatives.

(2) Afternoon Session

After partaking of the noon meal the Buddha would preside over the
Assembly of Bhikkhus at the monastery and deliver a discourse either based
on a subject of discussion or any other relevant topic. On conclusion of the
Dhamma session the Buddha would take a short rest. During the balance
period of the afternoon the Buddha would give instruction and subjects
of meditation to Bhikkhus practising meditation, or receive any devotee
calling on the Buddha.

(3) The First Watch of the Night

The first Watch of the night (from 6 p.m. to 10 p.m.) is set apart for Dhamma
Discussions with Bhikkhus to explain and clarify intricate points of the
Dhamma to those Bhikkhus seeking such explanation or clarification.
7
(4) The Middle Watch

Bhikkhus leave by the close of the Middle Watch. Thereafter the deities of the
Universe come to the presence of the Buddha and raise questions on various
topics related to their individual interests and personal desires. The
Buddha answers the questions comprehensively, often expanding them into
profound discourses which eventually became Suttas.

(5) The Last Watch

The last watch comprising the early hours of the morning was divided into
four parts. The Buddha spent the first hour pacing up and down (Cankamana)
as a form of light exercise. During the second hour the Buddha sleeps lying on
his right side (lion‟s resting posture). During the third hour the Buddha enters the
state of Arahatship and experiences Nibbanic bliss. During the fourth hour the
Buddha attains the Ecstasy of Great Compassion (Maha Karuna Samapatti) and
radiates thoughts of loving kindness towards all beings. The Buddha surveys the
world to see whether there was anyone in distress who could be relieved. The
virtuous who merit the Buddha‟s attention appear in the vision of the Buddha.
T h e Buddha betakes to such person and provides the necessary solace and
comfort and guidance for spiritual progress. Except for one hour‟s rest the
whole day of the Buddha was dedicated to the cause of His religious mission,
and welfare of humanity.

QUESTIONS
1. Give in brief the Buddha‟s routine activities during daytime (dawn to dusk).

2. Give in brief the Buddha‟s routine activities during the three „watches‟ of
the night.

3. Give two instances to illustrate the Buddha‟s limitless compassion to human

beings.

4. Explain the term „Maha Karuna Samapatti‟.

8
 APPOINTMENT OF A PERSONAL ATTENDANT

During the first twenty years of His Ministry, the Buddha had no regular personal
attendant. A number of Bhikkhus attended on the Buddha, taking turns, as
occasion demanded both at the monasteries, whilst in residence and on His
preaching tours carrying the robes and bowl. However many incidents
demonstrated to the Buddha that none of them possessed the requisite
temperament, foresight and sagacity to be retained as the regular personal
attendant of the Buddha.

The Buddha was already 55 years of age and was advancing towards old age. When
the Buddha announced His inclination to have a regular personal attendant, many
senior Bhikkhus including Ven. Sariputta, and Ven. Moggallana volunteered to fill
the role. The Buddha declined their offers reserving for them more responsible
positions in the Sasana. Thereupon the Senior Bhikkhus persuaded Ven.
Ananda to offer his services. Ven. Ananda consented but awaited with humility
nomination by the Buddha Himself. T h e Buddha noticing the concern of the
Senior Bhikkhus said, “Ananda needs no inducement. He will serve me on his
own accord.”

Ven. Ananda accepted the sacred task but desired agreement of the Buddha with
eight conditions. Four conditions being self-denials were that;

1. He should not be given fine robes received by the Buddha.

2. He should not be given delicious food received by the Buddha.
3. He should not be accommodated in the Fragrant Chamber of the
Buddha.
4. He should not be asked to accompany the Buddha on invitations for alms
received by the Buddha.

Four conditions being privileges were that:

5. The Buddha should consent to accompany Ven. Ananda on invitations for

alms received by him.
6. He should be permitted to usher in visitors.
7. He should be allowed to consult the Buddha on a matter of Dhamma at any
time, and
8. The Buddha should repeat to him discourses delivered in his absence.

The Buddha agreed to these conditions and Ven. Ananda gladly became the
regular Personal Attendant of the Buddha. He stayed close to the Buddha
9
While in residence and accompanied the Buddha on all visits attending to all
personal needs. All duties concerning personal hygiene, personal security
and maintenance of the Fragrant Chamber were faithfully performed by Ven.
Ananda.

QUESTIONS

1. Give a brief account of the life of Venerable Ananda Thera

2. State the eight conditions subject to which Ven. Ananda

accepted appointment as the Chief Attendant of the Buddha.

10
 ANTAGONISM TOWARDS THE BUDDHA

While the Buddha received unreserved devotion and veneration of the mass of
India‟s population of the day including, amongst distinguished patrons, ruling
monarchs and other leaders of society, the Buddha had to face and contend with
the hostility of a host of inveterate adversaries, each of whom had a private
vendetta to launch against the Buddha. He was criticised, abused, insulted and
attacked by other religious teachers whose fallacious doctrines were criticised by
the Buddha, Apart from the general hostility of heretics the Buddha was the
target of enmity of malevolent individuals.

Hostility of Devadatta

The most violent of the individual enemies of the Buddha was his own kinsman
and erstwhile disciple Devadatta. He was one of the Sakya princes who entered
the Order of Sangha in the early part of the Buddha‟s ministry. He could attain only
worldly psychic powers, but not any stages of the Aryan Path. He cherished an
ambition for eminence in the material sphere. He succeeded in winning over
prince Ajatasattu, son of King Bimbisara, who shared a like ambition.

Devedatta sought to achieve his goal initially through a conciliatory approach

with the Buddha. At an assembly of Bhikkhus and lay dignitaries he requested
the Buddha to hand over to him the leadership of the Sangha and retire as the
Buddha was advanced in age. T h e Buddha refused this request. Devadatta
being enraged swore vengeance upon the Buddha. To safeguard the dignity of
the Sangha, the Buddha got a proclamation to be made that Devadatta was
expelled from the Sangha, and he alone was responsible for his actions.

At the instigation of Devadatta, Ajatasattu secured the throne from his father
before his death. Ajatassttu supported the machinations of Devadatta against
the Buddha. In his first attempt to destroy the life of the Buddha he assigned the
archers of Ajatasattu to lie in ambush and shoot at the Buddha when the
Buddha was walking along a path. But on seeing the serene appearance of the
Buddha the archers were overcome with awe and begged for pardon. T h e
Buddha admonished the archers and preached to them the Dhamma.

Devadatta made a second attempt on the life of the Buddha when he was
promenading at Vultures‟ Peak (Gijjhakuta Rock). Devadatta climbed on to a
rock at a higher elevation and rolled down a piece of rock to strike the Buddha. But
two large stones sprang up and prevented the piece of rock striking the
Buddha. A splinter that split off from the rock struck the foot of the Buddha
causing bleeding. T h e Buddha declared that Devadatta committed one of the
Five Heinous Acts with immediate Destiny (Panca Anantariya Papa Kamma).
11
In the third attempt Devadatta drugged the ferocious elephant Nalagiri and
provoked it to charge at the Buddha when the Buddha was on the street on an
alms round accompanied by Bhikkhus. As the elephant drew near, the
Buddha spread thoughts of loving kindness towards the elephant which,
instead of charging, knelt at the feet of the Buddha and venerated the Buddha.

Having failed for the third time to harm the Buddha, Devadatta conceived a
vicious plan to cause a dissension in the fraternity of the Sangha. He proposed
to the Buddha that He make mandatory for all Bhikkhus the observance five
practices of a rigorous and ascetic character with the sinister objective, if
the proposals were rejected by the Buddha, of making such rejection an
issue to win over to his side a faction of the Sangha.

Devadatta‟s proposal was that the Buddha make it compulsory that all
Bhikkhus should throughout life:

1. Dwell only in the forests,

2. Go begging for alms-food and not accept invitations to alms,
3. Wear only robes collected from dust heaps (pansukula) and not accept
gifts of robes from laymen,
4. Dwell only at foot of trees and not live under the shelter of a roof,
5. Refrain from eating fish and meat.
As anticipated, the Buddha rejected the proposal to make the practices
mandatory and stated that the Bhikkhus were free to observe them at
their option. Devadatta made it an issue to morally underrate the Buddha
and succeeded in winning over to his side five hundred Bhikkhus. The five
hundred Bhikkhus returned to the Buddha on the advice of Venerable
Sariputta and Moggallana on hearing which, Devadatta fell grievously sick.
However, desperation restored Devadatta to his senses and he sincerely
repented. Devadatta desired to see the Buddha and plead for forgiveness. But
the weight of evil Kamma accumulated by Devadatta intervened, and he
died a woeful death on his way to see the Buddha.

QUESTIONS
1. Who was Devadatta? Why did he oppose the Buddha?

2. What were the two heinous acts (Anantariya Kamma) committed

by Devadatta?

3. What were the five propositions put forward by Devadatta regarding

the monastic life of the Bhikkhus? Why did the Buddha reject them
when they were already being practised by Bhikkhus?
12
 PROMULGATION OF THE RULES OF DISCIPLINE
(VINAYA SIKKHAPADA) FOR BHIKKHUS AND BHIKKHUNIS
The First twenty years of the dispensation of the Buddha (designated as the
First Bodhi) was a peaceful epoch free from incidents of indiscipline in the
Sangha which comprised either Arahants who were free from blemish or non-
Arahants with a high sense of moral rectitude who needed minimum perceptive
direction. The personal supervision and inspiration of the Buddha ensured a
serene atmosphere of discipline.

The serene tranquility of the Sasana seemed to come to an end, as instances

of unworthy conduct appeared among the Sangha. Following developments
are identified as factors contributing to this situation:

(i) Numerical increase of the Sangha.

(ii) Increase of benefactions to the Sangha.

(iii) Growth of learning among the Sangha.

(iv) Increasing duration of the Sasana.

Lavish support of the Sangha by the laity attracted many young men who sought
comfort without labour. Geographical dispersal of monasteries weakened
central control and made room for laxity in discipline. Sanctity accorded by
kings to the Sangha made it an asylum for fugitives from justice. Against the
backdrop of this situation the Buddha considered that the time was ripe for
the introduction of rules of discipline (vinaya sikkhapada). The following
ten objectives were sought to be achieved by the imposition of the rules of
conduct which eventually developed as the Vinaya Pitaka.

(a) Well-being of the Sangha. (Sangha sutthutaya).

(b) Convenience of the Sangha. (Sangha phasutaya).

(c) Restraint of evil minded persons (Dummankunan puggalanan

niggahaya).

(d) Ease of well behaved monks (Pesalanaṃ bhikkhunaṃ

phasuviharaya)

(e) Restraint against the defilements of life (Ditthadhammikanaṃ

asavam samvaraya).

(f ) Eradication of the defilements of the life after (Samparayakanaṃ

as avanaṃ patighataya).

13
 (g) Conversion of new adherents (Appasannanaṃ pasadaya).

(h) Enhancement of those already converted (Pasannanaṃ

bhiyyobhavaya).

(i) Stability and continuance of the Dhamma (Saddhammatthitiya).

(j) Furtherence of the good discipline (Vinayanuggahaya).

Rules were framed specifying the offences and the manner of adjudicating
upon them. They were classified in the following manner in the diminishing
order of gravity:

Category Number of rules for Number of rules for

Bhikkhus Bhikkhunis

Parajika 4 8
Sanghadisesa 13 17
Nissaggiya pacittiya 30 30
Aniyata 2 ---
Pacittiya 92 166
Patidesaniya 4 8
Sekhiya 75 75
Adhikarana samatha 7 7
227 311

QUESTIONS
1. Why was t h e Buddha cautious in promulgating disciplinary rules for
the Sangha?

2. What were the four factors that led to unworthy conduct among the
Bhikkhus?

3. Give five out of the ten objectives envisaged by the Buddha for the
promulgation of Disciplinary Rules.

4. Why did the Buddha consider the correct observance of Vinaya rules
by the Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis to be of paramount importance for
long duration of the Sasana?

14
 THE MINISTRY OF THE BUDDHA

The Ministry of the Buddha lasted 45 years from Enlightenment (at the age of 35)
to Parinibbana (at the age of 80). The total period comprises two epochs. The
first twenty years designated as the „First Sambodhi‟ is characterised by the
Buddha‟s intense dedication to the missionary ideal covering vast expanses of
territory as is evident from the number of different locations where the Rain
Retreat had been spent. Vinaya rules were yet to be promulgated and the
community of Sangha remained faultlessy disciplined under the direct
supervision of the Buddha.

During the second Sambodhi t h e Buddha appears to have curtailed itinerant

missionary activity and remained in the vicinity of Savatthi spending eighteen Rain
Retreats in Jetavanarama and six at Purvarama. Promulgation of Vinaya rules
took place during this period actuated by a variety of factors and
circumstances. T h e Buddha continued the mission of propagating the
doctrine with undiminished vigour.

Directing the first sixty Arahants to missionary endeavour the Buddha said, “Go
forth, O Bhikkhus, for the good of the many, out of compassion for the world, for
the good, benefit and happiness of gods and men.” In this exhortation are
embodied the basic features of the Buddha‟s missionary enterprise. It is evident from
this exhortation that the Buddha was imbued with a deep missionary zeal from
the inception of His Ministry. The steady increase in the mass of adherents, the
rapid growth of a dedicated priesthood, and the accretion of monastic
establishments resulted in the development of a dispensation which came
eventually to be designated as the „Sasana‟ of the Buddha. Many factors
contributed to the glorious development and expansion of the „Sasana‟ during the
life time of the Buddha.

In the missionary endeavour initiated by the Buddha, He himself played a

prominent role. The Buddha‟s pre-eminence as a Teacher attracted many
intellectually mature persons from other faiths who found in the teaching of the
Buddha a new rational philosophy which appealed to their inquiring minds. Many of
them entered the Order of Bhikkhus and became dynamic preachers themselves.
T h e Buddha‟s teaching methodology was another line of success. Instead of
indulging in vain verbal discussions The Buddha offered practical solutions to problems
of life. The Buddha‟s assault on the caste system offered welcome relief to down-
trodden masses who suffered under this vicious social custom.

The Buddha acted as a pacifier of social disputes, a healer of human agonies and a
political counsellor to rulers. The Buddha settled a dispute over the waters of River
Rohini and averted a war between two provinces. The Buddha‟s redeeming of the

15
triple calamity of disease, demons and famine at the city of Vesali was a great
humanitarian act. The Buddha‟s wise and benevolent advice to ruling
monarchs turned them into devout patrons whose support became an
invaluable asset to the Sasana. Consequent to trade with the Western
world, a class of rich merchants called „Setthis‟ had come into being by this
time and many of them became followers of the Buddha and extended support
to the Sasana.

The monasteries that they built and dedicated to the Sasana developed into
centres of missionary activity. The Buddha‟s choice of a plebeian dialect,
Magadhi, instead of the scholarly language Sanskrit enabled The Buddha to
reach a wider circle of listeners.

It is clear from the abundance of Canonical references to the multitudes of

Bhikkhus present at various functions and Occasions that by the time of
Parinibbana the teaching of the Buddha had diffused to a vast expanse of
territory in North India and had brought within its fold a large following of
adherents.

QUESTIONS

1. What was Buddha‟s direction to the first sixty Arahants?

2. Identify the factors that contributed to the fast spread of the teaching
of The Buddha in India during The Buddha‟s life time.

3. Narrate the incident where The Buddha settled a major dispute

between two provinces.

16
 LAST DAYS OF THE BUDDHA

Although The Buddha possessed many superhuman psychic powers attained

through intense development of the mind and moral purification The Buddha was
a mortal human being subject to the normal and natural processes of ageing,
infirmity and cessation of life (conventionally called Death, and in the case of
the Buddha „Parinibbana‟).

The Buddha was in the eightieth year and was dwelling at Vultures‟ Peak (Gijjhakuta)
in the city of Rajagaha. King Ajatasattu of Rajagaha who had by this time become a
pious devotee of the Buddha sent his Chief Minister Vassakara to inform the
Buddha of his plan to invade the Vajji Kingdom surreptitiously desiring to
know the reaction of the Buddha. The Buddha when informed of Ajatasattu‟s plan
remarked thus. “ As long as the Vijjians observed the „Seven Factors of Progress‟
(Satta aparihaniya Dhamma, imparted to them by the Buddha on an earlier
occasion) their success was certain and ruin would not occur” implying that
they could not be defeated. The seven factors of Welfare which the Vajjians
observed as confirmed by Ven. Ananda were that they;

1. met frequently (for matters of state).

2. met together in unity, dispersed in unity, and performed their duties in

unity;

3. did not enact laws not enacted earlier, did not repeal laws enacted and
observed as ancient Vajjian principles;

4. supported, respected and honoured their elders and listened to their

advice;

5. did not subject their women and girls to force and harassment;

6. supported, honoured and respected places of worship and continued

their donations; and

7. provided protection, defence and support to Arahants who visited the

realm.

These principles represent a facet of the Buddha‟s advice for good governance and
welfare of any state. The Buddha made this an occasion to exhort to the Sangha
on seven similar Factors of Welfare and further seven conditions that would
certainly conduce them to the final goal of Arhantship.

The Buddha knew that He would pass away in the eightieth year. It was His wish
that His „Parinibbana‟ should take place in the remote rural village of Kusinara

17
and not in a prominent city. The Buddha was debilitated by age and said that His
body was like a „broken cart.‟ Despite physical weakness The Buddha resolved to
make the long journey to Kusinara on foot.

The Buddha departed from Rajagaha accompanied by Venerable Ananda. This

Journey from Rajagaha to Kusinara was a momentous one full of many
significant events, meetings and dialogues and discourses and exhortations to
the Sangha embodying weighty advice.

Proceeding from Rajagaha the Buddha passed through Nalanda and Pataligama
and arrived at Vesali where He was lavishly entertained with alms by the pretty
social lady Ambapali. Rainy season set in and The Buddha spent the Rain Retreat,
the 45th and last, at the village of Beluva near Vesali. It was at Beluva that the
Buddha was aflicted with a painful illness. The Buddha with firm determination
developed through mindful reflection endured the distress with equanimity.
The Buddha‟s next stop-over was at Capala Cetiya. At this place the Buddha made
the momentous announcement that He would pass away in three month‟s
time. The Buddha declined the appeal of Venerable Ananda to live the full span
of 120 years.

The Buddha got the Bhikkhus to assemble in the vicinity of Vesali and exhorted
them to study, practice, cultivate and develop the Dhamma expounded by Him
for the good and happiness of the many. At this Assembly the Buddha publicly
announced to the Sangha the time of His passing away. The Buddha thereafter
made the last exhortation to the Sangha opening and closing with the same
pithy exhortation – “Behold, O Bhikkhus, now I speak to you. Transient are all
conditioned things. Strive on with diligence.”

The Buddha proceeded along and at Bhandagama enunciated four criteria for
testing and clarifying the authenticity of the word of the Buddha as heard from a
secondary source known as Four Great References. (Mahapadesa).

A Bhikkhu may say of a given theme of Dhamma or Vinaya:-

(i) that he heard it from the mouth of the Buddha, or

(ii) that he heard from the Sangha of a given monastery; or

(iii) that he heard from many theras and Bhikkhus of great learning
proficient in the Dhamma; or

(iv) from an elderly Bhikkhu of great learning versed in teachings.

The Buddha exhorted the Bhikkhus that such words should neither be accepted
nor rejected but subjected to close scrutiny and compared with the Dhamma

18
and Vinaya and accepted only if they accorded with them and rejected if they
did not. These References represent one of the several instances when The
Buddha denounced blind acceptance of doctrines without critical
examination and verification.

The next stop on the journey was Pava where The Buddha was served with a
delicious meal called “Sukaramaddava” by Cunda the smith. (There is a
controversy whether this was a dish of meat or mushoom). After the meal The
Buddha suffered from a severe attack of dysentry which caused acute pain.
The Buddha endured the pain with patience and continued the journey to
Kushinara on foot despite weariness. The Buddha declared that He would
enter Parinibbana in the third watch of the night on that day. The Buddha
desired to allay any remorse on the part of Cunda that He fell sick after
partaking of the meal and declared that the meal offered to Him on the eve
of his Enlightenment and the meal offered immediately prior to Parinibbana
were of exceptionally great merit.

As requested by the Buddha Venerable Ananda prepared a couch between the

twin sala trees of Malla‟s Sala Grove with the head towards the north. The
Buddha reclined on the couch on the right side. The Buddha declared that
four places associated with His life should be visited and venerated by the
devotees. They were:-

(i) The Buddha‟s birth place.

(ii) Place of Enlightenment.

(iii) Place of preaching of the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta

(iv) Place of The Buddha‟s parinibbana.

(The places by way of identification are (i) Lumbini Park (ii) Sacred Bodhi Tree at
The Buddha Gaya (iii) Deer Park at Isipatana, Benares and (iv) Kushinara).

A wandering ascetic by the name of Subadda desired to see the Buddha but
was dissuaded by Venerable Ananda. The Buddha hearing Subadda‟s
pleadings asked Venerable Ananda to let him in. On listening to the
admonition of the Buddha Subadda sought ordination and The Buddha
agreed. Subadda who was ordained by Venerable Ananda in the presence of
the Buddha became the last personal covert of the Buddha.

The Buddha desired to ensure that the Sangha would not feel the absence
of a Teacher after His parinibbana. Accordingly, The Buddha said addressing
Venerable Ananda “Whatever Doctrine or Discipline has been preached and
promulgated by me will be your Teacher after my demise.” The Buddha also
gave permission to abrogate minor rules of Discipline.
19
The Buddha made this an occasion for another farewell event. The Buddha
invited any Bhikkhu who had any doubt regarding the Buddha, Teaching or
the Order to raise such doubt and get it clarified. For three repetitions five
hundred Bhikkhus remained silent. Venerable Ananda expressed joy that The
Buddha‟s teaching had been properly understood by the Sangha.

On the Question being raised regarding the manner of treating the body of
the Buddha after his demise, The Buddha‟s first response was that Sangha
should rather concern themselves with their exertion towards Arahatship. On
further pleading by Venerable Ananda The Buddha gave permission to honour
the remains of the Buddha like those of a Universal Monarch. The Buddha
concluded the admonition with the celebrated last words which were as
follows:

“Behold, disciples – l" exhort you. Subject to change are all component
things. Strive on with diligence”.

The passing away of the Buddha was unique and took place while The Buddha
was in a state of Ecstasy. In preparation for Parinibbana the Buddha entered
the First Ecstasy (Pathama Rupa Jhana) and progressively rose upwards
reaching Sanna vedayita nirodha and descended to First Ecstasy. Once again
the Buddha rose to the Fourth Ecstasy and passed away in that Ecstasy.

According to the Chronology of the Mahavamsa, the passing away of the

Buddha took place in 543 B.C. This date has since been corrected as 483 B.C.
by recent historical research.

QUESTIONS
1. Enumerate the „Seven Factors of Welfare‟ preached by the Buddha to
the Vajjians as guidelines for the progress of the State.

2. Why was the Buddha interested in the mundane welfare of the people
when His main aim was to help human beings to escape from
Sansara?

3. What are the four places identified by the Buddha as places that
should be venerated by devotees by visits?

4. What were identified by the Buddha as „Teacher‟ of the Bhikkhus

after the demise of the Buddha? Explain how Bhikkhus should
observe this advice.

5. What were the last words of the Buddha? Explain their significance
both to Bhikkhus and laymen.

20
 SOCIAL ETHICS OF BUDDHISM
(A study based on an examination of Parabhava, Sigalovada and
Vyaggapajja Suttas)

Ethics is a branch of study dealing with the evaluation of human conduct,

behaviour and ways of life, and the standards of identifying good and bad
conduct (also called standards of moral evaluation). Social Ethics of Buddhism
are ethical norms applicable particularly to lay Buddhists drawn from the
exhortations of the Buddha. Principally, these exhortations would, either;

(a) prescribe the guidelines for the mundane welfare of human beings,

or (b) indentify the causes of personal, social or economic ruination of

human beings, and caution them to steer clear of them,

or (c) prescribe the moral duties and obligations of persons mutually bound to
each other by social relationships so as to ensure their harmonious co-
existence.

Buddhism accepts that lay persons leading family lives are engaged in
productive activity and are free to enjoy pleasures and comforts of worldly life.
The perfect Holy Life (brahmacariya) is not meant for them. They can however
lead morally pure lives and yet enjoy the pleasures of life righteously. Though
the main thrust of the Buddha was to show mankind a way to a spiritual goal The
Buddha paid due attention to man‟s mundane welfare. The Buddha treated worldly
prosperity more as a support than a hindrance to spiritual progress. The Buddha
not merely encouraged humans but also showed them the way to earn wealth
but righteously, and advised them to use and enjoy such wealth equitably and
dutifully.

In the Sigalovada Sutta (Digha Nikaya) the Buddha identified the mutual duties and
obligations of each party in six pairs of persons socially related to each other
and declared that their due performance by the parties would conduce to
their benefit in the present life and thereafter. The background to the Sutta
was an episode in which the Buddha observed a householder worshipping the
six directions after bathing in the river. On being questioned the householder
replied that he was fulfilling his father‟s death-bed admonition to worship the Six
directions.

The Buddha explained to him that the „Worship of Six Directions‟ for the Noble
Disciple was a totally different concept. The Buddha clarified further that East was
represented by Parents, South by Teachers, West by Wife and Children, North by
Friends, Ground below by Servants and Direction overhead by Religious Priests
and „worshipping‟ was the due performance of duties owed to them by their

21
correlatives namely, children, pupils, husbands, friends, masters and Devotees
respectively. The Buddha identified a cluster of five reciprocal duties owed by
each correlative to the other in the pair. They were as indicated below:

Duties of Children towards parents.

1. To feed and maintain parents.

2. To attend to their activites.
3. To preserve the purity of the clan.
4. To take good care of the patrimony.
5. To confer merit on deceased parents.

Reciprocal duties of parents.

1. To dissuade children from evil acts.

2. To establish them in virtue
3. To educate them in arts and crafts.
4. To get children married at proper age.
5. To give dowry and patrimony.

Duties of pupils towards teachers.

1. To get up from seat in the presence of teachers

2. To attend on the teacher.
3. To listen attentively to the teaching.
4. To render services to the teachers.
5. To learn diligently.

Reciprocal duties of teachers.

1. To discipline the pupils correctly

2. To teach properly.
3. To teach all technical skills and philosophies.
4. To introduce the pupils to distinguished friends.
5. To provide security.

22
Duties of the husband towards the wife.

1. To hold the wife in esteem.

2. To avoid demeaning the wife.
3. To uphold fidelity with the wife.
4. To hand over earnings and property.
5. To provide jewellery and elegant clothing.

Reciprocal duties of the wife.

1. To properly organize household activities.

2. To entertain husband‟s friends and associates cordially.
3. To uphold fidelity with the husband.
4. To take good care of husband‟s earnings.
5. To attend to activities of the husband diligently.

Duties of the householder towards friends.

1. To be charitable to friends.
2. To be affable to friends.
3. To promote their welfare
4. To associate on a level of equality.
5. To refrain from deceiving.

Reciprocal duties of friends.

1. To take care when in distress by negligence.

2. To safeguard their property.
3. Give protection when in fear.
4. Not to desert in time of distress.
5. To help their children in life.

23
Duties of the master towards servants.

1. To properly organize the industry.

2. To pay sufficient wage.
3. To provide assistance in times of illness.
4. To give their portion of extra delicious food.
5. To offer gratuities (bonuses) at proper time.

Reciprocal duties of the servant.

1. To awake before the Master.

2. To go to sleep after the Master.
3. To take only what is given (not to steal).
4. To perform the duties appropriately.
5. To always speak well of the Master.

Duties of the householder towards Sramanas and Brahmanas (religious priests).

1. To perform physical acts of loving kindness.

2. To speak words of loving kindness.
3. To direct thoughts of loving kindness.
4. To keep open house for entertaining religious priests.
5. To donate material gifts such as alms and robes.

Reciprocal duties of religious priests.

1. To dissuade householders from evil acts.

2. To establish them in virtue.
3. To bless them with a generous heart.

4. To educate them with facts not already known, and amplify facts
already known.

5. To show them the way to birth in heaven.

24
By this Sutta the Buddha sought to instil in the minds of individuals in society
a feeling of commitment to their moral duties. The due performance of
which alone would ensure harmony in society. Reciprocal duties of the
husband and wife and also parents and children were emphasized, since
family harmony is the bedrock of stability in society. Harmonious relations
between employers and employees are a requisite for industrial peace and
economic progress. Dedication of teachers and pupils to their respective
roles is necessary for the progress of education. The social ethics set forth in
this Sutta are valid for all time.

Vyagghapajja Sutta

Vyagghapajja Sutta contains cogent advice to the laymen for achieving material
progress and avoiding economic ruin in worldly life. A wealthy householder
who led a luxurious life approached the Buddha and requested advice that
would conduce to their happiness in the present life and the life thereafter.
The Buddha, in response, enunciated four healthy practices that would conduce
to the lay householders‟ happiness in the present life, and four healthy
practices that would conduce to their happiness in the life thereafter.

The four healthy practices that would conduce to householders‟ happiness in

the present life are:

(i) Utthana sampada - (Sustained endeavour)

Utthana sampada is the capacity to plan
and organize one‟s trade and to continue
until the desired results are achieved.

(ii) Arakkha sampada - (Proper protection of assets)

Arakkha sampada is the task of protecting
one‟s justly earned assets from loss by fire,
theft, flood or confiscation by state.

(iii) Kalyana mittata - (Association with virtuous friends) Kalyana

mittata is the habit of associating with
virtuous friends who practice
devotion, morality, charity and are
endowed with wisdom.

(iv) Samajivikata - (Balanced living)

Samajivikata is the practice of
managing one‟s budget so as to contain
expenditure within one‟s income. This
practice signifies the golden rule of
simple frugal living avoiding both
lavish, wasteful spending and stinginess.

25
The vices that lead to erosion of wealth are also repeated in this Sutta. Sigalovada
Sutta presents an excellent formula for the wise disposal of one‟s earnings. The
prudent householder utilizes one quarter of his earnings for consumption, two
for investment in his trade, and saves the fourth for use in the event of any
unforeseen distress.

Parabhava Sutta

Parabhava Sutta contains a list of vicious habits and practices that tend to cause
the downfall of human beings in worldly life. The Buddha enunciated them
as answers to a series of questions raised by a certain deity. While a few of
the weaknesses listed relate to moral deficiencies, the bulk of the failings
are lapses in the secular life of individuals. The Sutta reveals the Buddha‟s
eagerness to establish a society with a strong moral base free from vices that
bring ruin both to the individual and society. These are grouped into twelve
clusters in the following manner:

1. Aversion or lack of respect for the Buddha Dhamma (Teaching of the

Buddha).
2. Attachment to the vicious, dislike of the virtuous and embracing the
beliefs of the vicious.
3. Being drowsy, lazy, indolent and displaying shortness of temper,
4. Being rich, failing to support aged parents,
5. Deceiving one‟s religious mentors by falsehood,
6. Being afluent, enjoying luxuries selfishly, alone,
7. Being conceited of one‟s wealth and clan despising one‟s relatives,
8. Being a person of immoral character, a drunkard, a gambler or
prodigal,

9. Associating others‟ wives and immoral women,

10. Being an aged person, marrying a much younger wife,
11. Placing in a management position a wasteful man or woman,
12. Being a person of slender means, nursing a high ambition and aspiring
to a dominant position in society.

The Buddha concludes the discourse with the comment that a wise person
who with clear vision avoids the factors of ruin, would eventually attain
insight and experience serene happiness (Nibbana).

26
 QUESTIONS
1. Enumerate the five duties owed by the children to parents.
(Repeat the question in respect of the seven other parties, parents,
teachers etc).

2. What was the aim of the Buddha in prescribing the mutual duties
and obligations between parents and children, and also wife and
husband?

3. Why is it important in modern society that employers and

employees should fulfil their mutual duties and obligations towards
each other?

4. What are the four guidelines for the householders‟ happiness in

the present life that the Buddha indicated in the Vyagghapajja Sutta?

5. Indicate five of the factors leading to man‟s downfall identified by

the Buddha in the Parabhava Sutta.

6. The Buddha held „Association with Virtuous friends‟ as an ethic of high

value for the moral and material advancement of mankind.
Explain this statement by reference to teachings of the Buddha.

27
 KARMA AND VIPAKA
“Karma” in the teaching of the Buddha represents the doctrine of moral
responsibility. It signifies an action in an ethical sense, that is, Volitional acts
committed through thought, word and deed. It thus follows that Volition
(Cetana) is an essential and indispensable ingredient of any act of Kamma.
The Buddha states in a Sutta while defining Karma “Volition, Bhikkhus, I
call Kamma. Kamma is committed having willed, through deed, word and
thought.” (Cetana‟ham Bhikkhave Kammaṃ vadami. Cetayitva Kammam
koroti, kayena vacaya, manasa.). Volition based Kamma is special to Buddhist
teaching. Other teachings which admitted Kamma treated even non-
volitional acts as Kamma.

Volition is a Mental Factor (Cetasika), a form of energy that activates

the Consciousness. Volition is Wholesome (kusala cetana), when the
motive is good, moral or benevolent. It is Unwholesome (akusala cetana)
when that motive is vicious, immoral of malevolent. Unwholesome volitions
spring from Unwholesome Roots (akusala mula) which are three in number,
Greed (lobha). Ill-will (dosa) and Delusion (moha). Wholesome Volitions
spring from three Wholesome Roots (kusala mula) which are Generosity
(alobha), loving kindness (adosa), and knowledge (amoha).

An act of Kamma has its corollary, the fruit, the maturing of the Action or
Effect (vipaka). Just as an object is followed by its shadow every Volitional
activity is followed by its Effect. This rule applies equally to Wholesome
action and Unwholesome action. The Effect is of the same character as
Action; good Kamma is followed by salutary or favourable effect, while bad
Kamma is followed by harmful and disastrous effect. This character is
epitomised in the aphorism “As one sows-so shall he reap, the doer of good
reaping good result, and the doer of bad reaping bad result.” (Yadisam vapate
bijamitadisam harate phalam; kalyanakari kalyanam, papakari ca papakam).

Effects of Kamma are explained extensively in the Suttas. Effect of

Wholesome Kamma is birth in celestial abodes, and where birth occurs in the
human sphere birth in happy circumstances being blessed with prosperity,
luxury, health, long life, congenial environment and intelligence. Effects of
bad Kamma are birth in a woeful sphere (purgatory niraya), ghost world
(peta yoni), animal world (tiraccana yoni). If born in human world one would
be born in poverty, subject to disease or disability, short lived or in other state
of misery.

Kamma can take Effect at two points of time – (a) at the point of conception
in mother‟s womb (called Patisandhi vipaka) and (b) after birth during life time
(called pavatti vipaka). The Buddha explains that diversity among human
beings is the effect of Kamma. (Kammaṃ satte vibhajati, hinappanitatayati
Kamma-divides beings as inferior and superior).
28
In Abhidhamma Kamma and Vipaka are both represented by Consciousness
(citta), Kamma by Moral or Immoral Mundane Consciousness (kusala
and akusala lokiya citta), and vipaka by Resultant Mundane Consciousness
(lokiya vipaka citta). Supramundane Consciousness (Lokuttara citta) are not
regarded as generating Kamma since they eliminate the Roots of Kamma. In
Abhidhamma analysis all Kamma is Mind-caused; speech and bodily action
are instruments of action. Kamma and Vipaka are inter-related by the law of
Cause and Effect. Kamma has within it the potentiality to produce the Effect.

Kamma from the perspective of Vipaka is classified into four Groups, each Group
being a cluster of four. First classification is based on the time of operation of
Vipaka in the following manner:

(i) Ditthadhammavedaniya Kamma - the Kamma that produces its

Effect in the very birth in which it is committed.

(ii) Upapajjavedaniya Kamma - the Kamma that produces its Effect in

the birth immediately following.

(iii) Aparapariya vedaniya Kamma - the Kamma that produces its Effect in
any birth from the third to the last in which one attains
Nibbana. This is the strongest Kamma which pursues
the subject incessantly without sparing even Arahats or the
Buddha.

(iv) Ahosi Kamma - the Kamma that totally lapses if it fails to produce its
Effect during the time it has its potency.
Ditthadhammavedaniya Kamma would lapse if it fails in
the very birth, Upapajja vedaniya if it fails in the
following birth, and Aparapariya if the subject attains
Anupadisesa Nibbana before Kamma takes Effect.

2. Classification based on Function (kicca), i.e. action produced by

Kamma Following constitute the Group:

(i) Janaka Kamma – (Reproductive Kamma)

Every subsequent birth is conditioned by good or bad
Kamma manifesting as the last thought process which is most
powerful at the moment of death. This thought is called Janaka
Kamma (Reproductive Kamma).

(ii) Upatthambhaka Kamma – (Supportive Kamma)

This is the Kamma that enhances the Effect of another Kamma
of the same character after it manifests. Thus one good Kamma
can augment and prolong the effect of another good Kamma, and
a bad
29
 Kamma can likewise aggravate the Effect of another bad Kamma.
It is an Upatthambaka Kamma that prolongs the happiness of a
person born in a happy state, or aggravates the misery of a person
born in an unhappy state.

(iii) Upapilaka Kamma – (Counteractive Kamma)

This is the Kamma that counteracts the Effect of another Kamma of
a different character, a good Kamma that obstructs a bad Kamma,
or a bad Kamma that obstructs a good Kamma taking Effect.

(iv) Upaghataka Kamma – (Destructive Kamma).

This is the strong Kamma that totally destroys the Effect of another Kamma
of the different character while it manifests. A person born in luxury and
living in luxury may meet with an untimely death as a result of Upaghataka
Akusala Kamma. Likewise a person born in misery and living in misery on
account of an Unwholesome Kamma, may be suddenly ameliorated to
prosperity by the operation of a Wholesome Upaghataka Kamma.

3. Classification of Kamma according to priority of effect (vipakadana)

This classification consists of the following:

(i) Garuka Kamma (Weighty Kamma)

Weighty Kamma dominates over the other Kammas and will give
effect before others at Re-birth. The five heinous acts (Panca
anantariya Kamma, i.e. patricide, matricide, killing an arahat, causing
a bleeding injury to the Buddha, causing a schism in the
Sangha) on the Unwholesome, side and Ecstasies (Jhanas) on the
Wholesome side fall into this category.

(ii) Asanna Kamma – (Death proximate Kamma).

This category includes an action done immediately prior to the time of

death or a reminiscence of a previous act entering the Death proximate
thought process which conditions the re-birth in the absence of a
weighty Kamma.

(iii) Acinna Kamma – (Habitual Kamma)

This Kamma is action done constantly, habitually or for a long

period in life. This Kamma takes effect in the absence of a Weighty
or Death proximate Kamma. There are instances where Habitual
Kamma takes precedence over Death Proximate Kamma.

30
 (iv) Katatta Kamma – (Reserve Kamma).
This Kamma will produce result in the absence of any of the preceding
three Kammas, and includes the residue of all weak Kammas.

4. Classification according to the Plane where Effect takes place.

(i) Kamavacara akusala kamma (Unwholesome Kamma in Sense sphere).

(ii) Kamavacara kusala kamma (Wholesome Kamma in Sense sphere).
(iii) Rupavacara kusala kamma (Wholesome Kamma in Realm of Form).
(iv) Arupavacara kusala kamma (Wholesome Kamma in Formless sphere).

All evil actions forming Kamma give effect through unhappy experience to
beings born in the Sense Sphere. Ecstasies of Form (Rupa Jhana) mature in a
Realm of Form, and Formless Ecstasies mature in a Formless Realm.

In sum, the Law of Kamma asserts that :

(i) a doer of the Kamma alone is responsible for his Actions.

(ii) effect follows action like a shadow, and
(iii) Kamma (Action), and Vipaka (Effect) accord in nature, unhappy
effect following bad Kamma, and happy Effect following good
Kamma.

It does not, however, follow that;

(i) every experience of a being is necessarily an Effect of a past Kamma.

or (ii) a being is destined to reap the Effects of all past Kamma without
exception.

or (iii) Kamma is the sole causative factor of any happening.

These are characteristics of a fatalistic doctrine which are foreign to the Buddhist
Law of Kamma.

The Buddhist doctrine is that Kamma which produces corresponding Results is an

aspect of a Universal Causal Process which operates in Nature, Kamma being only
one of the Causal Factors. This is highlighted in the five-fold classification of the
Law of Nature called „Panca Niyama Dhammas,‟ which are the following:

(i) Utu niyama – Seasonal phenomena

This embraces all natural and physical phenomena, Seasonal variations of

climate occur in correct sequence.
31
 (ii) Bija niyama – Biological factors.

Biological factors regulate genetic characteristics such as smell and

taste of plant matter.

(iii) Kamma niyama – Law of Kamma. Act and Result

The law which predicates that Acts give rise to consequences which
correspond with the nature of Acts.

(iv) Dhamma niyama – Law of Nature

This governs natural forces such as Gravity, Planetary movements Effect

of light on darkness and also the miraculous occurrences at important
events in the life of Great Beings such as Bodhisatta and The Buddhas.

(v) Citta niyama – Law of the Mind

This includes laws governing the functioning of the Mind, the

Nature of consciousness, and psychic phenomena such as
telepathy and retrocognition, which are inexplicable by modern
science.

The effect of a bad Kamma cannot be obviated by deceptive means.

But texts explain that the Effect of a trivial bad Kamma can be submerged
in an abundance of good Kamma like a crystal of salt dissolving in a reservoir
without adding taste of salt to water. Likewise, an abundance of bad Kamma
can thwart the surfacing of a weak good Kamma. Strong good Kamma can
lead one to Emancipation, even while some bad Kamma yet remains to take
effect.
QUESTIONS
1. Give the classification of „Kamma‟ on the basis of a (a) Time of
Operation of Effect.

Repeat for (b) Function (kicca)

(c) Priority of Effect

(d) Plane where Effect takes place

2. Explain the significance of „Volition‟ (Cetana) as an ingredient in the

Buddhist doctrine of Kamma.

3. Explain in brief the „Five Laws of Nature‟ (Panca Niyama Dhamma).

32
4. “Every experience of a Being is invariably the Effect of his past Kamma”
Comment on this statement in relation to the Buddhist doctrine of
Kamma.

5. In a shipwreck caused by a storm, 99 persons got drowned and died,

while one person escaped death. Apply the Law of Kamma to this
incident.

6. In the following situations, indicate whether the Action

constitutes Kamma, and if so, who is responsible.

(a) A blind man tramples on a beetle and the beetle dies.

(b) A hunter goes to the jungle to hunt animals, but fails to kill or
injure any.

(c) A servant reluctantly kills a fowl on the orders of his master.

(d) A poor man steals a loaf of bread, to feed his starving child.

7. In the human world some persons are born rich, while others are
born poor, some intelligent while others dull, some healthy while
others sick. How does Buddhism explain these differences?

33
 DHAMMAPADA

Dhammapada is one of the eighteen texts of the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta
Pitaka. It is an anthology of Pali stanzas which embody brief and succinct
expressions of essential doctrines of Buddhism. In simplest language, the
term „Dhammapada‟ is translated by scholars as „Selected Verses from the
Teachings of the Buddha.‟

Dhammapada contains 423 verses grouped into 26 Vaggas (Chapters)

designated by a title indicating theme of the Verses. The instructions
contained in the Verses fulfil the three primary aims of The Buddha‟s
teaching, namely, human welfare of the present birth, rebirth in a happy
existence in the next life, and the realization of the ultimate goal of Nibbana.

The stanzas prescribed for Senior Part I Examination with the text in Pali followed
by English translations are given below. Students are expected to know the text
by memory and be able to produce the translations and relevant explanations
in English.

19. Bahuṃ pi ce sahitaṃ bhāsamāno

na takkaro hoti naro pamatto
gopo va gāvo ganayaṃ paresaṃ
nabhagāva samaññassa hoti

Even though one may recite many sacred texts, if one does not live up to the
doctrines therein, such heedless person resembles a shepherd who tends
others‟ cattle, and does not share the blessings of Holy Life.

24. Uṭṭhānavato satimato

suciKammassa nisammakārino
saññatassa ca dhamma jivino
appamattassa yaso bhivaḍḍhati

The glory of one who is energetic, mindful, pure in conduct, discerning,

restrained, heedful and righteous will grow forever.

35. Dunniggahassa lahuno

yatthakamanipātino
cittassa damato sādhu
cittaṃ dantaṃ sukhāvahaṃ

34
It is truly splendid to subdue the mind which is swift and wanders wherever it
pleases and is dificult to subdue. A tamed mind brings happiness.

54. Na pupphagandho pativataṃ eti

na candanaṃ togaramallikā vā
sataṃ ca gandho pativātam eti
sabbā disā sappuriso pavāti

The fragrance of the flowers does not waft against the wind. Nor does the
fragrance of sandalwood, tagara and jasmine flowers. But the fragrance of
the virtuous spreads even against the wind. The presence of virtuous
persons pervades in all directions.

56. Appamatto ayaṁ gandho

yāyaṃ tagaracandani
ya ca silavatam gandho
yoti devesu uttamo

The sweet smell of tagara flowers and sandalwood is faint. The fragrance of the
virtuous is excellent and spreads even among the deities.

62. Puttā m atthi dhanāṃ

matthi iti bālo vihaññatti
attā hi attano nātthi
kuto puttā kuto dhanaṃ

“I have sons – I have wealth”. Thinking thus the fool worries. Even the self is not
his own. Where are sons? Where is wealth?

63. Yo bālo maññati balyaṁ

pandito vapi tena so
balo ca panḍitamāni
sa ve bālo ti vuccati

A fool who is aware of his foolishness is wise at least to that extent. But the fool
who thinks he is wise is rightly called a fool.

76. Nidhi naṃ va pavattaraṁ

yaṃ passe vajjadassinaṃ
niggayhavādim medhāviṃ
tādisaṃ panḍitaṃ bhaje
todisaṃ bhajamanassa
seyyo hoti na pāpiyo

35
If one finds a person who points out one‟s faults and rebukes, one should
associate such wise person and treat him like one who leads to a hidden
treasure. Cultivation of such associations always augurs to one‟s betterment
and never to one‟s worsening.

80. Udakaṃ hi nayanthi nettika

usukārā namayanti tejanaṃ
daruṃ namayanti tacchakā
attanaṃ damayanti panḍitā

Irrigators direct the waterways. Arrow-makers bend the arrow shafts. Carpenters
shape the wood. The wise control themselves.

94. Yass’indriyani samathangātani

assa yatha sārathinā sudantā
pahināmanassa anāsavassa
devāpi tassā pihayanti tādino

Even deities hold dear the stable and resolute person whose senses are well
restrained like horses well trained by a charioteer, whose pride is destroyed and
who is free from cankers (mental intoxicants).

99. Ramaniyani araññani

yattha na ramati jano
vitarāgā ramissanti
na te kāmagavesino

The forests where ordinary worldings find no delight, are enchanting.

Those who are free from passions and are not in quest of sense pleasures would
find delight there.

100. Sahassaṃ api ce vācā

anattha padasamhitā
ekaṃ atthapadaṃ seyyo
yaṃ suttvā upasammati

Nobler than one thousand words that are meaningless is one meaningful word
after hearing which one attains peace.

36
 104. Atta have jitaṃ seyyo
ya cā yaṃ itarā pajā
attadantassa posassa
niccaṃ saññatacārino

105. Neva devo na gandhabbo

na Māro saha Brahmunā
jitaṃ apajitaṃ kayirā
tatharūpassa jantuno

Conquest of the Self is nobler than the conquest of others. Not even a Deity, a
Heavenly musician, a Mara or Great Brahma can turn into defeat, the victory
of such person who is self subdued and abides ever in restrained conduct.

129. Sabbe tasanti dandassa

sabbe bhayanthi
maccuno attanam
upamam katva na
haneyya na ghataye

Everyone fears violence. Everyone fears death. Imagining oneself in the position
of another, one should neither kill nor cause another to kill.

Questions on Dhammapada Stanzas :-

1. A routine question may be set on each stanza calling upon the student
to produce the Pali text and/or the English translation. This is the
basic minimum knowledge expected of the student.

2. “Sabbe tasanti dandassa…..” (Everyone fears violence). What is the moral

sought to be imparted by the stanza starting with this line?

3.“Bahum pi ce sahitam bhasamano.” Complete the stanza starting with this

line and give its meaning. What is the moral contained in the simile?

4.The Buddha warned the followers that they should be quick to correct
their faults. Write the stanza containing this advice.

5.What is considered in the Dhammapada to be the supreme fragrance?

Write the stanza containing this tenet.

6. “Atta hi attano natthi” (Even the self is not his own). Explain the
doctrine contained in this line taken from the Dhammapada stanza.
37
 FORTY OBJECTS OF MEDITATION

Meditation (Bhavana) as an ethical and a moral exercise assumes paramount

importance as an avenue to reach ths Supreme goal of Nibbana. Meditation
(Bhavana) is the last of the Three main meritorious Acts (Dana, Sila, Bhavana).
It is preliminary to Concentration (Samadhi), the second step in the Three fold
system of Training (Ti sikkha) Sila, Samadhi and Panna.

Buddhist mental training provides two schemes of Meditation named,

respectively,

(i) Tranquillity Meditation (Samatha Bhavana) and

(ii) Insight Meditation (Vipassana Bhavana)

Tranquillity Meditation is the concentration of mind on an object with

unperturbed attention in order to reach the meditative absorptions and thereby
to subdue mental hindrances such as sense pleasures, ill-will, etc. This scheme is
also called Citta Bhavana. Insight meditation is mental training for penetrative
understanding of the „Three Characteristics of Existence‟ (Ti lakkhana) namely
Impermanence, misery and non-substantiality (anicca, dukkha and anatta).

Objects of meditation are called „Kammatthana.‟ Famous Guide Book on

Meditation – Visuddhi Magga enumerates forty objects of meditation grouped
in the following manner:

(a) Ten totalities or devices (Kasina) 10

(b) Ten kinds of foulness (Asubha) 10
(c) Ten Recollections (Anussati) 10
(d) Four Divine Abiding – also called Sublime States
(Brahma Vihara) 04
(e) Four Immaterial States (Aruppa) 04
(f ) Repulsiveness of Nutriment (Ahara patikula sañña) 01
(g) Analysis of the Four Elements (Catu dhatu vavatthana) 01
40

The ten kasinas are the following;

(1) Pathavi kasina (earth)

(2) Apo kasina (water)

38
 (3) Tejo kasina (fire)
(4) Vayo kasina (air)
(5) Nila kasina (blue)
(6) Pita kasina (yellow)
(7) Lohita kasina (red)
(8) Oda ta kasina (white)
(9) Akasa kasina (sky)
(10) Aloka kasina (light)

The meditator practising “kasina” meditation should strictly conform to the

prescribed directions regarding location, posture, and a variety of other
environmental specifications, concentrate his mental and physical attention
and repeat the name of the object (such as, pathavi, pathavi, etc.) in order to
derive maximum benefit. Objects of meditation are representative specimens
of the real objects modelled according to given specifications. A meditator of
earth kasina should make a disc out of clay as the object. The object for water
kasina can be a bowl of water. A meditator on fire kasina can concentrate on a
flame. The blowing wind can be taken as the object of air. The meditator of a
colour kasina can take an object of the required colour such as a flower, a piece
of cloth etc. The meditator on the sky can look at the sky through a hole. The
object of light can be taken as the rays of the sun or moon falling in through a
crevice.

Objects of Foulness

The ten objects of foulness prescribed as objects of meditation are the nine
stages of decomposition of a corpse followed by the stage of the skeleton.
Specifically, they are:

(1) Uddhumataka – bloated stage

(2) Vinilaka – livid, patchy and discoloured
(3) Vipubbaka – festering, trickling with pus
(4) Vicchiddaka – opened up in the middle
(5) Vikkhayitaka – gnawed, chewed at places by animals
(6) Vikkhittaka – scattered, parts of the body scattered by animals
(7) Hata vikkhittaka – hacked and scattered, where the corpse has been cut

39
 (8) Lohitaka – bleeding
(9) Pulavaka – worm infested
(10) Atthika – skeleton
Meditation by concentration on these objects was possible during the time of
the Buddha since the common practice of disposal of dead bodies was to dump
them on a charnel ground to perish. The meditators are required to observe
detailed instructions regarding the manner of approaching the ground,
selection of a suitable corpse (a male corpse by a male etc.) in order to derive
the full benefits.

10 Anussati meditations

Anussati means repeated reflection or constant awareness or mindfulness

on some object. There are 10 Anussati meditations. - 8 reflections and 2
on mindfulness as follows.

1. Reflecting on the virtues of the Buddha (The Buddhanussati)

2. Reflecting on the virtues of the Dhamma (Dhammanussati)
3. Reflecting on the virtues of the Sangha (Sanganussati)
4. Reflecting on one‟s Virtue (Silanussati)
5. Reflecting on one‟s Virtues with Devas as witnesses (Devanussati)
6. Reflecting on one‟s Liberality (Caganussati)
7. Reflecting on the Peace in Nibbana (Upasamanussati)
8. Reflecting on Death (Marananussati)

The 2 on mindfulness are:

9. Mindfulness regarding the Foulness or Impurity of the

Dody(Kayagatasati)
10. Mindfulness on breathing (Anapanasati)

These are further explained as follows :-

1. The Buddhanussati is the reflection or recollection on the virtues of a

Samma SamThe Buddha.

There are 9 main qualities, stated in the stanza – “Iti pi so Bhagava,

araham, samma sambuddho, Vijja–carana sampanno, sugato, lokavidu,
anuttaro purisa-dhamma sarati, satta deva-manussanam, buddho, bhagava
ti.”
40
These 9 virtues are further explained as follows:

1.1 Araham

1. The Buddha is one who is free of all defilements. Including the traces of
the former existences (vasana guna)
2. He has annihilated all the foes (ari), of lust, hatred and delusion. These
are the 3 roots of all defilements.
3. He has cut off the spokes (ara) of the wheel of existence – samasara.
The spokes are the –sankaras – the formation of kusala and akusala, the
wholesome and unwholesome thoughts that arise in the mind.
4. He is called an Arahat as He is worthy of being worshipped and offered
the best offerings, by gods, humans and all beings. Those who respect
or make offerings to Him, get the highest rewards – vipaka as His mind
is pure. He is full of Loving Kindness (Metta) to all Beings and has Great
Compassion (Maha Karuna).
5. He is also called arahat as He does not do any Evil even in secret
(a-raha)

1.2 Samma Sambuddho – (Samma – fully. Sam The Buddha– realized

correctly by the Buddha the Enlightened One)

He is the perfectly and Fully Enlightened One. He has realized,

the Dhamma (4 Noble Truths) all by himself, and has the ability to
teach it to others. Pacceka The Buddhas also realize the Dhamma by
themselves, but they are unable to instruct others, to realize Nibbana,
so clearly. Pacceka The Buddhas arise only when the dispensation of
the Samma SamThe Buddhas are non existent in the universe.

1.3 Vijja Carana Sampanno – Vijja is wisdom, carana is conduct.

Sampanna means endowed with. Hence he is called Vijja carana
sampanna as He is endowed with wisdom and good conduct
necessary to reach Enlightenment.

Carana The Buddha had developed 15 principles, which were useful in attaining
complete freedom from suffering – Nibbana. There are :

1. Morality – sila,
2. Restraint of the senses – Indriya samvara sila
3. Moderation in eating – Bhojane mattaññuta

41
 4. Developing vigilance or awareness – Jagariyanuyoga
5. Confidence – Saddha
6. Shame to do evil or self respect – Hiri
7. Fear to do evil thinking of the consequences – Ottappa
8. Learning – Suta
9. Effort – Viriya
10. Mindfulness – Sati
11. Wisdom – Panna
12. -15 - are the 4 Absorptions – 4 Rupavacara – Jhanas

Vijja – The 8 fold types of wisdom developed by the Buddha to see reality – see
Ambattha Sutta in D i , 100.

1. Knowledge of Insight – Vipassana nana

2. Ability to form another body similar to himself and take it out of his
body – Monomaya Iddhi
3. Psychic powers – Iddhivida
4. Divine eye – Dibba chakkhu
5. Divine ear – Dibba sota
6. Ability of reading other‟s minds – Paracitta vijanana
7. Remembering past existences – Pubbenivasanussati nana
8. Destruction of the cankers (Asavas) – Asavakkhaya nana

1.4 Sugata – Well gone

He was traversed the right path to real permanent happiness – Nibbana.

He has always spoken the most appropriate words, and was a good
speaker, who could explain the Dhamma clearly and correctly to any
one, anywhere.

1.5 Lokavidu – Knower of all 3 worlds.

1. Satva loka, The 31 planes where beings can be born in this universe.

42
 They are :-

The Sensual Planes – kamavacara loka – 11

The Form planes or Drahma loka – Rupavacara loka – 16

The Formless planes where only the mind exists, without the body
Arupava loka - 4

2. Sankara loka – He was aware of the panchaskanda loka. Panchaskanda

are the five aggregates forming a living being. It is mind and body –
nama & rupa which is further analyzed as the five aggregates.

3. Avakasa loka – He was aware of all other innumerable world systems.

1.6. Anuttaro Purisa Damma Sarati – Anuttara means incomparable or

peerless. He was the Peerless teacher and guide to men and other beings
that can be trained in the emancipation from suffering.

He is peerless as there is no higher being than Him in virtue (Sila), in

concentration (samadhi), wisdom (panna), emancipation (vimutti),
insight knowledge to emancipation (vimutti nana dassana).

1.7. Satta deva manussanam – Satta means Leader. He is a Leader, who

showed the way to Nibbana, to both humans and gods, including
Brahmas.

1.8. Buddho – He is called Buddho as He has the following qualities:

Abhinneyya – He gained the knowledge of all things that can

be known.
Parinneyya - knowledge of all that are comprehensible,
Pahatabba - all things that should be abandoned,
Sacchikatabba - all things which should be realized, and
Bhavetabba - all things that should be developed.

Hence He has said – see Sanyutta Nikaya – verse 558

All that should be known is known by me

All that should be developed, I have developed
Whatever that has to be abandoned, I have abandoned,
Hence Brahman, I am a The Buddha.

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1.9. Bhagava -It is a word used to respect and revere a person who is the
best of all beings.

He is so called as He is exalted in fame, past merits, Iddhi powers, and

has extinguished the fires of Greed, Hate, and Delusion with „vasana‟
or inherited bad qualities.

However, nome that the qualities of a The Buddha are not restricted to
these nine. They are innumerable as stated below.
The Buddhapi The Buddhassa Bhaneyya vannan – Kappampi ce annama
bhasamano Khiyeta kappo cira digamantare – Vanno na khiyetha
Tathagatassa.

Even if another The Buddha were to explain continuously, the qualities

of a Samma SamThe Buddha, a kalpa will pass but the qualities will
not be exhausted.

2. Dhammanussati – reflecting on the virtues and the characteristics of the

„Doctrine‟ as follows:

Well expounded is the doctrine by the blessed one.

1. Svakkhato - explained the dhamma fully in the beginning,

middle and end
2. Sanditthiko - to be realized by oneself immediately
3. Akaliko - capable of giving immediate results
4. Ehipassiko - inviting investigation, (come and see quality)
5. Opanaiko - capable of leading one to nibbana, hence
worthy of learning
6. Paccattam Veditabbo Vinnuhi - to be understood by the wise, each
one for himself.

3. Sanghanussati – reflecting on the virtues and the characteristics of the

members of the Saints or Holy Celibate Order (ariya puggala monks). There
are 8 main qualities as follows:-

1. Supatipanno – of good conduct

2. Ujupatipanno – upright and wise
3. ñaya patipanno – of dutiful conduct
4. Samici patipanno – of right conduct
5. Ahuneyyo – worthy of offerings

44
 6. Pahuneyyo – worthy of hospitality.
7. Dakkhineyyo – worthy of gifts.
8. Anjalikaraneiyo – worthy of worship or reverential salutation.
9. Anuttaran Punnakhettam Lokassatii – incomparable field of merit
to the world.

4. Silanussati is the reflection on the perfection of one‟s own conduct.

5. Caganussati is the reflection on one‟s own benevolent or charitable
nature.
6. Devatanussati is the reflection on the fact that deities are born in such
exalted realms due to the Faith, Saddha, and Conduct sila, and that I too
will endeavour to have them.
7. Upasamanussati is the reflection on the attributes of Nibbana, such as
Peace and the ending of all Suffering.
8. Marananussati is to contemplate that Death is certain. When and where
it will occur is uncertain and not known.

It enables one to comprehend the fleeting nature of life and understand that
death is certain, and life is uncertain (maranan niyatan, jivitan aniyatan), he
will endeavour to make the best use of one‟s life and time, by working for the
benefit of oneself and also others, instead of indulging in sensual pleasures.
Beside, one can face death with calm and serenity.
One can also realize that the so called „Beings‟ are the outward temporary
manifestation of the invisible kammic energy, just as the electric light is the
manifestation of electric energy.

9. Kayagatasati is the reflection on the 32 impurities (parts) of the body. This

meditation on the loathsomeness of the body, helps in the dispassion
or the non-attachment to one‟s or others bodies,

10. Anapanasati is to be mindful on respiration – one‟s breathing. That is

the movement of air going in, and out. Ana is inhalation, and Apana
is exhalation.

Four Divine Abidings (Brahma Vihara)

The four Divine Abidings prescribed as objects (or subjects) of meditation are :

(1) Metta – Loving kindness

(2) Karuna – Compassion
(3) Mudita - Sympathetic joy
(4) Upekkha – Equanimity

45
Four Immaterial States (Four Arupa)

The four Immaterial States are :

(1) Akasanancayatana – Base consisting of boundless Space.

(2) Vinnanancayatana – The base consisting of boundless Consciousness,

(3) Akincannayatana – The base consisting of Nothingness.

(4) Nevasannanasannayatana – The base consisting of neither Perception

nor non-Perception.

Repulsiveness of Nutriment (Ahare patikula sanna)

Recollection on the repulsiveness of nutriment is reflection on the whole

process that turns food into repulsive matter starting with chewing and mixing
with saliva in the mouth, passing through the body undergoing digestion by
the action of various secretions, and ending with its discharge as waste matter.

Analysis of the four elements (Catu dhatu vavatthana)

By this Recollection is meant the meditation on the analysis of the four elements
of the body namely, Pathavi (hardness), Apo (cohesion, binding), Tejo (heat),
and Vayo (inflation, distension), concentrating on their individual
characteristics.

QUESTIONS
1. Explain the terms „Samatha Bhavana‟ (Tranquility Meditation)
and „Vipassana Bhavana‟ (Insight Meditation)

2. Enumerate the eight clusters of Objects of Meditation

(Kammatthana) which make up the Forty Objects of Meditation.

3. What are the four Divine Abidings (Brahma Vihara)?

Why are they so –called?

46
 FETTERS (SANYOJANA)

According to the Teachings of the Buddha all living beings exist in a continuous
succession of births and re-births called „Sansara‟ (Wheel of Existence). While the
origin of this succession of births and re-births is inconceivable, its cessation
or deliverance from this cycle for any individual can be realized by
conscientiously following the Path enunciated by the Buddha. Beings are tied
up with the wheel of Existence by a series of mental attachments called „Fetters‟
(Sanyojana) which are ten in number. The ultimate goal for any Buddhist
devotee is Nibbana. Nibbana can be attained by the annihilation of the ten
Fetters either in a single feat or in a progression of four steps annihilating a few
Fetters at each step (see below).

The Ten Fetters (Sanyojana) enumerated in the texts are the following:

1 Sakkaya Ditthi – Personality belief or Self illusion

It is the delusion of „Self‟ or ignorance of the true nature of the Self. This concept
is explained in the Suttas as the misconceived belief that the Five Aggregates
(khandha) which constitute the individual namely Rupa (Form), Vedana
(feeling), Sanna (perception), Sankhara (mental factors), and Vinnana
(consciousness) taken separately or as a whole contain an enduring,
unchanging entity that migrates from birth to birth.

2 Vicikiccha – Sceptical doubt or Perplexity

It primarily means distrust, but at times uncertainly or indecision. In

the religious context it is distrust or disbelief in eight factors that are
central to the Right Vision of the follower of the path to emancipation,
namely, sceptical doubt about:

(1) the Master (Sattha), the Buddha

(2) the Teaching (Dhamma)
(3) the Order (Sangha)
(4) the system of Training (Sikkha) – enunciated by the Buddha
(5) things Past – past births (Pubbanta)
(6) things Future – future births (Aparanta)
(7) both things Past and Future (Pubbaparanta), and
(8) Conditionality – Dependent Origination (Paticca Samuppada)

47
In brief, the distrust of these factors amounts to total non-acceptance of the
entire system of the Teaching of the Buddha. Doubt is further more a hindrance
(Nivarana). In terms of religious discipline it hinders a person doing wholesome
deeds obtaining Ecstasies (Jhana), and developing the mind to its spiritual
goal-Nibbana.

3.Silabbata Paramasa – Adherence to (heretical) rites and ceremonies

„Sila‟ means nature or habit. Vata means a religious observance or rite. „Sila
vata‟ or Silabbata in heretical religions were ascetic practices such as
behaving like animals (ajavata – like a goat, go vata-like a bull, vagguli – like
a bat, etc) performed with fervent devotion hoping through them to realise
the Supreme Bliss according to each religion.

This Fetter is the belief that by performing such ascetic practices one could
achieve moral purity and realize the Supreme Bliss of Nibbana. Performance of
rituals for any mundane purpose would not fall within this description.

4.Kamaraga – Lust of Sense Desires

The word Kama literally means „Desire‟ and subjectively mean „Sense Desire‟ It
is used in two related meanings:

(i) Desire for sense objects (vatthu kama), and

(ii) Desire for sense gratification (kilesa kama) i.e. of the five senses. The
word raga means passion; accordingly kama raga means sense passion. It is
the most formidable of the obstacles to moral and spiritual perfection. It is
the unwise attention (ayoniso manasikara) directed towards Objects of
Sense desire that causes kamaraga, taking things impermanent as permanent,
painful as pleasurable, and unsubstantial as substantial.

5.Vyapada – III will or malevolence

The word „vyapada‟ is derived from the verb „vyapajjhati‟ meaning „to do harm‟.
Hence „vyapada‟ means to harm or injure another ill will or malevolence which
is normally accompanied by hatred and produced by a notion of selfishness.
Pursuing a malevolent quest, the worldling indulges in wrong conduct in
deed, word and thought. It is a root casuse of unwholesome action (akusala
hetu).

6.Ruparaga – Craving for re-birth in the „World of Form‟ or Fine Material Realm

Ruparaga is the craving or intense desire to be re-born in the World of Form

or the Fine Material Sphere. Those who are disgusted with the vanity of sense
pleasures and see the suffering in the Sensuous Sphere conceive an intense
passion to be re-born in the World of Form which is free from lust. Such re-
birth
48
occurs only where a person who has the ability to attain an Ecstasy of Form
(Rupa Jhana), dies.

7.Aruparaga – Craving for re-birth in the Formless Realm .

With the eradication of the lust for sense pleasures (Kama raga). and the
craving for birth in the World of Form (Rupa raga) two obstacles to the path
to moral purification are overcome. Those who see suffering in the Sensuous
Sphere and the World of Form may conceive a desire to be re-born in the
Formless Realm by remaining in a Formless Ecstasy. Though such craving is
harmless by itself, it is a hindrance to spiritual progress.

8.Mana – Conceit

Mana implies looking at or measuring oneself with others. It is also referred to

as „haughtiness of mind‟ (cetasa unnati). Even after overcoming self delusion
under the first Fetter, Sakkaya ditthi a residue of self-assertion remains as pride.
Conceit is the tendency to ostentatiously display oneself over others with
qualities one has or, more often, with qualities which one presumes to possess.
It is a way of balancing one‟s feeling of inferiority. Conceit impairs balanced
judgement which is necessary for mental development.

9.Uddhacca – Agitation

Uddhacca or agitation is described as restlessness of the mind, the lack of

understanding that everything is subject to change. Conflict arises when one
fails to cope with change. The fetter is the struggle to escape from conflict.
Agitation also manifests itself in man‟s eagerness to outdo others, and excel
in as many spheres as possible. Agitation of mind stands opposed to
Mindfulness (sati).

10.Avijja – Ignorance

Ignorance ordinarily means lack of knowledge. In a religious sense it is not

knowing things as they truly are. It is also the lack of insight, lack of knowledge
that all component things are impermanent, subject to suffering and
unsubstantial. In a more specific sense it is the lack of knowledge of the
existence and scope of the Four Noble Truths.

Ignorance deludes people making life which is impermanent and unhappy

seem permanent and happy. Avijja is the primary root of all evil and suffering
and continual re-birth. Ignorance and craving are the causes of Kamma. Greed
(Lobha), and Hatred (Dosa) are rooted in Ignorance. All Unwholesome states
of Mind are caused by Ignorance.

49
Sanyojana (Fetters) as obstacles on the Noble Path

Sanyojana or Fetters are so-called because they are the bonds that keep the
beings tied to the continuity of births and re-births called Sansara. They are evil
in character and act as hindrances on the path to moral perfection. Given that
the ultimate goal of the Teaching of the Buddha is escape from „Sansara‟ and
the attainment of the bliss of Nibbana, the Sansaric being striving to reach
this goal has to shatter all the ten Fetters by concerted effort pursued over a
period of time either in a single feat, or in a series of achievements in a single
birth, or a series of births not extending beyond seven.

The Way to Nibbana is the development of Insight (Vipassana), culminating

in the Seven Purities (Sapta Visuddhi). By sustained effort on the Path, the
worldling (putujjana) would reach a stage when he would get a glimpse of
Nibbana for the first time “like a traveller by night seeing the landscape
around him in a flash of lightening.” At this stage he is called a “Stream Winner”
(Sotapanna), one who has entered the stream that leads to Nibbana. On
reaching this stage (also called the First Stage of Sainthood), he eradicates
three Fetters namely, Sakkaya Ditthi, Vicikiccha and Silabbata Paramasa
(described above). A Stream Winner‟s goal of Nibbana is assured. He would
elevate himself to the three higher stages of Sainthood either in the same
birth or failing which in the succeeding births not exceeding seven in the
Sensuous Sphere.

With sustained endeavour and greater courage the Stream Winner could
reach the Second Stage of Sainthood called “Once Returner” (Sakadagami) by
weakening two Fetters namely Kamaraga and Vyapada (described above). The
once Returner is so-called as he would be re-born only once in the human world
and thereafter attain Nibbana, if he failed to reach the three higher Stages in
the same birth and attain Nibbana. What is meant by weakening the Fetters is
that he is not capable of totally freeing himself from the two fetters Lust and
Anger. At times he may be subject to these mental frailties.

On attaining the Third Stage of Sainthood namely “Non-Returner” (Anagami),

he eradicates totally the Fetters of Kamaraga and Vyapada. The Non-Returner
has rooted out all sensual pleasures, and does not return to the world. Hence
its he called Non-Returner. He will not be re-born in the celestial abodes too.
If he dies as a Non-Returner he would be re-born in the Pure Abodes
(Suddhavasa Brahma Worlds), and attain Arahantship from such plane.

When the Non-Returner makes his final endeavour and attains Arahantship
he eradicates the remaining five Fetters namely, Ruparaga, Aruparaga, Mana,
Uddaccha and Avijja (described above). The first five Fetters which keep the
Beings tethered to the Sensuous Realms which are the “Lower Worlds”,
are called the “Lower Fetters” (Orambagiya Samyojana), while the second
group
50
of Five Fetters which keeps the Beings confined to the Five Material and
Immaterial Realms which are the “Higher Realms” are called“Higher Fetters”,
(Uddhambhagiya Samyojana). With the attainment of Arahantship all ten Fetters
get totally eradicated with no possibility of resurgence.

Any person, lay or monk, who is still possessed of all the ten Fetters binding to
the round of re-birth and has not reached the First stage of Sainthood is called a
Worldling (Putujjana). A person who has attained the three Stages of Sainthood
and has not attained the „Fruit‟ of Arahantship, is called „a Noble Learner‟
(Sekha). An Arahant is called, one who has accomplished and „Perfected in
Training‟ (Asekha). An Arahant who has extinguished the defilements, but
continues to live with the “Groups of Existence” (upadi) remaining, is said to be
in Sopadisesa Nibbana. An Arahant on passing away is said to have entered
Anupadisesa Nibbana (Nibbana without Groups remaining).

QUESTIONS
1. What are Fetters (Samyojana)? Why are they so-called?

2. Enumerate the Stage of Sainthood, and the Fetters that are eradicated
at each stage.

3. What is Sceptic Doubt (Vicikiccha)?

4. Distinguish between Orambhagiya Sanyojana (Lower Fetters), and

Uddhambhagiya Samyojana (Higher Fetters).

5. Explain the terms „Putujjana‟, „Sekha‟ , and „Asekha‟.

51
 PROOF OF REBIRTH
„Rebirth‟ is the standard English term used to signify the Buddhist doctrine which
postulates that any life of a being is not an isolated phenomenon but a link in a
continuous process of births with births preceding and births succeeding any
given birth. The succession of rebirths survives until the being reaches the goal
of Nibbana.

The doctrine of Rebirth is a cardinal doctrine in the Teachings of the Buddha.

The doctrine of Rebirth is inextricably intertwined with the law of Kamma and
postulates the following:

(i) Every being is enmeshed in a continuation of births and rebirths (a

life flux) called in Buddhist texts „Sansara‟.

(ii) The beginning of this life-flux is not cognizable.

(iii) The life flux continues so long as the causative factors of life flux
namely „craving‟ (tanha) and „ignorance‟ (avijja) that are inherent
in the being are not eradicated. (Life flux terminates with the total
eradication of craving and ignorance, whereupon the being
attains the stage of an Arahant).

(iv) While the cumulative kammic energy as at the moment of death of

the past birth conditions the present birth, the cumulative
kammic energy as at the moment of death of the present birth
conditions the future birth.

The doctrine of Rebirth for Buddhists is not simply a theory or hypothesis

but a fact verifiable by evidence. Kamma and Rebirth are two aspects of life
personally verified by the Buddha through extrasensory perception.

Although Rebirth technically means „survival after death‟, where proof is

concerned it is the existence of a past birth that is empirically verifiable since
future birth is a matter for speculation.

Although Buddhism professes Rebirth it is unique in its explanation of the

mechanism of Rebirth which totally rejects the existence of a transmigrating
permanent and enduring entity (called „Soul‟ in some religions),
either created by a Divine Power or emanating from a Divine Essence.
Having denied a transmigrating entity, the link between two Births has to
be shown by other means in order to establish continuity and give
meaning to moral responsibility. Buddhism represents Death as the
dissolution of the Five
52
Aggregates constituting the Human personality, and Birth as their
regeneration, the surviving consciousness completing the process. Buddhist
concept of the Life flux is „Continuity without identity‟.

Given that Life-flux is a continuous succession of Births, Deaths, and Re-

births, it is relevant to ask “What was the ultimate origin of „Sansara‟? To this
question The Buddha gives the piquant reply “Sansara is without
cognizable beginning.the “Perpetuation of the Life flux is maintained by
Cause and Effect. Termination of the Life flux is possible by following
assiduously the Path enunciated by the Buddha.

It has to be conceded that Rebirth cannot be conclusively proved by laboratory

experimentation. If proof is desired, existence of a Past Birth has to be
established by a preponderance of probability, and the rationale extended to
a future Birth except where Life flux has been terminated.

Ordinary human beings cannot recall their past lives under normal conditions.
Only those who have developed their faculties of extra sensory perception
to very high level can perceive their own past lives as well as those of others.
There are references in the Buddhist texts to those who were possessed of such
powers during the time of the Buddha.

In Eastern countries where Buddhism is practised as a religion, Rebirth

was treated as a subject of religious faith. Western scientists who are more
rational minded embraced the subject of Rebirth into their exercises of
psychic and parapsychological research, and have produced a mass of
evidence which tend to confirm the Buddhist theory of Rebirth.

Evidence of Rebirth come from a variety of sources. The following are

noteworthy:

(1) Recall of Past lives by young children

Instances are reported from time to time of very young children who
are too young to imagine or fabricate situations recalling experiences
of their past lives, such as, the places where they lived, their parents and
siblings, their normal activities of life, and persons associated with
them and particularly in most cases the circumstances of their deaths.
Some facts recalled in these reminiscences are such that they can be
verified by reference to authentic records e.g. Birth and Death
Certificates and Judicial proceedings. The corroborations are strong
enough to put the cases beyond the pale of mere conjecture or
coincidence and turn them into incidents of real history. A well known
case that was subjected to an in-depth investigation by renowned
authorities was that of Gnanatilaka of Kotmale. Another case was that of
Wijeratne of Balangoda. Authentic
53
 reports of Rebirth investigations come not only from Eastern countries
where religious beliefs include Rebirth, but also from Western
countries where religions reject such beliefs.

(2) Prodigies, Geniuses and Intellectual Giants.

It is an accepted fact that The Fully Enlightened The Buddha is not the
product of exertion in a single birth but the culmination of sustained
exertion over a countless number of lives in the past. Apart from The
Buddhas, history has witnessed many lesser mortals of exceptional caliber
who rose to eminence unique among mankind. How were such
marvels possible? Here too, a possible explanation is that with their
birth they brought into this world the cumulative product of the
respective forte developed over a sequence of previous births.

(3) Display of skills without initiation or training

Instances have come to light of young children displaying skills in which

they have had no training in the present birth or speaking languages
unknown to the family. These may well be skills they brought into this
birth from the past birth.

(4) Recall of pre-natal memories under hypnotic regression

Hypnosis is defined as “a sleeplike state in which the mind responds to

external suggestion, and can recover forgotten memories.” Hypnotism
is used as a means of uncovering latent memories of past lives of
ordinary people. It has been found that recession (i.e. a treatment
given by psychologists to bring back to conscious memory,
forgottenincidents of childhood) could be carried back beyond early
infancy even to revive pre-natal memories. Instances are on record of
memories recalled under hypnosis being verified and found to be true.

Ven. Bhikkhu Bodhi says “The Teaching of Rebirth is not merely an article
of Buddhist faith, an empty dogma but a doctrine that has implications
for the entire course of Dhamma practice.” It is a fundamental tenet of
Buddhism so much so that disbelief in Rebirth is a stamp of heresy.

What is the cause of Rebirth? The Buddha taught that Ignorance

produces Desire. Desire to live is the cause of Rebirth. When all Desire is
extinguished Rebirth ceases. To stop Rebirth is to extinguish all Desire.

54
Considering all the evidence gathered from people who remembered their
past lives, theories of science, and the findings of parapsychological
and psychical research, it can be concluded that the Buddhist Concept
of Rebirth is indeed true and verifiable to the non-dogmatic and
discerning mind.

QUESTIONS
1. Indicate the main postulates of the Buddhist doctrine of Rebirth.

2. What is meant by the Buddhist concept of „Sansara‟?

3. Since Buddhism rejects a transmigrating „Soul‟ how is continuity of

the sequence of births explained?

4. Summarise the bases of proof of Rebirth.

5. “It is Kamma that conditions Rebirth”. Explain this statement.

6. Show how Kamma is related to Rebirth.

55
 NIVARANA (MENTAL HINDRANCES)

The Supreme The Buddha has declared that there are 5 obstacles or
Mental Hindrances to the development of the Mind, called Nivaranas. They
obstruct the attaining of Jhanas (Full Absorptions), one‟s path to final
liberation from all suffering – Nibbana. They obstruct one from doing Kusala
and cause Rebirth in the Duggati, in the 4 Unhappy Realms;

They are Niraya (Hells), Tiracchina yoni (Animal world), Peta Yoni (Ghosts),
and Asura Yoni (Demons). These Nivaranas also make one‟s life in this world,
unhappy and miserable as they blind one‟s mental perception, and cause much
unwholesome thoughts, without realieing their consequences (Vipaka).

These 5 Hindrances can be briefly defined as follows:

1. Kamacchanda – Sense Desire or attachment (Lobha) to Sensual pleasures.

2. Vyapada – Intense Anger, Ill-will or hatred (Dosa) towards others whom one
dislikes accompanied by the wish, for their down fall or destruction.

3. Thina Middha – Sloth and Torpor. The mental lethargy and the reluctance to
engage in wholesome actions. (Kusala Kamma)

4. Uddhacca – Kukkucca – Restlessness of the Mind and Worry or Repentance.

5. Vicikiccha – Sceptical doubts and Indecisions.

These can be further explained as stated below:

1. Kamacchanda – Kama means attachment to the world of the 5 senses,

the external world. The world of sight, sound, smell taste and physical touch.
Chanda means deligt. Kamacchanda in short means the delight in the realm of
the 5 senses. In meditation one should give the body a comfortable posture
and give up the concern for the body, then concentrate on the mind. Give up
Kama vitakka, thoughts regarding enjoying with the 5 senses, as they do not
reveal the Truth.

The first thing to do is bring the Mind to the present.

It is the Attachments to Sensual desires for the gratification of the 5 senses,

namely, the eye, the ear, the nose, the tongue, and the body (contact). The eye
is always in search of pleasant sights, the ear pleasant sounds, the nose pleasant
smells, the tongue good taste, and the body pleasant contacts.

The Buddha has not denied the enjoyment of the 5 Senses to ordinary
persons, but warned that indulging in them and getting strongly attached to

56
 them, (Upadana) leads to unhappiness sooner or later. The happiness derived
from Sensual pleasures is for that moment only, i.e. subject to
impermanence (Aniccha) which is inherent in them. If this is correctly
understood, it will prevent one from getting attached to the Sensual
pleasures, which ultimately lead to Suffering – Dukkha. It is attenuated at
Sakadagami level and completely eliminated at Anagami stage.

Bhikkhus and others, who are on the path to Nibbana are advised to have
restraint in their Senses, and practice of Indriya Samvara Sila. Those who
are keen, even adopt some of the Dhutanga which are austere practices to
check the Senses.

To obtain a Jhana one has to let go of the Kamacchanda – Sense Desires.

2. Vyapada is strong Resentment, Ill will or Anger.

In meditation it can be;

1. Ill will towards someone else

2. More likely towards oneself
3. On the meditation itself

They can be overcome by the practice of Metta.

Vyapada is due to a mental factor called Dosa which arises when the mind
reacts with an undesirable object. If one has sati or mindfulness and wise
reflection (Yoniso manasikara) it is possible to recognize anger as it arises
in the mind, Pariutthana Stage. This is possible by the practice of Cittanu
Passana, in every day life. It will prevent anger from doing harm to oneself
and others by preventing anger proceeding to the active Vithikkama stage.

Vyapada is also a fetter (Samyojana) which binds one to the cycle of Births and
Deaths (Sansara). It is inhibited by Piti or joy which is a Jhana Anga (Jhana
factor). At Jhana level the Mental Factor Piti is very strong and is capale of
suppressing Vyapda. It is attenuated on attaining Sakadagami level of
sainthood and completely eradicated at the Anagami level.

The practice of Metta (loving kindness) and being aware of Kamma and Vipaka,
will gradually help in the suppression and elimination of Anger in everyday life.

4. Thina – Middha: they are generally translated as Sloth and Torpor. It refers
to the lethargic state of mental activity, not bodily fatigue. Even Arahats
and The Buddhas encounter bodily fatigue. Thina Middha induce sleepiness
and prevents one from continuing in meditaion.

57
When sloth and torpor are present the mind is dull and blurry and one will not
know the meditation object. It is another aspect of ill will, because one does
not like where one tries to escape by going to this dull state or mood. It is
boredom or lack of interest or lack of value that gives rise to Sloth and Torpor.

This can be avoided by changing from sitting to walking meditation or changing

bodily postures with mindfulness. Taking food in moderation also helps in
avoiding Thina Middha.

Fear and alertness will not allow this to come up. Zen masters use a stick to alert
yogis when they are trained in meditation. Sitting on the edge of a cliff or other
dangerous place also avoids Tina Middha.

Counting also helps in keeping Tina Middha away.

4. Uddhacca – Kukkucca

Uddhacca is mental unrest. It is as a result of lack of contentment of what you

are doing a fault finding mind rather than a mind which appreciates what is
already there. It will look for something else to do, or to think or to go anywhere
but here and now.

It is a mental factor which is always associated with all unwholesome thoughts

(Akusala Sadharana Cetasika). When one observes the precepts (sila) and avoids
evil thoughts, Uddhacca will not arise.

Uddhacca is fully eliminated only at Arahat level

Kukkucca is Repentance, Remorse, or Brooding. It is a result of thinking over a

bad conduct or evil committed in the past or the good that could not be done.
The best that one can do in such circumstances is not to repeat the mistakes
already done and do Wholesome deeds (good) now, without thinking of
the past, Repentance only adds to the stock of Unwholesome citta.

All ordinary people „putujjana‟ do mistakes but those who forgive their mistakes
and learn from them are wise. Forgiveness and letting go of the past is what
overcomes remorse. Kukkucca is eliminated fully only at Anagami level.

5. Vicikiccha

Vicikiccha is having doubts on things that should not be doubted. They are
about the Teaching, about the Teacher or towards One self.

The meditation teacher must be like a coach of a sports team. His job is to both
teach the students with his own experience and more important to encourage
them to succeed. A teacher must lead by example so that the students will get
confidence. So select a reliable meditation teacher.

58
Have confidence that you can achieve whatever you want. With determination
and confidence it is a matter of time before you succeed.

In hindrances it does not mean doubts regarding the qualities of the Triple Gem
only. Even non Buddhists who believe in Kamma and Vipaka such as the Hindus
also are capable of attaining Jhanas and Abbhinna (special knowledge).

Vicikiccha is completely eliminated at the first stage of sainthood – Sovan.

The Buddha has given appropriate similes to these 5 Hindrances as follows:

1. Kamacchanda or Sensuous desire as water mixed with many colours.

2. Vyapada or ill will to boiling water.
3. Thina-Middha or sloth and torpor to water covered with moss.
4. Uddhacca – Kukkucca or restlessness and worry to agitated water.
5. Viccikiccha or Sceptical doubts to muddy water.

Just as water, disturbed and impure as stated above, will not allow one to
see one‟s reflection or the bottom clearly, in the presence of any of these 5
hindrances one cannot concentrate or see reality.

When these hindrances are present, at Tranquility meditation (Samatha

Bhavana), the mind cannot reach Full Absorption level – (Appana or Jhana
Samadhi), At the Jhana level these Hindrances are suppressed temporarily
(Vikkhambhanapahana), and the mind is pure so long as one is in
that Samadhi.

The Jhana Factors or Jhana Anga are wholesome mental factors which are
strong in a Jhana Citta. They are Vitakka, Vicara, Piti, Sukha and Ekaggata. These
Jhana Anga suppress the Hindrances temporarily as follows:

1. Kamacchanda is suppressed by Ekaggata, which is defined as one-

pointedness of mind on a Wholesome or neutral object. This prevents
the mind from straying into sensuous objects.

2. Vyapada by Piti. It is a mental factor, which brings about rapture, gladness

or joyful interest. Piti and Dosa (anger) cannot exist in the mind at the same
time, as they are of opposing nature.

3. Thina – Middha by Vitakka which is the mental factor which directs the mind
towards the object. In meditation it is the initial application of the mind to
the object of meditation.

4. Uddhacca and Kukkucca by Sukha, which is a pleasant, happy mental feeling

and not physical feeling. This avoids restlessness and leads to Samadhi.

59
5. Vicikiccha by Vicara. It is the Mental Factor which investigates the Object
of meditation by sustained application of the Mind on the Object and
avoids indecision.

N.B. Vitakka is compared to the flying of a bee towards a flower, while Vicara
is compared to a bee going round the flower, and investigating it.

Piti creates an interest in the object while Sukha is the enjoyment of it.
Piti is like the seeing of water to a tired and thirsty traveller, while Sukha
is the feeling he gets when drinking that water.

Vitakka is a precursor to Vicara, similary Piti is the precursor to Sukha.

In Insight meditation or direct Vipassana Bhavana, Sati or Mindfulness is

developed according to the Satipatthana Sutta. There, at Upachara
Samadhi or access or proximate concentration level the mind is
temporarily clear of defilements including the Hindrances. Then, one can
proceed to realize the higher wisdom, without obtaining Jhanas, to see things
as they are (Yata Butha Nana Dassana), and realize the three signata, Aniccha
(Impermanence), Dukkha (Unsatisfactoriness), and Anatta (No permanent
entity or soul, within ourselves and all around us). This wisdom finally leads
one to the ultimate happiness, Nibbana.

When one has mundane wholesome thoughts (Kamavacara Kusala Citta), no

defilements are present in the mind at that moment, and hindrances are also
absent. Hence it is beneficial to have a clear understanding of Kusala and
Akusala thoughts and Mental Factors (Cetasika). The hindrances are 7 of the
14 Akusala Mental factors.

Abhidhamma, the special and systematic teaching of the Buddha, defines

clearly among other things, the 89 different types of Citta (thoughts), and
52 Cetasika (Mental Factors). A knowledge of at least the main basic
principles of Abhidhamma will help one to understand the unwholesome
thoughts and Mental Factors (Akusala citta, and Cetasika), and how they
are gradually eliminated to achieve happiness and contentment at present
and finally attain Nibbana.

QUESTIO

1. What are Mental Hindrances‟ (Nivarana)?

2. Explain why „Mental Hindrances‟ (Nivarana) are so-called.

3. Indicate what Wholesome Mental Factors (Jhananga) temporalily

suppress each Mental Hindrance.

60
 Abhidhamma
for
Senior Level – Part I

English Dhamma Examination of the Colombo – YMBA

by
Ven. Panadure Dhammarakkhita
(M.A. – Kelaniya)

61
 PREFACE

The Abhidhamma section has been prepared to cover the current syllabus
intended for Senior – Part I, the third stage of the Examination on Theravada
The Buddha Dhamma conducted by the Colombo Young Mens‟
Buddhist Association.

It includes part of the “Miscellaneous Section”, the third chapter of

“Abhidhammattha Sangaha” namely, the chapters on the classification of citta
according to Feelings – Vedana, Roots - Hethu, and Functions - Kicca, and
the chapter six of the same text book which offers a detail classification of
Material Phenomena (Rupa Paramattha).

An effort has been made to explain the subject matter in simple terms for the
benefit of the student and the general reader. I would be glad to receive any
comments suggestions or criticism on this work from the reader.

A few authoritative books published on Abhidhamma have been consulted in

the preparation of this volume, and special references is made of “A Manual
of Abhidhamma” by Venerable Narada Maha Thero, and “A comprehensive
Manual of Abhidhamma” by Venerable Bhikku Bodhi. I pay my utmost
gratitude to those authors whose books had been a guide to me.

My sincere thanks are due to Mr. U. B. Herath, the Superintendent of

Examinations of the Colombo YMBA for requesting me to prepare this book,
and appreciate his devoted endeavour in this project.

May my late parents, teachers the well wishers and all readers share the merit
gained by this act of propagating the Buddha. Dhamma, and attain Nibbana.

Sri Jinendra Chaithyarama Ven. Panadure Dhammarakkhita

Dinasiri Mawatha
Egoda Uyana (South)
Moratuwa, Sri Lanka.
Tel : 011 2 657 666
26th July 2006

62
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter page

1. Compendium of the Miscellaneous (Pakinnaka Sangaha Vibhago) 65

2. Analysis of Feeling 65

3. Compendium of Roots 68

4. Compendium of Function – Part I 70

5. Compendium of Function – Part II 75

6. Compendium of Function – Part III 78

7. Compendium of Function – Part IV 84

8. The Ultimate Reality of Rupa 86

9. Enumeration of Material Phenomena 89

10. Characteristics of Rupa Dhamma 91

11. Classification of Matter (Rupa Vibhago) 101

12. The Origination of Matter (Rupa Samutthana) 106

13. Analysis of Material Phenomena by way of origin 109

14. Grouping of Material Phenomena (Kalapa Yojana) 111

15. The Occurrence of Material Phenomena (Rupa Pavattikkama) 114

Bibliography 117

Syllabus for Senior Part – I 118

63
64
 CHAPTER 1

COMPENDIUM OF THE MISCELLANEOUS

(Pakinnaka Sangaha Vibhago)

In the two previous books on Abhidhamma, published by the Young Men‟s

Buddhist Association of Colombo, Sri Lanka, the subjects of consciousness
(citta) and the Mental factors (cetasikas), the first two chapters of the
Abhidhammattha Sangha were discussed in a manner suitable for the
students. We have seen how wholesome and unwholesome
consciousness asise in relation to the different objects (arammana),and the
arising of their Resultant consciousness. The common basic feature of
consciousness is the awareness of an object. Though citta can be classified
into eighty nine or one hundred and twenty one different classes, it is
treated as one single dhamma owing to its basic nature of awareness or
cognizing of an object. The fifty two Mental Factors which carry their own
intrinsic nature together with consciousness as one dhamma form the
fifty three associated states. These are called Nama Dhammas. In this
chapter titled as “Compendium of miscellaneous”, in Abhidhammattha
Sangaha, a further classification of consciousness (citta) according to Feeling
(Vedana), Roots (Hetu), Functions (Kicca), Doors (Dvara), Objects (Alambana),
and Bases (Vatthu) are being discussed.

CHAPTER 2

ANALYSIS OF FEELING
(Vedana Sangaha)

Feeling (vedana) is one of the Universal mental factors which arises in every
consciousness. Dependent on contact arises feeling, and its function is to
experience the taste of the Object contacted. Accordingly, Feeling (Vedana)
is classified as three fold, namely; (i) Pleasant Feeling (Sukha vedana) (ii)
Painful Feeling (Dukkha vedana) and (iii) the Feeling which is neither
painful nor pleasant (Adukkhamasuka vedana). In this classification both
physical and mental feeling of pain and pleasure are included. This three fold
division which is based on tasting is called “Anubhavana Bedho”.

Classification of Feeling by way of Consciousness.

Pleasurable or pleasant feeling (Sukha vedana)

The following sixty three Consciousness fall under this category.

65
 Consciousness rooted in Greed (Lobha)
accompanied by pleasure 04
(Somanassa sahagatha lobha mula cittas)
 Body consciousness accompanied by
pleasure (Root less) 01
(Sukha sahagatha kaya vinnana)
 Investigating consciousness accompanied by
pleasure (Root less) 01
(Somanassa sahagatha santirana citta)
Smile producing functional consciousness
accompanied by pleasure (Root less) 01
(Somanassa sahagatha hasituppada citta)
 Beautiful consciousness of the sense
sphere accompanied by pleasure
(Wholesome 04 + Resultant 04 functional 04 12
(Kama sobhana – somanassa sahagatha cittani)
 The first, second, third & fourth Jhana
consciousness of the Form – sphere accompanied
by pleasure (Wholesome 04 +
Resultant 04 + Functional 04) 12
The Supra Mundane consciousness of Magga
(04) & Phala (04) attained through the first,
second, third and the fourth Jhanas accompanied by
pleasure. 32
63
Consciousness with displeasure or pain are three in number, namely,
 Unwholesome consciousness rooted in hatred accompanied
by displeasure 02
(Domanassa sahagatha cittani)
 Body consciousness accompanied by pain
(coming under the unwholesome resultant rootless group)
(Dukkha sahagatha kaya vinnana) 01
03
Consciousness accompanied by equanimity (with neither pain nor pleasure)
are fifty five in number, namely.
 Unwholesome consciousness accompanied by
equanimity (four rooted in Lobha and two rooted in Moha) 06
(Upekkha sahagatha cittani)
 Rootless consciousness accompanied by equanimity 14
(Upekkha sahagatha Ahetuka cittani)

66
 Beautiful consciousness of the sense sphere accompanied
by equanimity 12
(Upekkha sahagatha kama sobhana cittani)
 Fifth obsorption (Jhana) consciousness of
Form sphere (Rupavacara) 3
Formless sphere (Arupavacara) 12
Supra Mundane (Magga & Phala) 8
23
55

Five fold Analysis of Feeling

The mental factor of Feeling (Vedana) takes the lead role in the act of perceiving
the taste of the Object contacted. Hence this dhamma becomes the
governing faculty (Indriya). When it is classified accordingly, it becomes five
fold.

Namely;

I. Physical happiness (Sukha)

II. Physical pain (Dukkha)
III. Mental happiness (Somanassa)
IV. Mental displeasure (Domanassa)
V. Equanimity or Neutral feeling (Upekkha)

According to the above classification, the only change that takes place
in categorizing the consciousness is that the two consciousness namely,
body consciousness accompanied by pleasure falls under Sukhindriya, and
the body consciousness accompanied by pain falls under Dukkhindriya
respectively. The number of consciousness already classified under
Equanimity remains unchanged at fifty five.

At certain instances, Feeling has been categorized as Sukha and Dukka.

Under this two fold division, Equanimity is treated as Sukha.

QUESTION
1. What is the common characteristic feature of any Consciousness?
2. What are the Six Compendia discussed in this chapter?
3. What are the different types of Feelings?
4. Divide the Sense Sphere Consciousness according to the different
types of Feelings.

67
 CHAPTER 3

COMPENDIUM OF ROOTS
(Hetu Sangaho)
Here the consciousness and the concomitant mental factors are grouped
according to Roots which too are Mental Factors, conjoined with
respective Consciousness. The word 'Hetu' is a term generally used to denote
a 'cause' or 'reason'. But in this context it implies the meaning as that which
creates stability to the Consciousness and the conjoined Mental Factors.

There are six roots (Mula) that accord stability and firmness to Consciousness.

Namely;

(i) Greed (ii) Hatred and (iii) Delusion which are exclusively immoral and the
other three namely. (iv) Non-Greed (v) Non Hatred and (vi) Non Delusion are
identified as Wholesome when these arise in Moral Consciousness. These
three wholesome Roots are called indeterminate roots (Abyakhata Hetu) when
arisen in Resultant and Functional Consciousness.

Out of the eighty nine cittas there are eighteen which are Rootless. Each of
these eighteen Consciousness does not accommodate a single root
dhamma. Hence the name Rootless Consciousness. (Ahetuka Citta). Those are
the;

(1) Seven Unwholesome Resultant Consciousness (Akusala Vipaka Citta).

(2) Eight Wholesome Rootles Resultant Consciousness (Kusala Vipaka
Ahetuka Cittani), and
(3) Three Rootles Functional Consciousness (Ahetuka Kriya cittani).
These eighteen consciousness arise independent of the condition
of Root dhammas.

The balance seventy one consciousness stand firmly having at least one of the
roots or two roots or even three roots in the case of moral Consciousness
arising with Wisdom (Panna). The root dhammas arise in the following
manner.

Consciousness with one root.

Unwholesome cittas rooted in Delusion accompanied by

single root of Delusion (Mohamula cittani) 2

Consciousness with two roots

A. Unwholesome consciousness rooted in Greed
(Lobha mula cittani) 8
68
B. Unwholesome consciousness rooted in Hatred
(Dosamula cittani) 2
C. Sense sphere wholesome consciousness dissociated
from knowledge 4
(Kama sobhana nana vippautta kusala cittani)
D. Resultant consciouness dissociated from knowledge
of the above group 4
(Kama sobhana nana vippautta vipaka cittani)
E. Functional consciousness dissociated from knowledge
of the same group 4
(Kama sobhana nana vippautta kriya cittani) 22

In A –above. the roots are Delusion (Moha) and Greed (Lobho).

In B-the roots are Delusion and Hatred (Doso)
In C. D, and Eabove the roots that accompany are Non Greed (Alobha) and
Non-Hatred (Adosa).

Consciousness with three Roots

 Sense sphere Beautiful consciousness associated

with knowledge (Wholesome, Resultant and Functional) 12
 All Fine material sphere consciousness (Rupavacara Cittani) 15
 All Immaterial sphere consciousness (Arupavacara Cittani) 12
 Supramundane consciousness (Lokuttara Cittani) 08
47

These forty seven Consciousness are conditioned by the three moral

and indeterminate roots of Non-Greed, Non-Hatred and Non-Delusion. The
term indeterminate refers to Resultant and Functional Consciousness, and
the same Roots when accompany these Consciousness, these are termed as
indeterminate Roots.

QUESTIONS

1. Name the Roots?

2. What function do these Roots perform?
3. What are the Consciousness named as Rootless?
4. What Consciousness are with only one Root?
5. Show the different Roots that accompany the Sense-sphere
Beautiful Consciousness.
6. What is the difference between Wholesome and Indeterminate Roots?

69
 CHAPTER 4

COMPENDIUM OF FUNCTIONS – PART 1

(Kicca Sangaha)
Our general impression is that we carry out our wishes and we perform all the
activities according to our expectations. But what actually happens is that we
are being guided by our own Consciousness. To be more specific, our actions
are the results of our Volitions (cetana). In addition to the activities
conducted by Volitions, there are other Functions taking place according to
various situations. In Abhidhamma these Functions have been sorted out,
and you find that there are Specific Functions directed by Consciousness
(Citta). In all, the eighty nine Consciousness do perform fourteen separate
Functions.

Imagine a factory site which turns out several products. These products are
attended to by different sets of workers. Sometimes one act may be performed
by several workers while some of the workers may attend to various aspects of
the product. Similarly every Consciousness (Citta) perform at least a single
act while some of these are capable of serving in many capacities.

The different Functions of the Consciousness are as follows;

(1) Rebirth – Linking - Patisandhi

(2) Life – continuum - Bhavanga

(3) Adverting - Avajjana
(4) Seeing - Dassana
(5) Hearing - Savana
(6) Smelling - Ghayana
(7) Tasting - Sayana
(8) Touching - Phusana
(9) Receiving - Sampaticcana
(10) Investigating - Santirana
(11) Determining - Votthapana
(12) Javana - Javana
(13) Registration - Tadaramma
(14) Death - cuti
70
(1) Rebirth – Linking (Patisandhi)

The moment of birth of a being in any of the abodes whether in the sentient
world (Kama bhumi), the fine material world (Rupa-bhumi), and the
formless sphere (Arupa-bhumi) is identified as Rebirth-linking. It is the moment
followed by the moment of Death of a Being in a previous life. This moment
links up the past life with the new existence. Hence the term Rebirth-Linking.

Rebirth-Linking moment too is just one conscious moment (Cittakkhana)

where the first consciousness (Patisandhi citta) takes place. Simultaneously
the concomitant Mental Factors which form the aggregates of Feeling
(Vedana) Perception (Sañña), and Mental Formations (Sankha ra) arise along
with the Patisandhi citta which is the Consciousness aggregate. The
arising of the materiality aggregate too takes place at the same moment
along with the four mental aggregates. This is the general condition of the
Dirth of a being having the five aggregates.

Rebirth-Linking (Patisandhi) is a resultant stage of Volitions one has accrued in

a previous life. This function is performed by nineteen Resultant
consciousness, the details of which will be discussed in a latter chapter.

(2) Life continuum (Bhavanga)

The pali word Bhavanga is a conjoined word made up with the two Words of
Bhava and Anga. Bhava means existence. Anga refers to the factor that helps
in the survival or continuity of existence. Once a Birth of a Being takes place the
Rebirth Linking consciousness arises. Arising of this consciousness itself is
the actual moment of coming into Being. This Citta perishes immediately
according to its nature of impermance. Once this first Consciousness has
fallen apart a resultant consciousness similar to the Patisandhi citta follow
suit, moment to moment depending on the strength of the Kamma, and
other factors which brought about the particular Being. Arising of this
resultant consciousness is called the Life continuum of Bhavanga. This
process continues until the death of the particular Being.

A note should be made that the process of the L life continuum

(Bhavanga Citta) does not keep on arising incessantly without a break, and
that Bhavanga process is a Subconscious state. The process of Life
continuum is arrested only when an active cognitive process takes place
through the Sense doors. When an Object of Rupa contacts the eye or any
other Object contacts the particular sense door, the Life continuum process
(Bhavanga) cease to function in order to accommodate the Object contacted,
and a new thought process arises. When this thought process is over, theLife
continuum automatically takes place until a new Object contacts the sense
door. If at any moment the Life continuum process (bhavanga) ceases to
arise, marks the Death of the particular Being.
71
It may be clear that whatever Resultant consciousness that does the
Function of Rebirth-Linking of an individual, also does the Life-continuum
function of the same individual. Therefore, each of the nineteen Resultant
consciousness which does the Rebirth-Linking function also does the Life
continuum function.

(3) Adverting (Avajjana)

The life continuum process or the ever flowing Bhavanga Citta arising and
passing away incessantly is disturbed only when an object comes in contact
with the respective sense door. The object can be anything connected with the
five physical Sense doors or one directly grasped by the Mind door. Since
there is one consciousness at a time, the object contacted could be
cognized after the Life continuum process has been arrested. In between
the Life continuum process and the real cognition of the contacted
object, another function known as the Adverting (Avajjana) takes place. Its
function is to let the stream of Consciousness turn towards the new Object.
There are two consciousnesses which perform the function of Adverting.

(4) Seeing (Dassana)

It is the function of seeing the visible object contacted with the eye. There are
two Consciousness which perform this function.

(5) Hearing (Savana)

When the object is the sound it is the function of hearing through the ear. Two
Consciousness do the function of hearing.

(6) Smelling (Ghayana)

When the object of adour contact the nose the function of smelling takes place.
It is experienced by two Consciousness.

(7) Tasting (Sayana)

When ever we eat or drink it is natural to experience some taste which is brought
about when the eatable food contacts the tongue. Though we are not aware,
tasting is one of the functions conducted by two consciousness.

(8) Contacting (Phusana)

When we touch something or when an external object happens to contact any

part of our body we feel its nature. What we experience could be hardness or
softness, coldness or warmth etc. The feeling one observes through the contact
is experienced by two consciousness.
72
(9) Receiving (Sampaticcana)

Once an object contacts the S ense door of the eye, ear, nose, tongue
or body, there arises the Consciousness of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting
and contacting respectively. This Consciousness is followed by one of the
two Consciousness of Receiving (Sampaticcana). Its function is to simply
accept the Object contacted by the Sense door.

(10) Investigating (Santirana)

Once the function of Receiving the Object that contacts the five Sense doors
is over, there arises the Consciousness which Investigates the Object received.
This function is performed by one of the three Investigating Cnsciousness.

(11) Determining (Votthapana Kicca)

You may have now noticed that the Sense door consciousness,
Receiving consciousness and the I nvestigating consciousness do arise in
consecutive order. Once the object is fully apprehended by the investigating
consciousness, the subject determines the course of action to be taken with
regard to the Object contacted. This function is called as Determining
function. It is the gateway to Moral or Immoral Action

(12) Javana Function (Javana kicca)

The term "Javana" as found in Abhidhamma texts is being used here without
an English equivalent. Javana means to run swiftly. The Consciousness
that performs this function arises generally for seven consecutive times. It
could be either Moral or Immoral depending on the situation and the way you
grasp the Object. It is the moment that a worldling accumulates Kamma. It is
the instant at which one accomplishes bodily, vocal and mental activity. This
is the most important stage of the thought process.

The potentiality of the seven Javanas vary when producing the Effects or
Results. The first Javana thought moment is the weakest having gathered
no prior strength. Its kammic effect may produce results in the current life
itself. The seventh Javana moment being the last, having a diminishing
potentiality may accord Results in the immediate subsequent Life span.
The five middle order Javana moments are capable of producing Results in
the distant future from the future second life span until you reach the final
goal of Nibbana.

In the case of Arahants and the Buddhas, there is no accumulation of Kamma

during the Javana process, since they have eradicated all the cankers
(Asavas). With regard to these higher beings, the function of Javana is
carried out by the Functional Consciousness. There are in all fifty five
Consciousness which accomplish the Javana process.

73
(13) Registration (Tadarammana)

The Pali word Tadarammana literally means "having that object". Here the object
referred to is the same on which the stream of consciousness of the particular
thought process emerged. The function or Registration is accomplished by two
thought moments immediately after the Javana process. A special feature is
that it arises only when there is room for the arising of two consecutive thought
moments. In other words, is the life span of the object perceived should
possess two thought moments (cittakkhana) after the last or the seventh
Javana. Such objects are named as ever great object
(Athimahantarammana). This aspect will be discussed when referring to the
cognitive processes.

The function of Registration is carried out by eleven Consciousness.

(14) Death (Cuti)

Death of a living being is the last or the final function connected with the life
process. According to Abhidhamma the moment of Death is the arising
and passing away of the Death Consciousness (cuti citta).

The stream of Consciousness of a particular individual that continued

through out the life from the moment of Birth in the mothers womb (Patisadhi),
ceases to arise in that body after the Death consciousness. In fact it is the same
Bhava nga citta that finally arises and ceases.

The function of Death (Cuti kicca) is performed by the nineteen

Consciousness which carry out the function of Rebirth-Linking and the
Bhavanga process. It means that one of the nineteen Consciousness does
the Rebirth Linking, the Bhavanga, and the Death function of a particular
individual.

74
 CHAPTER 5

COMPENDIUM OF FUNCTIONS
(Kicca Sangaha)
PART II
It is important to note the exact positions or the occasions of the different
functions described above. Since these functions are executed by different
Consciousness, we may locate the places where these Consciousness arise.
The places or the locations are tenfold;

1) Place of Rebirth – Linking (Patisandhi)

2) Place of Life continuum (Bhavanga)
3) Place of Adverting (Avajjana)
4) Place of five fold Sense Consciousness (Panca Vinnana)
5) Place of Receiving (Sampaticcana)
6) Place of Investigating (Santirana)
7) Place of Determining (Votthapana)
8) Place of Javana
9) Place of Registration. (Tadarammana)
10) Place of Death (Cuti)

(1) Rebirth – (Patisandi)

It is between the Death consciousness of the previous life and the first
Life continum (Bhavanga) consciousness of the present life. Rebirth
consciousness arises immediately after the last consciousness of the past life
and ceases at the next moment providing suitable condition for the arising of
the Life continuum consciousness. According to theravada tradition there is
no in between life known as Antarabhava, a subject highly discussed by many
now a days. It is a stream of consciousness without a break, where
Consciousness arises according to conditions.

(2) Life Continuum – (Bhavanga)

The following are the stages of the arising of Life – continuum consciousness.
(i) Between Rebirth linking and Adverting
(ii) Between Javana and Adverting
(iii) In between Registration and Adverting

75
 (iv) In between Determing and Adverting
(v) Between Javana and Death Consciousness
(vi) Between Registration and Death

These positions will become clear during the study of the Cognitive process.

(3) Adverting (Avajjana)

The two consciousness of (1) Five sense door Adverting consciousness and
(2) the Mind door Adverting consciousness perform this function. It arises
between;

(i) Life continuum consciousness and the five fold Sense consciousness.
(ii) Life continuum and the Javana respectively.

(4) Five fold Sense Consciousness (panca Vinn ana)

These are the :

The eye consciousness - (Cakkhu vinn ana)
The ear consciousness - (Sota vinn ana)
Two Nose consciousness - (Ghana vinn ana)
Two Tongue consciousness and – (Jivha vinn ana)
Two Body consciousness - (Kaya vinn ana)

Each of these Consciousness arises between five Sense door

Adverting consciousness and the Receiving consciousness.

(5) Receiving Consciousness – (Sampaticcana)

There are two consciousness. Each rises between the five Sense
consciousness and the Investigating consciousness.

(6) Investigating Consciousness – (Santirana)

There are three consciousness performing this function. Each arises between
the Receiving consciousness, and the Determining consciousness.

(7) Determining Consciousness – (Votthapana)

There are two occasions for the arising of this consciousness

(i) Between Investigating consciousness and the Javana

(ii) Between Investigating consciousness and the Life
Continuum (Bhavanga)

76
(8) Javana

The fifty five Consciousness that perform the function of Javana

arise between:-

(i) Determining consciousness and Registration consciousness.

(ii) Determining consciousness and Life Continuum
consciousness. (iii) Determining consciousness and Death (cuti)
consciousness.
(iv) Mind-door cognition (Manodvaravajjana), and Registration
consciousness.
(v) Mind-door cognition and Life Continuum consciousness.
(vi) Mind-door cognition and Death consciousness.

(9) Registration

There are in all eleven consciousness performing this function. Each of them
arises between;

(i) Javana and Life Continuum, and

(ii) Javana, and Death (Cuti) Consciousness.

(10) Death (Cuti) Consciousness

This consciousness arises between.

(i) Javana and Rebirth – Linking consciousness

(ii) Registration consciousness and Rebirth Linking consciousness.
(iii) Life continuum and Rebirth – Linking consciousness.

The Death consciousness of an individual would take place in between one

of the above three ways.

77
 CHAPTER 6

COMPENDIUM OF FUNCTIONS
(Kicca Sangaha)
PART III
Classification by way of Consciousness

This chapter is intended to discuss the Consciousness that perform each of

the aforesaid Functions dealt with in the previous chapters. The student may
notice that some of the Consciousness perform more than one Function.

The Function of Rebirth Linking

The following nineteen Consciousness perform the Rebirth linking

(Patisandhi) Function.

(i) Immoral Resultant Investigating consciousness

accompanied by indifference 1
(Akusala Vipaka Upekha Sahagatha Santirana citta)

(ii) Moral resultant investigating rootless consciousness 1

(Kusala Ahetuka Vipaka Upekkha Sahagatha Santirana citta)

(iii) Sense sphere Beautiful Resultant consciousness with roots 8

(Kama Sobhana Maha Vipaka Citta)

(iv) Fine material sphere resultant consciousness 5

(Rupavacara Vipaka citta)

(v) Immaterial sphere resultant consciousness 4

(Arupavacara Vipaka citta) 19

When evil is committed through deed, word or thought such acts are executed
by Unwholesome consciousness. Of the twelve Unwholesome
consciousness, eleven of them, except the consciousness accompanied by
equanimity and associated with restlessness rooted in delusion are capable of
giving rebirth in the woeful unhappy planes, namely the (1) Niraya Apaya, (2)
The Animal world (3) The sphere of Petas and (4) realm of Asuras. When birth
takes place in any of these unhappy states, the first consciousness of the
newly born will be first mentioned Resultant consciousness. It does the
Rebirth-Linking function in the four woeful realms.

The second mentioned Wholesome resultant rootless consciousness arises

as the Rebirth Linking consciousness of the lowest grade of Beings in the
Sensuous

78
blissful plane namely the Human realm, and the six celestial planes. This
birth is classified as Sensuous blissful plane Rootless Rebirth. (Sugathi
Ahetuka Patisandi).

It is the result of a Wholesome Kamma which is of an inferior quality (Omaka)

and also with two Roots on non-greed (Alobha) and non Hatred
(Adosa). Some of the human beings who are congenitally blind or deaf and
those with deformity and mentally retarded are regarded as having this type
of Rebirth-Linking consciousness. Some of the vinipatika Asuras and
Ve manika Petas too are born with the same consciousness.

In the Sensuous blissful plane there are eight other different

Consciousness. These are divided into two groups.

(i) The four great Sense sphere Resultants with two Roots of non greed
and non hatred.
(ii) The four great Sense sphere Resultant with all the three Roots of
non-greed, Non hatred, and Non delusion.

When one of the consciousness of the first group performs the Rebirth
linking function that is called Dvihetuka Patisandhi. The second group
where three roots are available that birth is named as Tihetuka Patisandhi.
(Having three roots).

Dvihetuka Patisandhi (Rebirth Linking with two Roots)

It is where the four Sense sphere Wholesome Resultant
consciousness disassociated from knowledge (wisdom) do the Rebirth
liking function. This birth is the result of a superior Wholesome act
conducted with consciousness having two roots of non-greed and non-
hatred or a Wholesome consciousness having three roots, but of an inferior
quality (Omaka).

A Wholesome act to gain a superior quality has to be conducted with equal

zest at the three periods of past, present and the future of the act. The doer
has to maintain the Wholesome mental factors in sound order at the three
stages of preparation, performing the Act itself, and after completion of the
Act without being contaminated by the hindrances.

A person having born with a Dvihetuka Patisandhi citta is very unlikely to

gain the fine material sphere Absorptions or the higher states of Supra
mundane Path and Fruit consciousness in his current life span, however
much he may aspire and try. The reason being that he does not possess
Wisdom at the Root level of his Birth. His Rebirth linking consciousness is
devoid of Wisdom.
Tihetuka Patisandhi
Rebirth linking consciousness having three Roots of non-greed, non-
hatred and non-delusion is the highest or strongest form of Birth, one could
get in the

79
Sensuous plane. All beings in Fine material and Lmmaterial planes are
generally born with this type of Rebirth linking consciousness.

Such Birth is the result of a Superior Wholesome act having committed with
the triple Roots with equal zest during the periods of preparation,
execution and after. It means that during the whole process of the deed,
pure and genuine intention should prevail together with knowledge.

The Rrebirth-Linking function in the Fine material Brahma worlds are

performed by the respective Fine Material sphere Resultant consciousness.

The Resultant Immaterial sphere consciousness does the Rebirth linking

function in the Immaterial Brahma worlds according to the respective
Absorptions developed.

Life continuum function (Bhavanga)

The nineteen consciousness which perform the Rebirth Linking function

respectively does the function of life continuum of each individual.

Function of Adverting

The two cittas, namely,

(i) Five Sense door Adverting consciousness accompanied by

Equanimity and,
(ii) Mind door adverting consciousness accompanied by
Equanimity perform the function of Adverting.

When an object touches the respective Sense door the Life

continuum consciousness gets arrested and the five Sense door Adverting
consciousness (Pancadvaravajjana) arises making room for the thought
process to commence. When an object touches the Mind door the
Adverting consciousness arises interrupting the life – continuum
consciousness.

Function of Seeing

When the Adverting consciousness is over one of the two Eye

consciousness accompanied by equanimity arises doing the Function of
seeing.

Function of Hearing

As in the case of seeing mentioned above one of the two ear. Consciousness
accompanied by equanimity arises hearing the sound.

80
Function of Smelling etc.
One of the two nose, tongue and the body consciousness respectively carry
out the Functions of smelling, tasting and touching. In the case of
Body consciousness one coming under the Unwholesome group is
accompanied by pain while the other coming under the Wholesome group
is accompanied by pleasure.

The function of Receiving

It is performed by the two consciousness of :

(i) Unwholesome Resultant receiving consciousness accompanied
by Equanimity and
(Akusala Vipaka Upekkha Sahagatha Sampaticchana citta)
(ii) Receiving consciousness accompanied by Equanimity of the
Wholesome Resultant Rootless group of consciousness.
(Kusala Ahetuka Vipaka Upekkha Sahagatha Sampaticchana citta)

The function of investigating

This function is carried out by three consciousness, Namely:

(1) Investigating consciousness accompanied by Equanimity of the
Unwholesome Resultant rootless consciousness.
(Akusala Vipaka Upekkha Sahagatha Santirana Citta)
(2) Investigating consciousness accompanied by Joy.
(Kusala Ahetuka Vipeka Somanassa Sahagatha Santirana Citta) and
(3) Investigating consciousness accompanied by Equanimity.
(Kusala Ahetuka Vipa ka Upekkha Sahagatha Santirana Citta)

The last mentioned two consciousness fall under the Wholesome

R esultant Rootless conciousness group.

A note should be made that when Panca Vinnana, (seeing, hearing, smelling
tasting and touching) each at a moment together with Sampaticchana and
Santirana cittas arise in the consecutive order in a thought process all three
consciousnesses should belong to either of the two groups of
Unwholesome Resultant or the Wholesome Rootles Resultants. It means
that if the seeing consciousness is an Unwholesome Resultant, the Receiving
and the Investigating consciousness too should be from the
unwholesome category.Such Unwholesome Resultants arise when the object
seen happens to be an unpleasant painful one to the onlooker. When the
object seen brings pleasure then the Seeing consciousness, the Receiving
and the Investigating consciousness are taken as Wholesome Rootles
Resultants. When the object which came in contact with the eye is highly
joyfull and extremely pleasurable then the Investigating

81
consciousness will be the one accompanied by Joy, the seventh
consciousness of the Wholesome Resultant Rootless group.

The fifteen Resultant Rootles consciousness (seven (7) Unwholesome and

eight (8) Wholesome, which we much do not consider as important are
the real Resultants one experiences during the life time. The Unwholesome are
the result of your previous sins while the Wholesome eight Resultants are
the products of your meritorious Kamma performed previously in this life or
even in earlier births. Therefore, one should be very careful in the way you
lead your present moment, with bodily, verbal and mental actions.

The function of Determining

This function has been dealt with in the earlier chapter and the consciousness
which carry out the Determining function is the Mind door
Adverting consciousness (Manodvaravajjana citta) This function takes
place in the five Sense door thought processes, immediately after the
Investigating consciousness.

The function of Javana

There are fifty five cittas that function as Javana – Namely;

 The Unwholesome consciousness 12

 Smile producing consciousness
(Hasituppada citta-only Arahants and The 1
Buddhas)
 Sense sphere Wholesome consciousness 8
(Kama sobhana kusala)
 Sense sphere functional consciousness 8
(Kama sobhana kriya) 29

These consciousness belong to the Sense sphere. Hence named as

Kama Javana. The following balance twenty six consciousness are called
Absorption level Javana or Appana Javana.

 Fine material sphere Wholesome consciousness ……….. 5

(Rupavacara Kusal Jhana)
 Fine material sphere Functional consciousness 5
(Only Arahants) ….
(Rupavacara Kriya Jhana)
 Immaterial sphere Wholesome consciousness ……. 4
(Arupavacara Kusala Jhana)

82
 Immaterial sphere Functional consciousness
(Only Arahants) 4
(Arupavacara Kriya Jha na)
 Supramundane Path consciousness
(wholesome) 4
(Lokottara Magga Citta)
 Supramundane Fruit consciousness
(Resultans) 4
(Lokottara Phala Citta)
26

The function of Registration

Eleven consciousness Function as Registration – Those are :

1. Sense sphere, Wholesome Resultant consciousness with Roots 8

2. The Rootles Investigating Resultant consciousness 3

(One is from the Unwholesome group and the other two are from
the Wholesome group)

One of these cittas arises twice in consecutive order after the Javana
consciousness of suitable thought processes.

Function of Death (Cuti)

Death consciousness is the last consciousness of any being. This function is

performed by a similar consciousness that gave Birth to the individual. It is
also the same type of consciousness that arose in him as the Bhavanga citta
of the particular individual during his Life time when thought processes do
not take place through the five door Cognition (Pancadvaravajjana) or the
Mind door cognition (Manodvaravajjana). The Function of Death therefore
is performed by the nineteen Consciousness that Function as the Rebirth
linking (Patisandhi) and the Life Continuum (Bhavanga).

83
 CHAPTER 7

COMPENDIUM & FUNCTIONS

(Kicca Sangaha)
PART IV
Classification by Numbers of Functions

You are now familiar with the fourteen Functions carried out by the eighty
nine Consciousness. When a classification is made of the Consciousnesses
and the various functions performed by these consciousnesses one may
observe that some of the Consciousnesses perform more than one Function.

Consciousnesses that perform five Functions

Out of the three investigating consciousness the two consciousness

accompanied by equanimity do the following functions.

(A) Rebirth Linking (B) Life continuum (C) Investigating (D) Registration,
and (E) Death (Cuti).

Consciousnesses that conduct four Functions

The eight sense sphere great resultant consciousness do the following

functions.
(A) Rebirth Linking (B) Life Continuum
(C) Registration (D) Death

Consciousnesses that perform three Functions

The nine sublime resultants (Mahaggata Vipaka) perform the functions of

(A) Rebirth Linking (B) Life continuum (C) Death

Consciousnesses that perform two Functions

(1) The Investigating Consciousness accompanied by joy performs

the functions of.

(A) Investigating in the five Sense Door thought process

and (B) Registration in both types of thought processes.

(2) The mind door Adverting consciousness does the functions of

(A) Adverting in the Mind door thought process, and
(B) Determining in the five sense door thought process.

84
Consciousnesses that perform a single Functions

 Javana Consciousness 55
 Five Sense – door Adverting 1
(Panchdvaravajjana)
 Receiving Consciousness (Sampaticcana) 2
 Five fold Sense Consciousness (Dvipanca Vinnana) 10
68

These sixty eight Consciousness will perform only one function of

Javana, adverting, receiving, seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and
touching respectively.

QUESTIONS

(1) Name the functions performed by Consciousness.

(2) Eplain the following Functions

(i) Rebirth Linking (ii) Bhavanga (iii) Death (Cuti)

(3) Explain the Adverting Functions.

(4) Describe the five Sense Door Functions.

(5) Write a short note on the Functions of Javana.

(6) What Consciousness perform the Rebirth Linking function and

classify them according to the three worlds.

(7) What Consciousness does the most number of Functions?

(8) In between what Consciousness do the following functions take place?

(i) Rebirth Linking (ii) Adverting
(iii) Javana (iv) Registration

(9) Name the Consciousness that perform four Functions.

(10) "In general, we talk of doing this thing and that thing, doing good and
bad. But what takes place according to this lesson, is the Function
of Javana." Elaborate this statement in your own words.

85
 CHAPTER 8
THE ULTIMATE REALITY OF RUPA
Of the four ultimate realities discussed in Abhidhamma the foregoing chapters
are intended to explain the reality of matter (Rupa Paramatta). However,
we may converse on Citta and Cetasikas in relation to the origin and
functioning of bodily physical components.

The terminology "Rupa" bear several meanings. In common usage amongst

the Sinhalese community "Rupa" refer to a picture or a drawing that which can
be seen. That which is visible is also called "Rupa". It is sphere of visibility.
Generally an image, a figure or a sign are also referred to as "Rupa". The term
"Rupa-dhatu" in the Pali cannon also denotes the Sphere of Brahma
world which is superior to the Sense Sphere or the Kama Loka. Another
term is Rupa Jhanas which is translated as Absorptions derived through
tranquility meditation (Samatha Bhavana). Rupa is also applied in the
classification of a Being into five aggregates. The first aggregate is the
physical body which is called Rupakkhandha. Other four aggregates
namely; (i) Sensation (Vedana) (ii) Perception (Sanna) (iii) Mental formations
(Sankhara), and (iv) Consciousness (Vinnana) refer to Citta and Cetasikas
which are not visible.

Thus we see that the word Rupa is used in a variety of meanings and that in
every such usage, a particular meaning is derived at every point and some of
these ideas or concepts are accepted as true in conventional terms.

A Being that roams in Samsara is a composition of three main categories of

Paramattha dhammas according to Abhidhamma analysis. These are namely,
(i) the consciousness or citta paramattha, (ii) the mental states or cetasika
paramattha and (iii) the physical body or Rupa paramattha. Out of these three
paramattha dhammas, the first and second are not objects that could be seen
by the eye or heard through the ears or known by the balance three sense
doors. These two dhammas could be discerned only by the mind itself.

The Physical Body is quite different from Citta and Cetasikas. The Body can
be seen with the eye. The sounds that are produced within or outside of the
Body can be heard through the ears. The Body can be touched with the
hands and its warmth felt etc. This Physical Body which is visible as one
solid figure and tangible as something everlasting is built up with minute
particles of substances. These are termed as Rupa Paramattha dhamma.
86
The word Rupa is defined in Kajjaniya sutta in Khandha Sanyukta in Samyukta
Nikaya as follows.

"Kinca bhikkhave Rupamwadeta. Ruppatiti kho bhikkave tasma

Rupanthi vuccati, Kenapi ruppati? Sitenapi ruppati, unhenapi ruppati,
jigaccayapi ruppati. Pipasayapi ruppati, dansa makasavatatapa
sirimsapa Sampassenapi ruppati."

"For what reason O' monks is it called Rupa? It is called Rupa because it
disintegrates. It changes from one situation to another. By what is it disturbed?
It is disturbed by cold (sita), heat (unha), hunger (jigaccha), thirst (pipasa) and
by the touch of gnats, mosquitoes, wind, sunlight and reptiles."

In the Pali – English dictionary edited by T. W. Rhys Davids, and William Stede
the word Ruppati is explained as "to be vexed, oppressed, hurt, molested."

The Pali word "Kuppati" and "Bhijjati" are two synonyms meaning to be
agitated quiver, to break.

With these explanations it is evident that in whatever minute thing where

changes occur within itself such things are reckoned as constituted by Rupa.
The common feature in Rupa is that it is subject to continuous and repeated
disintegration and decomposition.

The physical body of each and every being of any world, experiences this change
from moment to moment. However this change taking place momentarily is
not clear to the naked eye.

In physics scientists deal with properties and interactions of matter and energy.
In similar manner chemistry handles with elements and compounds they form
and the reactions that they undergo. At the beginning of the previous century
it was considered that the smallest unit of matter is the "Atom" and that it was
indivisible. But since of late the scientists have been able to split the atom into
energies such as electrons and protons etc.

Lord Buddha was not concerned over the nature of world systems nor was He
interested in investigating the nature of the cosmos – His attention was focused
on human problems and His endeavour was to alleviate them. His enquiry
into the physical world was confined up to the point to understand its
bearing on human existence. It is important to understand what His
teaching was and what He expected of the followers.

To summarize this introduction I would mention that Rupa dhammas discussed

in the foregoing chapters come into existence and pass away immediately and
these too come under the state of impermanence or Anicca. Even though

87
different Rupa dhammas have their individual characteristics non of these can
exist or arise by itself. All Rupa dhammas depend on many conditions.

QUESTIONS

(1) What is Rupa Paramattha?

(2) What is the difference between Nama and Rupa?

(3) What is the common characteristic of Rupa dhamma?

88
 CHAPTER 9
ENUMERATION OF MATERIAL PHENOMENA
"Cattari mahabhutani, catunnan ca mahabhutanaṃ upadaya rupanti
duvidham p'etaṃ rupam ekadasavidhena sangahaṃ gaccahati."

"Matter is twofold, namely the four great essentials, and material phenomena
derived from the four great essentials. These two constitute eleven
categories."*

Let us first enumerate the Rupa dhammas falling under the two categories.

The twenty eight Material Phenomena :

(i) The four great essentials are;

(1) Earth Element (Pathavi Dhatu)

(2) Water Element (Apo Dhatu)
(3) Fire Element (Tejo Dhatu), and
(4) Air Element (Vayo Dhatu)

The twenty four derived Matter;

(ii) Sensitive Phenomena – Five physical
Sense organs – (Pasada Rupa)
(5) Eye Sensitivity – (Cakku Pasada)
(6) Ear Sensitivity – (Sota Pasada)
(7) Nose Sensitivity – (Gha na Pasada)
(8) Tongue Sensitivity – (Jivha Pasada)
(9) Body Sensitivity – (Kaya Pasada)

(iii) Objective Phenomena;

Five sense spheres (Gocara Rupa)

(10) Visible form – (Rupaṃ)

(11) Sound – (Saddo)
(12) Smell – (Gandho)
(13) Taste – (Raso)

* A comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma - Bhikkhu Bodhi - General Editor - pg.

235 B.P.S. Abhidhammattha Sangaha"

89
Tangibility – What you touch or what happens to contact your body in reality
are the great elements of Earth, Fire and Air. Since these three elements are
already taken into this list at the beginning under the great essentials, tangibility
is not counted as a separate object.

(iv) Sexual Phenomena;

(Sex distinction – Bhava Rupa)

(14) Femininity – (Itthindriya)
(15) Masculinity – (Purisindriya)

(v) Heart Phenomenon (Hadaya Rupa);

(16) Heart Base (Hadayavatthu Rupa)

(vi) Life Phenomenon (Jivithindriya Rupa);

(17) Life faculty

(vii) Nutritional Phenomenon;

(18) Nutriment – (Ahara Rupa)

(viii) Limiting Phenomenon;

(19) Space element – (Pariccheda Rupa)

(ix) Communicating Phenomena (Vinnatti Rupa);

(20) Bodily intimation – (Kaya Vinnatti)
(21) Vocal intimation – (Vaci Vinnatti)

(x) Mutable Phenomena (Vikara Rupa);

(22) Lightness – (Lahuta)
(23) Malleability – (Muduta)
(24) Wieldiness – (Kammannata)

(xi) Characteristics of matter (Lakkhana Rupa);

(25) Producing – (Upacaya Rupa)
(26) Continuity – (Santati Rupa)
(27) Decay – (Jarata Rupa)
(28) Impermanence – (Aniccata )

90
 CHAPTER 10
CHARACTERISTICS OF RUPA DHAMMA
Let us study and appraise the Rupa Dhammas individually and try to understand
how the Buddha viewed the human body. As stated earlier Dhammas are
the ultimate properties which cannot be further reduced or partitioned, The
subtle analysis of Matter (Rupa Dhammas) made in Abhidhamma is a unique
exposition for no other explanation has dealt with matter so minutely. It is
undisputable evidence for the Buddha's penetrating and far reaching wisdom.
No scientist other than a The Buddha could have made such a dissection.

The Earth Element (Pathavi dhatu)

It is the first of the four great essentials. The characteristic of this element is
hardness which can be felt at times. The degree of hardness may vary depending
on the conditions. It is considered as the fundamental or initial element which
provides as a base, like the earth, for other elements to co-exist. The word
element or the Pali term Dhatu is explained as that which bears its own intrinsic
nature "(Attano sabhavamdaretiti dhatu)." This element is also explained as
that which expands or spreads out. (Pattharatiti pathavi)*.

The water Element (Apo dhatu)

The characteristic of the second great essential of Apo dhatu is fluidity. Its
functional equality is cohesion which binds up all particles of matter. This
element cannot be physically sensed. When you touch water you may feel its
coldness or the hotness but you cannot experience its quality of cohesion with
the hand. Like a mason prepares a plaster by mixing up cement, lime and sand
with water, Rupa dhammas are bound together by the water element.

The Fire element (Tejo dhatu)

"Unhatta Lakkhana tejo dhatu". The characteristic of the fire elements is

heat. This is experienced in both modes of heat and coldness. The material
phenomena are ripened or matured with the help of this element of fire. Its
functional characteristic is explained as "Paripacana Rasa ". The temperature
that sustains the physical body and the high temperature that makes one sick
are the effects of the degree of intensity of the fire element. It is the same
fire element that digests the food one takes. The growth and maturity of the
physical body and its decay too are caused by the power of the fire element.

* Vis. Magga - The path of purification translated by Bhikkhu Nana Moli published by
Singapore Buddhist Meditation Centre - pg. 397
91
The Air element (Vayo dhatu)

The characteristic feature of the element of Air is distension. It is explained as

"Vitthambana Lakkhana" which means expansion. Its functional characteristic is
noted as "Samudirana Rasa." It is the element of motion inherent in all material
phenomena.

The four great essentials discussed above are the four elementary material
qualities. These essentials are called Maha Bhutas as they appear in the form
of solid huge substances. This fact is explained as "Mahabhutati etta Mahanta
patubhavadihi Karanehi Mahabhutata vedithabba"*

Sensitive Material Phenomena

(Pasada Rupa)

Eye Sentivity (Cakkhu Pasada)

Eye is the organ though which we see visible objects. It is known as the
Sasambhara Cakkhu. Though it is the general accepted notion that we see
with the eye, seeing is the arising of the eye consciousness when an object
comes in contact with the organ of the eye. In the physical eye which is a lump
of the four great essentials, there is a very subtle and minute portion on which
the external visible objects are reflected – This part of the eye which cannot be
seen by the naked eye is called Cakkhu Pasada Rupa. Its size is mentioned as
smaller than the head of a louse. In the process of seeing this Pasada Rupa is
very vital. Hence it is called Cakkhu Indriya without which you are unable to
perceive any object.

It is also important to note that the Cakkhu pasada is a product of your

own Kamma. It arises out of the four great essentials at the appropriate time
within the organ of the eye ball since you had the longing for seeing visible
objects at the time of your death in the previous life.

Ear Sensitivity (Sota Pasada)

When you talk of the organ of the ear we generally refer to the ear that is
projected out from the sides of the head. Inside the so called ear there is a
cavity wherein you find the most subtle and minute ear sensitivity primary
element which is of a shape of a rounded ring like body hair of copper colour.
When the sound waves contact this portion the ear consciousness arises.

This sensitive part of the ear does also arise out of the four great essentials at
the proper time inside the ear according to his wish to hear sounds. It serves as
the base for the arising of Sota vinnana.

* Atthasalini - pg 260. Sinhala edition Simon Hevavitharana trust.

92
Nose Sensitivity (Ghana Pasada)

It is the subtle area of sensitivity born out of the four primary elements as a
result of previous Kamma which is capable of sensing the odours. It is
situated inside the upper nostrils in the shape of a goat's hoof and serves as
the base for the arising of the nose consciousness (Ghana vinnana)

Tongue Sensitivity (Jivha Pasada)

At the posterior portion of the tongue, in the shape of the upper part of a torn
lotus petal is the area of tongue sensitivity which is formed by the four great
essentials and produced by Kamma. Whatever flavours one feels is the result
of contact of various food items with the sensitivity area of the tongue which
serves as the base for the arising to tongue consciousness, (Jivha Vinnana).

Body sensitivity (Ka ya Pasa da)

It is the sensitivity of the four great essentials diffused through the body except
at the tip of the hair and the nails and on withered skin, capable of experiencing
the tactile sensations. What contacts the physical body would be the hardness
or softness which is the great essential of Pathavi, or the heat or coldness which
is the great essential of Tejo of the great essential of Vayo. This contact will
bring about a painful a pleasurable or a neutral feeling. This body sensitivity
which serves as the base for the arising of Kaya Vinnana too is the product of
previous Kamma.

Objective Material Phenomena

(Gocara Rupa)

These are the five sense fields which serve as objective supports for the
corresponding sense consciousness, Viz Cakkhu Vinnana, Sota Vinnana, Ghana
Vinnana, Jivha Vinnana and Kaya Vinnana.

Visible Form (Rupa)

(i) What is visible is known as Rupa. In essence it is the colour (Vanna

rupa). This terminology should not be mixed up with the general
term Rupa which denotes the four great essentials and the derived
material phenomena. In fact "Vanna Rupa" also known as "Rupa
Rupa" is derived from the primary elements (Maha Bhuta Rupa).
Some examples of colour (Rupa) mentioned in Dhammasangani* with

* Pg 290, Dhammasanganippakarana - (Sinhala edition) - The Buddha Jayanthi

Tripitaka Series Vol XLI - 1973

93
 reference to Rupayatana are "Blue, Yellow, Red, White, Black, Brownish
red (Manjettha) and some examples of shapes given as "Long, short, very
short, broad, circular, oval, square, hexagonal etc."

"Rupa has the characteristic of impinging on the eye (chakku pasada). Its
function is the objectives field of the eye consciousness. It is manifested as the
resort of that too. Its proximate cause is the four great essentials.*

(ii) Sound (Saddo)

It is the sound derived from the four primary elements, which is discernible
through Sota Vinnana or the ear consciousness. Dhammasangani provides a
list of sounds of drums and tabors, of conch shells and tom-tom; of singing and
music etc.

These sounds or the audible objects travel in the air in the form of sound waves
and are received by the organ of the ear or Sota Pasada.

"Sound has the characteristic of impinging on the ear. Its function is to be the
object of the ear consciousness. It is manifested as the resort of that too. Its
proximate cause is the four great primaries."*

(iii) Smell (Gandha)

It is the odour derived from the four great essentials experienced by the nose
consciousness (Ghana Vinnana) Dhammasangani refers to different adours
of the roots, the trunk, heart wood, the bark, the leaves, the flowers and fruits
etc and finally mentions of all the adours under two main groups as agreeable
adour (Sugandha) and disagreeable odour (dugandha)

Odour has the characteristic of impinging on the nose. Its function is to

be the object of nose-consciouness. It is manifested as the result of that too.
Its proximate cause is the four great primaries.*

Taste (Rasa)

It is the flavour or savour derived from the four primary elements and
experienced by the tongue consciousness (Jivha Vinnana). The taste of objects

* Pg 495 (Visuddhi Magga) The Path of Purification - Translated by Bhikkhu Nanamoli

Published by Singapore Buddhist Meditation Centre.
* Pg 495 - The Path of Purification (Visuddhi Magga), Translated by Bhikkhu
Nanamoli - Published by Singapore Buddhist Meditation Centre.
* Pg 495 - The Path of Purification - Ibid

94
mentioned above in the explanation of smell are referred to in this case too. It
is the taste of sweetness, sourness, bitterness etc.

The characteristic feature of Rasa is its impinging nature on the tongue. Its
function is to be the object of tougue consciousness. It is manifested as the
resort of that too. Its proximate cause is the four primary elements*

Tangibility (Photthabba)

What is felt by the sense of touch is called Photthabba-Rupa

(Photthabba yatana) which supports the body consciousness. (Kaya Vinnana)
– when an object touches the body (Kaya pasada) what actually contacts is one
of the characteristics of the three great essentials of Pathavi, Tejo and Vayo.
Then each element (Pathavi) is experienced as hardness or softness. The fire
element is experienced as heat or coldness and the air element is
apprehended as pressure. A note should be made that the water element
(Āpo) which has the characteristic of cohesion is not tangible. When you
hold your palm you may feel the coldness or the warmth of water.

Pothabbayatana which serves as the object of body consciousness (Kāya

Viññāna) is not treated as a separate material phenomena when counting the
twenty eight Rūpa Dhammas.

Sexual Phenomena (Bhava Rupa)

It is the Material phenomena derived from the primary elements. It distinguishes

masculinity and femininity of a being. In Pali these are termed as;

(i) Itthi Bhava Rupa (female), and

(ii) Purusa Bhava Rupa (Male)

Like the sensitive material phenomena (Pasāda Rupa), Bhāva Rupa too
are originated by Kamma performed while having desire for sexual
happiness. As the body sensitivity the respective Bhāva Rūpa whether
masculinity or femininity is diffused all over the body. The body of a
male will carry the features of masculinity with respective marks, signs,
works and ways while a female body will carry such marks and signs etc
inherent to the fairsex.

(16) Heart Base – (Hadaya Vatthu)

It is another material phenomena originated by past Kamma. This Rupa

has the characteristic of being the material support for the mind element and
the mind consciousness. Its function is to uphold them or to observe them.
It is

* Pg 496 - The path of purification. lbid

95
manifested as the carrying of them. It is to be found in dependence on the
blood that passes through the heart-cavity.*

A note should be made that the heart base (Hadaya vatthu) is not the entire
organ of the heart itself.

Mention of the Heart-base has been made in Patthana, the last book on
Abhidhamma Pitaka in the following manner;

"Yam rupam nissāya mano dhātu ca mano viññāna dhātu ca vattanti tam
rupam mano dhatuya ca mano Viññāna dhātuyāca tam sampayanttakānam ca
dhammānan nissaya paccayena paccayo"

The translation would be;- "That material thing based on which the mind
element and the mind consciousness element occur - that material thing is
a condition by way of basis for the mind element and the mind
consciousness element and what is associated there with."

(17) Life faculty (Jivitindriya Rupa)

All dhammas except Nibbana that come to being do perish immediately as every
thing comes under the common nature (dhammata) impermanence (anicca).
However there exists a vital power in all such corporeal or mental objects which
supports the up keep of such dhammas. It is called the Life faculty and it is
two-fold. The subject dealt with here is the Life faculty of material objects or
matter. The other is the mental life faculty (Nāma Jivitindriya) which is one of
the fifty two mental states (cetasika).

The essential parts of our body such as the eye (chakku pasāda) ear (sotā
pasāda) and the other sensitive phenomena, the sex phenomena and the heart
base which are produced due to past Kamma are supported by this life faculty.
A note may be made that the faculty of Life discussed here with regard to
a living being has nothing to do with the growth of flora which is conditioned
by termperature.

(18) Edible Food (Ahāra Rupa)

It is the Nutritional phenomena or Kabalinkarahara. The material physical

body of a being is nourished and sustained by this Rupa. It is the nutritive
essence (ojā) that is extracted from the edible food.

* Pg 496 - The path of purification. lbid

96
(19) Space Element (Akāsadhatu)

This is identified as Pariccheda Rupa as it separates the material groups of

Rupa of Rupa Kalapa. It is void region where the four essential elements of
Rupa do not exist.

Intimating Material Phenomena

(Viññatti Rupa)

Ideas and intentions of anybody are expressed by verbalization or physical

action. In other words a person's physical action and his speech expresses his
intentions and aspirations. Such bodily actions and spoken words are called
Vinnatti Rupa since these convey a message. Viññātti Rupa is two fold:

(20) Bodily intimation (Kaya Viññatti)

Through actions and gestures of the physical body the on looker would
understand the message. It is the Kaya Viññātti Rūpa.

(21) Vocal Intimation (Vaciviññatti)

The word of mouth spoken intentionally drives in the ideas or intentions of

the people to the listeners. Through speech one could communicate all your
feelings and intentions. Sounds that are created by speech are called
Vacivinnatti Rupa.

The two Viññatti Rupas mentioned above are originated by Consciousness.

Mutable Material Phenomenā

(Vikāra Rupa)

The Pāli word vikāra carries the meaning of special modes. Here three particular
types or qualities of Rūpa are mentioned.

Those are namely:-

(1) Lightness – Lahuta

(2) Malleability – Muduta and
(3) Weildiness – Kammannata

(22) Lightness – (Lahuta)

It is the quality of lightness in Rūpa dhammas. Sometimes you may feel

heaviness in your body and unable to move about specially when you are sick.
This heaviness is dispelled when the quality of Lightness embraces.

97
(23) Malleability – (Mudutā)

This quality of Rupa removes the roughness or coarseness of matter and

provides an agreeable surface for any kind of action.

(24) Weildiness (Kammaññatā)

It has the characteristic of flexibility favourable for any physical action. It is

opposed to rigidity of the body which hinders swift action.

These qualities do not arise separately from each other but are formed in a
group simultaneously and perishes in the same manner. These arise dependent
on the conditions at hand. If the climatic conditions are favourable or the food
parkaken is appropriate or the mental environment is soothing and quiet
these three modes of Rupa shall arise along with others. If the conditions are
unfavourable the Material groups arisen will be devoid of these three Rupas.

The characteristics of Material

Phenomena (Lakkhana Rupa)

The common characteristic feature of all conditioned phenomena including

material phenomena (Rupa dhammas) as the Arising (Uppāda) Presence (Thiti)
and Dissolution (bhanga). In this classification of material phenomena these
stages are named in a different form.

According there are four stages of material phenomena namely;

(i) Production (Upacaya Rupa)

(ii) Continuity (Santati Rupa)
(iii) Decay (Jaratā Rupa)
(iv) Impermanence (Aniccatā Rupa)

(25) Production of Matter (Upacaya Rupa)

The arising of matter (Rupa dhammas) is named us upacaya Rupa). It is the first
arising of Material phenomena

(26) Continuity of material phenomena (Santati Rupa)

This also refers to the aspect of arising of phenomena specially in a continuous

pattern.

Both production and continuity of matter refer to the arising of Rupa

dhammas or the moment of uppada. Material phenomena caused by past
Kamma have a lifespan of seventeen thought moments as any other Material

98
phenomena. When Material phenomena caused by past Kamma thus dissolves
after seventeen thought moments, new phenomena of the same category
keep arising in place of the destroyed ones. Such continuous arising of Material
phenomena caused by Kamma is termed as continuity of Material phenomena
(Santati Rupa).

(27) Decay (Jaratā)

All conditioned Dhammas whether, citta cetasika or rupa that arise must
fall or cease to be. From the moment of birth, i.e. arising, follows decaying.
Since Material phenomena (Rupa) generally stays for seventeen thought
moments as stated above the period from second moment to the sixteenth
moment is the period of decay. If this is further scruitinized, the life span of
Rupa is fifty one minor moments. There the first minor moment is the birth
the last minor moment is the death. The fourty nine in between moments
are the decaying period. The decay of Material phenomena is of a longer
duration than the moment of birth (uppada) and death (Bhanga)

(28) Impermanence (Aniccatā)

As mentioned above this Rupa refers to the moment of death of Rupa dhammas.
It is an inherent quality in all material phenomena that are conditioned.

Out of the twenty eight material phenomena mentioned above the following
eighteen are named as concretely produced matter. These are the four great
essentials, five sensitive phenomena, four objective phenomena, (tangibility
is excluded), two sexual phenomena, the heart base, the life faculty and the
nutriment. These are introduced by many terms.

Svabhāvarupa – These matter carry their own characteristics such as hardness

or softness, fluidity, heat and distension etc.

Salakkhanarupa – All the Material phenomena posses the general

characteristics of impermanence (Anicca), unsatisfactoriness (Dukkha) and
soullessness (Anatta).

Nipphannarupa These eighteen Material phenomena are directly produced

by conditions such as Kamma, consciousness, temperature and nutriment.

Ruparupa – In this term the first word Rupa denotes the meaning of "Ruppana".
It is the nature of change. All rupa dhammas that are subject to change are
named as Ruparupa.

Sammasana Rupa – These eighteen Material phenomena are suitable objects

for Insight meditation Hence called Sammasana Rupa.

99
The balance ten Material phenomena namely – space element, communicating
phenomena of Bodily intimation and vocal intimation, the mutable phenomena
of Lightness malleability and weildiness, the four characteristics of Production,
continuity, Decay and Impermanence are not concretely produced. These are
named as Anipphanna Rupa since these are not directly caused by the four
modes of origin. (See chapter 13) in fact, these are variations and some
qualities of Material phenomena.

QUESTIONS
1) How is Rupa defined?
2) How many Rupa dhammas are there? Name them?

3) What are the Four great essentials?

4) What is meant by Derived matter?

5) Name the five Sensitive phenomena with the corresponding Objective

phenomena.

6) Explain the Heart base.

7) Explain the Life faculty phenomenon.

8) What are intimating Material Phenomena? Describe in your own words.

9) What are the four characteristic Rupa dhammas? Explain each of them.

1 0) Explain the following terms

(i) Nipphanna (ii) Salakkhana (iii) Ruparupa

100
 CHAPTER II
CLASSFICATION OF MATTER
(Rupa Vibhago)
In this chapter the Material phenomena (Rupa Dhammas) have been classified
under various categories in order to clarity their true position.

As Single Fold
All Material phenomena can be considered as having a single characteristic. For
example; these are called,

1) Rootless – (Ahetukaṃ) – Matter is devoid of roots, namely, Lobha, Dosa,

Moha and Alobha, Adosa and Amoha which are cetasikas.

2) Causal (Sappaccayaṃ) All Material phenomena are

conditioned dhammas. There are four conditions as mentioned in
the subsequent chapter.

3) Subject to Taints (Sāsavaṃ)

These Material phenomena serve as objects of the four taints (Asavas)
namely,

(i) Sensual desire (Kāmāsava)

(ii) Existence (Bhavāsava)
(iii) Wrong views (Dhittāsava)
(iv) Ignorance (Avijjasava)

4) Conditioned (Sankataṃ)
Material phenomena cannot arise or exist by themselves alone. These
arise dependent on conditions.

(4) Mundane (Lokiyaṃ)

Material phenomena are part and parcel of the first aggregate of
corporeality (Rupa Skandha). None of the Rupa dhammas can transcend
the five aggregates. Hence mundane

(5) Pertaining to Sense Sphere (Kamāvacaraṃ)

All grades and categories of Material phenomena belongs to the sense
sphere, even though certain Material phenomena are found in some
Fine Material abodes. These are the objects of Sensual craving.

(6) Objectless (Anārammanaṃ)

Rupa Cannot perceive objects or does not have the faculty to understand
the objects. Only Citta and Cetasikas can perceive the objects.
Hence these are termed as Anarammanam.

101
(7) Not be abandoned (Appahātabbam)
Matter cannot be eradicated like the cankers or defilements neither can
be destroyed nor crushed.

Two Fold Division

Material phenomena are divided under a two fold classification under the
following titles.

(A) (i) The four great essentials (Mahābhūta)

(ii) Derived Material phenomena – (Upādayarupa)

The four great essentials are the most basic primary elements which are
inseparable and found in each and every minute form of matter

Derived Material phenomena are the balance twenty four which are dependent
on the great essentials. It means that the derived matter would not arise without
the help of the four essentials

(B) (i) Internal (Ajjhatthika)

(ii) External (Bāhiram)

Out of the twenty eight Material phenomena the most important five sensitive
phenomena, the organs of eye, ear, nose, tongue and body that serve as doors
through which the external objects are contacted are named as Internal Material
phenomena – It is in fact the pasada rupa of the mentioned organs.

The balance twenty three Material phenomena which appear in the physical
body are called External material phenomena.

(C) (i) Bases (Vatthu Rupa)

(ii) Non Bases (Avatthu Rupa)

Bases are the Material phenomena dependent on which the consciousness

arises. These serve as the foundation for the arising of consciousness – Viz Eye,
Ear, Nose, Tongue, Body and Heart – Bases. The balance twenty two material
phenomena are non-Bases.

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(D) (i) Doors (Dvāra Rupa)
(ii) Non –Door (Advāra Rupa)
Doors are the evenues by which actions are performed. In all there are seven
doors. These fall into two types, namely contact doors and the doors of action
(Phassa dvāra and Kamma dvāra). The five sensitive phenomena viz; eye,
ear, nose, tongue and body are the initial doors of contact. The two
communicating rupa of bodily intimation and vocal intimation are the
doors of moral and immoral actions. (Kamma Dvara)

(E) (i) Faculties (Indriya Rupa)

(ii) Non Faculties (Anindriya Rupa)
There are eight faculties viz, eye sensitivity, ear sensitivity, nose sensitivity,
tongue sensitivity, body sensitivity, the two sexual phenomena of Femininity
and masculinity and the Life Faculty. These phenomena exercise controlling
power in their different activities. For example the eye sensitivity becomes
the key factor in the process of seeing. No one could see things without the
material phenomenon of eye sensitivity even though all the other requirements
are fulfilled. The other faculties too carry the same strength in their respective
fields. The balance twenty(20) Rupa dhammas are non-faculties.

(F) (i) Gross Material phenomena

(Olārika Rupa)
(iii) Non – Gross material phenomena
(Sukhuma Rūpa)

The five Sensitive organs and the respective seven objects that come in
contact with the organs are called Olārika as these are coarse and rough.

These gross Material phenomena are called proximate phenomena (Santike

Rupa) since these are easily comprehended even from a distance.

These phenomena are also called as impinging Material phenomena

(Sappatigha Rupa) since the physical organs and the objects are subject to
impinge on each other.

The balance sixteen Material phenomena are called subtle (Sukhuma Rupa)
Distant (Dūre Rupa), and non-impinging (Appatigha Rupa).

(G) (i) Matter clung – to (Upādinna Rupa)

(ii) Matter not clung – to (Anupadinna Rupa)

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Upādinna means that which are produced karmically as Resultants or born
out of previous Kamma motivated by craving and wrong views. In this
context we refer only to material phenomena. In all there are eighteen material
phenomena which are produced by previous Kamma. Those are namely; the
eight faculties (Indriya Rupa) the Heart base, the Inseperable phenomena
caused by Kamma, viz; earth, water, fire, air, visible form, smell taste and
nutriment and space element.

The Material phenomena produced by other causes, namely,

Consciousness, Temperature, and Nutriment which are explained in a future
chapter are termed as matter not-clung to (Anupādinna Rūpa).

(H) (i) Visible (Sanidassana Rupa)

(ii) Non Visible (Anidassana Rupa)
Of all Material phenomena (twenty eight), only one of them namely, the
visible form is called Visible and can be seen. The balance twenty seven
material phenomena are non-visible. Hence called Anidassana Rupa.

(I) (i) Material phenomena that take

objects (Gocaragghāhika)

(ii) Those not capable of taking

objects (Agōcaragghāhika)
The five Sense Organs are capable of taking the respective Objects. Out of
these the eye and the ear can accommodate the Objects of Visible form and
Sound respectively from afar. These two Objects do not require physical
contact with the organs. These two are hence called. Asampattha
gocaragghāhika. The other three organs of nose, tongue and body can take
the objects of smell, taste and tangibility respectively once these physically
contact each other. Hence the three organs are called. Sampattha
gocaragghāhika. A note should be made that the contact of the respective
material phenomena alone cannot cognize the Object. It is the
Consciousness that actually Cognizes the Object.

The balance material phenomena which cannot take Objects are termed
as Agocaragghāhika Rupa.

104
(j) (i) Inseparable material phenomena
(Avinibbhoga Rupa)

(iii) Separable material phenomena.

(Vinibbhoga Rupa)

Material phenomena though individually separated and identified

as having twenty eight different characteristics none of these
can arise individually by itself. These arise in different groups.
The smallest group is the inseparable material phenomena or
Avinibbhoga Rupa kalāpa. This group consists of Earth (Pathavi)
water (Āpo), Fire (Thejo) Air (Vāyo), Visible form (Vanna), smell
(Gandha), Taste (Rasa) and Nutritive essence (Ōjā). No material
group arises devoid of a single of these material phenomenon.

The balance phenomena are separable, and are called Vinibbhoga Rupa.

QUESTIONS
1) What is meant by Rupa Vibhago?

2) All Material phenomena are "Rootless" and "belongs to sense sphere."

Explain.

3) Show separately the internal and external Material phenomena.

4) What is the significance in Faculties (Indriya Rupa).

5) What Material phenomena are termed as Doors? Explain their

functions.

6) Name the gross Material phenomena (Ōlārika Rupa).

7) What are the synonyms for gross Material phenomena?

8) What are the non-impinging Material phenomena?

105
 CHAPTER 12

THE ORIGINATION OF MATTER

(Rūpa Samutthāna)
Our physical body or all internal and external Material phenomena are not a
creation of any supernatural or omnipotent heavenly Being. Neither these simply
evolved without any cause. Every particle of Material phenomena described
and classified in the earlier chapters are Material phenomena (Rupadhammas)
arising dependent on four distinct factors , viz:

(i) Volition (Kamma)

(ii) Consciousness (Citta)
(ii) Temperature (Utu)

(iv) Nutriment (Ahara)

Volition (Kamma) as a mode of origin

(Kammaja Rupa)

Volitions (Kamma) here refers to the twelve Unwholesome Consciousness,

the eight Moral Consciousness of the Sensous plane (Kāmāvacara) and
the five fine material sphere Moral consciousness (Rupāvacara). In all,
these twenty five Immoral and Moral Cetana developed in the previous life
span, produces Material phenomena of the new life cycle in the different
worlds. Arising of these Material phenomena commences from the time of
conception as a new Being, and continues until the last breath, according to
the strength of Volition (Kamma) which brought about the new life.

A distinctive feature of Kamma originated material phenomena is that each

new phenomenon arises at each sub moment of a Consciousness. ie, at the
moment of arising of Consciousness (Uppāda), the sub moment of presence
(Thiti) and the submoment of decay (Bhanga). Such arisen phenomena last
for seventeen Conscious moments or fifty one sub moments. After the
moment of decay of each phenomenon, new ones of the same category
keep on arising according to the strength of Volition which brought about
such phenomena.

Material phenomena originated by Kamma are dealt with in a

subsequent chapter.

The four Wholesome immaterial Jhana Consciousness give birth in the

Immaterial abodes. But these Beings are devoid of material form (Rupaskandha)
according to their own wish.
106
Consciousness as a mode of origin (Cittaja Rūpa)

Out of the total of eighty nine Consciousness, the four immaterial

resultant consciousness, and the ten sense consciousness (Dvipanca
Viññana) are incapable of originating Rupa. The balance seventy five
Consciousness do produce material phenomena at each submoment of
arising of Consciousness commencing from the first Life continuum
(bhavanga citta) Consciousness.

The Immaterial Resultant Consciousness do not produce material phenomena

as these arise in the immaterial sphere abodes only. Even the other
Consciousness that arise in the Immaterial abodes, do not produce Rupa
since those abodes are devoid of Rūpa Skandha. The ten Sense
Consciousness are incapable of originating material phenomena since these
Consciousness do not possess the Jhana factors.

It should be noted that the Rebirth linking consciousness of the sensuous

sphere (ten consciousness), and the fine material (five consciousness), do not
originate material phenomena at that particular moment of Rebirth linking.
Also the death consciousness of the Arahants (cuti citta) does not produce
material phenomena.

The twenty six Javana consciousness of the Jhanas of the Fine

material (Rūpāvacara), and the Immaterial planes (Arūpāvacara), and the
Supra Mundane sphere not only produce material phenomena but also
uphold and maintain the bodily postures other than walking which
comes under the material phenomena of bodily intimation.

The Mind door Adverting consciousness (Manōdvārāvajjana citta), Sense

sphere twenty nine Javana cittas, and the two Direct knowledge cittas
(Abhiñña cittas) while producing material phenomena not only uphold the
bodily postures, but also initiate bodily and vocal intimation.

The smile on your face too is produced by the Consciousness: There are
thirteen Consciousness accompanied with joy that makes one smile. A general
worlding may smile when the four Unwholesome Consciousness rooted in
greed (Lobha) accompanied with joy or the four Wholesome
Consciousness of the Sense Sphere accompanied with joy arises. An Arya
puggala, a trainee (Sekkha) may smile with the two consciousness rooted in
greed disassociated from false view and accompanied with joy and the four
wholesome consciousness of the sense sphere accompanied with joy. An
Arahant, and the Buddhas may smile with any of the four Sense – sphere
Functional Consciousness accompanied with joy and with the rootless
Hasituppāda kiriya citta.
107
Temperature as a mode of Origin (Utuja Rūpa)

The fire element in whatever extreme conditions of heatness or coldness is

capable of producing internal and external material phenomena according to
the circumstances prevailing.

Producing of material phenomena by temperature commences at the

sub moment of presence (thiti) of the Rebirth Linking Consciousness of a
Being.

The fire element is found in the material phenomena produced by volition

(Kammaja rupa) at the moment of Rebirth linking, and subsequently
together with external temperature conditions; the material phenomena of
Utuja rupa are produced internally within the body.

Seasonal and climate changes etc. that take place in the external world are also
due to the condition of temperature.

Nutriment as a mode of origin (Ahāraja Rūpa)

The nutritive essence available in the food one takes is capable of producing
material phenomena for the development and maintenance of the body. This
essence conjoins with the internal nutritional phenomena born of other factors
of Volition, Consciousness and Temperature, and jointly produces
material phenomena originating from nutriment (Āharasamutthāna rūpa).
Turning out of Nutritional phenomena commences once the food partaken of
comes to the moment of presence (Thiti) . Even the growth of an embryo is
supported by the nutriment produced in the mother.

QUESTIONS
1) What are the modes of origin of material phenomena?

2) Explain each mode of origin.

3) What Consciousness brings forth Kammaja rupa?

4) What are the Consciousness that make one smile?

108
 CHAPTER 13

ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL PHENOMENA

BY WAY OF ORIGIN
Let us see as to what Material phenomena are produced by the four
conditions.

The eight faculties (Indriya Rūpa) of five Sensitive phenomena, the two
Sexual phenomena, the Life faculty and the Heart Base are evolved
exclusively by past Kamma (Ekānta Kammaja Rūpa)

The two Communicating phenomena, namely, bodily intimation and

vocal intimation (Kāya and vaci Viññatthi) are solely born of Consciousness.
(Ekānta cittaja Rūpa)

Sound is born of two Conditions, namely; Consciousness (cittaja)

and temperature (Utuja). Hence called Dvija Rūpa. A sound created by
someone volitionally is Cittaja saddo. Natural sounds such as of thunder etc.
are created by Temperature. (Utuja saddo).

The triple qualities of Lightness, Malleability, and Wieldiness are born

of Consciousness (cittaja) Temperature (Utuja), and nutriment (Āhāraja).

The inseperable Material phenomena, the eight Avinibbhoga rupa and the
element of Space (Ākāsa rupa) are caused by all four conditions.

The characteristic Material phenomena of production (Upacaya) continuity

(santati), Decay (jaratā),and Impermanence (Aniccatā) are the general inherent
features of Material phenomena. These are not caused by any of the four
conditions.

Accordingly, the number of Material phenomena born out of the four

conditions are as follows;

Volition (Kammaja)

Eighteen Material phenomena are born out of Kamma. The nine exclusively
born mentioned above, the Inseparable eight and the Space element.

Consciousness (Cittaja)

In all fifteen Material phenomena are born out of Consciousness.The

twoCommunicating phenomena exclusively born, Sound, the three
Mutable
109
phenomena of lightness, Malleability and Wieldiness, the eight Inseparables
and the Space element.

Temperature (Utuja)

In all there are thirteen born out of Temperature. These are the sound, the
three mutable phenomena of Lightness, Malleability and Wieldiness, the
eight Inseparables, and the Space element.

Nutriment (Āhāraja)

There are twelve Material phenomena that arise from Nutriment. These are the
eight Inseparables, the three Mutable and the Space element.

QUESTIONS
1) What Material phenomena exclusively born of volition (Kammaja)?

2) In all how many Material phenomena are Kammaja?

3) Name the Material phenomena exclusively born of Consciousness.

4) How many conditions create the sound? Name these conditions.

5) Name the Material phenomena caused by Nutriment.

110
 CHAPTER 14

GROUPING OF MATERIAL PHENOMENA

(Kalapa yojana)

As discussed earlier material phenomena cannot arise singly by each one

itself. These arise in groups according to the causes mentioned in the previous
chapter. In all there are twenty one groups of material phenomena and these
combined groups are termed as Rūpa Kalāpa.

Material phenomena in each group (kalapa) arise together and have a common
basis. These exist and cease together.

(A) Groups originating from Kamma

In the earlier chapter it was mentioned that there are nine material
phenomena exclusively born of previous Kamma. These nine phenomena
make nine different groups. viz;

(i) The eight inseparable material phenomena together with vitality (life
faculty) is the group known as vital nonad. (Jivita Navaka Kalāpa)

(ii) The above mentioned nine material phenomena together with eye
sensitivity is called the eye decad – (Cakku Dasaka Kalāpa)

(iii) The nine material phenomena mentioned in one (i) above together with
ear sensitivity is called the Ear decad (Sota Dasaka Kalāpa)

(iv) The nine material phenomena mentioned in one (i) above together with
Nose sensitivity is called the Nose decad (Ghāna Dasaka Kalāpa)

(v) The nine material phenomena mentioned one (i) above together with
tongue sensitivity is called the Tongue decad. (Jivhā Dasaka Kalāpa)

(vi) The nine material phenomena mentioned in one (i) above together with
body sensitivity is called the Body decad (Kāya Dasaka Kalāpa)

(vii) The nine material phenomena mentioned in one (i) above together with
femininity is called the Female Decad (Itthi Bhāva Dasaka Kalāpa)

(viii) The nine material phenomena mentioned in one (i) above together with
Masculinity is called the Male Decad (Purusa Bhāva Dasaka Kalāpa)

(ix) The nine material phenomena mentioned in one (i) above together with
Heart Base is called the Heart Base Dacad (Vatthu Dasaka Kalāpa)

111
(B) Groups originating from Consciousness
There are six groups of material phenomena born of Consciousness
(Cittaja)

(i) The pure octad (Suddhātthaka Kalāpa)

It is the group of inseparable conditioned by consciousness. (Citta)

(ii) The bodily intimation Nonad

It is the pure octad together with bodily intimation (Kāya Viññatthi
Navaka Kalapa)

(iii) The Vocal intimation Decad

It is the pure octad together with vocal intimation and sound. (Vacī
Vinnatthi Sadda Dasaka Kalapa)

(iv) The un-Decad of lightness triad

It is the pure octad together with lightness, malleability and wieldiness.
(Lahutādi Ekā-Dasaka Kalapa)

(v) The do Decad of Bodily intimation and the lightness triad.

It is the pure octad together with bodily intimation and the mutable
triad (Kāya Viññatthi Lahutādi Dvādasaka Kalapa)

(vi) The Tri Decad of Vocal intimation sound and the lightness Triad
It is the pure octad together with vocal intimation, sound and the
mutable triad. (Vacī Viññatthi Sadda Lahutādi Terasaka Kalapa)

(C) Groups Originating from Temperature

There are four groups of material phenomena caused by Temperature.

(i) The pure octad (Suddhātthaka Kalāpa)

It is the group of inseparable conditioned by Temperature (Utu)

(ii) The Sound Nonad.

It is the pure octad together with sound (Sadda Navaka Kalapa)

(iii) The Un-decad of Lightness Triad

It is the pure octad together with Lightness, malleability and Weildiness
(Lahutādī Ekā Dasaka Kalāpa).

(iv) The Do-Decad of Sound and the Lightness Triad.

It is the pure octad together with sound and Lightness, Malleability and
Weildiness. (Sadda Lahutādi Dvā Dasaka Kalāpa)

112
(D) Groups Originating from Nutriment
There are two groups of material phenomena born of Nutriment.

(i) The pure octad (Suddhātthaka Kalāpa)

The eight inseperable born of Nutriment.

(ii) Un – Decad of Lightness triad

The eight inseparables together with lightness, malleability and
weildiness. (Lahutādī Ekādasaka Kalapa)

You will Notice that there are twenty one groups of material phenomena (Rūpa
Kalāpa). Out of these groups the Pure - Octad and the Sound Nodad caused
by Temperature (Utu) are found in the External World too.

The material phenomenon of space element and the four characteristics of

matter namely, production (Upacaya) Continuity (Santati) Decay (Jaratā) and
impermanence (Aniccatā) do not form as part of material groups.

QUESTIONS
1) What is meant by a group of Material phenomena (Rupa Kalāpa)?

2) How many groups are Kamma born?

3) What Material phenomena are found in the Pure – octad?

4) Explain the Eye decad.

5) How many groups are Consciousness born?

6) What groups of Material phenomena are found in the External World?

113
 CHAPTER 15

THE OCCURRENCE OF MATERIAL PHENOMENA

(Rupa Pavattikkama)

There are two Spheres where material phenomena are found –These are;

(i) The Sensuous Sphere (Kama Bhava), and

(ii) The Fine material Sphere (Rupa Bhava)

The Sensuous world consists of the four Hells, this world of Human Beings
and the six Celestial Abodes known as Deva worlds. The Fine material world is
the sixteen Brahma worlds.

In the four Immaterial worlds, no material phenomena are found. The Brahmas
of these Arupa abodes, do not possess the Corporeal body or the Rūpa skandha
the arising of which has been suppressed as a result of strength of the Arupa
Jhānas.

There are four different types of birth of Beings. Those are namely;

(i) Egg born (Andaja)

(ii) Womb born beings (Jalābuja)

(iii) Moisture born beings (Sansedaja)

(iv) Spontaneous Birth (Opapātika)

These four categories cover the entire realm of all the living Beings.

Of these the Egg born and Womb born Beings are born in mothers womb.
Hence known as "gabbaseyyaka". The Moisture born includes some of the
lower forms of animals, and those of Spontaneous birth who are generally
invisible to the human physical eye, include Devas Brahmas and those in the
Niraya Hells (Nēraikas), and certain Petas.

The moisture born Beings and those of Spontaneous Birth of the sensuous
sphere receive the decad of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, sex and the heart base
at Birth itself. The sex decad will be the appropriate one, being masculinity or
famininity, Some times you may not gain the decads of eye, ear, and the sex
due to obstructing volitions (Kamma), Though the decads of the moisture born

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Beings are complete at the moment of birth. These are gradually
developed. These decads of the Beings of spontaneous birth are fully and
completely developed at the Birth itself, and no further development is
experienced.

In the case of Beings of egg-born and womb born, the three decads of body,
sex and the heart base are born at the moment of conception (Patisandhi).

As mentioned in the above paragraph the Sex decad will be the

appropriate one, or sometimes a person may be devoid of Sex decad. The
other decads of eye, ear, nose, and tongue will develop gradually, and finally
appear after eleven weeks of conception.

The commencement of arising and ceasing of material phenomena produced

by the four different conditions is as follows;

(i) Kamma born Material Phenomena

Will commence arising simultaneously with the arising of the
Rebirth linking (Patisandhi) Consciousness and continue to arise at
each of the three sub moments of Consciousness.

The arising of these material phenomena will occur until the seventeenth
Consciousness preceding the Death moment (Cuti Citta) – It enables
all Kamma born material phenomena to cease by the last moment of
Death Consciousness (Cuti Citta)

(ii) Consciousness born Material Phenomena

These material phenomena will commence arising at the beginning of
the first Life continuum Consciousness (Bhavanga Citta), and keep
on arising at the first sub moment of each Consciousness until the
moment of Death.

(iii) Temperature born Material Phenomena

The effects of temperature will cause the arising of Utuja rupa from
the second sub moment of the Rebirth linking (Patisandhi)
consciousness and continue evolving such material phenomena even
up to the last moment of death consciousness. The corpse one
leaves behind after the Death is only a temperature born bundle of
material phenomena.

(iv) Nutriment born Material Phenomena

These material phenomena arise from the time of disseminating
Nutritive essence extracted from the food one takes in until the death.

Thus the physical body one cares so much and clings onto as me and mine
is a heap of ever changing groups of material phenomena conditioned
by the above mentioned four causes.

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In the fine Material World

In the Brahma worlds of Rupa bhava, the Kamma born five decads of Nose,
Tongue, Body and Sex (Masculinity and Femininity), and the two groups of
material phenomena originated by Nutriment, do not arise. The Beings in
these worlds will possess the other Kamma born decads of Eye, Ear and Heart-
base together with the Vital nonad commencing with the Rebirth linking
Consciousness.

These Brahmas will also possess the six groups originating from
Consciousness commencing with the first Bhavānga citta and the four
groups born of Temperature, begin with the second sub moment of
the Rebirth linking Consciousness.

In AsaǹǹaSatta Brahma world where only a physical body is born, the life begins
with the Vital nonad. During the course of life only the two groups of the
Pure octad and the Un-decad of the Lightness triad originated by
Temperature arise.

After the Death, the corpse or the dead bodies of Beings in the Niraya
world, Petas, the celestial abodes of Devas and Brahma, do not remain but
vanishes away like the blown out flame of a lamp.

QUESTIONS
1) What are the four type of Births? Explain each of them.

2) Explain the arising of Kamma born Material phenomena in the

human world.

3) When do the Consciousness born Material phenomena begin to

arise and at what intervals do these arise?

4) What Material phenomena do exist in the physical body after the

death of human being?

5) Enumerate the Material phenomena that do not arise in the Fine

material world.

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 Bibliography

1. A Manual of Abhidhamma being Abhidhammattha Sangaha of Bhadanta

Anuruddhacariya – by Nārada Thera – Pub. – Singapore
Buddhist Meditation Centre, Singapore – 1989

2. A comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma by – Bhikkhu Bodhi – Buddhist

Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka 1993.

3. The Evolution of Matter and Mind by Henri Van Zeyst - Published

by Courtesy of the Public Trustee of Sri Lanka 1991.

4. The Path of Purification (Visuddhi Magga) by Bhadantācariya

The Buddhaghosa Translated by Bhikku Ňānamoli. Published by
Singapore Buddhist Meditation Centre Singapore.

5. Atthasālini – Commentāry to the Dhammasanganippakarana – by Pandit

Ven. Yagirala Paññananda Maha Thero - Pub. Somawathi
Hewawitharane Trust. Colombo, Sri Lanka. (Sinhala Edition).

6. Abhidharma Chandrika by Ven. Pandit Matara Sri Dharmavansa Maha

Thero. Pub: Colombo YMBA (Sinhala Edition) 1982.

7. Abhidharmaya by Ven. Pandit Devinuwara Ňānāvāsa Maha Thero. Pub:

Colombo YMBA (Sinhala Edition) 1955.

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 SYLLABUS FOR SENIOR PART I

One Paper – 2hrs.

Dhamma
Important Events in the Life of The Buddha from Enlightenment to Parinibbana.
Kamma and Vipaka, Proof of Rebirth, and the 5 Natural laws – Panca Niyama
Dhamma.

Nivarana – 5 Hindrances, Dasa Sanyojana – 10 Fetters.

General Knowledge of 40 objects of meditation in Samatha Bhavana, and the

results.

Social ethics of Buddhism based on Parabhava, Singalovada, and Vyagghappajja

Suttas.

Dhammapada stanzas – 19, 24, 35, 54, 56, 62, 63, 76, 80, 94, 99, 100, 104, 105, 129,
They should be memorized, and the meaning of the stanzas known.

Abhidhamma and Pali One Paper – 2 hrs.

Analysis of the 28 kinds of qualities of matter – rupa samuddesa. Their
classification into 8 categories etc. rupa vibhago. Formation of matter – rupa
samutthana. Grouping – rupa kalapa. Occurrence of matter, in different planes,
times, and classes of beings – Rupa Pavattikkamo. (See chapter 6).

Classification of citta according to feelings – Vedana, Roots – Hetu, and Functions

Kicca. (See Chapter 3 – Miscellaneous Section).

Pali (Questions in Pali will be optional)

1. Declensions of Feminine Nouns – Sec. 31, 32 & 33, Exercise – 11

2. Declensions of Feminine Stems ending in 'I'. Sec. 34, 35 & 36, Exercise – 12

3. Feminine Nouns ending in 'u' – sec 37, 38 & 39. Exercise – 13

4. Neuter Gender – Sec. 40 to 44. Excercise – 14 & 15

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