INTRODUCTION TO TAPHONOMY

TAPHONOMIC AGENTS TIME

FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY - The general class of what caused the effect. - Many crime scenes or potential crime scenes are on the order of
- It is the scientific discipline that applies the methods of biological a) Human vs non-human (as agents) hours to days old before they are reported to and investigated by
anthropology to the collection and analysis of legal evidence. * How do they affect the body? law enforcement.
- Biological profile: sex, ancestry, age, height. b) Trauma (ante, peri, post)
* Traumas before, during, and after death * *Forensic anthropology concerns itself with a generally briefer
* Forensic anthropologists usually come up with Skeletonized, c) Recovery of remains. time frame than other disciplines of biological anthropology or
decomposing, burnt, or dismembered human remains. d) Handling of Remains archaeology
* But mainly help in forensic cases with * Some bones are destroyed during recovery and * *20-30 days = remains already skeletonized (in PH)
handling by anthropologists.
FORENSIC QUESTIONS e) Human vs non-human (as analogs) VARYING PMI (examples where PMI differs)
1. WHO is the person represented? * AS BASIS - Remains such as those discovered in sealed homes.
o Individualization - Remains hidden in more rural locations.
2. HOW did that person die? UNIFORMITARIANISM - Massive crime scenes such as the World Trade Center
o Individualization through trauma-analysis - The Earth's sedimentary rocks were accumulated by the same - Mass burials investigated for evidence of war crimes.
3. WHEN did that person die? processes of sediment deposition visible in contemporary rivers ANALYTICAL PROCESS
o Estimation of post-mortem interval through taphonomy and seas.

TAPHONOMY * THE PROCESSES BEFORE STILL APPLY IN THE

- Study of changes in biological remains from the time of death PRESENT
until their recovery and analysis. * Bone-altering processes today are applied to the past.

* “Taphonomy is everything that happens to a body after death.” TAPHONOMIC PROCESS

* Standard aspect of forensic anthropology - How the bone became modified, such as trampling, sediment
agitation, or digestion.
INFORMATION
1. The environment. * *Effect of sediment (i.e., gnawing)
* Terrestrial? Buried? Water?
2. Effects from nonhuman biological or environmental agencies FORENSIC TAPHONOMY
and modifications caused by human agencies. - The least-quantified analytical subfield of forensic anthropology
* Actual modification of bones (NOT NORMAL); can be caused * It is hard to measure decomposition.
by humans or non-humans. (Such as decomposition rate)
3. Postmortem history of the remains.
* Decomposition process (specifically entomology)
4. To estimate the PMI.

NEED FOR RESEARCH

- Lacks basic research in some areas.
EFFECT ON BONES * Especially regarding human (or other species acting as a
- Macro and micro alterations proxy) skeletal degradation across a range of environments
- Present and missing skeletal elements over prolonged periods.
- Lacks comprehensive comparison of common taphonomic
* *What’s missing may tell a story observations.
* *(Inventory - the 1st thing done by anthropologist) * Confusion may occur when making observations and
interpreting them.
 * Ex: mineralization, surface cracking, marks from plant roots, TAPHONOMIC SIGNATURE
- What is it? thermal alteration - Some taphonomic suites of characteristics are very basic and
- How old is it? require little elaboration.
- From what context does it come? CONTEXTUAL INFO
- Can help in the elimination of multiple scenarios. BONE DESTRUCTION AND ATTRITION
NON-OSSEOUS * What forces have acted upon and altered those remains and
- No osseous remains can be cremains or replicas of human what it indicates about the history of those remains between FORENSIC TAPHONOMY
remains. the time of death and the time of analysis? - subfield of forensic anthropology
” FOR THIS TO HAPPEN, THIS SHOULD’VE HAPPENED”
* Are sometimes mistaken for bone. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY
* Can be a very useful source of taphonomic data within a given TEMPORAL INFO - skeletal remains are very important in the field of forensics, as
jurisdiction and supply useful specimens for teaching. - For the estimation of the PMI well as in archeological and paleontological sciences.
* Important part of the identification process, since it may
TIME SINCE DEPOSITION greatly help narrow the range of possible identities for a given BONES
- Has some correlation with the location of the deposition since set of remains. - Contain organic and inorganic materials that can be analyzed to
some environments are unlikely to preserve remains long-term? * Integral to the establishment of the order of taphonomic learn about past life.
changes as they occur. * (paleo - mya; archeo - h/tya; forensics - days/months)
* Time since deposition has some correlation with the location * Once the body decays and only the bones remain, these bones
of deposition since some environments are unlikely to ALTERATIONS can still survive for a long time depending on their
preserve remains long-term. - The presence of postmortem alterations to the bone, if surroundings.
* Taphonomic process depends on the environment. misdiagnosed as perimortem trauma, can result in serious legal * The way the bone changes after death is called diagenesis and
ramifications for that case. can be affected by various factors (acidity of soil, disposition)
CONTEXT * NATURAL ALTERATION - may include details of death * *Relevant in forensic investigations
- Common contexts for recent remains: the cemetery. freshwater information of significance to law enforcement.
or marine environments, or their preparation and use as teaching HISTOLOGY
specimens or trophies. - one tool used during the investigation.
- the study of tissues and cells using a microscope
* *For the human remains that have been determined to have a - using histology, we can distinguish between changes due to
PMI less than the temporal limit for that jurisdiction, the disease and those due to the post-death process.
taphonomic analytical emphasis shifts to understanding the - determine: species; age at death.
context of the remains from the effects that the environment - Though the bone might look okay from the outside, it may have
caused undergone significant changes that can only be detected by
* *WHAT CAN WE INFER FROM THE FACTS studying it under a microscope.
AVAILABLE
* a detailed understanding of these changes cannot only prevent
INFORMATION LOSS misinterpretations but also add valuable insights regarding the
- Susceptible to destructive processes sequence of events after death.

* WE LOSE INFORMATION, ONCE DECOMPOSITION * A more detailed study of these changes could help improve
STARTS the identification of the early postmortem history of bones,
* *Ex: pubic bones, midfacial area, epiphyses, metaphysis, and lead to a more accurate estimate of PMI.
external rib-ends, DNA
BONE TAPHONOMY
INFORMATION GAIN
- Bones record their postmortem history by the alterations caused BIOEROSION
to them.
 - initial bane decay stage, patterns may reveal the initial burial “packing” or filling up of osteons until no original - Bone samples had undergone fungal alteration.
environment. microstructure is left. - No signs of bacterial alteration
* Time during bones can be affected by microorganisms, such * This process usually starts early postmortem, suggesting that it - The local environment remained reducing and anoxic.
as bacteria, fungi, and algae. is initiated during putrefaction and that soil bacteria become - Potential changes in the environment might pose further
involved in later stages of decay. preservation issues.
DIAGENESIS * micro-alteration
- changes in the home's chemical and structural composition b) FUNGAL ALTERATION BODY FARM AT TENNESSEE
changes. which can be driven by environmental conditions and * The result of absorption of solubilized organic and mineral - Observed was the presence of adipocere within bone pores, which
microorganisms present. bone components, where substances that attack bone are decreased with an increase in postmortem interval (PMI)
* Process is slow but may lead to complete bone mineralization. present inside and outside the fungal membranes. - No microbial alteration was observed in these samples.
* IT IS IMPORTANT AS IT CAN REVEAL THE * The presence of fungal alteration of bone is a reliable indicator
ENVIRONMENT AND PROCESSES AFFECTING THE of the presence of oxygen at the time of the alteration in the DENSITY
BONES, thus guiding preservation efforts, and aiding in the burial environment. - Described as mass-to-volume ratio.
interpretation of archeological findings. c) AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS
* Gives information regarding early taphonomic conditions that TRUE DENSITY – considers only the volume of the solid material
THIN-SECTION ANALYSIS influence the type and extent of bioerosion. and excludes pore space.

1. The Oxford Histological Index (OHI) TAPHONOMIC SIGNATURES BULK DENSITY – takes pore space into account.
* Used to semi-quantify and presence or absence of microbial - Bones degrade faster in acidic conditions and the presence of
alteration in bone. water, while temperature modulates the speed of biochemical SPECIFIC GRAVITY – a temperature-dependent measure of a
2. Bioerosion Index [BI] reactions, thus influencing the decay rate. material's density compared to water.
* Developed by Turner-Walker * Taphonomy refers to the process that affects the organisms' - Has significant implications on taphonomic and forensic
* Uses back-scattered electron-SEM and digital image remains leading to fossilization. processes?
analysis to quantify microbial alteration. * FACTORS THAT AFFECT PRESERVATION OF BONE: * Bone density influences how well a bone can withstand
* More precise than Oxford but more time-consuming and soil pH; acidic; aeration taphonomic processes.
only analyzes a small portion of the bone. * Bone is a porous material, and, as such, soil components or * Usage of single-beam photon to measure the density of
* Microscopic fissuring of the bone microstructure is hard to metals from artifacts can infiltrate the bone matrix different locations of bone.
quantify, as it is often irregularly spread across the bone, (infiltrations) as well as infill the natural bone pores * Different parts of bones have different densities or porosity
and multiple causes lead to cracking. (inclusions)
* The number of micro-fissures in bone can be quantified as a  In some cases, infiltration of material like copper or BONE FREQUENCIES
percentage of cracked and non-cracked bone basic structural humic acids can contribute to the structural, if not * How well a bone can survive.
units. biomolecular, preservation of bone by inhibiting the - Categorizing skeletal parts and tallying the number of identified
* Other types of diagenetic change, such as the inclusion of actions of microorganisms specimens (NISP) per category
foreign material in the natural bone pores, infiltration of * Determine local conditions and environment. - Determine the minimum number of elements (MNE) per
foreign material into the bone matrix (common examples category.
are humic factors or metallic ions), or a decrease in natural TEMPERATURE - MNE signifies the smallest possible number of bone parts that
birefringence of the bone matrix. - Extreme temperatures can alter the color of bone and cause can account for the NISP.
cracking and fragmentation.
BIOEROSION - Bones can crack when frozen. and it could be caused by ice SURVIVORSHIP
* Degradation of bones by microbes expansion in the bone pores. * What bone survives
* An important process that is caused by a variety of organisms: * It does not appear that freezing damage would impair - Minimum number of animal units (MAU)
histological analysis of the sample, but it is also hard to - Bone—Bone-destruction graph
a) BACTERIAL ALTERATION
recognize, as the signature is similar to thermal alteration and % survivorship = MAU (part) / Max observed MAU x 100
* As viewed in transversal thin sections of bone usually
other diagenetic changes. * ATTRITION - is determined by looking at the direct
originate from the vascular (Haversian) canals and proceed by
relationship between bone density and its survival rate.
SWIFTERBANT
 * Bones with a higher specific gravity tend to be more frequent - Vertebrates have significant ecological effects when they * DIFFERENT RATES OF AUTOLYSIS ARE OBSERVED
in a collection than those with a lower specific gravity. decompose. DUE TO VARYING METABOLIC ACTIVITIES AND
* Vertebrates have significant biological effects when they LYSOSOME COUNTS ACROSS CELLS
BONE SURVIVORSHIP decompose.
- Mineral density by circumference (BMDC) * Their decomposition results in a nutrient-rich hotspot that
- Differences were observed between right and left bone densities, supports a diverse ecological community, including
between male and female bone densities, and between African scavengers and microbes. --- called NECROBIOME
American and Caucasian bone densities. * Understanding how carrion and human bodies decompose is
* Previous studies found a negative correlation between the important for archeology and forensic anthropology as it
density of a bone and its movement in water flow (lower answers the questions WHEN, WHERE, HOW
density = bone moves less in water) - Animal proxies have their advantages in controlled lab
* Above is less replicable. More studies have been conducted experiments but may not perfectly represent human
with the usage of photon absorptiometry to measure the decomposition.
density of various sites of the bones. - Human-focused research facilities can provide more accurate
insights, but they face ethical, legal, and logistical hurdles.
CROW CREEK
- Remains of about 500 massacred American Indians from the * WILLIAM BASS – a key figure in forensic anthropology and
fourteenth century taphonomy, he established the 1st forensic anthropology
- Other factors such as carnivore gnawing and differential recovery outdoor decomposition research facility in 1981.
(bias in the recovery of certain parts over others) might have also
affected the observed frequencies of skeletal parts. AUTOLYSIS AND PUTREFACTION

INTRINSIC PROPERTIES AUTOLYSIS – Is the process where cells break down themselves after
1) BONE SIZE death.
2) BONE SHAPE * Due to self-enzymatic digestion STAGES OF SOFT TISSUE DECOMPOSITION
3) POROSITY * Starts within minutes after death, when cardiac arrest inhibits * Soft tissue decomposition presents key visual and biochemical
oxygen and blood circulation throughout the body and leads to changes that occur during decomposition.
* Could be a better predictor of skeletal preservation quality. a decline in intracellular pH. 1. Fresh
o Due to a loss in membrane integrity, cell lysosomes * *Decomposition starts upon death
INCONSISTENCIES release hydrolytic enzymes. Activated by the acidic * *Minimal maggot activity
- Long bones with unfused epiphyses tend not to survive bone- cytoplasmic space, these enzymes continue to destroy * *Muscle relaxation; mortises
gnawing carnivores as well as those with fused epiphyses. organelle and cell membranes as well as other 2. Early decomposition (Active Decay)
- Subsequent research has shown inconsistent relationships cellular structures and macromolecules. * *Begins 24hours after death
between bone density and ontogenetic age. * *Autolysis and putrefaction
PUTREFACTION – Involves the decomposition of the body * *Color change of body due to enzymes
MORE RESEARCH internally. * *Cadaver decomposition island/necrobiome
- Deeper understanding of the temporal sequence of decay * Due to unchecked growth of symbiotic gut bacteria in an 3. Advanced Decomposition
processes. aerobic environment after death * *Extensive mass loss due to continued insect activity
- Importance of a multivariate approach in modern taphonomic * Large macromolecules like lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and (maggots eat soft tissue)
research, considering factors such as bone size, shape, porosity, carbohydrates are catabolized by bacterial fermentation * *Body takes on a deflated and wrinkled appearance with
and associated soft tissue. leading to the production of organic acids and gases. initial skeletal exposure
- The critical role of scientific rigor, meticulous data collection, and * These gases cause bloating * *Flies are replaced by beetles
thoughtful analysis in advancing our knowledge in taphonomy. * AUTOLYSIS AND PUTREFACTION OCCUR 4. Skeletonization
SIMULTANEOUSLY * *More than 50% skeletal exposure
DECOMPOSITION RESEARCH
 * *Bones continue to interact with the environment through a * Decomposition has also been measured via the assessment of
process called diagenesis leading to chemical or microbial 5. Microbial activity the percentage of mass loss over time using the UNIVERSAL
bone degradation. * Research in recent years has shown that microbes play a POSTMORTEM INTERVAL ESTIMATION MODEL by
significant role in decomposition. Vass which measures soft tissue decomposition (REGION
5. Adipocere Formation and Mummification * Enteric bacteria are crucial in putrefactive processes in early SPECIFIC)
* *Can occur at any point of soft tissue decomposition decomposition.
* ADIPOCERE – aka grave wax results from the * Soil and microbes also contribute to decomposition. METHODS FOR ESTIMATING PMI
hydrogenation of free fatty acids to saturated fats. 6. Additional factors 1. Microbiome
* MUMMIFICATION – typically occurs in dry environments * i.e., presence of clothing, trauma, acidity, burial practices, * Reliable
and extreme temperatures halting decomposition due to seasonality, scavenging 2. Lipidomic
moisture loss. 7. Burials * The crucial components of cell membranes and their
* Tend to slow down decomposition by moderating temperature degradation could potentially be used to estimate PMI.
EXTRINSIC FACTORS changes and limiting scavenger access and insects. * Advances in mass spectrometry have allowed the study of
* Outside factors 8. Decomposition location cellular lipids on a large scale.
1. Temperature * Indoor v. outdoor 3. Proteomics
* The most important factor regulating decomposition rates * Large-scale study of proteins which also change predictably.
because it affects chemical and biological activities (enzyme INTRINSIC FACTORS * Some proteins can survive extreme decomposition
activity, reaction efficiency, insect activity, and microbial 1. Body size environments.
activity) * Cadaver mass affects how fast decomposition is. 4. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
* 13 degrees Celsius or lower = minimal insect activity * Larger mass results in more concentration of various * The decomposition process produces VOCs which emit a
* GENERAL RULE: The rate of enzymatic activity increases chemicals that can affect PMI. characteristic odor.
by 2-3x for every 10 degrees Celsius increase in temperature. * Some found smaller pig carcasses have faster decomposition. * These VOCs can be profiled.
2. Thermal energy units 2. Sex
* Researchers use accumulated degree days (ADD), * WLANG MASYADONG EFFCT SA DECOMPOSITON DNA IN SKELETAL REMAINS
accumulated degree hours (ADH), and cumulative degree 3. Age - Crucial in both anthropological and forensic contexts
hours (CDH) to account for and normalize the impact of * LIMITED STUDY BECAUSE MOST BODY DONATIONS * ARCHEOLOGY: The analysis of DNA from skeletal
temperature in decomposition. ARE FROM OLDER PEOPLE remains is crucial because DNA from bones and teeth can
* These thermal energy units are often incorporated in forensic 4. Human microbiome offer insights into past individuals and populations
entomology (insect development stages) * Aging, and drug use (still under debate) but still have effects - When soft tissues are unrecognizable, the examination of skeletal
3. Insect activity on decomposition rate. remains is often the only way to extract valuable information.
* 2nd most important rate-limiting factor * Condition of DNA in skeletal remains
* Flies (Diptera) and beetles (Coleoptera) primarily responsible PMI * Human identification of DNA genetic analysis is an essential
for soft tissue decomposition 1. Initial PMI estimation tool for positively identifying human skeletal remains. This
* The presence of insects can drastically accelerate the * Applied within 24-48hours – mortises. typically involves comparing a DNA profile from known
decomposition rate. 2. Insect colonization remains to an unknown profile.
4. Moisture * ADD, ADH, CDH
* The availability of water through humidity, precipitation, soil 3. Soft tissue change
moisture, and tissue moisture affects insect and microbial * Tends to be more qualitative than quantitative due to
activity. inconsistencies. DNA
* Certain bow flies are attracted to oviposition sites that are in * TOTAL BODY SCORE - used to quantify soft tissue 1. Nuclear DNA (nucDNA)
contact with water decomposition across 3 regions (Head and neck, torso, and * Used in most forensic investigations because of its extensive
* Moisture also affects microbial activity by mediating the appendages. Has high interobserver reliability and is critiqued variability across populations and differentiating between
diffusion of oxygen, nutrients, and wastes within an for flaws. individuals.
environment. * TBS IS STILL MOST RELIABLE 2. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
* Easy to acquire, can be geographically specific.
 3. Y-chromosome DNA * The type of DNA used in the examination can have A. ACIDIC SOIL (LOW PH)
* Inheritance pattern similar to mtDNA implications. - at pH levels lower than 5.5, aluminum and manganese can
* Beneficial in male-specific identification 7. Technological advances become highly available to the point of being toxic. At similarly
low pH levels, other elements like nitrogen, calcium,
DIAGENESIS OF DNA IN SKELETAL REMAINS COMPLEXITY OF DECOMPOSITION phosphorous, magnesium, and potassium become less available
* The molecular diagenesis of DNA in skeletal remains are - Complex interplay of biological and environmental factors in for absorption by plants.
changes that accumulate in DNA due to degradation, decomposition and DNA preservation B. SLIGHTLY ACIDIC TO NEUTRAL SOIL
modification, and interaction with the environment - Soft tissue decomposes relatively quickly under most conditions. - ideal soil conditions for most plants
(postmortem) - DNA in skeletal remains can be preserved for extended periods. C. ALKALINE SOIL (HIGH PH)
* This process starts immediately following cell death. - When the pH level of the soil is above 7, elements like iron, zinc,
a) Autolysis BURIED AND SURFACE REMAINS copper, boron, phosphorous, and manganese also become less
b) Strand breakage available for absorption by plants.
* Due to the autolytic process SOIL
c) Microbes in decomposition - The science of pedology (study of soil) is crucial to forensic SOIL DYNAMICS
d) Chemical modifications analysis. - soft tissue decomposition
* Hydrolytic and oxygenic damage could lead to DNA - soil characteristics (Buried bodies temporarily increase in acidity thus changing the
degradation. - soil formation soil environment)
- boot/glove taphonomy
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DNA DEGRADATION 5 LAYERS (Offer protection; decreases possible disturbance; has resistance
1. Molecular taphonomy 1. O HORIZON – decomposing plant matter to bacterial decay)
* Different molecules degrade at different rates. 2. A HORIZON – organic-rich topsoil - boreal forests
3. AP SUBHORIZON – “Plow zone”, undergone plowing (Coniferous forests (pines, etc.) often have a highly acidic topsoil
* DNA degradation is related to bone degradation.
disturbance. with a much more benign subsoil)
2. PMI
4. B HORIZON - where base minerals accumulate (This process can lead to a “melted face”)
* Depositional profile is crucial in DNA preservation.
5. C HORIZON - less-altered parent material
* Humidity
6. R HORIZON - broken-up local bedrock
3. Depositional Environment PLANTS AND OTHER BIOLOGICAL INVASION
* Easier to acquire DNA from bones that came from colder DEPTH OF BURIAL - plant roots are attracted to bones.
environments than those from hotter environments. - actual depths can vary from 1.5 to 12 feet. - root etching
4. Geochemistry - expedient or temporary burial is typically only as deep as (Plant roots also may destroy bone through the contact of the
necessary. roots, leaving behind a pattern of surface damage in the cortical
RECOVERABLE DNA FROM SKELETAL REMAINS - A high-water table can result in poor preservation (water can bone known as root etching)
1. Processing techniques cause mechanical and chemical erosion on bones; and can (Patterns are typically meandering and branching, with a U-
* Heat-based methods were generally most effective in cause displacement) shaped profile to the individual surface scores)
preserving DNA. - fungi can invade the porous structure of bone.
SOIL PH (Can invade pores of bones, leaving a rough eroded surface)
2. Embalming - Preservation of bones is highly influenced by soil’s pH. - Termites can consume buried bones.
* Embalming fluids could degrade DNA. - (soil’s pH is most acidic in the topsoil, due to the leeching of base
3. Skeletal element ions, decomposing organic matter releasing organic acids and OTHER FACTORS
* Better preserved bones could give better DNA samples. carbon dioxide) - bioturbation
4. Bone type - Acidic soil corrosion often results in significant changes in bone (Displacement/shifting of bones caused by various species)
* Compact bone generally has more DNA than spongy bones. morphology, creating a scooped, irregular surface where there - soil staining
5. Teeth was once smooth cortical bone. (Bone color will take on the color of the medium where they are
* Teeth are excellent reservoirs of DNA (molars) - (High acidity, high temperature, and high humidity cause bone to deposited)
6. Area of the genome degrade faster) (Can indicate previous burial)
- adipocere formation
 (Byproduct of fat tissue decomposition) - ice burials - other burial characteristics such as the orientation of the grave,
(Presence can imply protected and limited oxygen) (Frozen environment) the burial patterns, and the relative location of the grave to other
- mass burials - bog burials landmarks can give insights into cultural and societal practices.
(Some taphonomic processes are slowed down and co-mingling) (Wetlands characterized by the accumulation of decomposing
- plowing plant remains also have the potential to preserve soft tissue long- BONE WEATHERING (not buried)
(Help unearth and locate shallow burials, but also has the term) - Long exposure to the atmosphere
potential to damage remains) - can help determine the bone’s origin and past locations.
(May overwrite those earlier taphonomic alterations and obscure CEMETERY REMAINS - essential for estimating the post-mortem interval (PMI)
the prior history of burial) - coffin environment - can vary based on the environment.
(Coffins undergo gradual breakdown; only provide initial
SPECIAL NATURAL BURIAL ENVIRONMENTS protection) MECHANISMS
- mummification - coffin wear - loss of organic content
(Localized destruction of skeleton due to contact with coffin) - loss of moisture
- warping - surface layer bleaching
(Pushing down of sediment due to collapsed coffin) - cracking
- staining (The processes of degradation can be likened to the principle of
fatigue in material science, where repeated stress leads to
AUTOPSY AND EMBALMING cracking and failure)
- frequently found in modern cemetery burials
- can occasionally result in damage to skeletal remains. WEATHERING STAGES
(EMBALMING – Humans practiced a variety of procedures and - based on the pattern of linear cracking and flaking of the cortical
used chemicals to prevent putrefaction) surface, fibrous texture formation, and eventual loss of bone
(Extremities decompose the fastest in embalmed bodies) structure
- can indicate the duration of surface exposure, regardless of
COFFIN HARDWARE environmental conditions.
- SIX MAJOR CATEGORIES
a) handles ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
b) thumbscrews and escutcheons - solar radiation
c) plates (Exposure to UV light = bleaching)
d) cap lifters - moisture
e) decorative studs and white metal screws (Slows down weathering process)
f) tacks - heating and cooling
- crucial in determining the age of burials. (Bones experience repeated contraction and expansion causing
- viewing windows damage)
- iron coffins - freezing and thawing
(CONTEXT-DEPENDENT)
(Said hardware may be the only one remaining when the coffin MORE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
wood degraded) - mineral crystallization
(Caused by the formation and expansion of crystals within the
OTHER ARTIFACTS bone structure)
- clothing remnants such as buttons and other fasteners can provide - groundwater infiltration
clues about the period of burial (based on the materials used) - coffin burial
- Ceremonial offerings can be indicative of cultural or ethnic - terrestrial surface exposure
affiliations.
- burial fabrics and cushion fillings can provide information about PMI
burial practices. - macroenvironment
 - microenvironment (CORROSION = natural destructive environmental process that (Color changes on thermally altered bones represent a gradient of
- weathering alterations need to be distinguished from other forms leads to the decay or waste of most metals and alloys) burn intensity and duration from the outside to the inside of the
of taphonomic alteration. - iron (result in metal staining) bone)
- copper (greenish) (Can give Information on location and position of body in fire)
- mercury - carbonization
(The black color of carbonized bone indicates contact with an
DIVERSE INFLUENCES ORGANIC STAINING intense heat source)
- Environmental variables can greatly influence the decomposition (Green staining from moss and algae is the result of pigments) - calcination
and weathering of bones. - algae (Extremely fragile than carbonized bone)
- continued research to understand the complex processes better. (Determination of the postmortem submersion interval (PMSI))
- mosses
TAPHONOMIC CHANGES AND ALTERATIONS - root staining and etching COOKING
COLORS - decomposing plant material staining - physical changes to boiled bone include increased smoothness,
- bone staining and color changes lightness in color, and translucency compared to fresh, uncooked
- documenting bone color can be done using the Munsell Color OTHER STAINING bone.
chart. - mineral precipitates and other encrustations (Including techniques such as boiling and roasting; techniques
- similar color changes can be caused by different taphonomic - clothing dyes, residues from mold, bacteria, insects, and fats designed to raise the temperature of soft tissue and bone which
processes. within the bones, and substances linked to specific activities, such usually occur without actual combustion)
(Can hint at the post-depositional environment allowing for the as war trophies or ritual uses. - Boiling also leads to some bone collagen transforming into
reconstruction of the conditions of which it was found) gelatin.
YELLOWISH WHITE to YELLOWISH BROWN - fresh VALUABLE INFORMATION
unstained bone due to the presence of lipids and other bodily - depositional significance COMMERCIAL CREMATION
fluids) - postmortem interval - standard cremation procedures
(HEMOLYSIS or the breakdown of red blood cells can cause - post-cremation processing
areas of the bone to turn a dark reddish-brown color) FIRE - mass of cremated human remains (3.5% of body mass)
(DECOMPOSITION STAINING - dark reddish gray) (The modification of bodies and bones with fire starts with soft - surgical implants and dental restorations
tissues which insulate the bones with layers including muscle,
BLEACHING AND STAINING connective tissue, adipose tissues, and skin) COMBUSTION
- sun bleaching - color changes - usually follows a uniform, recognizable, and predictable pattern.
(Sun exposure; breaks down organic components such as blood, - The trunk and parts of the body closely associated with it survive
lipids, and proteins that continue to the bone’s color) burning longer than the head and the rest of the appendicular
(heat/fire exposure - a process called calcination; heat and fire can skeleton.
destroy organic materials in and around bones leaving behind the - The first areas to burn are usually the sternal ends and midshafts
inorganic components, which are white) of the external clavicles, the acromion process of the scapulae, the
- chemical staining sternum, the anterior ends, and the lower posterior external
(Chemicals may be used to whiten or degrease bones, the bone surface of the ribs, and the vertebral spinous processes.
color lightens as more organic components are removed, however
overprocessing can risk damaging the bone’s structural integrity) CONTEXT
(HYDROCHLORIC ACID = dark brown staining) - To differentiate between defects inflicted before thermal
(SODIUM HYDROXIDE = whiten bones) alteration and those resulting from burning, the expert must
- staining in skeletal teaching materials understand the dynamics of burning bodies as well as the context
- soil staining of the remains.
(Often the result of burial or contact with the soil surface; the - The context and condition of the bone and body at the time of
color of the stain is dependent on the soil composition) burning are essential factors when addressing complex questions
related to burning.
METAL STAINING
HEAT - bone floatation allows for rapid transport downstream without DIRECT MARINE ALTERATIONS TO BONE
- The state of the body significantly impacts burn patterns. leaving traces. - sediment and substrate abrasion
- The physical condition of bone changes at a different rate than - The two variables that govern bone transport in real fluvial - sediment embedding
that of soft tissues, which adds complexity to trauma analysis. systems are bone density and the bones' interaction with the - concretion
- fire can disguise or create “evidence” of trauma. riverbed. - bleaching and staining
- salt crystal formation
CHANGES FLUVIAL TAPHONOOMIC MIDIFICATIONS
- color classification often lacks detail and can be subjective. - bone smoothing, rounding, polish, scratches, gouges, frosting,
- challenges in distinguishing antemortem injuries, perimortem pitting, denting, chipping, grooves, cracking, and notches
injuries, and post-mortem damage in the context of healing - acid etching
altered bones. - bone degradation ADHERING MARINE TAXA
- necessary for more detailed research and better classification - discoloration - algae and kelp
methods to improve the accuracy and usefulness of these - invertebrate consumption - Bryozoa
techniques in forensic investigations. - sediment and foraminifera impaction - barnacles
- mollusks
MARINE ENVIRONMENT ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES - coral
RIVERS - Voorhies groups, equivalent particle diameters, relative transport
- natural events, accidents, suicides, and criminal activities potentials, transport index, mobility numbers, and observing MARINE BIOEROSION
- Searching for evidence or remains in rivers is a complex and slow bones in preferred orientations. - microboring
process. - sheet flow can carry bones into rivers. - invertebrate grazing traces
- osteophagous crab traces
DECAY IN FLUVIAL SYSTEMS MARINE ENVIRONMENT - worm borings
- different due to the flowing nature of the water, different biota, - death at sea, sea burials, homicides with bodies disposed of in the - mollusk borings
physical impact, and the varying influence of temperature and ocean, and the potential for bodies to be carried from rivers into - sponge borings
seasonality the ocean.
- PMI indicators are invertebrate succession, algal succession, and - bodies decompose more slowly in water than on land. LARGE VERTEBRATE PREDATORS & SCAVENGERS
the sequence of body decay. - most of the body floating on the water’s surface is submerged. - can leave traces on human bones in the form of digestive
- different marine environments can lead to drastically different corrosion and tooth marks.
FULL BODY TRANSPORT rates of decomposition. - Traumatic lesions from shark attacks are often confined to the soft
- factors such as the body’s bulk density (including clothing or tissue.
attached objects) and the state of decay influence the rate and DECOMPOSITION AND SCAVENGING
manner of transport in a water body. - natural floatation, bloating, and water pressure ESTIMATION OF PMSI FROM BONE CHANGES
- bodies often get trapped upstream of objects such as woody - adipocere formation - marine abrasion stages
debris or rocks, or in pools and eddies behind such obstructions. - estimation of the postmortem submergence interval (PMSI) from - fractured bone
- the longer a body is missing, the farther downstream it could have decomposition scoring - windowing
traveled. - complete lack of adhering soft tissue
MARINE TRANSPORT - fat leaching and adipocere
ARTICULATED UNIT TRANSPORT - The slow decomposition rate of remains in marine environments
- articulated units often move more during high-flow events. and the impact of current can lead to long-distance transport of
- articulation seems to increase transportability. bodies.
- The shape and dryness of the units influence their transport - The distance traveled by floating bodies can be significant,
potential. dependent on the current and the absence of land to halt progress.
- interpretations should primarily rely on the context of recovery. - As decomposition progresses, extremities such as hands, wrists,
feet, ankles, and the head are lost first, followed by the lower and
ISOLATED BONE TRANSPORT upper limbs.