FUNCTIONS:

When two variables are so related that one is dependent and another is
independent, then the dependent variable is known as function of independent
variable. For example, let us consider two variables x and y, which are related by
the equation y = 4x + 6. We see that if we take x = 1, then we get y = 10; if we take
x = 0, we get y = 6 and thus we see here that x is independent variable and y is
dependent variable. So we may say that y is the function of x which is denoted by
the symbol, y = f(x). Hence we may conclude that any expression containing a
variable is called a function of that variable. Thus (i) ax +10, (ii) 2x2 – 5x + 2, (iii)
t2 – 1 and (iv) et – 5, where the expressions (i) and (ii) are functions of x and the
expressions (iii) and (iv) are functions of t. The related variable on which the value
of the function depends is also known as argument of the function.

Introduction:
First of all we have to know some important terms, which are frequently used in
this lesson.

These are:

Constant:
A constant is a symbol - which never changes over the sets of mathematical
operation. For example, 1, 2, 3 are constants. The letter a, b, c --- are also
considered as constants which are specially know as arbitrary constants.

Variables:
A symbol capable of assuming different values is called a variable. Variable are
usually denoted by the letters of the alphabet; i.e., x, y,

Independent variable
A variable to which any value can be assigned is called an independent variable.
Independent variables are the causes and the dependent variables are the effects.

Dependent Variable
A variable whose value depends on the value of the independent variable is called a
dependent variable.

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 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
The types of functions are defined on the basis of the domain, range, and function
expression. The expression used to write the function is the prime defining factor
for a function. Along with expression, the relationship between the elements of the
domain set and the range set also accounts for the type of function. The
classification of functions helps to easily understand and learn the different types
of functions.
Every mathematical expression which has an input value and a resulting answer
can be conveniently presented as a function. Here we shall learn about the types of
functions and their definition, examples.

Different Types of Function are mentioned below:

The function y = f(x) is classified into different types of functions, based on factors
such as the domain and range of a function, and the function expression. The
functions have a domain x value that is referred as input. The domain value can be
a number, angle, decimal, fraction. Similarly, the y value or the f(x) value (is
generally a numeric value) is the range. The types of functions have been classified
into the following four types.

 Based on the Set Elements

 Based on Equation
 Based on Range
 Based on Domain

Representation of Functions

There are three different forms of representation of functions. The functions need
to be represented to showcase the domain values and the range values and the
relationship between them. The functions can be represented with the help of Venn
diagrams, graphical formats, and roster forms. The details of each of the forms of
representation are as follows.

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VENN DIAGRAM:

The Venn diagram is an important format for representing the function. The Venn
diagrams are usually presented as two circles with arrows connecting the element
in each of the circles. The domain is presented in one circle and the range values
are presented in another circle. And the function defines the arrows, and how the
arrows connect the different elements in the two circles.

GRAPHICAL FORM:

Functions are easy to understand if they are represented in the graphical form with
the help of the coordinate axes. Representing the function in graphical form, helps
us to understand the changing behavior of the functions if the function is increasing
or decreasing. The domain of the function - the x value is represented along the x-
axis, and the range or the f(x) value of the function is plotted with respect to the y-
axis.

ROSTER FORM:

Roster notation of a set is a simple mathematical representation of the set in

mathematical form. The domain and range of the function are represented in flower
brackets with the first element of a pair representing the domain and the second
element representing the range. Let us try to understand this with the help of a
simple example. For a function of the form f(x) = x2, the function is represented as
{(1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16)}. Here the first element is the domain or the x
value and the second element is the range or the f(x) value of these functin

LIST OF TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

The types of functions are classified further to help for easy understanding and
learning. The types of functions have been further classified into four different
types, and are presented as follows.

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  One One Function
 Many One Function
 Onto Function
Based on Elements
 One One and Onto Function
 Into Function
 Constant Function

 Identity Function
 Linear Function
Based on Equation  Quadratic Function
 Cubic Function
 Polynomial Functions

 Modulus Function
 Rational Function
 Signum Function
 Even and Odd Functions
Based on the Range
 Periodic Functions
 Greatest Integer Function
 Inverse Function
 Composite Functions

 Algebraic Functions
Based on the Domain  Trigonometric Functions
 Logarithmic Functions

Types of Functions - Based on Set Elements:

These types of functions are classified based on the number of relationships
between the elements in the domain and the codomain. The different types of
functions based on set elements are as follows.

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One One Function:

A one-to-one function is defined by f: A → B such that every element of set A is

connected to a distinct element in set B. The one-to-one function is also called an
injective function. Here every element of the domain has a distinct image or co-
domain element for the given function.

Many to One Function:

A many to one function is defined by the function f: A → B, such that more than
one element of the set A are connected to the same element in the set B. In a many
to one function, more than one element has the same co-domain or image. If a
many to one function, in the codomain, is a single value or the domain element are
all connected to a single element, then it is called a constant function.

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Onto Function:

In an, onto function, every codomain element is related to the domain element. For
a function defined by f: A → B, such that every element in set B has a pre-image in
set A. The onto function is also called a subjective function.

One One and Onto Function:

A function that is both a one and onto function is called a bijective function. Here
every element of the domain is connected to a distinct element in the codomain and
every element of the codomain has a pre-image. Also in other words every element
of set A is connected to a distinct element in set B, and there is not a single element
in set B which has been left out.

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Into Function:

Into function is exactly opposite in properties to an onto function. Here there are
certain elements in the co-domain that do not have any pre-image. The elements in
set B are excess and are not connected to any elements in set A.

Constant Function:

A constant function is an important form of a many to one function. In a constant

function, all the domain elements have a single image. The constant function is of
the form f(x) = K, where K is a real number. For the different values of the
domain(x value), the same range value of K is obtained for a constant function.

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Types of Function - Based on Equation:
The algebraic expressions are also functions and are based on the degree of the
polynomial. The functions based on equations are classified into the following
equations based on the degree of the variable 'x'.

The polynomial function of degree zero is called a Constant Function.

The polynomial function of degree one is called a Linear Function.
The polynomial function of degree two is called a Quadratic Function.
The polynomial function of degree three is a Cubic Function.
Let us understand each of these functions in detail.

Identity Function:

The identity function has the same domain and range. The identity function
equation is f(x) = x, or y = x. The domain and range of the identity function is of
the form {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4).....(n, n)}.

The graph of the identity function is a straight line that is equally inclined to the
coordinate axes and is passing through the origin. The identity function can take
both positive and negative values and hence it is present in the first and the third
quadrants of the coordinate axis.
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Linear Function:
A polynomial function having the first-degree equation is a linear function. The
domain and range of a linear function is a real number, and it has a straight line
graph. Equations such as y = x + 2, y = 3x, y = 2x - 1, are all examples of linear
functions. The identity function of y = x can also be considered a linear function.

The general form of a linear function is f(x) = ax + b, is used to represent objective

functions in linear programming problems. Here x, y are variables, and a, b are
real numbers. Graphically the linear function can be represented by the equation of
a line y = mx + c, where m is the slope of the line and c is the y-intercept of the
line.

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Quadratic Function:

A quadratic function has a second-degree quadratic equation and it has a graph in

the form of a curve. The general form of the quadratic function is f(x) = ax2 + bx +
c, where a ≠ 0 and a, b, c are constant and x is a variable. The domain and range of
the quadratic function is R.

The graph of a quadratic equation is a non-linear graph and is parabolic in shape.

Examples of quadratic functions are f(x) = 3x2 + 5, f(x) = x2 - 3x + 2.

Cubic Function:
A cubic function has an equation of degree three. The general form of a cubic
function is f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx +d, where a ≠ 0 and a, b, c, and d are real
numbers & x is a variable. The domain and range of a cubic function is R.

The graph of a cubic function is more curved than the quadratic function. An
example of cubic function is f(x) = 8x3 + 5x2 + 3.

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Polynomial Functio:
The general form of a polynomial function is f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-
2+ ..... ax + b. Here n is a nonnegative integer and x is a variable. The domain and
range of a polynomial function are R. Based on the power of the polynomial
function, the functions can be classified as a quadratic function, cubic function, etc.

Types of Functions - Based on Range

Here the types of functions have been classified based on the range which is
obtained from the given functions. The different types of functions based on the
range are as follows.

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Modulus Function:
The modulus function gives the absolute value of the function, irrespective of the
sign of the input domain value. The modulus function is represented as f(x) = |x|.
The input value of 'x' can be a positive or a negative expression. The graph of a
modulus function lies in the first and the second quadrants since the coordinates of
the points on the graph are of the form (x, y), (-x, y).

Rational Function:
A function that is composed of two functions and expressed in the form of a
fraction is a rational function. A rational fraction is of the form f(x)/g(x), and g(x)
≠ 0. The functions used in this rational function can be an algebraic function or any
other function. The graphical representation of these rational functions is similar to
the asymptotes, since it does not touch the axis lines.

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Signum Function:;
The signum function helps us to know the sign of the function and does not give
the numeric value or any other values for the range. The range of the signum
function is limited to {-1, 0, 1}. For the positive value of the domain, the signum
function gives an answer of 1, for negative values the signum function gives an
answer of -1, and for the 0 value of a domain, the image is 0. The signum function
has wide application in software programming.

Even and Odd Function:

The even and odd functions are based on the relationship between the input and the
output values of the function. For the negative domain value, if the range is a
negative value of the range of the original function, then the function is an odd
function. And for the negative domain value, if the range is the same as that of the
original function, then the function is an even function.

If f(-x) = f(x), for all values of x, then the function is an even function, and if f(-x)
= -f(x), for all values of x, then the function is an odd function. An example of
even functions are x2, Cosx, Secx, and an example of odd functions are x3, Sinx,
Tanx.

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Periodic Function:
The function is considered a periodic function if the same range appears for
different domain values and in a sequential manner. The trigonometric functions
can be considered periodic functions. For example, the function f(x) = Sinx, have a
range [-1, 1] for the different domain values of x = nπ + (-1)nx. Similarly, we can
write the domain and the range of the trigonometric functions and prove that the
range shows up in a periodic manner.

Inverse function:
The inverse of a function f(x) is denoted by f-1(x). For inverse of a function the
domain and range of the given function is changed as the range and domain of the
inverse function. The inverse of a function can be prominently seen in algebraic
functions and in inverse trigonometric functions. The domain of Sinx is R and its
range is [-1, 1], and for Sin-1x the domain is [-1, 1] and the range is R. The inverse
of a function exists, if it is a bijective function.

If a function f(x) = x2, then the inverse of the function is f-1(x) = √xx.

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Greatest Integer Function:
The greatest integer function is also known as the step function. The greatest
integer function rounds up the number to the nearest integer less than or equal to
the given number. Clearly, the input variable x can take on any real value.
However, the output will always be an integer. Also, all integers will occur in the
output set. Thus, the domain of this function is real numbers R, while its range is
integers (Z).

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The greatest integer function graph is known as the step curve because
of the step structure of the curve.The greatest integral function is
denoted as f(x) = ⌊x⌋. For a function taking values from [1, 2), the value
of f(x) is 1.
Composite Function:
The composite functions are of the form of gof(x), fog(x), h(g(f(x))), and is made
from the individual functions of f(x), g(x), h(x). The composite functions made of
two functions have the range of one function forming the domain for another
function. Let us consider a composite function fog(x), which is made up of two
functions f(x) and g(x).

Here we write fog(x) = f(g(x)). The range of g(x) forms the domain for the
function f(x). It can be considered as a sequence of two functions. If f(x) = 2x + 3
and g(x) = x + 1 we have fog(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x + 1) = 2(x + 1) + 3 = 2x + 5.

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 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS - BASED ON DOMAIN
Functions are used in all the other topics of maths. The functions have been
classified based on the types of equations used to define the functions. The
function equations generally have algebraic expressions, trigonometric functions,
logarithms, exponents, and hence are named based on these domain values. The
three broad types of functions based on domain value are as follows.

Algebraic Function:
An algebraic function is helpful to define the various operations of algebra. The
algebraic function has a variable, coefficient, constant term, and various arithmetic
operators such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division. An algebraic
function is generally of the form of f(x) = anxn + an - 1xn - 1+ an-2xn-2+ ....... ax
+ c.

The algebraic function can also be represented graphically. The algebraic function
is also termed as a linear function, quadratic function, cubic function, polynomial
function, based on the degree of the algebraic equation.

Trigonometric Functions:

The trigonometric functions also have a domain and range similar to any other
function. The six trigonometric functions are f(θ) = sinθ, f(θ) = cosθ, f(θ) = tanθ,
f(θ) = secθ, f(θ) = cosecθ. Here the domain value θ is the angle and is in degrees or
in radians. These trigonometric functions have been taken based on the ratio of the
sides of a right-angle triangle, and are based on the Pythagoras theorem.

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Further from these trigonometric functions, inverse trigonometric functions have
also been derived. The domain of the inverse trigonometric function is a real
number value and its range is an angle. The trigonometric functions and the inverse
trigonometric functions are also sometimes referred to as periodic functions since
the principal values are repeated.

Logarithmic Functions:
Logarithmic functions have been derived from the exponential functions. The
logarithmic functions are considered as the inverse of exponential functions.
Logarithmic functions have a 'log' in the function and it has a base. The
logarithmic function is of the form y = logax

Here the domain value is the input value of 'x' and is calculated using the Napier
logarithmic table. The logarithmic function gives the number of exponential times
to which the base has raised to obtain the value of x. The same logarithmic
function can be expressed as an exponential function as x = ay.

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Rate of Change

The rate of change of a function is the change in the value of the

dependent variable with respect to the change in the value of the
independent variable, i.e.,
Rate of change =( ∆f(x)/ ∆x) =(vertical change / horizontal change) = (Rise / run)
If the independent variable x increases by ∆x, the new value of the independent
variable is (x + ∆x). For a linear function
when f(x) = ax + b, the new value of the
dependent variable for change in x is f(x + ∆x) = a(x + ∆x) + b.
To determine the amount of change in the dependent variable as the
independent variable changes by ∆x, the old value of the dependent
variable, f(x) is subtracted from the new value of the dependent variable,
f(x + ∆x). That is, for the linear case,
∆f(x) = f(x + ∆x) – f (x) = a (x + ∆x)+ b – (ax + b)
=(ax + a∆x + b – ax – b) = a.∆x.
Hence for the linear case, the rate of change is
(∆f(x) / ∆x) =( a. ∆x / ∆x) = a

Notations for Functions

It x' is a variable of a function, then it is expressed as f(x), F(x), g(x), ...
f1(x), f2(x) ... which are basically called
functions of x. Similarly it may
be expressed as the f function of x, the F function of x... etc.
Again, if more than one variable (x, y, z) exist in a particular function, it can be
expressed as f(x, y), F(x, y, z). It is termed as the function of x

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and y, the F function of x, y, and zetc.
For example, If f(x) = 2x3 – 5x + 3 and F(x, y) = 3xc+5ey – 3xy,
then, f(p)=2p3 – 5p + 3 and F(b, d) = 3bc + 3ed – 3bd.
If the value of 'x' exists between a and b then it is termed as domain or
interval. If the interval is a ≤ x ≤ b, then it is called closed domain in
which the values of a and b are included.
Again if the interval is a <x <b, then it is called open domain, where
the mid values of a and b are included
only. The samples of functions
are presented as under:
f (x) = 3x + 5 → It is a linear function
f (x) = 3x2 – 3x + 8 → It is a quadratic function
f (x) = 4x3 – 9x2 + 3x – 6 →It is a cubic function.
The following examples illustrate the use of functions
Example-1:
If p(q) = q2 – r2 + 5 and h (r) = q2 – r2 + 5; what is (i) p (2) and (ii) h
(3)?
Solution:
(a) We are given, p(q) = q2 – r2 + 5
∴ p(2) = (22 – r2 + 5) = 9 – r2
(b) We are given, h (r) = q2 – r2 + 5
∴ h(3) = (q2 – 32 + 5) = q2 – 4

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 LIMIT
The concept of limit is an essential component of calculus . Limits are typically
the first idea of calculus that students study. Two fundam The ental concepts in
calculus—the derivative and the integral —are based on the limit concept. Limits
can be examined using three intuitive approaches: number sequences, functions,
and geometric shape.

A limit is defined as a value that a function approaches the output for the given
input values. Limits are important in calculus and mathematical analysis and used
to define integrals, derivatives, and continuity. It is used in the analysis process,
and it always concerns about the behaviour of the function at a particular point.
The limit of a sequence is further generalized in the concept of the limit of a
topological net and related to the limit and direct limit in theory category.
Generally, the integrals are classified into two types namely, definite and indefinite
integrals. For definite integrals, the upper limit and lower limits are defined
properly. Whereas in indefinite the integrals are expressed without limits, and it
will have an arbitrary constant while integrating the function. In this article, we are
going to discuss the definition and representation of limits, with properties and
examples in detail.

In mathematics the concept of limit formally expresses the notion of arbitrary

closeness. That is, a limit is a value that a variable quantity approaches as closely

as one desires. The operations of differentiation and integration from calculus are
both based on the theory of limits. The theory of limits is based on a particular
property of the real numbers ; namely that between any two real numbers, no

Page | 21
matter how close together they are, there is always another one. Between any two
real numbers there are always infinitely many more.

Nearness is key to understanding limits: only after nearness is defined does a limit
acquire an exact meaning. Relevantly, a neighborhood of points near any given
point comprise a neighborhood. Neighborhoods are definitive components of
infinite limits of a sequence.

HISTORY OF LIMITS :
Gregoire de Saint-Vincent gave the first definition of limit (terminus) of a
geometric series in his work Opus Geometricum (1647): ―The terminus of a
progression is the end of the series, which none progression can reach, even not if
she is continued in infinity, but which she can approach nearer than a given
segment.

The modern definition of a limit goes back to Bernard Bolzano who, in 1817,
introduced the basics of the epsilon-delta technique to define continuous functions.
However, his work was not known during his lifetime.

Augustin-Louis Cauchy in 1821,[5] followed by Karl Weierstrass, formalized the

definition of the limit of a function which became known as the (ε, δ)-definition of
limit.
The modern notation of placing the arrow below the limit symbol is due to G. H.
Hardy, who introduced it in his book A Course of Pure Mathematics in 1908.
Archimedes of Syracuse first developed the idea of limits to measure curved
figures and the volume of a sphere in the third century b.c. By carving these figures
into small pieces that can be approximated, then increasing the number of pieces,
the limit of the sum of pieces can give the desired quantity. Archimedes’ thesis,
The Method, was lost until 1906, when mathematicians discovered that
Archimedes came close to discovering infinitesimal calculus.

As Archimedes’ work was unknown until the twentieth century, others developed
the modern mathematical concept of limits. Englishman Sir Issac Newton and
German Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz independently developed the general
principles of calculus (of which the theory of limits is an important part) in the
seventeenth century.
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 TYPES OF LIMIT:

1.Real numbers

2. Infinity as a limit

3. Metric space

4. Function space
5. IN Functions

6. One-sided limit
7. Nonstandard analysis
8. Limit set of a trajectory

Explain the types of Limit

REAL NUMBERS
Main article: Limit of a sequence The expression 0.999… should be interpreted as
the limit of the sequence 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, … and so on. This sequence can be
rigorously shown to have the limit 1, and therefore this expression is meaningfully
interpreted as having the value.

Formally, suppose a1, a2, … is a sequence of real numbers. When the limit of the
sequence exists, the real number L is the limit of this sequence if and only if for

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every real number ε > 0, there exists a natural number N such that for all n > N, we
have |an – L| < ε.[8] The notation

{\displaystyle \lim _{n\to \infty }a_{n}=L}

{\displaystyle \lim _{n\to \infty }a_{n}=L}

Is often used, and which is read as

―The limit of an as n approaches infinity equals L‖

The formal definition intuitively means that eventually, all elements of the
sequence get arbitrarily close to the limit, since the absolute value |an – L| is the
distance between an and L.

Not every sequence has a limit. If it does, then it is called convergent, and if it does
not, then it is divergent. One can show that a convergent sequence has only one
limit.

The limit of a sequence and the limit of a function are closely related. On one
hand, the limit as n approaches infinity of a sequence {an} is simply the limit at
infinity of a function a(n)—defined on the natural numbers {n}. On the other hand,
if X is the domain of a function f(x) and if the limit as n approaches infinity of
f(xn) is L for every arbitrary sequence of points {xn} in {X – {x0}} which
converges to x0, then the limit of the function f(x) as x approaches x0 is L.[9] One
such sequence would be {x0 + 1/n}.

Infinity as a limit
There is also a notion of having a limit ―at infinity‖, as opposed to at some finite
{\displaystyle L}L. A sequence {\displaystyle \{a_{n}\}}\{a_{n}\} is said to ―tend
to infinity‖ if, for each real number {\displaystyle M>0}M>0, known as the bound,
there exists an integer {\displaystyle N}N such that for each {\displaystyle
n>N}n>N,

{\displaystyle |a_{n}|>M.}

{\displaystyle |a_{n}|>M.}

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That is, for every possible bound, the magnitude of the sequence eventually
exceeds the bound. This is often written {\displaystyle \lim _{n\rightarrow
\infty }a_{n}=\infty }{\displaystyle \lim _{n\rightarrow \infty }a_{n}=\infty } or
simply {\displaystyle a_{n}\rightarrow \infty }{\displaystyle a_{n}\rightarrow
\infty }. Such sequences are also called unbounded.

It Is possible for a sequence to be divergent, but not tend to infinity. Such

sequences are called oscillatory. An example of an oscillatory sequence is
{\displaystyle a_{n}=(-1)^{n}}{\displaystyle a_{n}=(-1)^{n}}.

For the real numbers, there are corresponding notions of tending to positive infinity
and negative infinity, by removing the modulus sign from the above definition:

{\displaystyle a_{n}>M.}

{\displaystyle a_{n}>M.}

Defines tending to positive infinity, while

{\displaystyle -a_{n}>M.}

{\displaystyle -a_{n}>M.}

Defines tending to negative infinity.

Sequences which do not tend to infinity are called bounded. Sequences which do
not tend to positive infinity are called bounded above, while those which do not
tend to negative infinity are bounded below.

METRIC SPACE
The discussion of sequences above is for sequences of real numbers. The notion of
limits can be defined for sequences valued in more abstract spaces. One example
of a more abstract space is metric spaces. If {\displaystyle M}M is a metric space
with distance function {\displaystyle d}d, and {\displaystyle \{a_{n}\}_{n\geq
0}}{\displaystyle \{a_{n}\}_{n\geq 0}} is a sequence In {\displaystyle M}M, then
the limit (when it exists) of the sequence is an element {\displaystyle a\in M}a\in

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M such that, given {\displaystyle \epsilon >0}\epsilon >0, there exists an
{\displaystyle N}N such that for each {\displaystyle n>N}n>N, the equation

{\displaystyle d(a,a_{n})<\epsilon }

{\displaystyle d(a,a_{n})<\epsilon }

Is satisfied.

An equivalent statement is that {\displaystyle a_{n}\rightarrow a}{\displaystyle

a_{n}\rightarrow a} if the sequence of real numbers {\displaystyle
d(a,a_{n})\rightarrow 0}{\displaystyle d(a,a_{n})\rightarrow 0}.

Example:
An important example is the space of {\displaystyle n}n-dimensional real vectors,
with elements {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} =(x_{1},\cdots ,x_{n})}{\displaystyle
\mathbf {x} =(x_{1},\cdots ,x_{n})} where each of the {\displaystyle x_{i}}x_{i}
are real, an example of a suitable distance function is the Euclidean distance,
defined by

{\displaystyle d(\mathbf {x} ,\mathbf {y} )=|\mathbf {x} -\mathbf {y} |={\sqrt
{\sum _{i}(x_{i}-y_{i})^{2}}}.}

{\displaystyle d(\mathbf {x} ,\mathbf {y} )=|\mathbf {x} -\mathbf {y} |={\sqrt
{\sum _{i}(x_{i}-y_{i})^{2}}}.}

The sequence of points {\displaystyle \{\mathbf {x} _{n}\}_{n\geq

0}}{\displaystyle \{\mathbf {x} _{n}\}_{n\geq 0}} converges to {\displaystyle
\mathbf {x} }\mathbf {x} if the limit exists and {\displaystyle |\mathbf {x} _{n}-
\mathbf {x} |\rightarrow 0}{\displaystyle |\mathbf {x} _{n}-\mathbf {x}
|\rightarrow 0}.

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 FUNCTION SPACE
This section deals with the idea of limits of sequences of functions, not to be
confused with the idea of limits of functions, discussed below.

The field of functional analysis partly seeks to identify useful notions of

convergence on function spaces. For example, consider the space of functions from
a generic set {\displaystyle E}E to {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }\mathbb {R} .
Given a sequence of functions {\displaystyle \{f_{n}\}_{n>0}}{\displaystyle
\{f_{n}\}_{n>0}} such that each is a function {\displaystyle f_{n}:E\rightarrow
\mathbb {R} }{\displaystyle f_{n}:E\rightarrow \mathbb {R} }, suppose that there
exists a function such that for each {\displaystyle x\in E}x \in E,

{\displaystyle f_{n}(x)\rightarrow f(x){\text{ or equivalently }}\lim

_{n\rightarrow \infty }f_{n}(x)=f(x).}

{\displaystyle f_{n}(x)\rightarrow f(x){\text{ or equivalently }}\lim

_{n\rightarrow \infty }f_{n}(x)=f(x).}

Then the sequence {\displaystyle f_{n}}f_{n} is said to converge pointwise to

{\displaystyle f}f. However, such sequences can exhibit unexpected behavior. For
example, it is possible to construct a sequence of continuous functions which has a
discontinuous pointwise limit.

Another notion of convergence is uniform convergence. The uniform distance

between two functions {\displaystylef,g:E\rightarrow \mathbb {R}
}{\displaystylef,g:E\rightarrow \mathbb {R} } is the maximum difference between
the two functions as the argument {\displaystyle x\in E}x \in E is varied. That is,

{\displaystyle d(f,g)=\max _{x\in E}|f(x)-g(x)|.}

{\displaystyle d(f,g)=\max _{x\in E}|f(x)-g(x)|.}

Then the sequence {\displaystyle f_{n}}f_{n} is said to uniformly converge or

have a uniform limit of {\displaystyle f}f if {\displaystyle f_{n}\rightarrow
f}{\displaystyle f_{n}\rightarrow f} with respect to this distance. The uniform
limit has ―nicer‖ properties than the pointwise limit. For example, the uniform
limit of a sequence of continuous functions is continuous.

Page | 27
Many different notions of convergence can be defined on function spaces. This is
sometimes dependent on the regularity of the space. Prominent examples of
function spaces with some notion of convergence are Lp spaces and Sobolev space.

IN FUNCTIONS:
Main article: Limit of a function

A function f(x) for which the limit at infinity is L. For any arbitrary distance ε,
there must be a value S such that the function stays within L ± ε for all x > S.

Suppose f is a real-valued function and c is a real number. Intuitively speaking, the

expression

{\displaystyle \lim _{x\to c}f(x)=L}\lim _{x\to c}f(x)=L

Means that f(x) can be made to be as close to L as desired, by making x

sufficiently close to c.[10] In that case, the above equation can be read as ―the limit
of f of x, as x approaches c, is L‖.

Formally, the definition of the ―limit of {\displaystyle f(x)}f(x) as {\displaystyle

x}x approaches {\displaystyle c}c‖ is given as follows. The limit is a real number
{\displaystyle L}L so that, given an arbitrary real number {\displaystyle \epsilon
>0}\epsilon >0 (thought of as the ―error‖), there is a {\displaystyle \delta >0}\delta
>0 such that, for any {\displaystyle x}x satisfying {\displaystyle 0<|x-c|<\delta
}{\displaystyle 0<|x-c|<\delta }, it holds that {\displaystyle |f(x)-L|<\epsilon
}{\displaystyle |f(x)-L|<\epsilon }. This is known as the (ε, δ)-definition of limit.

The Inequality {\displaystyle 0<|x-c|}{\displaystyle 0<|x-c|} is used to exclude

{\displaystyle c}c from the set of points under consideration, but some authors do
not include this in their definition of limits, replacing {\displaystyle 0<|x-c|<\delta
}{\displaystyle 0<|x-c|<\delta } with simply {\displaystyle |x-c|<\delta
}{\displaystyle |x-c|<\delta }. This replacement is equivalent to additionally
requiring that {\displaystyle f}f be continuous at {\displaystyle c}c.

Formally, the definition of the ―limit of {\displaystyle f(x)}f(x) as {\displaystyle

x}x approaches {\displaystyle c}c‖ is given as follows. The limit is a real number
{\displaystyle L}L so that, given an arbitrary real number {\displaystyle \epsilon
>0}\epsilon >0 (thought of as the ―error‖), there is a {\displaystyle \delta >0}\delta
Page | 28
>0 such that, for any {\displaystyle x}x satisfying {\displaystyle 0<|x-c|<\delta
}{\displaystyle 0<|x-c|<\delta }, it holds that {\displaystyle |f(x)-L|<\epsilon
}{\displaystyle |f(x)-L|<\epsilon }. This is known as the (ε, δ)-definition of limit.

ONE-SIDED LIMIT:
Main article: one-sided limit It is possible to define the notion of having a limit
―from above‖ or ―left limit‖, and a notion of a limit ―from below‖ or ―right limit‖.
These need not agree. An example is given by the positive indicator function,
{\displaystyle f:\mathbb {R} \rightarrow \mathbb {R} }f:\mathbb {R} \rightarrow
\mathbb {R} , defined such that {\displaystyle f(x)=0}f(x) = 0 if {\displaystyle
x\leq 0}x\leq 0, and {\displaystyle f(x)=1}f(x)=1 if {\displaystyle x>0}x>0. At
{\displaystyle x=0}x=0, the function has a ―left limit‖ of 0, a ―right limit‖ of 1, and
its limit does not exist.

Infinity in limits of functions

It is possible to define the notion of ―tending to infinity‖ in the domain of

{\displaystyle f}f,

{\displaystyle \lim _{x\rightarrow \infty }f(x)=L.}

{\displaystyle \lim _{x\rightarrow \infty }f(x)=L.}

In this expression, the infinity is considered to be signed: either {\displaystyle

+\infty }+\infty or {\displaystyle -\infty }-\infty . The ―limit of f as x tends to
positive infinity‖ is defined as follows. It is a real number {\displaystyle L}L such
that, given any real {\displaystyle \epsilon >0}\epsilon >0, there exists an
{\displaystyle M>0}M>0 so that if {\displaystyle x>M}{\displaystyle x>M},
{\displaystyle |f(x)-L|<\epsilon }|f(x) – L| < \epsilon. Equivalently, for any
sequence {\displaystyle x_{n}\rightarrow +\infty }{\displaystyle x_{n}\rightarrow
+\infty }, we have {\displaystyle f(x_{n})\rightarrow L}{\displaystyle
f(x_{n})\rightarrow L}.

It is also possible to define the notion of ―tending to infinity‖ in the value of

{\displaystyle f}f,

{\displaystyle \lim _{x\rightarrow c}f(x)=\infty .}

{\displaystyle \lim _{x\rightarrow c}f(x)=\infty .}

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The definition is given as follows. Given any real number {\displaystyle
M>0}M>0, there is a {\displaystyle \delta >0}\delta >0 so that for {\displaystyle
0<|x-c|<\delta }{\displaystyle 0<|x-c|<\delta }, the absolute value of the function
{\displaystyle |f(x)|>M}|f(x)|>M. Equivalently, for any sequence {\displaystyle
x_{n}\rightarrow c}{\displaystyle x_{n}\rightarrow c}, the sequence
{\displaystyle f(x_{n})\rightarrow \infty }{\displaystyle f(x_{n})\rightarrow \infty
}

NONSTANDARD ANALYSIS:
In non-standard analysis (which involves a hyperreal enlargement of the number
system), the limit of a sequence {\displaystyle (a_{n})}(a_{n}) can be expressed as
the standard part of the value {\displaystyle a_{H}}a_{H} of the natural extension
of the sequence at an infinite hypernatural index n=H. Thus,

{\displaystyle \lim _{n\to \infty }a_{n}=\operatorname {st}

(a_{H}).}{\displaystyle \lim _{n\to \infty }a_{n}=\operatorname {st} (a_{H}).}

Here, the standard part function ―st‖ rounds off each finite hyperreal number to the
nearest real number (the difference between them is infinitesimal). This formalizes
the natural intuition that for ―very large‖ values of the index, the terms in the
sequence are ―very close‖ to the limit value of the sequence. Conversely, the
standard part of a hyperreal {\displaystyle a=[a_{n}]}a=[a_{n}] represented in the
ultrapower construction by a Cauchy sequence {\displaystyle (a_{n})}(a_{n}), is
simply the limit of that sequence:

{\displaystyle \operatorname {st} (a)=\lim _{n\to \infty }a_{n}.}{\displaystyle

\operatorname {st} (a)=\lim _{n\to \infty }a_{n}.}

In this sense, taking the limit and taking the standard part are equivalent
procedures.

LIMIT SETS
Limit set of a trajectory
This notion is used in dynamical systems, to study limits of trajectories. Defining a
trajectory to be a function {\displaystyle \gamma :\mathbb {R} \rightarrow

Page | 30
X}{\displaystyle \gamma :\mathbb {R} \rightarrow X}, the point {\displaystyle
\gamma (t)}\gamma (t) is thought of as the ―position‖ of the trajectory at ―time‖
{\displaystyle t}t. The limit set of a trajectory is defined as follows. To any
sequence of increasing times {\displaystyle \{t_{n}\}}\{t_n\}, there is an
associated sequence of positions {\displaystyle \{x_{n}\}=\{\gamma
(t_{n})\}}{\displaystyle \{x_{n}\}=\{\gamma (t_{n})\}}. If {\displaystyle x}x is
the limit set of the sequence {\displaystyle \{x_{n}\}}\{x_{n}\} for any sequence
of increasing times, then {\displaystyle x}x is a limit set of the trajectory.

Technically, this is the {\displaystyle \omega }\omega -limit set. The

corresponding limit set for sequences of decreasing time is called the {\displaystyle
\alpha }\alpha -limit set.

An Illustrative example is the circle trajectory: {\displaystyle \gamma

(t)=(\cos(t),\sin(t))}{\displaystyle \gamma (t)=(\cos(t),\sin(t))}. This has no unique
limit, but for each {\displaystyle \theta \in \mathbb {R} }\theta \in {\mathbb {R}},
the point {\displaystyle (\cos(\theta ),\sin(\theta ))}{\displaystyle (\cos(\theta
),\sin(\theta ))} is a limit point, given by the sequence of times {\displaystyle
t_{n}=\theta +2\pi n}{\displaystyle t_{n}=\theta +2\pi n}. But the limit points need
not be attained on the trajectory. The trajectory {\displaystyle \gamma
(t)=t/(1+t)(\cos(t),\sin(t))}{\displaystyle \gamma (t)=t/(1+t)(\cos(t),\sin(t))} also
has the unit circle as its limit set.

LIMIT OF A SEQUENCE
Ancient Greek philosopher (of southern Italy) Zeno of Elea (c 490–c 430 BC) may
have been one of the first mathematicians to ponder the limit of a sequence and
wonder how it related to the world around him. Zeno argued that all motion was
impossible because in order to move a distance (l) it is first necessary to travel half
the distance, then half the remaining distance, then half of that remaining distance
and so on. Thus, he argued, the distance (l) can never be fully traversed.

Consider the sequence 1, ½, ¼, 1/8,. . .(1/2)n when n gets very large. Since (1/2)n
equals ½ multiplied by itself n times, (1/2)n gets very small when n is allowed to
become infinitely large. The sequence is said to converge, meaning numbers that

Page | 31
are very far along in the sequence (corresponding to large ―N‖) get very close
together and very close to a single value called the limit.

A sequence of numbers converges to a given number if the differences between the

terms of the sequence and the given number form an infinitesimal sequence. For
this sequence (1/2)n gets arbitrarily close to 0, so 0 is the limit of the sequence.
The numbers in the sequence never quite reach the limit, but they never go past it
either.

If an infinite sequence diverges, the running total of the terms eventually turns
away from any specific value, so a divergent sequence has no limiting sum.

LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
Consider an arbitrary function, y = f (x). (A function is a set of ordered pairs for
which the first and second elements of each pair are related to one another in a
fixed way. When the elements of the ordered pairs are real numbers, the
relationship is usually expressed in the form of an equation.) Suppose that
successive values of x are chosen to match those of a converging sequence such as
the sequence S from the previous example. The question arises as to what the
values of the function do, that is, what happens to successive values of y. In fact,
whenever the values of x form a sequence, the values f (x) also form a sequence. If
this sequence is a converging sequence then the limit of that sequence is called the
limit of the function. More generally when the value of a function f (x) approaches
a definite value L as the independent variable x gets close to a real number p then
L is called the limit of the function. This is written formally as:

Lim f(x) = l

X→p

And reads ―The limit of f of x, as x approaches p, equals L.‖ It does not depend on
what particular sequence of numbers is chosen to represent x; it is only necessary
that the sequence converge to a limit. The limit may depend on whether the
sequence is increasing or decreasing. That is the limit, as approaches p from above
may be different from the limit as x approaches p from below. In some cases, one
or the other of these limits may even fail to exist. In any case since the value of x is
approaching the finite value p the difference (p x) is approaching zero. It is this

Page | 32
definition of limit that provides a foundation for development of the derivative and
the integral in calculus.

There is a second type of functional limit: the limit as the value of the independent
variable approaches infinity. While a sequence that approaches infinity is said to
diverge, there are cases for which applying the defining rule of a function to a
diverging sequence results in creation of a converging sequence. The function
defined by the equation y = 1/x is such a function. If a finite limit exists for the
function.

KEY TERMS
Converge —To converge is to approach a limit that has a finite value.

Interval —An interval is a subset of the real numbers corresponding to a line

segment of finite length, and including all the real numbers between its end points.
An interval is closed if the endpoints are included and open if they are not.

Real Number —The set of numbers containing the integers and all the decimals
including both the repeating and nonrepeating decimals.

Sequence —A sequence is a series of terms, in which each successive term is

related to the one before it by a fixed formula.

Independent variable approaches infinity it is written formally as:Lim f (x) = L

X→∞

And reads ―The limit of f of x, as x approaches infinity, equals L.‖ It is interesting

to note that the function defined by y = 1/x has no limit when x approaches 0 but
has the limit L = 0 when x approaches ∞.

APPLICATIONS
The limit concept is essential to understanding the real number system and its
distinguishing characteristics. In one sense real numbers can be defined as the
numbers that are the limits of convergent sequences of rational numbers. One

Page | 33
application of the concept of limits is on the derivative. The derivative is A rate of
flow or change, and can be computed based on some limits concepts. Limits are
also key to calculating integrals (expressions of areas). The integral calculates the
entire area of a region by summing up an infinite number of small pieces of it.
Limits are also part of the iterative process. An iteration is repeatedly performing a
routine, using the output of one step as the input of the next step. Each output is an
iterate. Some successful iterates can get as close as desired to a theoretically

Example 01

Find the limit

Limit of function in example 1

Solution:

Note that we are looking for the limit as x approaches 1 from the left ( x → 1-1
means x approaches 1 by values smaller than 1). Hence

X<1

X–1<0

If x – 1 < 0 then

| x – 1 | = - (x – 1)

Substitute | x – 1 | by – (x – 1), factor the numerator to write the limit as followsct

value.

.Example02: Find limx→ae1x-a when x→a from the left hand as

well as form the right hand side.

Solution:

For L.H.S. limit, we have

Page | 34
Limx→a-e1x-a = lim⁡h→0e1a-h-a = limh→0e-1h

= lim⁡h→0e11h=0 for 1h→∞ as h→0

For the R.H.S. limit, we have

Limx→a-e1x-a=lim⁡h→0e1a+h-a= limh→0e-1h = ∞

Example03: Find the limit of 4x4+3x2-1x2+7 when x→1

Solution:

We have to find limx→14x4+3x2-1x2+7

Substituting x=1 in the expression we find that it comes out to

be a definite number 68 . Hence the required limit is 34 .

Example04: Evaluate limx→3x2+2x-15x2-9

Solution:

Replacing x by 3 in the expression, we get 00 , which

is intermediate, x-3 must therefore be a factor of the numerator

as well as of the denominator.

Factorising, we get

Limx→3x2+2x-15x2-9

= limx→3(x-3)(x+5)(x-3)(x+3)

= limx→3(x+5)(x+3)

= 86

= 43 ; By putting x=3

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Example05: Prove that limx→0a+x2- a-x2x2 = 1√a

Solution: We find that if we put x = 0, we get 00. In such cases

rationalising the numerator, we have

Limx→0a+x2- a-x2x2

= limx→0{a+x2-a+x2x2[(a+x2)- (a-x2)]}

= 2a+0+a-0

= 1√a

Example 6: Evaluate limx→01+x-1x

Solution:

Limx→01+x-1x

= limx→0[1+x-1x× 1+x+11+x+1

=limx→0[1+x-1x1+x+1]

= limx→011+x+1

=12

Example07: Evaluate :limh→0Fx+h-F(x)h where Fx= sin2x .

Solution:

Limh→0sinx+h-sin2xh

=limh→0sin2x+hsinhh

=limh→0[sin(2x+h)sinhh

=sin2x
Page | 36
Example08: Find limx→13+x- 5-xx2-1

Solution: Substituting x = 1, we get 00 , hence by rationalizing,

Limx→13+x- 5-xx2-1

= limx→13+x- 5-x[3+x+ 5-x](x2-1)[3+x+ 5-x]

=limx→1(3+x)-(5-x)x+1x-1[3+x+ 5-x]

=limx→12x-2x+1x-1[3+x+ 5-x]

=limx→12(x-1)x+1x-1[3+x+ 5-x]

=limx→12x+1[3+x+ 5-x]

= 21+1[3+1+ 5-1]

= 14

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 CONTINUITY

A function is said to be continuous if and only if it is continuous at everypoint of

its domain. A function is said to be continuous on an interval, or subset of its
domain, if and only if it is continuous at each point of the interval.The sum,
difference, and product of continuous functions with the same domain are also
continuous, as is the quotient, except at points at which the denominator is zero.
Continuity can also be defined in terms of limits by saying that f(x) is continuous
at x0 of its domain if and only if, for values of x in its domain. Continuity, in
mathematics, rigorous formulation of the intuitive concept of a function that varies
with no abrupt breaks or jumps. A function is a relationshipin which every value of
an independent variable—say x—is associated with avalue of a dependent
variable—say y. Continuity of a function is sometimesexpressed by saying that if
the x-values are close together, then the y-valuesof the function will also be close.

A function f(x) is said to be continuous in an open or closed interval if it is

continuous at all points in the interval. For example, the function f(x) = x2 is
continuous in the closed interval -4 ≤ x ≤ 3 when it is continuous at every point

in the interval. If the function f(x) is not continuous at x = a, we say that the
function f(x) is discontinuous at x = a and the point x = a is called a point of
discontinuity of the function. The function f(x) is said to be discontinuous at x =a
if, (i) f(a) is undefined i.e. f(x) does not possess a definite finite value at x = a or,
(ii) ax lim → f(x) does not exist or, (iii) ax lim → f(x) exists but ax lim → f(x)≠
f(a)

Continuity of a function:
The important concept of continuity of a function is developed from the

theory of limit. A function 'f' is continuous at x = a if and only if all of the

following conditions apply to f at a.

1) f(a) is defined, i.e., the domain of f includes x = a;

Page | 38
2) ax lim → f(x) exists;

3) ax lim → f(x) = f(a), whether x approaches to a from the left or from the
right.Continuity Theorem:

Theorem 1: Let the function f(x) be continuous at x=a and let C be a

constant. Then the function Cf(x) is also continuous at x=a.

Theorem 2: Let the functions f(x) and g(x) be continuous at x=a. Then the

sum of the functions f(x)+g(x) is also continuous at x=a.

Theorem 3: Let the functions f(x) and g(x) be continuous at x=a. Then the product
of the functions f(x)g(x) is also continuous at x=a.

Theorem 4: Let the functions f(x) and g(x) be continuous at x=a. Then the quotient
of the functions f(x)g(x) is also continuous at x=a assuming that

g(a) =0 Theorem 5; Let f(x) be differentiable at the point x=a. Then the function
f(x) is continuous at that point.

Some problems on Function:

Let f(x)=x2 Let x=−3

f (−3) = (−3)2

=9

f(x) = - 2 x 2 + 6 x – 3

f (-2) = - 2 (-2) 2 + 6 (-2) - 3

f (-2) = -23

h(x) = 3 x 2 - 7 x – 5

h (x - 2) = 3 (x - 2) 2 - 7 (x - 2) - 5

h (x - 2) = 3 (x 2 - 4 x + 4) - 7 x + 14 - 5

Page | 39
= 3 x 2 - 19 x + 7

f(x) = - 7 x - 5 and g(x) = 10 x – 12. find (f + g) (x)

(f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x) = (- 7 x - 5) + (10 x - 12) (f + g) (x) = 3 x – 17

f(x) = x 2 -2 x + 1 and g(x) = (x - 1) (x + 3) find (f / g) (x) and its domain (f / g) (x)

= f(x) / g(x) = (x 2 -2 x + 1) / [ (x - 1) (x + 3)]

(f / g) (x) = f(x) / g(x) = (x - 1) 2 / [ (x - 1)(x + 3)]

=(x-1)/(x-3)

APPLICATION OF THE TERMS OF FUNCTIONS IN BUSINESS

AND ECONOMICS:
Functions can be applied in situations where a variable (e.g., cost) depends upon
another variable.

A business firm produces only one product and Q is the amount of that product and
C is the total cost of

production, then we can apply the concept of univariate functions, that is c= f (Q)

Which tells us that the total cost (C) of the business firm depends upon the amount
of output (Q)

produced (Q).

Business Example: A particular business has the following total cost function:
C=f(Q)=150 + 7Q

If the business produces 10 units, then Q = 10, and C=f(10) =150 + 7(10)=220

We may conclude (interpret) from the above analysis that the total cost of
producing 10 units is $ 220.

Page | 40
Similarly, if the revenue (R) of the business firm depends only upon the output (Q)
then we may write:

R = f (Q)

Business Example: If the revenue function of the same business is: R=20Q

then the profit function of the business can be derived:

π=R-C =20Q-150- 7Q

Now, if the business produces and sells 500 units, then,

π=20(500)-150 - 7(500) = 6350

So, we may conclude (interpret) from the last line that if the business produces and
sells 500 units then it will make a profit of $ 6350.

Page | 41
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Integral Calculus is the branch of calculus where we study integrals and their
properties. Integration is an essential concept which is the inverse process of
differentiation. Both the integral and differential calculus are related to each
other by the fundamental theorem of calculus. In this articl you will learn what
is integral calculus, why it is used, its types, formulas, examples, and
applications of integral calculus in detail.

If we know the f‟ of a function that is differentiable in its domain, we can then

calculate f. In differential calculus, we used to call f‟, the derivative of the
function f. In integral calculus, we call f the anti-derivative or primitive of the
function f‟. And the process of finding the anti-derivatives is known as anti-
differentiation or integration. As the name suggests, it is the inverse of finding
differentiation.

We are given a function of x and we try to find another function whose

derivative is always the given function. This is exactly the problem of integral
calculus. Integration, therefore, is the called the inverse pprocess of
differentiation. For example, the function whose derivative is cos x is sin x.

Sin x is called the primitive or anti derivative or the integral of cos x.

Definition: If be any differentiable function of (∅) xsuch that d/dx [ ∅x)] f(x)
then ∅(x), is called an anti-denivative or a or an indefinite integral or simply an
integral of f(x).symbolically this is writter as

∅ (x)= ∫ f(x)dx

And is read as “ ∅(x) is the integral of f(x) w.r.t.x''.

The process of finding the integral of a given function is called integration and
the given function is
called the integrand.

Page | 87
Remarks:

1.The symbol, ∫ used for „integral' is a distorted from of the letter s,the first lrtter
of the word „sum‟.This is because originally “integral “ was defined as the sum
of a certain infinite series.

2.The symbol ∫dx is purely a symbol of operation, which means of with respect
to x. and dx mean nothing when taken separately.

3. From the definition of anti-derivative it is clear that d/dx*∫f(X)dx+=f(X

Types of Integrals
Integration can be classified into two different categories, namely,

1.Definite Integral

2.Indefinite Integral

DEFINITE INTEGRAL
Definition
The definite integral of a real-valued function f(x) with respect to a real variable
x on an interval [a, b] is expressed as

Here,

∫ = Integration symbol

a = Lower limit

b = Upper limit

Page | 88
f(x) = Integrand

dx = Integrating agent

Thus, ∫ab f(x) dx is read as the definite integral of f(x) with respect to dx from a
to b.

Definite Integral as Limit of Sum

The definite integral of any function can be expressed either as the limit of a
sum or if there exists an antiderivative F for the interval [a, b], then the definite
integral of the function is the difference of the values at points a and b. Let us
discuss definite integrals as a limit of a sum. Consider a continuous function f in
x defined in the closed interval [a, b]. Assuming that f(x) > 0, the following
graph depicts f in x.

Page | 89
The integral of f(x) is the area of the region bounded by the curve y = f(x). This
area is represented by the region ABCD as shown in the above figure. This
entire region lying between [a, b] is divided into n equal subintervals given by
[x0, x1], [x1, x2], …… [xr-1, xr], [xn-1, xn].

Let us consider the width of each subinterval as h such that h → 0, x0 = a, x1 =

a + h, x2 = a + 2h,…..,xr = a + rh, xn = b = a + nh

and n = (b – a)/h

Also, n→∞ in the above representation.

Now, from the above figure, we write the areas of particular regions and
intervals as:

Area of rectangle PQFR < area of the region PQSRP < area of rectangle
PQSE ….(1)

Since. h→ 0, therefore xr– xr-1→ 0. The following sums can be established as;
Page | 90
From the first inequality, considering any arbitrary subinterval [xr-1, xr] where r
= 1, 2, 3….n, it can be said that sn< area of the region ABCD <Sn

Since, n→∞, the rectangular strips are very narrow, it can be assumed that the
limiting values of sn and Sn are equal, and the common limiting value gives us
the area under the curve, i.e.,

From this, it can be said that this area is also the limiting value of an area lying
between the rectangles below and above the curve. Therefore,

This is known as the definition of definite integral as the limit of sum.

Page | 91
Definite Integral by Parts
Below are the formulas to find the definite integral of a function by splitting it
into paDefinite Integral by Parts

Below are the formulas to find the definite integral of a function by splitting it
into parts.

∫02a f (x) dx = ∫0a f (x) dx + ∫0a f (2a – x) dx

∫02a f (x) dx = 2 ∫0a f (x) dx … if f(2a – x) = f (x).

∫02a f (x) dx = 0 … if f (2a – x) = – f(x)

∫-aa f(x) dx = 2 ∫0a f(x) dx … if f(- x) = f(x) or it is an even function

∫-aa f(x) dx = 0 … if f(- x) = – f(x) or it is an odd function

∫02a f (x) dx = ∫0a f (x) dx + ∫0a f (2a – x) dx

∫02a f (x) dx = 2 ∫0a f (x) dx … if f(2a – x) = f (x).

∫02a f (x) dx = 0 … if f (2a – x) = – f(x)

∫-aa f(x) dx = 2 ∫0a f(x) dx … if f(- x) = f(x) or it is an even function

∫-aa f(x) dx = 0 … if f(- x) = – f(x) or it is an odd function

Definite Integral Properties

Below is the list of some essential properties of definite integrals. These will
help evaluate the definite integrals more efficiently.

∫ab f(x) dx = ∫ab f(t) d(t)

∫ab f(x) dx = – ∫ba f(x) dx

∫aa f(x) dx = 0

∫ab f(x) dx = ∫ac f(x) dx + ∫cb f(x) dx

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∫ab f(x) dx = ∫ab f(a + b – x) dx

∫0a f(x) dx = f(a – x) dx

Definite Integral Examples

Example 1:

Evaluate the value of ∫23 x2 dx.

Solution:

Let I = ∫23 x2 dx

Now, ∫x2 dx = (x3)/3

Now, I = ∫23 x2 dx = [(x3)/3]23

= (33)/3 – (23)/3

= (27/3) – (8/3)

= (27 – 8)/3

= 19/3

Therefore, ∫23 x2 dx = 19/3

Example 2:

Calculate: ∫0π/4 sin 2x dx

Solution:

Let I = ∫0 π/4 sin 2x dx

Now, ∫ sin 2x dx = -(½) cos 2x

I = ∫0 π/4 sin 2x dx

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= [-(½) cos 2x]0π/4

= -(½) cos 2(π/4) – {-(½) cos 2(0)}

= -(½) cos π/2 + (½) cos 0

= -(½) (0) + (½)

= 1/2

INDEFINITE INTEGRALS
Definition
An integral which is not having any upper and lower limit is known as an
indefinite integral.

Mathematically, if F(x) is any anti-derivative of f(x) then the most general

antiderivative of f(x) is called an indefinite integral and denoted,

∫f(x) dx = F(x) + C

We mention below the following symbols/terms/phrases with their meanings in

the table for better understanding.

Symbols/Terms/Phrases Meaning
∫ f(x) dx Integral of f with respect to x
f(x) in ∫ f(x) dx Integrand
x in ∫ f(x) dx Variable of integration
An integral of f A function F such that F′(x) = f (x)
Integration The process of finding the integral
Constant of Integration Any real number C, considered as
constant function

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Indefinite Integral Formulas
The list of indefinite integral formulas are

∫ 1 dx = x + C

∫ a dx = ax + C

∫ xn dx = ((xn+1)/(n+1)) + C ; n ≠ 1

∫ sin x dx = – cos x + C

∫ cos x dx = sin x + C

∫ sec2x dx = tan x + C

∫ cosec2x dx = -cot x + C

∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + C

∫ cosec x cot x dx = -cosec x + C

∫ (1/x) dx = ln |x| + C

∫ ex dx = ex + C

∫ ax dx = (ax/ln a) + C ; a > 0, a ≠ 1

Indefinite Integrals Examples

Go through the following indefinite integral examples and solutions given
below:

Example 1:

Evaluate the given indefinite integral problem: ∫6x5 -18x2 +7 dxd

Solution:

Given,
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∫6x5 -18x2 +7 dx

Integrate the given function, it becomes:

∫6x5 -18x2 +7 dx = 6(x6/6) – 18 (x3/3) + 7x + C

Note: Don‟t forget to put the integration constant “C”

After simplification, we get the solution

Thus, ∫6x5 -18x2 +7 dx = x6-6x3+ 7x+ C

Example 2:

Evaluate f(x), given that f „(x) = 6x8 -20x4 + x2 + 9

Solution:

Given,

f „(x) = 6x8 -20x4 + x2 + 9

We know that, the inverse process of differentiation is an integration.

Thus, f(x) = ∫f „(x) dx=∫[6x8 -20x4 + x2 + 9] dx

f(x) = (2/3)x9 – 4x5 +(1/3)x3 + 9x+ C

Indefinite Integral vs Definite Integral

An indefinite integral is a function that practices the antiderivative of another
function. It can be visually represented as an integral symbol, a function, and
then a dx at the end. The indefinite integral is an easier way to signify getting

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the antiderivative. The indefinite integral is similar to the definite integral, yet
the two are not the same. The below figure shows the difference between
definite and indefinite integral.

List of Integral Formulas:

The list of basic integral formulas are

∫ 1 dx = x + C

∫ a dx = ax+ C

∫ xn dx = ((xn+1)/(n+1))+C ; n≠1

∫ sin x dx = – cos x + C

∫ cos x dx = sin x + C

∫ sec2x dx = tan x + C

∫ csc2x dx = -cot x + C

∫ sec x (tan x) dx = sec x + C

∫ csc x ( cot x) dx = – csc x + C

∫ (1/x) dx = ln |x| + C

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∫ ex dx = ex+ C

∫ ax dx = (ax/ln a) + C ; a>0, a≠1

These integral formulas are equally important as differentiation formulas. Some

other important integration formulas are:

Classification of Integral Formulas

The above listed integral formulas are classified based on following functions.

1.Rational functions
2.Irrational functions
3.Trigonometric functions
4.Inverse trigonometric functions
5.Hyperbolic functions
6.Inverse hyperbolic functions
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7.Exponential functions
8.Logarithmic functions
9.Gaussian functions

Methods of Finding Integrals of Functions

We have different methods to find the integral of a given function in integral
calculus. The most commonly used methods of integration are:

1.Integration by Parts

2.Integration using Substitution

Uses of Integral Calculus

Integral Calculus is mainly used for the following two purposes:

1.To calculate f from f‟. If a function f is differentiable in the interval of

consideration, then f‟ is defined. In differential calculus, we have already seen
how to calculate derivatives of a function, and we can “undo” that with the help
of integral calculus.

2.To calculate the area under a curve.

Importance of Integral calculus:

Calculus is used to improve the architecture not only of buildings but also of
important infrastructures such as bridges. In Electrical Engineering. Calculus is
used in determine the exact length of power cable needed to connect two
substations, which are miles away from each other.Integration breaks the region
apart from the unlimited vertical rectangles of equal width allows
mathematicians to calculate volumes, area,and precisions.If you differentiate a
function and then integrate it, it will always take you back to where you started.
Calculus is used in lots of fields, physics,Engineering, medicine,economic,
biology,space exploration, statistics, pharmacology and many more.Whiteout
calculus architects and engineers couldn‟t build safe structures

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Application of Integral Calculus
The important applications of integral calculus are as follows. Integration is
applied to find:

>The area between two curves

>Centre of mass

>Kinetic energy

>Surface area

>Work

>Distance, velocity and acceleration

>The average value of a function

>Volume

Integral Calculus Examples

Below are the Integral Calculus Problems and Solutions.

Example 1.

Find the integral of e3x

Solution:

∫ d/dx(f(x)) = ∫ d/dx( e3x)

We know this is of the form of integral, ∫ d/dx( eax) = 1/a eax + C

∫ d/dx( e3x) = 1/3 e3x + C

Answer: The integral of e3x = 1/3 e3x + C

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Example 2:

Find the integral of cos2n with respect to n.

Solution:

Let f(n) = cos2n

we know that 2 cos2A = cos 2A + 1

So, f(n) = (1/2)(cos 2n + 1)

Let us find the integral of f(n).

∫f(n) dn = ∫(1/2)(cos 2n + 1) dn

= (1/2) ∫(cos 2n + 1) dn

= (1/2) ∫cos 2n dn + (1/2)∫1 dn

= (1/2) (sin 2n/2) + (1/2) n + C

= (sin 2n/4) + (n/4) + C

(1/4)[sin 2n + n] + C

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 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY

The subject co-ordinate geometry is that particular branch of mathematics in

which geometry is studied with the help of algebra. There are all sorts of
ways that we can find the measurements of lines and angles. We can use
rulers to measure lines and protractors to measure angles. This branch of
mathematics was first introduced by the great French Philosopher and
Mathematician Rene‟ Descartesand by his name the subject is also called
Cartesian Co-ordinate Geometr

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In coordinate geometry, we can use graphs and coordinates to find
measurements and other useful information about geometric figures. In this
geometry, the concept of algebra is introduced and as a result, the
fundamental properties and theorems of geometry can be easily deduced. For
this reason, sometimes this branch is called Analytical Geometry.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY IS OF TWO TYPES:

(i) Two Dimensional or Plane Co-ordinate Geometry
(ii) Three Dimensional or Solid Co-ordinate Geometry.

Co-ordinate Geometry is a system of geometry where the position of points on the

plane is described using an ordered pair of numbers. Straight lines in coordinate
geometry are the same idea as in regular geometry, except that they are drawn on a
coordinate plane and we can do more with them.In two -dimensional co-ordinate
geometry, the discussion of geometry on a plane is developed whereas in three-
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dimensional co-ordinate geometry we consider the geometry of space of a solid
body. The position of a point in two-dimensional co-ordinate geometry is uniquely
determined by two real numbers with appropriate signs inthree-dimensional Co-
ordinate Geometry the position of a point on a solid body is uniquely determined
by three sign real numbers.

IMPORTANCE OF CO-ORDINATE GEOMERTY

Coordinate geometry is needed to offer a connection between algebra and
geometry with the use of graphs of lines and curves. It is an essential branch of
math and usually assists us in locating points in a plane. Moreover it also has many
uses in fields of trigono, calculus,dimensional geometry and more.

MIDPOINT FORMULA

In some questions of coordinate geometry, you have to find the midpoint of a

line segment on a coordinate planeFurthermore, to find this point that is
halfway amid two given points, get the average of the x-values and the
average of the y-values.
However, the midpoint between two points ( x1,y1 ), and (\ ( x_{2}, y_{2}
\) ) is

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Distance formula
You can use the Pythagorean Theorem in a coordinate plane to find the distance
between any two points. Besides, the distance between two points ( x1,y1 ), and
( x2,y2 ) is

Example 2:

Prove that points (4,3),(7,-1) and are the vertices of an isosceles triangle.

An isosceles triangle is a triangle with (at least) two equal sides.Formula:

Distance between two points=

Now, we find

Hence Proved, it is an isosceles triangle because its two

sides are equal |AB|=|AC|.

Example 3.

(a) prove that the quadrilateral with vertices (2,-1),(3,4),(-2,3) and (-3,-2) is a
rhombus.

Solution:

The distance between two points(x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is given by the formula In a
rhombus all the sides are equal in length.

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Page | 129
Here the four points are A (2, −1), B (3, 4), C (−2, 3) and D (−3, −2).

First let us check if all the four sides are equal

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Here, we see that all the sides are equal, so it has to be a rhombus.

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Example 4
Prove that (-2,-1),(1,0)(4,3) and (1,2) are the vertices of a parallelogram.

Solution

We have the points P(−2,−1),Q(1,0),R(4,3) and S(1,2)

We know the property the of parallelogram that diagonals of parallelogram

bisect each other.

Let us find out mid-point of line joining P and R and line joining Q and S

(i) Mid-point M of diagonal M

(ii) Mid-point M of diagonal QS M

From (i) & (ii)Mid-points M & M are identical⇒ Diagonals of the figure

PQRS bisect each other and this property is

enough to prove that it is a parallelogram.

Example 8:

Find the point (11,-3) divided the join of (3,4) and (7,11).

Solution :

Let the ratio be k:1.

Therefore, according to section formula :-

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X=mx2+nx1/m+n

..using the formula...

Putting the values

11=7k+3/k+1

We get k=−2

This means that the ratio is divided externally in the ratio 2:1

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 MATRIX ALGEBRA

Business mathematics is very powerful tools and analytical process. It is

used by commercial enterprises to record, manage and analyze business
operations. Not only business organizations but also non- business
organizations can use mathematical tools to measure and analyze their
operational activities. It also helps to make present and future planning
against facing loss.

Introduction to Matrices:

In 1985 Arthur Cayley presented the system of matrices called Theory of

matrices. It was the latest way to solve the system of linear equation. It is
undoubtedly the most powerful tool in mathematics. It is being used in various
science as well as a business field like budgeting, cost estimation, sales projection,
etc. Matrices are also used in cryptography.

Definition of Matrix:

A matrix is a rectangular array or table of numbers, symbols, or expressions,

arranged in rows and columns, which is used to represent a mathematical object or
a property of such an object. The numbers can be substituted by symbols, with
appropriate suffixes indicating the row and columns numbers. Sometimes a pair of
brackets [ ], or a pair of double bars „‫ ‟׀׀‬are used instead of a pair of parentheses
e.g., the matrix.

For example :
[ ] or or ( )

Since there are 2 rows and 3 columns , This is a matrix of order 2×3 matrix or
simply a 2×3 ( read as „2 by 3‟ ) matrix. It maybe noted that a matrix can have any
number of rows and any number of columns .
There is no limit to the numbers of rows and columns a matrix (in the usual sense)
can have as long as they are positive integers

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A general from of a matrix. A matrix of order m×n can be written in
[ ]

The specifics of symbolic matrix notation vary widely, with some prevailing
trends. Matrices are usually symbolized using upper-case letters (such as A in the
examples above),[6] while the corresponding lower-case letters, with two subscript
indices (e.g., a11, or a1,1), represent the entries. In addition to using upper-case
letters to symbolize matrices, many authors use a special typographical style,
commonly boldface upright (non-italic), to further distinguish matrices from other
mathematical objects.

TYPES OF MATRIX:
This tutorial is divided into 11 parts to cover th main types of matrics. They
are:
1. Square Matrix
2. Raw and column Matrix
3. Diagonal Matrix
4. Unit Matrix
5. Zero Matrix or null Matrix
6. Triangular Matrix
7. Sub Matrix
8. Scalar Matrix
9. Symmetric Matrix
10. Skew symmetric Matrix
11. Complex conjugets

1. Square Matrix :
A square matrix in which the number of row is equal to the number of columns
is called a square matrix. Thus a m×n matrix will be a square matrix if m=n and
it will be referred as a squarer matrix of order n or n rowed matrix.

Square Matrix Properties:

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 ● In this matrix number of rows is equal to number of columns.
● The determinant of a matrix can only be calculated for a square matrix.
● Trace of a matrix is equal to the sum of diagonal elements of the square
matrix.
● Inverse of matrix is calculated only for a square matrix

For example:
( )
[ ]3×3
A square matrix has two diagonals. Diagonal extending from the upper left to the
lower right is more important than the other diagonal. this is known as the principle
diagonal or the main diagonal and it‟s elements are called the diagonal elements.
For example:
[ ]
This is a 3×3 (square) matrix. Here the principle diagonal is (1,8,6).

2. Row and Column Matrix:

Row and column matrices are sometimes called the row and column vectors. A
row vector (also called a row matrix) is a 1-by-n matrix; a column vector (also
called a column matrix) is a n-by-1matrix. Both kinds of vectors get their names
from their resemblance to the rows and columns of a matrix, respectively.
For example:
[ ]1×n is a row matrix
( ) m×1 is a column matrix

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3. Diagonal Matrix:
A square matrix in which every element except the principal diagonal elements
is zero is called a Diagonal Matrix.

Properties of Diagonal Matrix:

Property 1:
If addition or multiplication is being applied on diagonal matrices, then the
matrices should be of the same order.
Property 2:
When you transpose a diagonal matrix, it is just the same as the original
because all the diagonal numbers are 0
Property 3: Diagonal Matrices are commutative when multiplication is
applied.

Block Diagonal Matrix:

A matrix which is split into blocks is called a block matrix. In such type of
square matrix, off-diagonal blocks are zero matrices and main diagonal
blocks square matrices. Here, the non-diagonal blocks are zero. Dij = 0 when
i is not equal to j, then D is called a block diagonal matrix.

Example of Diagonal Matrix:

[ ]3×3
Here the diagonal are 3,7,1
| |3×3
Here the diagonal are 1,1,1
[ ]2
Here the diagonal are 2,4

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DIAGONAL MATRIX CAN BE OF TWO TYPES.

1. Upper triangle Matrix:

An upper triangular matrix is a square matrix in which all entries below the
main diagonal are zero (only nonzero entries are found above the main diagonal
- in the upper triangle).

Properties of Upper Triangular Matrix:

● If we add two upper triangular matrices, it will result in an upper triangular

matrix itself.
● If we multiply two upper triangular, it will result in an upper triangular
matrix itself.
● The inverse of the upper triangular matrix remains upper triangular.
● The transpose of the upper triangular matrix is a lower triangular matrix,
UT = L
● If we multiply any scalar quantity to an upper triangular matrix, then the
matrix still remains as upper triangular.

For example:
[ ]3×3

1. Lower triangle Matrix:

A lower triangular matrix is a square matrix in which all entries above the
main diagonal are zero
(only nonzero entries are found below the main diagonal - in the lower
triangle).
For example:
( )3×3

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2. Unit matrix:

A unit matrix is basically a square matrix, whose all diagonal elements are
one and all off diagonal elements are zero. Unit matrix is also called an
identity matrix.

Properties of Identity/ Unit Matrix

● It is always a Square Matrix. These Matrices are said to be square as it
always has the same number of rows and columns. ...
● By multiplying any matrix by the unit matrix, gives the matrix itself.
● We always get an identity after multiplying two inverse matrices.

For example:

[ ]3×3

[ ]2×2
Are unit matrix of order two and three respectively.

In general for a unit matrix { }

3. Zero Matrix or Null Matrix:

Zero Matrix is a type of matrix whose elements are equal to zero. Zero
matrix is also known as null matrix. It is generally denoted by capital letter
O.

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 Properties of Zero Or Null Matrix:
● The zero matrix is the additive identity of the sum matrix operation,
therefore:
● Matrix multiplication has the multiplicative property of zero, that is, the
product of any matrix multiplied by the null matrix is equal to 0

● If the matrix is square, the null matrix is

both symmetric and antisymmetric.
● The null matrix is the only matrix whose rank is zero.
● The determinant of the null (or zero) matrix always results in 0, so this
type of matrix is a singular matrix.
● Obviously, the zero matrix is an example of a nilpotent matrix.

For example:

The example of null matrix of order 3 is

[ ]

The example of null matrix of order 3×1 is

( )
The example of null matrix of order 2×3 is
[ ]

4. Triangular Matrix:

Triangular matrix is a special form of unitriangular matrix, where all of the off-
diagonal elements are zero, except for the entries in a single column. Such a

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 matrix is also called a Fresenius matrix, a Gauss matrix, or a Gauss
transformation matrix.
Properties of the triangular Matrices:
● The determinant of a triangular matrix is equal to the product of all entries in
the main diagonal.
● If A is an upper triangular matrix, its transpose is a lower triangular
matrix. ...
● The product of lower triangular matrices is a lower triangular matrix.

For example:
| |2×3
[ ]2×3

5. Sub Matrix:

A matrix obtained by deleting some of the rows and/or columns of a matrix

is said to be a submatrix of the given matrix.

For example:
If ,
A=[ ]2×3

a few submatrices of A are

[ ],[ ],[ ],[ ],[ ],A
But the matrix[ ], [ ] are not submatrices of A.

6. Scalar Matrix:
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 The scalar matrix is a square matrix in which all the off-diagonal elements
are zero and all the on-diagonal elements are equal. We can say that a scalar
matrix is a multiple of an identity matrix with any scalar quantity.

For example:
( )2×2

[ ]3×3
[ ]3×3

7. Symmetric Matrix:
A symmetric matrix in linear algebra is a square matrix that remains
unaltered when its transpose is calculated. That means, a matrix whose
transpose is equal to the matrix itself, is called a symmetric matrix.
For example :
A is a symmetric is
Because equal matrices have equal dimensions, only square matrices can be
symmetric.

For example:
Let‟s take an example of a matrix B
B= [ ]3×3

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 = [ ]3×3

SYMMETRIC MATRIX THEOREMS

here are two important theorems related to symmetric matrix. In this section,
let's learn about these theorems along with their proofs.

Theorem 1: For any square matrix B with real number elements, B + BT is

a symmetric matrix, and B - BT is a skew-symmetric matrix.
Proof:
Let A = B + BT.

Taking a Transpose, AT = ( B + BT )T = BT + ( BT )T = BT + B = B + BT
=A

This implies B + BT is a symmetric matrix.

Next, let C = B - BT

CT = ( B + ( - BT ))T = BT + ( - BT )T = BT - ( BT )T = BT- B = - ( B -
BT ) = - C

This implies B − BT is a skew-symmetric matrix.

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 Theorem 2: Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a skew
symmetric matrix and a symmetric matrix. To find the sum of a symmetric
and skew symmetric matrix, we use this formula:
Let B be a square matrix. Then,

B = (1/2) × (B + BT) + (1/2 ) × (B - BT). Here, BT is the transpose of the

square matrix B.

If B + BT is a symmetric matrix, then (1/2) × (B + BT) is also a symmetric

matrix
If B - BT is a skew symmetric matrix, then (1/2 ) × (B - BT) is also a skew
symmetric matrix
Thus, any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a skew symmetric
matrix and a symmetric matrix.

8. 10.Skew-symmetric Matrix: It is a matrix obtained by replacing all it‟s

elements by their respective complex conjugates.

For example:

A= ( ) then Ā=( )

SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX:

The term scalar multiplication refers to the product of a real number and a matrix.
In scalar multiplication, each entry in the matrix is multiplied by the given scalar.
The term scalar multiplication refers to the product of a real number and a matrix.

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In scalar multiplication, each entry in the matrix is multiplied by the given scalar.
The scalar multiple kA of a matrix A by scalar k, is a matrix obtained by
multiplying every element of A by scalar, i.e, the scalar multiple of the matrix is :
A= [ ] Then kA=
[ ]

Multiplication of scalar means, multiplying a matrix by a number i.e. a real

number. In general, we may define multiplication of a matrix by a scalar as
follows: If is a matrix and k is a scalar, then kA is another matrix
which is obtained by multiplying each element of A by the scalar number k. In
other words, that is, (i,j) element of kA is for all possible values
of i and j.

Example 1: Suppose Mohan has a factory which produces clothes for boys and
girls in three different price tags. The quantity produced by a factory is represented

as matrices given below : . Now Mohan wants to doubled the

production for all three different prices tags clothes. Represent it in a matrix form.

Solution: From the above information the matrix can be represented by doubling

each price categories as follows: and

Total Production =

Example 2: If . Find 4A.

Solution : =

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Properties of multiplication of matrices:

1. The associative law: For any three matrices A, B and C. We have (AB)C
=A(BC), whenever both sides of the equality are defined.
2. The distributed law: For three matrices A, B and C. (i) A (B+C) = AB +
AC and (ii) (A+B)C = AC + BC, whenever both sides of equality are
defined.
3. The existence of multiplicative identity: For every square matrix A, there
exists an identity matrix of same order such that IA = AI = A.

For example:
Given
A= [ ] so multiplying it with 2 the result will be
2A= 2×[ ]
= [ ]
= [ ]
Example: B= ( ) so multiplying it by 1 the result will be
1B= 1×( )
=( )
= ( )
Example: C=( ) by multiplying it by 5 the result will be
5C= 5×( )
=( ( ) )
=( )

EQUALITY OF MATRIX:
Two matrices are equal if all three of the following conditions are met:
· Each matrix has the same number of rows.

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· Each matrix has the same number of columns.
· Corresponding elements within each matrix are equal.

For example:
if A=[ ] , B=[ ]
Then A=B

Example:
If A=( ) , B=( )
Then A≠B (since = -2 and =1)

MATRIX OPERATIONS:
Matrix operations mainly involve three algebraic operations which are addition of
matrices, subtraction of matrices, and multiplication of matrices. Matrix is a
rectangular array of numbers or expressions arranged in rows and
columns. Important applications of matrices can be found in mathematics.
Addition, subtraction and multiplication are the basic operations on the matrix.

Matrix Addition:
In mathematics, matrix addition is the operation of adding two matrices by adding
the corresponding entries together.

Properties of addition of matrices:

1. Commutative Law:
It means that if A=[ ] , B=[ ] are matrices of the same order, say m*n, then
A+B=B+A
Thus, A+B= A[ ]+B[ ]

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B+A= B[ ]+ A[ ]

2. Associative Law:
It means that 3 matrices that is , , are matrices of same
order, say m*n then (A+B) +C=A+ (B+C).
Thus, (A+B) +C= +
= + = A+ (B+C)

Conditions for Addition of matrices:

1. Two matrices should be of same order (number of rows=number of

columns).
2. Add the corresponding element of other matrices.

Fox example:
Given A=[ ] and B=[ ], so adding A+B we get
A+B= [ ] [ ]
=[ ]
=[ ]

Example:
A=| | B=| |
⸫ A+B=| |
=| |

Example: C= D=
⸫C+D= ( ) ( ) ( )

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 =

SUBTRACTION OF MATRIX:
Subtraction between two matrixes is possible if they have the same order or the
dimensions. So, they must have the same number of rows and columns in order to
subtract two or more matrices. Subtraction of matrix is possible by subtracting the
element of another matrix if they have the same order.

Properties of subtraction of matrices:

1. It is a non-commutative operation. If we reverse the order of the
matrices and subtract both of them with the same order/dimensions, the
result will differ. A-B B-A

The negative of matrix A is written as (-A) such that if the addition of matrix with
the negative matrix will always produce a null matrix. A+(-A)=0

Conditions for subtraction of matrices:

1. Two matrices should be of same order (number of rows=number of
columns).
2. Add the corresponding element of other matrices.

Subtraction of matrix of order 3*3

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Subtraction of matrix of order 2*2

, .

MORE EXAMPLE OF ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF

MATRIX:

SUBTRACTION:

Mohan has two shops at places A and B. Each shop sells clothes for boys and girls
in three different price categories. The quantities sell by each shop are represented
as matrices given below:

Shop 1:

Shop 2:

Suppose Mohan wants to know the total of loss in each price categories in both the
shops. So, this can be represented in the matrix

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form as =

ADDITION:

Mohan has two shops at places A and B. Each shop sells shoes for men and women
in three different price categories. The quantities sell by each shop are represented
as matrices given below:

Shop 1:

Shop 2:

Suppose Mohan wants to know the total sales of shoes in each price categories. So,

this can be represented in the matrix form as

TRANSPOSE AND ADJOINT OF MATRICES:

TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX:

The matrix obtained from a given matrix A by interchanging its rows and columns
is called Transpose of matrix A. Transpose of A is denoted by A‟ or . If A is of

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order m*n, then A‟ is of the order n*m. Clearly, the transpose of the transpose of A
is the matrix A itself i.e. (A‟)‟= A.

Consider the matrix If A = | | of order m*n then = | | of

order n*m. So, .

Example 1: Consider the matrix . Do the transpose of matrix.

Solution: It is an order of 2*3. By, writing another matrix B from A by

writing rows of A as columns of B. We have: . The matrix B is called

the transpose of A.

Example 2: Consider the matrix . Do the transpose of matrix.

Solution: The transpose of matrix A by interchanging rows and columns

is .

Properties of Transpose:

1. The transpose of the transpose of a matrix is that the matrix itself = =

A
2. The transpose of the addition of 2 matrices is similar to the sum of their
transposes =
3. When a scalar matrix is being multiplied by the matrix, the order of
transpose is irrelevant =
4. The transpose of the product of 2 matrices is similar to the product of their
transposes in reversed order =

ADJOINT OF A MATRIX:

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Given a square matrix A, the transpose of the matrix of the cofactor of A is called
adjoint of A and is denoted by adj A. An adjoint matrix is also called an adjugate
matrix. In other words, we can say that matrix A is another matrix formed by
replacing each element of the current matrix by its corresponding cofactor and then
taking the transpose of the new matrix formed.

Suppose, then Adj A =

Example 1: Consider the matrix Find the Adj of A.

Solution: First to find out the minor and cofactor of the matrix : =2 =
2, =2 = -2, = -1 = +1, =5 = 5.

Cofactor matrix = and Adj A =

Example 2: Consider the matrix Find the Adj of A.

Solution: =7 = 7, = 18 = -18, = 30 = 30, =1 =-

1, =6 = 6, = 10 = -10, =1 = 1, =8 = -8, =
26 = 26.

Cofactor matrix = and Adj A = .

DETERMINANT OF MATRICES:
The determinant of a matrix could be a special number that may be calculated from
a square matrix. Determinants are like matrices, however, done up in absolute-
value bars rather than square brackets. The determinant of a matrix could be a
scalar property of the matrix. Only sq. matrices have determinants. If there is a
matrix A then its determinant is written by taking numbers of elements and putting

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them within absolute-value bars rather than sq. brackets. The determinant is
viewed as a result whose input could be a matrix and whose output could be a
single number.

Uses of Determinant:
1. Determinants are useful as a result of they tell us whether a matrix is inverted
or not.
2. It plays a vital role in solving the linear equation.
3. The use of determinants in calculus includes the Jacobian determinant in
the change of variables rule for integrals of functions of several variables.
4. Determinant has wide application in engineering, science, economics, social
science, etc.

To every square matrix of order , we can associate a number [real or

complex] called determinant of the square matrix A, where element of
A. It is denoted by |A| or det A.

If then the determinant of A is written as = det (A).

Note

1. For matrix A, |A| is read as the determinant of A and not modulus of A.

2. Only square matrices have determinants.

Determinant of a 2*2 matrix:

Suppose A is a matrix of order 2*2 matrix such as : the the

determinant of matrix A would be |A| = =

Example 1: Find the determinant of matrix

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 Solution: = 4*5 – 3*2 = 20-6 = 14

Example 2: Find the determinant of matrix

Solution: = 1*(-3) – 5*2 = -3 – 10 = -13

Determinant of a 3*3 matrix:

Suppose A is a matrix of order 3*3 matrix such as then the

determinant of matrix A would be = –

The element a1,b1,c1 of first row are in the expression with alternatively positive
and negative sign and each element is multiplied by a each element is multiplied
by a certain determinant of order 2.

Example 3: Let . Find determinant.

Solution : – + = 4 (-4-1) + 3 (-2-3) + 2 (1-6) = -

20-15-10 = -45

Example 4: Let

Solution: – + = –
+ =

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Properties of Determinants:
1. The value of determinant remains unchanged if its rows and columns are
interchanged.
2. If any 2 rows or columns are being interchanged the there be the change in
sign of determinants.
3. If any 2 rows or columns are being identical then the value of determinant
would be zero.
4. If the element of a row or column is being multiplied by a scalar then the
value of determinant also become a multiple of that constant.
5. Two determinant can be added if they have 2 identical rows or columns.

CRAMER’S RULE:
Cramer’s Rule is an explicit formula for the solution of a system of linear
equations with as many equations as unknowns, i.e. a square matrix, valid
whenever the system has a unique solution. It expresses the solution in terms of the
determinants of the (square) coefficient matrix and of matrices obtained from it by
replacing one column by the vector of right hand sides of the equations.
We are already familiar with the method of solving two simultaneous
linear equations in two unknowns.
Let the given equations be written in the form-
a 1 x+b 1 y=c 1 ----------(1)
a 2 x+b 2 y=c 2 ----------(2)

USING CRAMER’S RULE TO SOLVE A SYSTEM OF THREE

EQUATIONS IN THREE VARIABLES:
Evaluating the Determinant of a 3 × 3 Matrix
Finding the determinant of a 2×2 matrix is straightforward, but finding the
determinant of a 3×3 matrix is more complicated. One method is to augment the
3×3 matrix with a repetition of the first two columns, giving a 3×5 matrix. Then we
calculate the sum of the products of entries down each of the three diagonals

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(upper left to lower right), and subtract the products of entries up each of the three
diagonals (lower left to upper right). This is more easily understood with a visual
and an example.

Find the determinant of the 3×3 matrix.

A=[ ]

[A]=a1b2c3+b1c2a3+c1a2b3−a3b2c1−b3c2a1−c3a2b1

Expansion Of The Determinants:

Determinants can be represented as linear combinations of order two with co-
efficient from second row or third row or in terms of the elements of any column.
The only thing to remember is that 2 determinant accompanying any co-efficient
can be obtained by deleting the row and column containing the co-efficient in the
original determinant. Further, the signs accompanying the co-efficient in the
original determinant will follow the following checker board pattern:

Example 1:
Give the determinants with co-efficients from
(i) first column and
(ii) the third row in the following co-efficients of the determinant.

Solution of (i)
= a 1 – a 2 +a 3
= a 1 (b 2 c 3 - b 3 c 2 ) – a 2 (b 1 c 2 – b 3 c 1 ) +a 3(b 1 c 1 – b 2 c 1)
=a1b2c3–a1b2c2–a2b1c1+a2b1c2–a2b2c1

SARRUS DIAGRAM:
The determinant of the three columns on the left is the sum of the

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products along the down-right diagonals minus the sum of the products along the
up-right diagonals. We can find out determinants of a given matrix very
conveniently if we extend the matrix by adding the first two columns and connect
the elements by arrows downwards preceded by a plus sign and upwards by.
a minus sign as illustrated below:

The product of elements joined by downward arrows preceded by plus signs are-
+a1b2c3+b1c2a3+c1a2b3
And the products of each of three elements joined by upward arrows
preceded by minus signs are-
a3b2c1b3c2a1c3a2b

Example:
Consider 3×3 a matrix
A=[ ]

by method of Sarrus is
a11a22a33+a12a23a31+a31a21a32−a31a22a13−a32a23a11−a33a21a12

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(1)(5)(6)+(2)(3)(7)+(8)(4)(9)−(7)(5)(8)−(9)(3)(1)−(6)(4)(2)30+42+288−280−27−4
8=−5

Properties of Determinants:
I) If the rows of a determinant are changed into columns and vice versa, the value
of the determinant remains unchanged.
II) If any two rows are interchanged, the value of the determinant so obtained is the
negative of the value of the original determinant.
III) If any two rows or any two columns of a determinant are identical the value of
the determinant is zero.
=0
IV) If the elements of a row (column) of a determinant are added (subtracted) k-
times the corresponding elements of another row (column), the value of the
determinant remains unchanged.
V) If the elements of a row (column) of a matrix are multiplied by the same
number, k say, the determinant of the matrix thus obtained is k times the
determinant of the original matrix.
=k
VI) If the elements of any row or any column of a determinant is sum (difference)
of two or more elements then the determinant can be expressed as sum (difference)
of two or more determinants. = +

EXPANSION OF THE DETERMINANTS:

Determinants can be represented as linear combinations of order two with co
efficient from second row or third row or in terms of the elements of any column.
The only thing to remember is that 2 determinant accompanying any co-efficient
can be obtained by deleting the row and column containing the co-efficient in the
original determinant. Further, the signs accompanying the co efficient in the
original determinant will follow the following checker board pattern:

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Example 1:
Give the determinants with co-efficients from
(i) first column and
(ii) the third row in the following co-efficients of the determinant.
Solution of (i)
= a 1 – a 2 +a 3
= a 1 (b 2 c 3 - b 3 c 2 ) – a 2 (b 1 c 2 – b 3 c 1 ) +a 3 (b 1 c 1 – b 2 c 1 )
=a1b2c3–a1b2c2–a2b1c1+a2b1c2–a2b2c1

Solution of (ii)
= a 3 – b 3 +c 3
= a 3 (b 1 c 2 – b 2 c 1 ) – b 3 (a 1 c 2 – a 2 c 1 ) +c 3 (a 1 b 2 – a 2 b 1 )
=a3b1c2-a3b2c1–b3a2c1+c3a1b2–c3a2b1

This aspect will be examined more extensively in the next article on minors of the
matrix.

MINORS OF A MATRIX:
To find the minor of a matrix, we take the determinant of each smaller matrix,
obtained by deleting the corresponding rows and columns of each element in the
matrix. Since in the large matrices, there are many rows and columns with multiple
elements, therefore we can make many minors of those matrices. We label these
minors according to the row and column they belong to. We know that the square
matrix has an equal number of rows and column in it. It can be of a 2 form. Each
element in the square matrix has its minor.
For example,

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Consider a matrix
A= 33

When we delete any one row and any one column of A, the we get a 2 matrix,
which is called a submatrix of A, for example, if we strike off the first row
and first column, we get the sub-matrix as - The determinant of any such
submatrix is called a minor of determinant A, thus is minor of det. A.
Consider a matrix

A11 A12 A13

A = ( A21

A22

A23 )
A31

A32

A33

CO-FACTORS OF A MATRIX:
If we multiply the minor of the element in the ith row and jth column of the
determinant of the matrix by ( i+j the product is called the co-factor of the element.
It is usual to denote the co-factor of an element by the corresponding capital letters.
Symbolically
Aij = ( i+j ij) in = ( i+j ij) =
A 11 = ( 1+1) , A 12 = ( 1+2)
A 22 = ( 2+2) , A 23 = ( 2+3)
And so on.
The Matrix sign can be represented to write the cofactor matrix is given
below-

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 INVERSE OF A MATRIX:

The operation of dividing one matrix directly by another does not exist in matrix
theory but equivalent of division of a unit matrix by any square matrix can be
accomplished (in most cases) by a process known as “Inverse of Matrix”.In
ordinary algebra if x=1, then x=1/y or we say that y is inverse of x or x is inverse
of y. The product of quantity x and its inverse is one.
Let A be any matrix. The n-square matrix B is called inverse of A if
AB=BA=I n
The inverse of A is denoted by A -1 , i.e, B=A -1 so that
AA -1 =A -1 =I n
The concept of inverse matrix is useful in solving simultaneous
equations, input-output analysis and regression analysis. There are three methods
of finding the inverse of a given square matrix.

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 i) Using adjoint matrices-co-factor method.
ii) Using linear equations.
iii) Gauss Elimination Method.

Inverse Matrix Formula :

APPLICATION OF MATRIX IN REAL BUSINESS

Matrices are one of the most commonly used tools in business.

● It is used in linear programming to determine the most profitable
combination of ingredients in a product.
● It is used extensively in the decision making process.
● In geology , matrices are used for taking seismic surveys .
● It is used for plotting graphs , statistics and also to do scientific studies in
almost different fields .
● Matrices are used in representing the real world data's like the traits of
people's population , habits etc.
● It is best representation methods for plotting the common survey things .
● Matrices are used in calculating the gross domestic products in economics
which eventually helps in calculating the goods production efficiently .
● Matrices are used in many organizations such as for scientists for
recording the data for their experiments .

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 CONCLUSION

Matrix, a set of numbers arranged in rows and columns so as to form a

rectangular array. Matrices have wide applications in engineering, physics,
economics, and statistics as well as in various branches of mathematics.
Matrix algebra provide a system of operation on well ordered set of
numbers . The common operations are addition , multiplication , inversion ,
transpose , etc. A most significant contribution of matrix algebra is its
extensive use in the solution of a system of large number of simultaneous
linear equations . The widely used " Linear Programming has its basic in
matrix algebra .

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