ES REVIEWER 3.

) Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging -

Rapid freezing of water causes its sudden
EXOGENIC PROCESSES expansion and high pressure. The resulting
expansion affects joints, cracks, and small
Exogenic Processes - anything that intergranular fractures to become wider and
happens outside the Earth’s core. wider till the rock breaks apart.

- Interconnected with the atmosphere, 4.) Salt Weathering - Salts in rocks expand
hydrosphere and biosphere and it includes due to thermal action, hydration, and
the processes of weathering, erosion, crystallization.
transportation and deposition.
Chemical Weathering - due to solution,
Weathering - is the action of elements of carbonation, hydration, or
weather and climate over earth material. oxidation/reduction.

3 Types of Weathering Types of Chemical Weathering

Physical/chemical weathering - depends on 1.) Solution - involves removal of solids in

applied forces. solution and depends upon the solubility of
a mineral in water or weak acids.
(I) gravitational forces such as overburden
pressure, load, and shearing stress. 2.) Carbonation - the reaction of carbonate
and bicarbonate with minerals and is a
(II) expansion force due to temperature common process helping to break down
changes, crystal growth or animal activity. feldspar and carbonate minerals.

(III) water pressure controlled by wetting 3.) Hydration - This process causes fatigue
and drying cycles. in the rocks and may lead to their
disintegration.
Types of Physical/chemical weathering
- Minerals take up water and expand; this
1.) Unloading and Expansion - Create expansion causes an increase in the
large, smooth rounded domes called volume of the material itself or rock.
exfoliation domes.
4.) Oxidation and Reduction - In this
- Removal of overlying rock load because of process of oxidation, rock breakdown
continued erosion causes vertical pressure occurs due to the disturbance caused by the
release. addition of oxygen.

2.) Temperature Changes and Expansion - - When oxidized minerals are placed in an
With rising in temperature, every mineral environment where oxygen is absent,
expands and pushes against its neighbor reduction takes place.
and as the temperature falls, a
corresponding contraction takes place.
Biological Weathering - caused by several Erosion by Ice - can erode the land. In frigid
biological activities like growth or areas and mountaintops, glaciers move
movements of organisms. slowly downhill and across the land.

Mass Wasting - defined as the down slope Erosion by Gravity - gravity pulls any bits
movement of rock and regolith near the down the side of a hill or mountain.
Earth's surface mainly due to the force of
gravity. Deposition - consequence of erosion.

Types of Mass Wasting Processes Types of Deposition

Slope Failures - a sudden failure of the Water Deposition - where a river meets the
slope resulting in transport of debris ocean is called the mouth of the river. Soil
downhill by sliding, rolling, falling, or carried by a river is deposited at the mouth
slumping. and new land is formed.
● Slumps - downward rotation of rock or
regolith occurs along a concave-upward Wind Deposition - Sand dunes are large
curved surface. deposits of sand dropped when the wind
stops blowing.
Sediment Flows - occur when sufficient
force is applied to rocks and regolith that Ice Deposition - When glaciers melt, they
they begin to flow down slope. drop or deposit the rocks they were
● Slurry (Wet) Flows - are sediment flows carrying.
that contain between about 20 and 40%
water. Water saturated flows.
● Granular (Dry) Flows - are sediment ENDOGENIC PROCESSES
flows that contain between 0 and 20%
water. Not saturated with water flows. Endogenic Processes - Processes driven by
energy and forces deep within the Earth.
Erosion and Deposition
Vulcanism - Eruption of molten rock,
Erosion - involves the breakdown and pyroclastic fragments, or hot water and
transport of rock materials. steam.
● Vulcan: Roman God of Fire and the
Types of Erosion Forge

Erosion by Water - changes the shape of Parts of Volcano

coastline. Waves constantly crash against
shores. They pound rocks into pebbles and
reduce pebbles into sand.

Erosion by Wind - carries dust, sand, and

volcanic ash from one place to another.
Magma Chamber - hollow space deep 3 Types of Volcano - Shield, Stratovolcano
within the volcano where magma or composite, Cinder Cone.
accumulates over time.
Earthquake - Vibration on the surface of the
Lava - Molten material or magma that has Earth resulting from the sudden release of
been erupted or expelled by the volcano. energy.

Conduit - pathway connecting the magma

chamber to the opening at the surface.

Vent - opening in the Earth’s surface

through which magma and volcanic gasses
escape into the atmosphere.

Crater - Bowl-shaped depressions at the top

of vents of volcanoes.

Magma - Molten rocks found on Earth’s and Body Waves

is composed of f Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K,
H, and O. Primary Waves - Parallel to the direction of
the wave. Compressional.
Types of Melting
Secondary Waves - Perpendicular to the
Decompression Melting - temperature stays direction of the wave. Shear waves.
the same, but pressure decreases.
Surface Waves
Flux Melting - volatile substances are added
to magma that causes reactions to happen. Rayleigh Waves - Causes ground to ripple
up and down.
Heat transfer melting - melting surrounding
rocks add heat to the magma. Love Waves - Causes ground to move back
and forth in a snakelike movement.
*Eutectic temperature – melting temperature
of rocks. Types of Shock

Types of Volcanic Eruptions Foreshock - earthquakes that precede

larger earthquakes in the same location.
Effusive - Lava flows downhill that builds up
gently. Has low silica content. Mainshock - larger earthquakes after
foreshock.
Explosive - More violent eruption and has
high silica content and is more viscous. Aftershock - earthquake that occurs after a
previous earthquake.
Continental Drift 4 Types of Unconformities

Pangea - Came from the Greek word that Angular Unconformity - younger sediments
means “all land” or “entire Earth” rest upon the eroded surface of tilted or
● Once a “supercontinent” folded older rocks showing an angular
● Proposed by Alfred Wegener relationship.
● “The Origin of Continents and
Oceans” Nonconformity - developed between
younger sedimentary rocks and older
Evidences of a Supercontinent plutonic igneous or massive metamorphic
rocks that had been exposed to erosion.
(I) Continental edges
(II) Similar fossils Disconformity - layers of sediments are
(III) Rock structures uplifted without folding, but are exposed to
(IV) Climate weathering and erosion, producing irregular
surface or boundary with the
EARTH’S HISTORY newly-deposited layers.

Relative Dating Paraconformity - Strata are parallel to each

other and the contact is a simple bedding
Stratigraphy - Deals with the study of layers plane indicative of continuous deposition.
of sedimentary rocks
Absolute Dating - Method used to measure
Nicholas Steno - Father of modern the age of an event or material in years
stratigraphy through analyzing isotopes of radioactive
elements.
3 Principles of Stratigraphy
Isotopes - Atoms of the same element
Law of Superposition - the first layer of rock having the same number of protons, but
deposited at the bottom is the oldest, while different numbers of neutrons.
the rock layer on the top is the youngest.
Half-life - Time needed for half of a sample
Law of Lateral-Continuity - Material forming of radioactive substance to decay.
any stratum were continuous over Earth’s
surface UNLESS some other solid bodies
stood in the way.

Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships - If a

body or discontinuity cuts across a stratum,
it must have been formed after that stratum.

Unconformities - Surfaces of erosion and

nondeposition that separate younger rocks
from older ones.
Geologic Timescale Ordovician Period - Age of Cephalopods
● Rise of invertebrates
● Appearance of first armor-pleated
vertebrate fish
● 1 st mass extinction

Silurian Period - Age of Corals

● Appearance of spiders, scorpion,
and centipedes
● Presence of vascular plants that
lived on land

Hadean Eon - “Hades” the Greek god of the Devonian Period - Age of Fishes
underworld. ● 2 nd mass extinction
● 4.5 to 4 billion years ago - No ● Amphibians started to live on land
evidence of life
● No evidence of life Carboniferous Period - Mainly tropical
swamp
Archean Eon - Began 4 billion years ago ● Earliest reptiles appear
● Abundance in oxygen ● Formation of the supercontinent
● First prokaryotes are found Pangaea
● Presence of anaerobic prokaryotes
Permian Period - Appearance of beetles
Proterozoic Eon - “Earlier life” and gymnosperms
● 2.5 billion years old to 541 million ● The Great Dying
years old ● Diversity in reptiles
● Appearance of soft-bodied ● Metamorphosis in insects happened
invertebrates ● First seed ferns appeared

Phanerozoic Eon - Current geological eon

● Began approximately 541 million
years ago.
● Divided into eras: Paleozoic,
Mesozoic and Cenozoic

Cambrian Period - Cambrian Explosion

● Age of Trilobite
● Hard-shelled mollusks and the
earliest vertebrates appeared
● North and South landmasses started Cenozoic Era - First hominids appeared
to move to form Pangaea ● 3 periods: Paleogene, Neogene,
Quaternary
● Ice Age
● Rise of civilization