THE ENERGY AND

RESOURCES INSTITUTE
Creating Innovative Solutions for a Sustainable Future

POLICY BRIEF
SEPTEMBER 2020

SCOPE AND POTENTIAL OF

COASTAL ECOSYSTEM TOWARDS
MITIGATING CLIMATE CHANGE
© THE ENERGY AND RESOURCES INSTITUTE, 2020

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Authors
Dr Ajay Mathur, Director General, TERI
Dr JV Sharma, Director, Land Resources, TERI
Dr Priyanka, Research Associate, Land Resources, TERI
Dr Aparna Tyagi, Research Associate, Land Resources, TERI

Reviewer
Dr Sharad Singh Negi, Retired IFS, Vice Chairman, Migration Commission, Uttarakhand

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Children’s Investment Fund Foundation (CIFF)
for their financial support.

Editorial and Design

Muskaan Johri, Sachin Bhardwaj, and Raman Kumar Jha

Published by
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)

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Land Resources Division, TERI, Darbari Seth Block, IHC Complex,
Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110 003, India
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 CONTENTS
Introduction--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
Mangroves-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3
Mangrove Cover----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3
Conservation Measures for Mangroves in India------------------------------------------------------------------------3
Current Status of Mangroves in India as per ISFR, 2019--------------------------------------------------------------4
Seagrasses-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
Tidal Salt Marsh-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
Coral Reefs-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
Sandy Beaches and Sand Dunes-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
Blue Carbon Inventories------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
Measuring Blue Carbon------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
Need to Conserve Coastal Ecosystems-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
Importance of Coastal Ecosystems to Achieve NDC Targets-------------------------------------------------------------8
Sequestration Potential of Mangroves-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9
Private Sector Finance to Accelerate Restoration of Coastal Ecosystems
and Enhancement of Blue Carbon Stocks----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
Importance of Nature-based Solutions-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
Discussions and Way Forward-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
Recommendations---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
References--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
 SCOPE AND POTENTIAL OF
COASTAL ECOSYSTEM
TOWARDS MITIGATING
CLIMATE CHANGE

Introduction
Coastal ecosystems are some of the most productive and endangered marine species, and food security for
natural systems on Earth and are home to a wealth of many coastal communities around the world (Kennedy
biodiversity. They provide us with essential ecosystem 1984; Robertson and Alongi 1992; King and Lester 1995;
services, such as coastal protection from storms and Hogarth 1999; Beck, Heck, Able, et al. 2001; Kathiresan
nursery grounds for fish. Coastal and marine ecosystems and Bingham 2001; Saenger 2002; Mumby 2006; Gedan,
encompass a wide range of important habitats, which Silliman, and Bertness 2009; Barbier, Hacker, Kennedy,
include coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass meadows, tidal et al. 2011; Sousa, Lillebø, Risgaard-Petersen, et al. 2012;
marshes, sand dune systems, and salt marshes. They Cullen-Unsworth and Unsworth 2013). An estimated 151
are among the planet’s greatest carbon storehouses, countries around the world contain at least one of these
with CO2 burial rates (i.e., rates at which carbon is coastal wetland ecosystems, and 71 countries contain all
converted into biomass through photosynthesis) 20 the three. Blue carbon is the carbon stored in mangroves,
times greater than any other terrestrial ecosystem, tidal salt marshes, and seagrass meadows within the
including boreal and tropical forests (Hamilton 2018). soil, aboveground living biomass (leaves, branches,
Their role in sequestering and storing ‘blue’ carbon from stems), belowground living biomass (roots), and non-
the atmosphere and oceans is also increasingly being living biomass. The carbon that is stored in the coastal
recognized by policymakers worldwide. The three types ecosystems can be extensive and can remain trapped for
of coastal wetlands—mangroves, seagrasses, and tidal very long periods (it can be centuries to millennia) and
salt marshes–commonly referred to as blue carbon thus result in very large carbon stocks. Due to coastal
ecosystems–provide a full spectrum of mitigation, development and land-use change, mangroves, tidal
adaptation, and resilience benefits. These wetlands salt marshes, and seagrasses are under great pressure.
provide numerous benefits and services that contribute The significant difference in the soil carbon accumulated
to people’s ability to mitigate and adapt to the impact in the terrestrial and the coastal ecosystems is that
of climate change. Many of these services are essential potential carbon storage in upland soil is limited by high
for climate adaptation and resilience along coasts, availability of oxygen, allowing for aerobic microbial
including protection from storm surge and sea-level rise, carbon oxidation and release back into the atmosphere
prevention of erosion along shorelines, coastal water (Schlesinger and Lichter 2001). However, in blue carbon
quality regulation, nutrient recycling, sediment trapping, ecosystems, the soil is saturated with water keeping it
habitat provision for numerous commercially important in anaerobic state (low to no oxygen), and it continually
Policy Brief
2

accretes vertically at high rates, resulting in continuous CO2 from atmosphere/ocean through photosynthesis
build-up of carbon over time (Chmura, Anisfeld, Cahoon, (primary production) and convert it for use by plant
et al. 2003). tissue (such as leaves, stems, roots/ rhizomes) to
increase plant biomass. A large portion of plant biomass
When vegetation is removed and the land is either
gets allocated to the roots where it decomposes very
drained or dredged for economic development, the
slowly in anaerobic conditions, thus storing the carbon
sediments become exposed to the atmosphere or water
within the sediments. Contrarily, allochthonous carbon
column resulting in the carbon stored in the sediment
is produced in one location and deposited in another.
bonding with oxygen in air to form CO2 and other
Blue carbon ecosystems exist in very hydro dynamically
greenhouse gases (GHGs) that get released into the
active settings; they are constantly battered by waves,
atmosphere and ocean. Not only such activities result in
tides, and coastal currents that transport sediments and
CO2 emissions but they also lead to losses of biodiversity
associated organic carbon from adjacent ecosystems
and critical ecosystem services.
(offshore or terrestrial) to other places. The plants found
The carbon found in the blue carbon ecosystem is in these systems have complex root structures and
categorized into two—autochthonous carbon and canopies that are efficient at trapping sediment moving
allochthonous carbon—which need to be assessed through the system, adding to the local carbon stock as
separately (Middelburg Nieuwenhuize, Lubberts, a result (Figure 1).
et al. 1997; Kennedy, Beggins, Duarte, et al. 2010).
Autochthonous carbon is produced and deposited in
the same location. Plants remove

Emissions: Carbon is lost back to the atmosphere

through respiration or through oxidation as a result
of land-use changes (e.g., conversion to fist ponds)

CO2 CO2
CO2
Sequestration: Carbon fioxide in the
atmosphere and oceans is taken in by
plants during photosynthesis.

Allochthonous Carbon:
Carbon can also enter
the system from far
away, usually via runoff
up stream and/or
inundation by marine
waters.

Autochthonous Carbon: Most of the sequestedred carbon is

stored in the soil, which is frequently, if not always, covered by
tidal waters. This oxygen-poor environment causes plant minerals
to break down very slowly, resulting in significant carbon storage.

Figure 1: Allochthonous carbon and autochthonous carbon

 3

Mangroves Mangrove Cover

The total mangrove cover in the world is 15 million
Mangroves are defined as an association of halophytic
hectare which is 1% of the total tropical forests. In India,
trees, shrubs, and other plants growing in brackish to
according to the latest assessment by the Forest Survey of
saline tidal waters of tropical and subtropical coastlines
India (FSI), the mangrove cover is 4975 km2, which is 0.15%
(Mitsch and Gosselink 2007). A mangrove is a tree, shrub,
of the country’s total geographical area. The very dense
palm or ground fern, generally exceeding a half meter in
mangrove comprises 1476 km2 (29.66%) of the mangrove
height that normally grows above the mean sea level in
cover, moderately dense mangrove is 1479 km2 (29.73%)
the intertidal zone of marine coastal environments and
while open mangroves constitute an area of 2020 km2
estuarine margins. Mangroves are salt-tolerant plants
(40.61%) in the country. West Bengal alone has 42.45%
and occur mainly between latitude 24°N and 38°S,
of India’s mangrove cover, followed by Gujarat (23.66%),
and exhibit varied morphological and physiological
and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (12.39%). As per the
evolutionary adaptations to survive the limiting factors
assessment, Gujarat has shown maximum increase of 37
imposed by lack of oxygen, high salinity, and diurnal
km2 in mangrove cover. There has been a net increase
tidal inundation. Succulent leaves, sunken stomata,
of 54 km2 in the mangrove cover as compared to the
pneumatophores, vivipary, stilt roots, buttresses, etc.,
2017 assessment in the country. The trend in mangrove
are some of the adaptations exhibited by mangroves.
cover from 2003 to 2019 is shown in Figure 2. The total
mangrove cover has increased over the years.

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
2003 2005 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019

Very Dense Mangrove Moderately Dense Mangrove

Open Mangrove Total

Linear (Total)

Figure 2: Status of mangrove cover since 2003–2019 in India

Conservation Measures for other non-wood forest products. Thus, there is a need
to have appropriate management and conservation
Mangroves in India strategies for their conservation and sustainably
Mangrove ecosystems in India face continuous pressure
generating the ecosystem’s benefits along with the
due to increased human population in coastal areas and
forest products to meet the needs of the local people.
rising demand for small timber, fodder, fuelwood, and
Realizing the same, mangrove-bearing states in the
Policy Brief
4

country are implementing different measures for Morindacitrifolia, Rhizophora mucronata, Sonneratia alba,
conservation and management of the mangroves. For Avicennia alba, Bruguiera cylindrica, Heritieralittoralis,
example, some of the important techniques adopted in Phoenix paludosa, and Ceriops tagal.
Gujarat for restoring the degraded mangrove habitats
include direct seed sowing, raised bed plantations,
and fishbone channel plantation. In Andhra Pradesh, Current Status of Mangroves in
the Forest Department has formed Eco-development India as per ISFR, 2019
Committees and Van Samrakshan Samitis for joint In India, mangroves are spread over an area of 4740
implementation of projects in mangrove areas. Regular km2 which accounts for nearly 3% of the world’s total
trainings are also being conducted for sustainable mangrove vegetation. Sundarbans in West Bengal
mangrove conservation. In Maharashtra, steps have accounts for almost half of the total area under
been taken to conserve ecology and biodiversity of mangrove in the country. States-union territories (UTs)-
mangroves by protection, restoration, regeneration, wise mangrove cover as assessed by the FSI in different
and maintenance. Important species of mangrove assessments is given Table 1.
ecosystems in India include Avicennia officinalis,

Table 1: Mangrove cover assessment 2019

State/UT Very Dense Moderately Dense Open Total

Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove
Andhra Pradesh 0 213 191 404
Goa 0 20 6 26
Gujarat 0 169 1008 1177
Karnataka 0 2 8 10
Kerala 0 5 4 9
Maharashtra 0 88 232 320
Odisha 81 94 76 251
Tamil Nadu 1 27 17 45
West Bengal 996 692 424 2112
Andaman and Nicobar Islands 398 169 49 616
Daman and Diu 0 0 3 3
Puducherry 0 0 2 2
Total 1476 1479 2020 4975

The numbers in green represent increase in the area

under the mangrove cover and the numbers in red
Seagrasses
Seagrasses are flowering plants belonging to four plant
represent the loss in area under the mangrove cover
families (Posidoniaceae, Zosteraceae, Hydrocharitaceae,
since the last assessment by the FSI (ISFR 2017). The total
and Cymodoceaceae), all in the order Alismatales, which
area under the mangrove cover has increased by 54 km2
grow in marine, fully saline environments. There are
since the 2017 assessment by the FSI.
12 genera and 58 species known of seagrasses. These
 5

are found in coastal waters of all continents except beneath seagrass meadows. These mattes accrete
Antarctica. Seagrass meadows store relatively small vertically over time, raising the seagrass meadow
amounts of carbon in aboveground biomass. However, towards the surface of the water.
belowground biomass, in the form of large long-lived
The present status of seagrass meadows in India has
root structures, stores the majority of carbon stock
been surveyed by different researchers. Area covered by
below the ground. These root structures accumulate
seagrass is represented in Table 2.
large stores of carbon through the formation of ‘mattes’

Table 2: Area covered by seagrass

Location Seagrass Cover (ha) Period Reference
Lakshadweep (Agatti, kavaratti and Kalpeni) 53.9 1960 Jagtap (1996)
Lakshadweep (Kadmath, Minicoy, Amini, 112.38 1986 Jagtap and Inamdar (1991)
Kavaratti, Kalpeni and Agatti)
Lakshadweep (Kavaratti, Agatti) 288 1988 Desai, et al. (1991)
Andaman 283.5 1996 Das (1996)
Gulf of Mannar 8571 1998 ICMAM PD (2001)
Lakshadweep (Bengaram and Thinnakara) 1200 Nayak and Bahuguna (2001)
Gulf of Mannar 2658.31 2004 Sridhar, et al. (2010)
Gulf of Mannar 5710.66 2005 Sridhar, et al. (2012)
Gulf of Mannar 1327.15 2007 Thangaradjou, et al. (2008)
Andaman 1223.9 2007 Nobi, et al. (2013)
Nicobar 1719.4 2007 Nobi, et al. (2013)
Lakshadweep 2590.2 2008 Nobi and Thangaradjou (2012)

Estimates are also available for change detection in a few areas covered by seagrass. The values are represented in Table 3.
Table 3: Estimates for detection in areas covered by seagrass
Site Change Detection of Change Reasons Reference
Seagrass in Aerial Cover (ha) (ha)
Palk Bay 2922.62–2658.31 (-) 264.31 Anthropogenic pressure Shridhar, et al. (2010)
(1996–2004)
Gulf of Mannar 1856.51–1327.15 (-) 56.08 Paper shell collection Thangaradjou, et al.
(2000–2004) (2008)
Gulf of Mannar 8571.0–5710.66 (-) 2860.34 Erosion and ICMAM PD (2001);
(1998–2005) submergence of islands Susila, et al. (2012)
Lakshadweep 1139.62–1066.59 (-) 73.03 Anthropogenic pressure Nobi and
(2000–2008) Thangaradjou (2012)
Andaman 1370.4–1223.9 (-) 146.5 After Tsunami seagrass Nobi, et al. (2013)
(2004–2007) was drastically reduced
Nicobar 3192.3–1719.4 (-) 1472.9 After Tsunami seagrass Nobi, et al. (2013)
(2004–2007) was drastically reduced
Policy Brief
6

Tidal Salt Marsh Sandy Beaches

A tidal salt marsh is a coastal ecosystem in the upper
intertidal zone between land and open salt water or
and Sand Dunes
India has a coastline of 7516.6 km, which consists of
brackish water that is regularly flooded by the tides.
6100 km of mainland coastline and a coastline of 1197
It is dominated by dense stands of salt-tolerant plants
km of Indian Islands, touching 13 states and UTs. Around
such as herbs, grasses, or low shrubs. Salt marshes are
2156 km (33%) of the country’s surveyed coastline has
intertidal ecosystems found on sheltered coastlines
faced erosion and around 1941 km (29%) has faced
ranging geographically from the sub-arctic to the tropics
accretion (National Centre for Coastal Research 2018).
and occurring most extensively in temperate zones. Salt
These factors raise concerns regarding the health of the
marshes store carbon in anaerobic sediments where
coastal ecosystems and therefore, immediate actions
it is not oxidized to CO2 and therefore is not released
are required to improve the degrading ecosystems.
into the atmosphere. Intertidal ecosystems, such as salt
marshes, are dependent on sediment accretion and Coastal ecosystems play a significant role in mitigating
rising elevation to compensate for sea-level rise. As the the impact of climate change. Sandy beaches and sand
anaerobic sediments beneath salt marshes accumulate, dunes are one of the most powerful lines of defense
so too does the total amount of carbon stored in them. against coastal storms and cyclones. The post-tsunami
Freshwater wetlands tend to be the sources of methane studies conclude that sand dunes are the best form
(Bridgham, Megonigal, Keller, et al. 2006), a GHG 25 times of natural defence, even better than the shelter belts
more potent than CO2. But the saline environment of salt and mangroves. In the wake of the sea-level rise, it is
marshes inhibits the natural creation of methane, making therefore, critical that we strengthen the natural coastal
for much lower releases of methane in these habitats. defences rather than relying on artificial, human-made
solutions. These ecosystems along with other benefits
Coral Reefs also have the potential to sequester carbon from the
Coral reefs provide various ecosystem services such atmosphere. Dune vegetations, such as Ipomoea,
as their contribution as a shield against storms and Spinifex, and Palmyra, along with littoral forests have the
cyclones, protection to shorelines from erosion, and potential to act as carbon sinks, thereby, binding carbon
providing habitat for breeding grounds and nurseries for into sand.
marine fishes. Coral reefs contribute to various ecosystem
services annually worth over 100 million dollars globally Blue Carbon Inventories
and can get affected by climate change in numerous To explicitly address the role of blue carbon ecosystems
ways including mass bleaching of coral reefs due to rise in climate change mitigation and human well-being
in ocean temperature and ocean acidification. There is through policy, regulatory, finance, or other mechanisms,
a rapid decline of coral reefs worldwide, resulting from the carbon stock in these ecosystems and the existing
anthropogenic activities, natural disturbances, and or potential carbon emissions resulting from changes
climate change. Coral reefs are assumed to be a carbon to these ecosystems must be quantified. This process is
source instead of sink. It is important to restore coral reefs referred to as creating a carbon inventory.
as they support habitation of various organisms which
hold importance in various carbon cycles. Cycling of According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
carbon through corals is a very complex system. Research Change (IPCC), carbon inventories can be established at
is needed to find out whether coral reefs are carbon sink various levels of details or certainty, often determined
or carbon source. Currently, coral reefs are not included by the purpose of the inventory and the resources
in the carbon budgets but their direct or indirect role and available (IPCC GPG 2003). The IPCC has identified the
contribution to blue carbon cannot be ignored. following three tiers of details in carbon inventories that
 7

reflect the degrees of certainty or accuracy of a carbon The benefit transfer method can be used to estimate
stock inventory (or assessment): the economic values for the ecosystem services by
Tier 1: These assessments have the least accuracy. transferring available information from already done
They are certainly based on simplified studies in other locations. A lower range is used for
assumptions and published IPCC default values calculations in highly degraded or open vegetation;
for activity data and emissions factors. Tier 1 an average value is used where the vegetation is
assessments may have a large error range of moderately dense; and an upper range is used in case of
+/-50% for aboveground pools and +/-90% for highly dense vegetation cover.
variable soil carbon pools.
Tier 2: These assessments include country- or site- Measuring Blue Carbon
specific data and hence have increased A carbon stock is the total amount of organic carbon
accuracy and resolution. For example, a country (Corg) stored in a blue carbon ecosystem, typically
may know the mean carbon stock for different reported as million tonnes of organic carbon per hectare
ecosystems within the country. (million tonnes of Corg/ha) over a specified soil depth.
These stocks are determined by adding all relevant
Tier 3: These assessments require highly specific data
carbon pools within the investigated area.
of carbon stocks in each component ecosystem
or land-use area, and repeated measurements Carbon Pools: Similar to most terrestrial forest
of key carbon stocks through time to provide ecosystems, mangroves can be roughly divided
estimates of change or flux of carbon into or into four carbon pools: aboveground living biomass
out of the area. Estimates of carbon flux can be (trees, scrub trees, lianas, palms, pneumatophores),
provided through direct field measurements or aboveground dead biomass (litter, downed wood, dead
by modelling. trees, belowground living biomass (roots and rhizomes),
and soil carbon which includes the dead belowground
The IPCC recommends that countries should aspire
biomass. For seagrasses, the following three major
for Tier 3 for the measurement of key carbon stocks/
carbon pools can be considered: aboveground living
sources/sinks. However, Tier 3 assessments are costlier to
biomass (seagrass leaves and epiphytes), belowground
implement, require higher levels of technical resources
living biomass (roots and rhizomes), and soil carbon.
and capacity, and are not always possible. When Tier 2
Carbon pools that can be considered for tidal salt
or 3 estimates are not possible, Tier 1 estimates can be
marshes are aboveground living biomass (shrubs,
performed. The globally averaged estimates, as shown in
grasses, herbs, etc.), belowground living biomass (roots
the Table 4, can be used to give a Tier 1 estimate of carbon
and rhizomes), and soil organic carbon.
stocks within any given area if site-specific data do not

Need to Conserve
exist. They are based on globally averaged carbon stock
estimates for mangroves, tidal marshes, and seagrass
meadows according to the current literature. However, Coastal Ecosystems
these estimates have a high degree of uncertainty. Due to coastal development and land-use change,
mangroves, tidal salt marshes, seagrasses, coral reefs,
Table 4: Global averaged estimates
and sandy beaches and dunes are under great pressure
Ecosystem Carbon Stock Range tCO2e/ (Alongi 2002; Gedan, Silliman, and Bertness 2009;
(tonne/ha) (tonne/ha) ha Saintilan, Rogers, and Howe 2009; Waycott, Duarte,
Mangrove 386 55–1376 1415 Carruthers, et al. 2009). When vegetation is removed
and the land is either drained or dredged for economic
Tidal salt 255 16–623 935
development (e.g., mangrove forest clearing for shrimp
marsh
ponds, draining of tidal marshes for agriculture, and
Seagrass 108 10–829 396 dredging in seagrass beds – all common activities in the
Policy Brief
8

coastal zones of the world), the sediments get exposed Political awareness of the climate values of coastal
to the atmosphere or water column. This results in the wetlands and other nature-based solutions have
carbon stored in the sediment bond with the oxygen developed considerably since the first NDCs were
in the air to form CO2 and other GHGs that get released submitted. The specific motivations for the inclusion
into the atmosphere and ocean. Not only do these of coastal wetlands in the NDCs may vary between
activities result in CO2 emissions but they also result in countries and may include:
the loss of biodiversity and critical ecosystem services.  High mitigation benefits: Coastal wetlands
Thus, conserving mangrove forests, coral reefs, and sequester carbon at higher rates, per unit area,
seagrasses will add to climate change mitigation efforts than terrestrial forests, storing carbon within both
globally. In May 2020, the cyclonic storm ‘Amphan’ their biomass (leaves, roots, wood, and stems) and
caused widespread damage in eastern Indian, especially
carbon-rich organic soil.
in West Bengal. The losses could have been minimized if
 High adaptation benefits: Coastal wetlands provide
effective mangrove conservation measures were taken
services essential for climate change adaptation,
along the coastline.
including protection from storm surges, flooding,
A marine conservation and climate protection sea-level rise, and coastal erosion. Investment in
programme can help in achieving the Nationally these forms of ‘blue infrastructure’, such as living
Determined Contribution (NDC) targets. This is a coastlines, provides other essential ecosystem
neglected area, where adequate information is not services, such as food security, local livelihoods
available and domain knowledge is limited to some large (small-scale fisheries), and biodiversity, and is often
institutions. Marine protected areas fall under the state more cost-effective than ‘grey infrastructure’, such as
jurisdiction but may have international impacts. With seawalls and breakwaters.
the help of secondary research and stakeholder  NDC progression: The Paris Agreement encourages
consultations we can propose increased conservation of countries to move towards economy-wide mitigation
key marine ecosystems to enhance carbon sequestration. targets, ultimately covering all the economic sectors
and emissions sources. The integration of land sector
Importance of Coastal emissions, including those from coastal wetlands, is

Ecosystems to Achieve a major milestone on this path.

 High implementation value: The inclusion of
NDC Targets conservation, restoration, and/or sustainable
Coastal systems not only store massive amounts management of coastal wetlands in an NDC serves as
of carbon and offer additional CO2 sequestration a strong signal of national importance, which in turn
opportunities, but also deliver several adaptation and drives resources and actions that can result in better
coastal protection benefits. The increased awareness of identified policy levers for the implementation.
the importance of coastal systems for both adaptation  Climate finance: NDCs are one of many entry
and mitigation of climate change is reflected in the points for securing climate finance to support blue
submissions of the NDCs, which are the national top- carbon-related actions. Under the provisions of
level policy and action plans meant to implement the the Katowice Climate Package concerning climate
Paris Agreement on the national level of the signatories. finance reporting, both the donor and the recipient
Among the 195 parties to the Paris Agreement, 28 countries must report how a particular financial
countries included some kind of reference to coastal support or flow contributes to the achievement
wetlands in their mitigation actions, while 59 countries of the recipient country’s NDC. The inclusion of
included coastal ecosystems or coastal zones in their the protection of a coastal line within an NDC is
adaptation strategies and refer in their NDCs to at therefore an important way for a variety of potential
least one blue carbon ecosystem such as seagrass, salt climate funds.
marshes, and mangroves (Herr and Landis 2016).
 9

Sequestration Potential The total mapped area of seagrass is 25,378.4 ha, and
with the carbon stock as 108 tonne/ha, the total carbon
of Mangroves sequestration potential has been estimated to be 10.2
Carbon sequestration is the process through which million tonnes of CO2e.
plant life removes CO2 from the atmosphere and stores The carbon sequestration potential for the tidal salt
it as biomass. Mangrove forests play a major role in the marshes can only be calculated once the area for the
carbon cycle in removing CO2 from the atmosphere and same is documented.
storing it as carbon in plant materials. They also have
important roles in sustaining tropical and subtropical The study “Assessment for Designing REDD Plus
coastal productivity and sequester large amounts of Projects in India” was conducted by TERI in 2014. The
carbon below the ground. Mangroves are among the mangrove forests in Sundarbans (West Bengal) are
most carbon-rich forests in the tropics and their carbon valued largely for their protective functions, and there
sequestration potential is estimated to be up to 50 is relatively limited direct dependency for fuelwood
times greater than tropical terrestrial forests. India with and minor forest produce. The economic value of the
a vast coastline of about 7516.6 km, including island storm-protection services of the forest was estimated at
territories, had a mangrove cover of about 6749 km2, one-third of the total cash incomes of the households.
which is around 89% of the total coastline in India (Sahu, Damage cost avoided method was used to estimate the
Suresh, Murthy, et al. 2015). With the total estimated economic value of the storm-protection service of the
mangrove cover of 495,842 ha in 2020 (66% of the total forest, estimated to be `2,716, 389 over 3 years, or `7761
coastline of India) and the value of the carbon stock as per household (one-third of the total cash incomes of
386 tonne/ha, the total carbon sequestration potential the households). Using these data and benefit transfer
of the mangroves has been estimated as 702.42 million approach, the economic valuation can be done for the
tonne of CO2e. The potential of carbon sequestration entire mangrove cover in India. Therefore, mangroves
will increase to 748.17 million tonne of CO2e in 2030. in India can be considered as a potential site for
Upon conservation and protection of mangrove cover, implementing carbon finance projects and for trading
it has been estimated that there can be an additional carbon in the voluntary market.
sequestration potential of 207.91 million tonne
of CO2e. Figure 3 shows the trend in sequestration
potential of mangroves in India over the years.

800

600
Million tonne of CO2 e

400

200

0
2003 2005 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2020 2030
Year

Figure 3: Sequestration potential of mangroves in India

Policy Brief
10

Private Sector Finance to small and medium enterprises to increase economic

viability and security for the communities; and aid in
Accelerate Restoration strengthening governance systems of the village-level

of Coastal Ecosystems institutions formed for project implementation.

and Enhancement of Blue Importance of

Carbon Stocks Nature-based Solutions
Nature-based solutions (NbS) are actions to protect,
The role of private sector finance is crucial for various sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified
conservation interventions pertinent to coastal ecosystems, and address societal challenges (e.g.,
ecosystems and to achieve the NDC targets effectively climate change, food and water security or natural
and efficiently. Blue carbon is a term coined to draw disasters) effectively and adaptively, simultaneously
attention to the degradation of marine and coastal providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits
ecosystems and the need to conserve and restore them (Cohen Shacham, Walters, Janzen, et al. 2016). NbS have
to mitigate climate change and other ecosystem services an important role in addressing both the causes and
they provide. The multifaceted nature of blue carbon consequences of climate change.
led to a vast and rich collaboration across disciplines
where scientists, conservationists, economists, and Herr and Landis (2016) considered the prominence of
policymakers interact intensely to share their advanced conservation and restoration of coastal ecosystems,
goals. Many of the existing finance mechanisms can be and assessed which NDCs included these ecosystems as
adapted and applied to coastal blue carbon ecosystems. part of the LULUCF (land use, land-use change, forestry)
However, most of these opportunities focus on carbon and other forest commitments (conservation and
found in the aboveground vegetative biomass and management, protection and reforestation as part of
do not currently account for carbon in the soil, which mitigation and adaptation plans). They also noted which
we completely intend to do. Such financial incentives NDCs make specific references to blue carbon, planning
for blue carbon might also offer a way to protect and tools (e.g. ICZM), fisheries, synergies between mitigation
capitalize on the other ecosystem services provided and adaptation benefits of coastal ecosystems. There
by these habitats, such as fisheries. Doing so will reap is a need to invest in all kinds of emission-reduction
rewards beyond the immediate benefits of carbon strategies and ensure that coastline services play their
sequestration. We believe that blue carbon meets all the part in helping tackle climate change. Considering
three essential elements of sustainability—economic, the management of coastal ecosystems as a whole for
environmental, and social—and should thus be framed effectively addressing climate change mitigation and
as an essential component of the Blue Economy. Some of adaption can create opportunities for biodiversity and
the types of private sector finance for coastal ecosystems livelihoods as well. It is important for the climate change
are sustainable supply chain, payment for ecosystem mitigation and adaption strategies for coastal ecosystem
services, and marine ecosystem insurance. These to consider the blue economy and promote sustainable
can help in providing additional income-generating development, as a sizeable amount of population reside
opportunities for local communities, such as crab near the coastline and is dependent on its resources,
hatcheries, sustainable fisheries, etc. The development The strategies should focus on the ways to combine
of the integrated mangrove and aquaculture systems NbS for coastal development and urban development,
results in good quality and high harvests with low as it can potentially bring positive social, economic, and
external inputs, thereby directly benefiting the financial impacts (Seddon, Sengupta, García-Espinosa,
fishermen; providing engagement opportunities with et al. 2019).
 11

Smart road construction

maintains hydrology for
wetlands and supports Powered by renewable energy,
water quality for coral recycling centres keep rivers clean
Mangroves play a significant reefs and other coastal
role as sediment traps and can ecosystems
support port maintenance by
reducing dredging needs Water trickling through reed beds are cleaned by
microorganisms living on the root system and in
the litter, reducing polluted run-off
Renewable energy
powers the cooling
and fish processing
facilites, sourcing Mangroves reduce wave energy and
natural resources coastal erosion, minimizing impacts from
from the sustainably storm damages on coastal infrastructure
managed area (e.g. eco-tourism) and people

Breakwaters reduce wave energy to

buffer impacts of weather events to
coastal infrastructure and facilitate
Co-designed management sediment accumulation for ecosystem
areas containing restoration, such as for mangroves
aquaculture and renewable
energy create win-wins
Coral reefs reduce wave energy and
coastal erosion, minimizing impacts
Proximity of MPAs creates economic opportunities for from strom damages on coastal in-
export of related commodities to commercial markets frastrucuture and people
(fish, sustainable timber, non-timber products)
Coral reefs reduce wave energy and
coastal erosion, minimizing impacts
from strom damages on coastal in-
Underwater cables with real-time monitoring
frastrucuture and people
devices feed universities and disaster risk
prevention centres with relevant data

Figure 4: Role of nature-based solutions for coastal development

The role of mangroves and other coastal ecosystems Climate Change (UNFCCC) for recognizing the carbon
has been recognized for adaptation which includes sequestered through coastal ecosystems at the national
mangrove bio-shields, protection for coastal zones, level in achieving India’s NDC targets and mitigating
and coastal zone management. The main aspect is climate change. India lacks in the mapping of seagrass
to build national capacity for the implementation of whereas tidal salt marshes are not at all surveyed. These
comprehensive coastal management through ecological two carbon pools need to be surveyed and mapped.
management, conservation and protection of critical The Government of India should also take measures
habitats, coastal geomorphology and geology of coastal to conserve the existing mangrove cover and also to
and marine areas, coastal engineering, socio-economic increase the cover which can lead to an additional
aspects, policy and legal issues, and other related fields sequestration potential of 207.91 million tonnes of
in the area of coastal governance. CO2e. Therefore, conserving blue carbon ecosystems can
maintain carbon sequestration in future and prevent
Discussions and emissions from land-use change. However, severe data

Way Forward
limitations need to be addressed if the role of blue
carbon in meeting the targets of the Paris Agreement
Blue carbon has received international attention for its has to be robustly demonstrated.
potential role in mitigating CO2 emissions. With their
value for both mitigation and adaptation, blue carbon As Sustainable Development Goal 14 (Life Below Water)
ecosystems play a vital role in any climate change outlines, the health of our ocean and coastal ecosystems
solution. The Government of India must negotiate is of fundamental importance for human well-being and
with the United Nations Framework Convention on sustainable development, while also playing a key role
Policy Brief
12

in both slowing climate warming and helping humans oil refineries, cement works, chemical plants, meat
deal with climate change impact. These ecosystems and fish processing plants, power stations, pulp and
should therefore feature prominently in the NDCs of the paper mills, supporting port facilities, and other
nations with major coastlines. manufacturing plants, should be adopted.
 Monetary valuation of different ecosystem services
Recommendations of coastal ecosystems should also be considered
A stakeholder consultation was conducted under the along with carbon for obtaining finance under the
chairmanship of Mrs BV Umadevi, Additional Secretary, umbrella of carbon market mechanism.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
 Finance management and microfinance in particular
Other panellists present in the consultation were Dr
should be embedded in coastal community
JV Sharma, Director, Land Resources Division, TERI, Dr
management projects where coastal living
AL Ramanathan, Professor, School of Environmental
communities can be encouraged to implement the
Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Ms Dorothee
conservation practices.
Herr, Manager, Oceans and Climate Change, IUCN
Global Marine and Polar Programme, Mr Sandeep Roy  NbS need to be adopted to protect and conserve
Choudhury, Director, VNV Advisory Services, Dr Naveen coastal ecosystems.
Namboothri, Director, Dakshin Foundation, Dr Alok  Involvement of private sector in financing various
Saxena, Former PCCF, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, initiatives in the blue economy should be promoted.
and Dr Priyanka, Research Associate, Land Resources
 Ecosystem-based models need to be implemented
Division, TERI. The following recommendations were
for the conservation of coastal ecosystems and
made during the discussion:
mitigating climate change.
 Research and development activities need to be  Drivers of degradation such as tropical cyclones,
conducted to develop a methodology for carbon climate fluctuations, floods, etc., should be identified.
stock assessment of coastal ecosystems. For the There is a need to have additional technical and
mangrove areas we need a specialized methodology financial inputs as far as conserving blue carbon is
to estimate carbon stock, especially in the cases of concerned.
soil organic carbon (SOC) and belowground biomass.
 Reduction in emission through adaptation and
The FSI should adopt the same for estimating SOC
carbon sequestration should be considered for
for mangrove forests.
achieving the India’s NDC target—2.5–3 billion
 Beaches and sandy shore management is very tonnes of CO2e. Also, the country needs to focus on
important for the well-being of coastal ecosystems. the Blue Carbon Initiative of the International Union
 Cycling of carbon through corals is a very complex for Conservation of Nature to include blue carbon in
system. Research is needed to find out whether achieving its NDC targets.
coral reefs are carbon sink or carbon source. Corals  Blue Flag certification programme is one of
are currently not involved in carbon budgets but the world’s most recognized voluntary eco-
the direct or indirect role of these species and their labels awarded to beaches and marinas for their
contribution for blue carbon cannot be ignored. conservation. In order to qualify for the Blue Flag,
 The Government of India should adopt Carbon a series of stringent environmental, educational,
Neutrality Policy as a mandate of additional carbon safety, and accessibility criteria need to be met and
finance for conservation of coastal ecosystems. maintained. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Innovative financial mechanisms for coastal Climate Change has shortlisted 12 beaches across
ecosystems such as the marine bonds, blue bonds, India for the prestigious ‘Blue Flag’ certification.
blue financing, involving industries such as shipping,
 13

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