UNIVERSITY OF IRINGA

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
CERTIFICATE IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Course Code: CIT 100

Credits: 3 Credits
 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
A computer is a device or set of devices that work under the control of
a stored program, automatically accepts and processes data to provide
information.
a. Automatic: it carries out instructions with minimum human
intervention
b. Re-programmable: it stores instruction (the program)
c. A data processor: it carries out operations on data (numbers or
words) to produce information.
Simply, a computer is an electronic data processing device, which
accepts and stores data input, processes the data input, and generates
the output in a required format.

Definition of Terms.
As per definition above we encounter two terminologies which can be
defined as follows:
• Data: This is the name given to facts.
OR
Data: This can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts
or instructions in a formalized manner should be suitable for
communication, interpretation or processing by human or electronic
machine.
• Information: This is the meaningful data that is relevant,
accurate, up to date and can be used to make decisions.
OR
Information: This is organized or classified data, which has
some meaningful values for the receiver; is the processed data on which
decisions and actions are based.

For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for
the following characteristics
a. Timely - Information should be available when required.
b. Accuracy - Information should be accurate.
c. Completeness - Information should be complete

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Basic Operations of the Computer.
The five (5) basic operations used to convert raw input (data) into
useful information (functions) are summarized as follows:

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS.
Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological
development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate,
resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful, efficient and
reliable devices.

To Read: Generations of computers describing its hardware

components, software in terms of programming and speed, together
with examples of computers present in each generation.

KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER.

• Speed
The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of
instructions per second. Some calculations that would have taken hours
and days to complete otherwise, can be completed in a few seconds
using the computer

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 • Diligence
When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired
or fatigued. It can perform long and complex calculations with the same
speed and accuracy from the start till the end.
• Accuracy
Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the
computer can accurately give the result of division of any two numbers
up to 10 decimal places.
• Versatility
Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks
with the same ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare
a letter document and in the next moment you may play music or print
a document.
• Storage Capability
Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer
and also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can be
stored, temporarily, in the primary memory. Secondary storage devices
like floppy disk and compact disk can store a large amount of data
permanently.

Other characteristics may include:

• It being Automatic,
• It having No IQ, and,
• It having No Feelings.

BASIC COMPUTER UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS.

We will be observing basic units of measurements in terms of Memory
and Speed.
a. Memory (Storage)
✓ Bit (Binary Digit)
A binary digit is a logical 0 and 1 representing a passive and
active state of a component in an electric circuit.
✓ Nibble
This is defined as a group of 4 bits.
✓ Byte
This is a group of 8 bits. This is the smallest unit, which can
represent a data item or a character.
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 ✓ Word
A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of
bits processed as a unit, which varies from computer to
computer but is fixed for each computer.
The length of a computer word is called a word-size or
word length, and it may be as small as 8 bits or even long
as 96 bits. A computer stores information in form of
computer words
✓ Higher Units include:

b. Speed
✓ Millisecond (ms)
This is a thousandth of a second (1/1,000 = 10-3)
This is equivalent to 1,000Hz or 1KHz
✓ Microsecond (µs)
This is a millionth of a second (1/1,000,000 = 10-6)
This is equivalent to 1,000,000Hz or 1MHz
✓ Nanosecond (ns)
This is a billionth of a second (1/1,000,000,000 = 10-9)
This is equivalent to 1,000,000,000Hz or 1GHz

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS.
Computer can be classified into three aspects:
✓ Representation of numbers
✓ Degree of specialization
✓ Types of application

a. Representation of Numbers
This aspect has three basic kinds of computers, which are digital,
analog and hybrid computers.
✓ Digital Computer
This aspect of computer operates on numbers directly.
It handles numbers discretely and precisely rather than
approximately.
Examples of digital computers are digital watch, digital phone
and digital radio.
✓ Analog Computer
This aspect of computer deals with quantities that are
continuously variable e.g. speedometer, electric meter, water
meter, thermometer.
✓ Hybrid Computer
This computer combines the features of both analog and digital
computers. They handle data in both quantities and variable.
b. Degree of Specialization
This aspect has two kinds of computers – special purpose and
general-purpose computer.
✓ Special purpose computer
This kind of computer is designed to perform a specific task.
The program of this aspect of computer is in-built into the
machine permanently. Special purpose computers include but not
limited to those used for solving navigation problems in aircraft
and ships and weather forecasting.
✓ General purpose computer
These computers have the ability to handle a wide variety of
different programs and to solve many different problems.
Different programs can be installed or uninstalled depending on
the user needs.

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 c. Types of Application
There are two types in this aspect – scientific applications
computers and business applications computers.
✓ Scientific applications
These computers are designed to handle scientific application
more effectively.
They require small volume of data input and output.
✓ Business data processing applications
These computers are designed to handle business data processing
applications.
They need a large data file, input storage, output storage devices
and large storage capabilities.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS.
Types of computers include the following:
✓ Mainframe computers
✓ Mini – computers or Mid-range computers
✓ Micro – computers or Personal Computers (PC)
✓ Workstations
✓ Super computers
a. Micro – computers or Personal Computers (PC)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer
designed for an individual user. PCs are based on the microprocessor
technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one
chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing,
accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and
database management applications. At home, the most popular use for
personal computers is playing games and surfing the Internet. Although
personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems
are normally linked together to form a network.

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 b. Mini – computers or Mid-range computers
Refers to a computer whose size, speed and capabilities lie between
those of a mainframe and PC. The advent of more powerful chips now
means that some PCs linked in a network can run more powerfully than
small mainframe.
The advent of PCs and with mainframes now being physically smaller
than in the past, the definition of a minicomputer has become rather
vague. It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up
to 250 users simultaneously.

c. Mainframe computers
Is a very powerful central computer linked by cable or
telecommunications to hundreds or thousands of terminals.
It is capable of accepting simultaneous input from all terminals.

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It has many times more processing power than a PC and offers very
extensive data storage facilities.
Mainframe computers are used by organizations such as banks that
have very large volumes of processing to perform and have special
security needs.

d. Workstations
They were used by one person, particularly for graphics, design
applications or engineering. They had fast and powerful central
processor, a high - resolution monitor and large memory. This enabled
complex designs to be easily manipulated. The above characteristics
however are no longer unique to workstations. High performance
personal computer can offer very similar services, so the distinction is
a historical one.

e. Super computers
Refers to computers that can process very large amount of data quickly.
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They are particularly useful for occasions where high volumes of
calculations need to be performed. They are not used commercially.
For example, in meteorological or astronomical applications.

COMPUTER DEVICES.
A computer consists of several interconnected devices or components.
They are five basic components, namely, central processing unit,
primary storage, secondary storage, input devices, and output devices.
Secondary storage, input and output devices are also called peripheral
equipment.

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 ✓ Buses
Connect the different inner parts of the computer together.

✓ Ports
Connect the computer to the outside.

✓ Input devices
The devices that feed data into computers.

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 ✓ The Processor
The processor is also called the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The
CPU is the brain of the computer and the single most expensive piece
of hardware in a computer. The more powerful the CPU, the faster the
computer. It carries out the calculations for the program and controls
the other components of the system. It has two main units, called
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).

✓ Memory
It is also called internal storage or primary storage. Memory is a
computer device that stores programs and data. One type of primary
storage is called RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY or RAM.
• RAM
a. It is the main type of primary storage used with computers
and it is volatile.
b. Used for temporary storage.
• ROM
a. ROM is non-volatile storage.

✓ Storage
The information is retained longer (non-volatile). It is regarded to be
slower and cheaper.

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 ✓ Secondary Storage
Secondary storage is an optional attachment, which is cable –connected
to the CPU. Secondary storage is also non-volatile.
Examples of secondary storage might include hard disk drives (HDDs),
solid-state drives (SSDs), optical disks and USB flash drives.

✓ Output devices
The devices that the computer uses to display results.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE.
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-
defined function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to
solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software:
✓ System Software.
This is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and
extend the processing capabilities of the computer. System
software are generally prepared by computer manufactures.
System software serves as the interface between hardware and the
end users.

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 Examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers,
Interpreter and Assemblers.
✓ Application Software.
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular
need of a particular environment. Application software may
consist of a single program, such as a Microsoft's notepad for
writing and editing simple text.
It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a
Software Package, which work together to accomplish a task,
such as a Microsoft Office package.
Examples of Application software are following; Student Record
Software, Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel or Microsoft
PowerPoint.

APPLICATIONS OF A COMPUTER.
✓ Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy,
reliability, or versatility which has made it an integrated part in all
business organizations. Computer is used in business organizations for:
a. Payroll calculations
b. Budgeting
c. Sales analysis
d. Financial forecasting

✓ Banking
Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers. Banks
provide the following facilities:
a. Online accounting facility, which includes checking current
balance, making deposits and overdrafts, checking interest
charges, shares, and trustee records.
b. ATM machines which are completely automated are making it
even easier for customers to deal with banks.

✓ Education
The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education
system. The computer provides a tool in the education system known
as CBE (Computer Based Education). CBE involves control, delivery,

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and evaluation of learning. Computer education is rapidly increasing
the graph of number of computer students. There are a number of
methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to
educate the students

✓ Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following:
a. Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create
art and graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate
ads with the goal of selling more products.
b. Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible
through the use of computerized catalogues that provide access to
product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled
by the customers.

✓ Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and
dispensaries. They are being used in hospitals to keep the record of
patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing
different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also
done by computerized machines.

✓ Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or
speech that is received and understood clearly and correctly by the
person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this category are:
a. E-mail
b. Chatting
c. Video-conferencing

✓ Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some major
fields in this category are:
a. Budgets
b. Sales tax department
c. Income tax department
d. Computation of male/female ratio

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 e. Computerization of voters lists

✓ Military
Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles,
weapons, etc. Military also employs computerized control systems.
Some military areas where a computer has been used are:
a. Missile Control
b. Military Communication
c. Military Operation and Planning
d. Smart Weapons

To Read: Advantages and Disadvantages of using Computers

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 2. COMPUTER HARDWARE.
WHAT IS COMPUTER HARDWARE?
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a
computer, i.e. the components that can be seen and touched. Hardware
consists of the mechanical parts that make up the computer as a
machine. The hardware consists of physical devices of the computer.
The devices are required for input, output, storage and processing of
the data.

The computer system hardware comprises of three main components:

✓ Input/output (I/O) Unit,
✓ Central Processing Unit (CPU), and
✓ Memory Unit.

The purpose of I/O Unit is to provide data and instructions as input to

the computer and to present relevant information as output from the
computer.
CPU controls the operations of the computer and processes the
received input to generate the relevant output.
The Memory Unit stores the instructions and the data during the input
activity, to make instructions readily available to CPU during
processing. It also stores the processed output.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the Processor is also often called
the brain of computer. CPU consists of:
✓ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
✓ Control Unit (CU)
In addition, CPU also has a set of Registers which are temporary
storage areas for holding data, and instructions. CPU also acts as an
administrator and is responsible for supervising operations of other
parts of the computer.

How it works:
CPU executes the stored program instructions, i.e. instructions and data
are stored in memory before execution.

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 a. For processing, CPU gets data and instructions from the
memory.
b. It interprets the program instructions and performs the
arithmetic and logic operations required for the processing of
data.
c. Then, it sends the processed data or result to the memory.

✓ Arithmetic Logic Unit

ALU consists of two units: Arithmetic Unit and Logic Unit.
a. The Arithmetic Unit performs arithmetic operations on the
data that is made available to it.
Some of the arithmetic operations supported by the
arithmetic unit are:
• Addition
• Subtraction
• Multiplication
• Division.
b. The Logic Unit of ALU is responsible for performing logic
operations. Logic unit performs comparisons of numbers,
letters and special characters. Logic operations include
testing for greater than, less than or equal to condition.

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ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations, and uses Registers to
hold the data that is being processed.

✓ Registers
Registers are high-speed storage areas within the CPU, but have the
least storage capacity. Registers are not referenced by their address, but
are directly accessed and manipulated by the CPU during instruction
execution. Registers store data, instructions, addresses and
intermediate results of processing.

Registers are often referred to as the CPU’s working memory. The

data and instructions that require processing must be brought in the
registers of CPU before they can be processed. For example, if two
numbers are to be added, both numbers are brought in the registers,
added and the result is also placed in a register.

To Read: Types of Registers.

✓ Control Unit
The Control Unit of a computer does not do any actual processing of
data. It organizes the processing of data and instructions. It acts as a
supervisor and, controls and coordinates the activity of the other units
of computer.
CU coordinates the input and output devices of a computer. It directs
the computer to carry out stored program instructions by
communicating with the ALU and the registers. It also instructs the
ALU to perform the arithmetic or logic operations. CU tells when to
fetch the data and instructions, what to do, where to store the results,
the sequencing of events during processing etc.

MEMORY UNIT
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. The
memory unit consists of Cache Memory and Primary Memory.

✓ Primary (Main) Memory: It is used to store the data and

instructions during execution of the instructions. Random Access

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 Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM) are the
primary memory.

✓ There is another kind of storage device known as the Secondary

Memory.
Secondary memory is non-volatile and is used for permanent
storage of data and programs. A program or data that has to be
executed is brought into the RAM from the secondary memory.

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high-speed memory placed in between RAM
and CPU. Cache memory increases the speed of processing. Cache
memory is a storage buffer that stores the data that is used more often,
temporarily, and makes them available to CPU at a fast rate.

During processing, CPU first checks cache for the required data. If data
is not found in cache, then it looks in the RAM for data. To access the
cache memory, CPU does not have to use the motherboard’s system
bus for data transfer.

Cache memory is built into the processor, and may also be located next
to it on a separate chip between the CPU and RAM. Cache built into
the CPU is faster than separate cache, running at the speed of the
microprocessor itself. However, separate cache is roughly twice as fast
as RAM.

Primary Memory
Primary memory is the main memory of computer. It is used to store
data and instructions during the processing of data. Primary memory is
semiconductor memory.

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Primary memory is of two kinds:
✓ Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM is volatile. It stores data when the computer is on. The
information stored in RAM gets erased when the computer is
turned off. RAM provides temporary storage for data and
instructions.
✓ Read Only Memory (ROM).
ROM is non-volatile memory, but is a read only memory. The
storage in ROM is permanent in nature, and is used for storing
standard processing programs that permanently reside in the
computer. ROM comes programmed by the manufacturer.

Differences between ROM and RAM

Secondary Memory
The secondary memory stores data and instructions permanently. The
information can be stored in secondary memory for a long time (years),
and is generally permanent in nature unless erased by the user. It is
a non-volatile memory.
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It provides back-up storage for data and instructions. Hard disk drives
(HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), optical disks and USB flash drives
are some examples of storage devices.

The data and instructions that are currently not being used by CPU, but
may be required later for processing, are stored in secondary memory.
Secondary memory has a high storage capacity than the primary
memory. Secondary memory is also cheaper than the primary memory.
It takes longer time to access the data and instructions stored in
secondary memory than in primary memory.

To Read: Differences between Primary and Secondary Storage.

INPUT DEVICES
Input devices allow users and other applications to input data into the
computer, for processing. The data input to a computer can be in the
form of text, audio, video, etc.
Input devices are classified as follows:
✓ Human data entry devices
a. Keyboard
b. Pointing devices—mouse, trackball, joystick, digitizing tablet
c. Pick devices—light pen, touch screen

✓ Source data entry devices

a. Audio input: speech recognition
b. Video input: digital camera
c. Scanner: hand-held scanner, flat-bed scanner
d. Optical Scanner: OCR, OMR, MICR, barcode reader

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OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices provide output to the user, which is generated after
processing the input data. The processed data, presented to the user
via the output devices could be text, graphics, audio or video. The
output could be on a paper or on a film in a tangible form, or, in an
intangible form as audio, video and electronic form.
Output devices are classified as follows:
✓ Hard Copy Devices
a. Printer
b. Plotter
c. Computer Output on Microfilm (microfiche)
✓ Soft Copy Devices
a. Monitor
b. Visual Display Terminal
c. Video Output
d. Audio Response

Hard Copy VS Soft Copy

✓ The output obtained in a tangible form on a paper or any surface
is called HARD COPY output. The hard copy can be stored
permanently and is portable. The hard copy output can be read or
used without a computer.
✓ The output obtained in an intangible form on a visual display,
audio unit or video unit is called SOFT COPY output. The soft
copy allows corrections to be made, can be stored, and, can be
sent via E– to other users. The soft copy output requires a
computer to be read or used.

BUSES AND PORTS

✓ Bus
Bus is a set of electronic signal pathways that allows information and
signals to travel between components inside or outside of a computer.
The different components of computer, i.e., CPU, I/O unit, and memory
unit are connected with each other by a bus. The data, instructions and
the signals are carried between the different components via a bus.

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The features and functionality of a bus are as follows:
a. A bus is a set of wires used for interconnection, where each wire
can carry one bit of data.
b. A bus width is defined by the number of wires in the bus.
c. A computer bus can be divided into two types: Internal Bus and
External Bus.
The Internal Bus connects components inside the motherboard
like, CPU and system memory. It is also called the System Bus.
The External Bus connects the different external devices,
peripherals, expansion slots, I/O ports and drive connections to
the rest of computer. The external bus allows various devices to
be attached to the computer. It allows for the expansion of
computer’s capabilities. It is generally slower than the system
bus. It is also referred to as the Expansion Bus.

✓ Ports
The peripheral devices interact with the CPU of the computer via the
bus. The connections to the bus from the peripheral devices are made
via the PORTS and SOCKETS provided at the sides of the computer.
The different ports and sockets facilitate the connection of different
devices to the computer.
Some of the standard port connections available on the outer sides of
the computer are: port for mouse, keyboard, monitor, network, modem,
and, audio port, serial port, parallel port and USB port.
The different ports are physically identifiable by their different shapes,
size of contact pins and number of pins.

To Read: Ports available in most of contemporary computers with their

functions.

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 3. COMPUTER SOFTWARE
WHAT IS COMPUTER SOFTWARE?
Software is a set of programs that instructs the computer about the
tasks to be performed. Software tells the computer how the tasks are to
be performed; hardware carries out these tasks. Different sets of
software can be loaded on the same hardware to perform different kinds
of tasks. For example, a user can use the same computer hardware for
writing a report or for running a payroll program.

TYPES OF SOFTWARE.
Software can be broadly classified in two categories:
a. System Software
System software provides the basic functions that are
performed by the computer. It is necessary for the functioning
of a computer.
b. Application Software
Application software is used by the users to perform specific
tasks.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software provides basic functionality to the computer.
System software is required for the working of computer itself. The
user of computer does not need to be aware about the functioning of
system software, while using the computer.
For example, when you buy a computer, the system software would
also include different device drivers.
The purposes of the system software are:
a. To provide basic functionality to computer,
b. To control computer hardware, and
c. To act as an interface between user, application software
and computer hardware.

On the basis of their functionality, system software may be broadly

divided into two categories:
• System software for the computer management relates to the
functioning of different components of the computer, like,
processor, input and output devices etc. System software is
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 required for managing the operations performed by the
components of computer and the devices attached to the
computer. Operating system, device drivers, and system
utilities constitute the system software for management of
computer and its resources.
• System software for the development of application software
provides services required for the development and execution of
application software. System software provides the software tools
required for the development of application software. The
programming language software, translator software, loader,
and linker are also categorized as system software, and are
required for the application software development.

System Software explained:

✓ Operating System
Operating System (OS) is an important part of a computer. OS is a
software that intermediates between the user of a computer and the
computer hardware. It provides an interface that is convenient for the
user to use, and facilitates efficient operations of the computer system
resources.
The key functions of OS are:
a. It provides an environment in which users and application
software can do work.
b. It manages different resources of the computer like the CPU time,
memory space, file storage, I/O devices etc. During the use of
computer by other programs or users, operating system manages
various resources and allocates them whenever required,
efficiently.
c. It controls the execution of different programs to prevent
occurrence of error.
d. It provides a convenient interface to the user in the form of
commands and graphical interface, which facilitates the use of
computer.
Examples include Microsoft Windows, Apple macOS, Linux, Android
and Apple iOS

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 ✓ Device Driver
A device driver acts as a translator between the hardware and the
software that uses the devices. In other words, it intermediates between
the device and the software, in order to use the device. For proper
working of a device, its corresponding device driver must be installed
on the computer.

Nowadays, the operating system comes preloaded with some

commonly used device drivers, like the device driver for mouse,
monitor and keyboard. The device drivers of these devices are
preinstalled on the computer, such that the operating system can
automatically detect the device when it is connected to the computer.
Such devices are called Plug and Play Devices.

In case the computer does not find the device driver, it prompts the user
to insert the media (like a CD which contains the corresponding device
driver) provided along with the device. Most device manufacturers,
host the device drivers for their devices on their companies’ websites;
users can download the relevant driver and install it on their computer.

✓ System Utilities
System utility software is required for the maintenance of computer.
System utilities are used for supporting and enhancing the programs
and the data in computer. Some system utilities may come embedded
with OS and others may be added later on.

Some examples of system utilities are:

a. Anti-virus utility to scan computer for viruses
b. Data Compression utility to compress the files.
c. Disk Partitioning to divide a single drive into multiple logical
drives. Each drive is then treated as an individual drive and has
its own file system.
d. Cryptographic utility to encrypt and decrypt files.
e. Disk Compression utility to compress contents of a disk for
increasing the capacity of a disk.

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 f. Disk Cleaners to find files that have not been used for a long
time. It helps the user to decide what to delete when the hard disk
is full.
g. Backup Utility to make a copy of all information stored on the
disk. It also restores the backed-up contents in case of disk failure.
h. System Profiling Utility provides detailed information about the
software installed on the computer and the hardware attached to
it.
i. Network Managers to check the computer network and to log
events.

✓ Programming Languages
A Programming Language consists of a set of vocabulary and
grammatical rules, to express the computations and tasks that the
computer has to perform. Programming languages are used to write a
program, which controls the behavior of computer, codify the
algorithms precisely, or enables the human-computer interface.

Each language has a unique set of keywords (words that it understands)

and a special syntax for organizing program instructions. Programming
languages fall into three categories:
a. Machine Language is what the computer can understand but it
is difficult for the programmer to understand. Machine languages
consist of numbers only. Each kind of CPU has its own unique
machine language.
b. High-level Language is easier to understand and use for the
programmer but difficult for the computer.
c. Assembly Language falls in between machine language and
high-level language. They are similar to machine language, but
easier to program in, because they allow the programmer to
substitute names for numbers. Assembly language is also referred
to as a symbolic representation of the machine code.

✓ Translator Software
Translator software is used to convert a program written in high-level
language and assembly language to a form that the computer can
understand. Translator software converts a program written in

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assembly language, and high-level language to a machine-level
language program. The translated program is called the object code.

There are three different kind of translator software:

a. Assembler is a software that converts a program written in
assembly language into machine code.
b. Compiler is the software that translates the program written in a
high-level language to machine language. The program written in
high-level language is referred to as the source code and compiled
program is referred as the object code. Compiler converts the
entire source code into object-code and creates the object code.
c. Interpreter is used to convert the high-level language program
into computer-understandable form. However, the interpreter
functions in a different way than a compiler. Interpreter performs
line-by-line execution of the source code during program
execution.

✓ Linker
Linker is a program that links several object modules and libraries to
a single executable program. A source code of a program is often very
large consisting of several hundred or more lines. The source code may
also include reference to libraries.

All these independent modules may not be stored in a single object file.
The code is broken down into many independent modules for easy
debugging and maintenance. Before execution of the program, these
modules and the required libraries are linked together using the linker
software.

✓ Loader
The loader software is used to load and re-locate the executable
program in the main memory. Software has to be loaded into the main
memory during execution. Loader assigns storage space to the program
in the main memory for execution.

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APPLICATION SOFTWARE
The software that a user uses for accomplishing a specific task is the
Application Software. Application software may be a single program
or a set of programs.

A set of programs that are written for a specific purpose and provide
the required functionality is called Software Package. Application
software is written for different kinds of applications: graphics, word
processors, media players, database applications,
telecommunication, accounting purposes etc.

Some examples of application software packages are as follows:

Word Processing Software: For writing letter, reports, documents etc.
(e.g. MS-WORD).
Image Processing Software: For assisting in drawing and
manipulating graphics (e.g. Adobe Photoshop).
Accounting Software: For assisting in accounting information, salary,
tax returns (Tally software).

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 4. COMPUTER NETWORKS
WHAT IS A COMPUTER NETWORK?
A computer network is an interconnection of two or more computers
that are able to exchange information. The computers may be
connected via any data communication link, like copper wires, optical
fibers, communication satellites, or radio links.

The computers connected to the network may be personal computers

or large main frames. The computers in a network may be located in a
room, building, city, country, or anywhere in the world.

NETWORK TYPES
Computer network is broadly classified into three types: (1) Local
Area Network (LAN), (2) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), and
(3) Wide Area Network (WAN). The different network types are
distinguished from each other based on the following characteristics:
a. Size of the network: This refers to the area over which the
network is spread.
b. Transmission Technology: This refers to the transmission
media used to connect computers on the network and the
transmission protocols used for connecting.
c. Networking Topology: This refers to the arrangement of
computers on the network or the shape of the network.

✓ Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is a computer network widely used for local communication.
LAN connects computers in a small area like a room, building, office
or a campus spread up to a few kilometers. They are privately owned
networks, with a purpose to share resources and to exchange
information. The computers in a LAN are generally connected using
cables. LAN is different from other types of network since they share
the network. The different computers connected to a LAN take turns to
send data packets over the cables connecting them.
Star, Bus, and Ring are some of the common LAN networking
topologies. LAN runs at a speed of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps and has low
delays. A LAN based on Wi-Fi wireless network technology is called
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN).
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 ✓ Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
MAN is a computer network spread over a city. Cable television
network is an example of MAN. The computers in a MAN are
connected using coaxial cables or fiber optic cables. MAN also
connects several LAN spread over a city.

✓ Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a network that connects computers over long distances like
cities, countries, continents, or worldwide. WAN uses public, leased,
or private communication links to spread over long distances. WAN
uses telephone lines, satellite link, and radio link to connect.

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The need to be able to connect any number of computers at any number
of sites, results in WAN technologies to be different from the LAN
technologies. WAN network must be able to grow itself. Internet is a
common example of WAN.

To Read: Other types of Computer Network.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems
or network devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define
both physical and logical aspect of the network.

Assignment: Diagrammatically discuss different types of Network

Topologies.

NETWORK DEVICES
The cables are used to transmit data in the form of signals from one
computer to another. But cables cannot transmit signals beyond a
particular distance. Moreover, there is a need to connect multiple
computers and devices.

A concentrator is a device having two or more ports to which the

computers and other devices can be connected.
A concentrator has two main functions: (1) it amplifies the signal to
restore the original strength of the signal, and (2) it provides an
interface to connect multiple computers and devices in a network.
Repeater, hub, switch and bridge are examples of network connecting
devices.

✓ Network Interface Card (NIC)

A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware device through which
the computer connects to a network. NIC has an appropriate connector
to connect the cable to it. NIC depends upon the configuration of the
computer, unlike hub or switches that perform independently.

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 ✓ Repeater
Repeaters are used to extend LAN. It has only two ports and can
connect only two segments of a network. Multiple repeaters can be used
to connect more segments. (Segment is a logical section of the same
network). They are useful when computers in a network are located far
away from each other. Repeaters amplify the signal so that the signal
is as strong as the original signal. They can thus extend the reach of a
network.

✓ Bridge
A bridge is a network device that connects multiple LANs (local area
networks) together to form a larger LAN. The process of aggregating
networks is called network bridging. A bridge connects the different
components so that they appear as parts of a single network. Bridges
operate at the data link layer of the OSI model and hence also referred
as Layer 2 switches.

✓ Hub
It is like a repeater with multiple ports. But, hub does not amplify the
incoming signal. Hubs are used to connect multiple segments of the
same network. Hubs are also used to connect computers to network that
use Star topology.

The port on the hubs can also be used to connect another hub, switch,
bridge or router. Hubs increase the network traffic because they
broadcast data to all the device connected all the ports of the hub. It is
preferable to use a hub in a small LAN having about 8–10 computers
connected to it.

✓ Switch
Like hub, switch also connects multiple computers in a network or
different segments of the same network. Since a switch does not
broadcast data, but sends the data from the source computer to the
destination computer, a half of the computers attached to the switch can
send data at the same time.

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Switch is also referred to as a multi-port bridge. In general, bridges
are used to extend the distance of the network, and switches are
primarily used for their filtering capabilities to create a multiple and
smaller virtual LAN (a LAN segment can be connected to each port of
the switch) from a single large LAN.
✓ Router
Router is used to connect heterogeneous networks. A router has a
processor, memory, and I/O interface for each network to which it
connects. A router connects networks that use different technologies,
different media, and physical addressing schemes or frame formats.

A router can connect two LANs, a LAN and a WAN, or two WANs. A
router is used to interconnect the networks in the Internet. Physically,
a router resembles a bridge, but is different from a bridge. A router
determines which way is the shortest or fastest in a network, and routes
packets accordingly. Since it works at the Network layer, it moves
packets based on the IP addresses etc.

DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA

The data is sent from one computer to another over a transmission
medium. The transmission media can be grouped into:
a. Guided media
b. Unguided media

✓ In the guided media, the data signals are sent along a specific
path, through a wire or a cable. Copper wire and optical fibers are
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 the most commonly used guided media. Copper wire transmits
data as electric signals. Copper wires offer low resistance to
current signal, facilitating signals to travel longer distances. To
minimize the effect of external disturbance on the copper wire,
two types of wiring is used: (1) Twisted Pair, and (2) Coaxial
Pair. Optical fibers transmit data as light signals.

✓ In the unguided media, the data signals are not bounded by a fixed
channel to follow. The data signals are transmitted by air. Radio,
microwave, and satellite transmissions fall into this category.

TWISTED PAIR CABLE

A Twisted Pair Cable consists of four pairs of copper wires coated
with an insulating material like plastic or Teflon, twisted together. The
twisting of wires reduces electromagnetic interference from external
sources. Twisted pair cabling is often used in data networks for short
and medium length connections because of its relatively lower costs
compared to optical fiber and coaxial cable. Twisted pair is of two
kinds:
a. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP), and
b. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP).

STP cable has an extra layer of metal foil between the twisted pair of
copper wires and the outer covering. The metal foil covering provides
additional protection from external disturbances. However, the
covering increases the resistance to the signal and thus decreases the
length of the cable. STP is costly and is generally used in networks
where cables pass closer to devices that cause external disturbances.

UTP is the most commonly used medium for transmission over short
distances up to 100m. Out of the four pairs of wires in a UTP cable,
only two pairs are used for communication. UTP cables are defined in
different categories. The commonly used UTP cable is the Cat-5 cable
which is used with fast Ethernet.

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COAXIAL CABLE
A coaxial cable has a single inner conductor that transmits electric
signals; the outer conductor acts as a ground. The two conductors are
separated by insulation. The inner conductor, insulator, and the outer
conductor are wrapped in a sheath of Teflon or PVC. The copper wire
is used for both inner and outer conductor. The signal is transmitted
over the surface of the inner conductor. In an ideal coaxial cable, the
electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only in the space
between the inner and outer conductors. This allows coaxial cable runs
to be installed next to metal objects such as gutters without the power
losses that occur in other transmission lines, and provides protection of
the signal from external electromagnetic interference. A thicker coaxial
cable can transmit more data than a thinner one.

OPTICAL FIBER CABLE

Optical fibers are being used for transmission of information over large
distances more cost effectively than the copper wire connection.
Communication systems are now unthinkable without fiber optics.
Optical fiber transmits data as light signals instead of electric signals.

An optical fiber cable consists of:

a. Core–optical fiber conductor (glass) that transmits light,
b. Cladding–an optical material that surrounds the core to prevent
any light from escaping the core
c. Jacket—outer covering made of plastic to protect the fiber from
damage.

The Advantages of Optical Fibers over wires are:

✓ Optical fibers do not cause electrical interference in other cables,
since they use light signals.
✓ Due to much lower attenuation and interference, optical fiber has
large advantages over existing copper wire in long-distance and
high-demand applications.
✓ A fiber can carry a pulse of light much farther than a copper wire
carrying a signal.

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Optical fiber can carry more information than a wire (light can encode
more information than electrical signal). No amplification of the optical
signal is needed over distances of hundreds of kilometers.

The Disadvantages of Optical Fiber are:

✓ Installing an optical fiber requires special equipment.
✓ If a fiber breaks, finding the broken location is difficult.
✓ Repairing a broken optical fiber is difficult and requires special
equipment.
✓ It has high installation costs.

WIRELESS NETWORKING
Wireless technology, as the name suggests, is used to establish a wire-
free connection or communication between two or more devices. In
wireless technology data is encoded on electromagnetic waves that
travel through air. The wireless technology is used for broadcasting
in radio and television communication, for communication using
mobile phones, for connecting components of computers using
Bluetooth technology, for Internet connection using Wi-Fi, Wireless
LAN and in remote controls for television, doors etc.

Wireless network is a computer network connected wirelessly. The

communication is done through a wireless media like radio waves,
infrared or Bluetooth. The wireless networks have two main
components: The Wireless Access Points that include the transmitter

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along with the area it can cover, and the Wireless Clients like mobile
handsets, laptops with Ethernet cards etc.

The speed of wireless connection is determined by:

✓ The distance of the wireless client device from the access point.
✓ The obstruction-free path (walls, trees etc.).
✓ Interference.
✓ The number of users using the network at a given time.

Wireless networks can be divided into three categories based on their

use:
✓ Bluetooth technology to connect the different components of the
computer in a room, a small office or home.
✓ Wireless LAN is used to connect computers and devices
wirelessly in a LAN, for example, different computers or devices
in an office or campus.
✓ Wireless WAN is used to connect wide area systems, for example
access to Internet via mobile devices like cell phone and laptops.

IMPORTANCE OF NETWORKING
Networking of computers provides a communication link between the
users, and provides access to information. Networking of computers
has several uses, described as follows:
✓ Resource Sharing: In an organization, resources such as printers
and scanners are generally not required by each person at all
times. Moreover, for small organizations it may not be feasible to
provide such resources to each individual. Such resources can be
made available to different users of the organization on the
network. It results in availability of the resource to different users
regardless of the physical location of the resource or the user,
enhances optimal use of the resource, leads to easy maintenance,
and saves cost too.
✓ Sharing of Information: In addition to the sharing of physical
resources, networking facilitates sharing of information.
Information stored on networked computers located at same or
different physical locations, becomes accessible to the computers
connected to the network.

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✓ As a Communication Medium: Networking helps in sending
and receiving of electronic-mail (email) messages from anywhere
in the world. Data in the form of text, audio, video and pictures
can be sent via e-mail. This allows the users to communicate
online in a faster and cost-effective manner. Video conferencing
is another form of communication made possible via networking.
People in distant locations can hold a meeting, and they can hear
and see each other simultaneously.
✓ For Back-up and Support: Networked computers can be used
to take back-up of critical data. In situations where there is a
requirement of always-on computer, another computer on the
network can take over in case of failure of one computer.

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 5. INTERNET
WHAT IS INTERNET?
Internet is defined as an interconnection of networks. Internet allows
computers on different kinds of networks to interact with each other.
Any two computers, often having different software and hardware, can
exchange information over the Internet, as long as they obey the
technical rules of Internet communication.

HISTORY OF INTERNET
Internet has evolved from a research prototype project to a full-grown
commercial computer communication system. The growth of Internet
can be discussed in three steps, as follows:
✓ Internetworking Protocol: Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) in 1970s
✓ Usenet groups and Electronic mail in 1980s
✓ World Wide Web in 1990s
The networking of computers has its origin at the US Department of
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). During
1970’s DARPA developed the ARPANET as a WAN to connect
different computers and later to connect computers on different
networks (Internetworking). Internetworking became the focus of
research at ARPA and led to the emergence of Internet.
Based on DARPA’s design goals, a protocol named Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) was developed for
computer communication (Protocol is a network term used to indicate
the set of rules used by a network for communication). TCP/IP has
become the protocol for Internet.
In late 1970s, the US National Science Foundation (NSF) designed a
successor to ARPANET, called NSFNET, which was open for use to
all university research groups, libraries and museums. This allowed
scientists across the country to share data and interact with each other
for their research projects. Internet grew exponentially when
ARPANET was interconnected with NSFNET.
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In 1980s, many Internet applications like electronic mail, newsgroups,
file transfer facility and remote login were developed. In the early
1990s, a new application World Wide Web (WWW) changed the way
in which Internet was used. WWW is a system of creating,
organizing, and linking documents, and was created by British
scientist Tim Berners Lee. A protocol based on hypertext was
developed that allowed the documents and content on WWW to be
connected via hyperlink.
In 1993, Marc Andreessen at the University of Illinois developed the
Mosaic browser. The WWW along with the browser made it possible
to set up number of web pages that may consist of text, pictures or
sound, and with link to other pages.

INTERNETWORKING PROTOCOL
TCP/IP is the communication protocol for the Internet. The TCP/IP
protocol has two parts: TCP and IP.
✓ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides reliable
transport service, i.e. it ensures that messages sent from sender to
receiver are properly routed and arrive intact at the destination.
TCP converts messages into a set of packets at the source, which
are then reassembled back into messages at the destination.
✓ Internet Protocol (IP) allows different computers to
communicate by creating a network of networks. IP handles the
dispatch of packets over the network. It handles the addressing of
packets, and ensures that a packet reaches its destination traveling
through multiple networks with multiple standards.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE INTERNET

Internet is a network of interconnected networks and is designed to
operate without a central control. If a portion of the network fails,
connection is made through alternative paths available. The
architecture of Internet is hierarchical in nature.

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A brief description of the architecture of Internet with its tiers (levels)
is as follows:
✓ Client (user of computer) at home or in a LAN network is at the
lowest level in hierarchy.
✓ Tier 3 ISPs (Local Internet Service Provider (ISP)) is at the
next higher level.
What is an Internet Service Provider (ISP)?
An ISP is an organization that has its own computers connected to the
Internet and provides facility to individual users to connect to Internet
through their computers.
✓ Tier 2 ISPs (Regional ISP) is next in the hierarchy. The local
ISP is connected to regional ISP. The regional ISP connects the
local ISP’s located in various cities via routers. If the packet
received by regional ISP is for a client connected to this regional
ISP, then the packet is delivered; otherwise, packet is sent to the
regional ISP’s backbone.
✓ Tier 1 ISPs (Backbone) is at top of the hierarchy. Backbone
operators are large corporations like AT&T which have their own
server farms connected to the backbone. There are many
backbones existing in the world. The backbone networks are
connected to Regional ISP’s with a large number of routers
through high speed fiber-optics.

INTERNET ADDRESS
A computer connected to the Internet must have a unique address in
order to communicate across the Internet. Internet Protocol (IP)
address is assigned uniquely to every computer connected to the
Internet.
IP address is provided by the ISP whose services you use to connect
your computer to the Internet. IP address is a string of numbers
consisting of four parts, where each part is a number between 0 and
255.

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An IP address looks like 201.54.122.107. Since IP addresses are
numeric, it is difficult to remember everyone’s IP address. So, instead
of numeric IP address, Domain Name is used.
Domain Name is a text name (string of words) corresponding to the
numeric IP address of a computer on the Internet. Domain names are
used for the convenience of the user.
A domain name combines a group of hosts on the Internet (e.g. Yahoo,
Google, MSN etc.), and a top-level domain. Some examples of top-
level domain are as follows:
✓ com—for commercial organizations,
✓ edu—for educational institutions,
✓ net—for gateways and administrative hosts,
✓ org—for non-profit organizations,
✓ co—for companies, and
✓ ac—for academics
To Read: Read more on Top-level domains

INTERNET SERVICES
A. WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)
WWW (also called as Web) is a large scale, online store of
information. It is a system of creating, organizing, and linking of
documents. Information is stored on WWW as a collection of
documents that are interconnected with each other via links. The
interconnected documents may be located on one or more than one
computer, worldwide, thus, the name world wide web.
The features of WWW and terms linked to WWW are given below:
✓ The documents on web are created in hypertext format.
Hypertext facilitates linking of documents.
✓ The language used to create a hypertext format document is
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). HTML allows the

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 designer of the document to include text, pictures, video, images,
sound, graphics, movies etc., and also to link contents on the same
document or different documents using a hyperlink.
✓ The hypertext format document is transferred on the Web using
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
✓ A single hypertext document is called a Webpage. A group of
related web pages is called a Website. A website displays related
information on a specific topic.
WEB BROWSER
Web Browser (or browser) is a software program that extracts
information on user request from the Internet and presents it as a web
page to the user. It is also referred to as the user interface of the web.
Some of the popular web browsers are: Internet Explorer from
Microsoft, Firefox browser, Google’s chrome and Microsoft Edge.
UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR (URL)
A web page on the Internet is uniquely identified by its address, called
URL.
Definition:
URL is the address on the Internet at which the web page resides.
The user uses this address to get a web page from the Internet. The
general form of URL is:
protocol://address/path
where,
✓ protocol defines the method used to access the web page, e.g.,
http, ftp, news etc.
✓ address is the Internet address of the server where the web page
resides. It contains the service (e.g. www) and the domain name
(e.g. google.com), and
✓ path is the location of web page on the server.

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INTERNET SEARCH ENGINES
One of the most exciting things a user can do on the Internet is to search
for information from multiple sources. There are hundreds of millions
of web pages available, containing information on a wide variety of
topics. The user needs to search the Internet to find them information
relevant to his/her requirement.
Internet Search Engines or Search Engines are specific
websites/software that help the users to find information stored on the
Internet. Search engines search the Internet based on some important
words (keywords) or combinations of words. Some of the common and
well-known search engine is www.google.com
B. ELECTRONIC MAIL
Electronic mail (E-mail) is an electronic message transmitted over a
network from one user to another. E-mail is a text-based mail consisting
of lines of text, and can include attachments such as audio messages,
pictures and documents.
The features of e-mail are as follows:
✓ E-mail can be sent to one person or more than one person at the
same time.
✓ Communicating via e-mail does not require physical presence of
the recipient. The recipient can open the e-mail at his/her
convenience.
✓ Since messages are transmitted electronically, e-mail is a fast way
to communicate with the people in your office or to people
located in a distant country, as compared to postal system.
✓ E-mail messages can be sent at any time of the day.
✓ A copy of e-mail message that the sender has sent is available on
the senders’ computer for later reference.
✓ In addition to sending messages, e-mail is an ideal method for
sending documents already on the computer, as attachments.
EMAIL ADDRESS

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To use e-mail, a user must have an e-mail address. The e-mail address
contains all information required to send or receive a message from
anywhere in the world. An e-mail address consists of two parts
separated by @ symbol (spelled as at)—the first part is username and
the second part is host domain name.
The e-mail address may look like:
abcdgoel@gmail.com
EMAIL MESSAGE FORMAT
The e-mail message consists of two parts-header and body.
The header contains information about the message, such as:
✓ From—Sender’s e-mail address.
✓ To—Recipient’s e-mail address.
✓ Date—When the e-mail was sent.
✓ Subject—The topic of the message.
✓ Cc—Addresses where carbon copies of the same e-mail will be
sent. The recipients of e-mail can see all e-mail addresses to
which the copies have been sent.
✓ Bcc—Addresses where Blind carbon copies (Bcc) of the same e-
mail will be sent. The recipients of e-mail do not know that the
same e-mail has been sent to other e-mail addresses.
✓ The size of e-mail.
The body contains the text of the message and any attachments to be
sent.
EMAIL SERVICES
There are two kinds of e-mail services—Application-based e-mail,
and Web-based e-mail.
✓ Web-based e-mail or Webmail appears in a web browser’s
window. A web-based e-mail can be accessed by the user from
any Internet-connected computer anywhere in the world. Web-
based e-mail is not stored on the user’s computer. Many free web-
based e-mail services are available.
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 ✓ Application-based e-mail is installed onto the user’s computer.
The mail is stored on the user’s computer. For using an
application-based e-mail, the user uses a program such as
Microsoft Outlook, Outlook Express etc. The user must have an
e-mail account on the Internet mail server with a domain name
(e.g. vsnl.com), which is provided by the ISP whose services the
user is using to connect to the Internet. The user also has an e-
mail address (create e-mail address by adding your username to
e-mail server’s domain name. E.g. aagoel@vsnl.com), which
identifies the user uniquely on the e-mail server.
Task: Use a computer to create an email.

USES OF INTERNET
Internet is used for different purposes by different people.
Some uses of the Internet are listed below:
✓ E-Commerce (auction, buying, selling products etc.)
✓ Research (on-line journals, magazines, information etc.)
✓ Education (e-learning courses, virtual classroom, distance
learning)
✓ E-Governance (online filing of application (Income Tax), on-line
application forms etc.)
✓ On-line ticket booking (airplane tickets, rail tickets, cinema hall
tickets etc.)
✓ On-line payments (credit card payments etc.)
✓ Video conferencing
✓ Exchange of views, music, files, mails, folders, data, information
etc.
✓ Outsourcing jobs
✓ Social networking (sites like Facebook, LinkedIn, twitter)
✓ E-Telephony (sites like skype)
To Read: Negative impacts caused by the use of Internet

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48
 6. COMPUTER SECURITY
INTRODUCTION
Computer Security refers to the protection of computer systems and
information from harm, theft, and unauthorized use. Computer security
is needed to protect the computing system and to protect the data
that they store and access. Transmission of data using network
(Internet) and communication links has necessitated the need to protect
the data during transmission over the network.
We use the term computer security to refer to both the computer
security and the network security. Computer security focuses on the:
✓ Security Attacks
These are the reasons for breach of security. Security attacks
comprise of all actions that breaches the computer security.
✓ Security Mechanisms
These are the tools that include the algorithms, protocols or
devices, that are designed to detect, prevent, or recover from a
security attack.
✓ Security Services
These are the services that are provided by a system for a specific
kind of protection to the system resources.
The purpose of computer security is to provide reliable security
services in the environments suffering security attacks, by using
security mechanisms. The security services use one or more security
mechanism(s).

SECURITY THREAT AND SECURITY ATTACK

A threat is a potential violation of security and causes harm. A threat
can be a malicious program, a natural disaster or a burglar.
Vulnerability is a weakness of system that is left unprotected. Systems
that are vulnerable are exposed to threats.

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Threat is a possible danger that might exploit vulnerability; the actions
that cause it to occur are the Security Attacks. A security attack may
be a passive attack or an active attack.
The aim of a passive attack is to get information from the system but
it does not affect the system resources. Passive attacks may analyze
the traffic to find the nature of communication that is taking place, or,
release the contents of the message to a person other than the intended
receiver of the message. Passive attacks are difficult to detect because
they do not involve any alteration of the data. Thus, the emphasis in
dealing with passive attacks is on prevention rather than detection.
An active attack tries to alter the system resources or affect its
operations. Active attack may modify the data or create a false data.
An active attack may be a masquerade (an entity pretends to be
someone else), replay (capture events and replay them), modification
of messages, and denial of service. Active attacks are difficult to
prevent. However, an attempt is made to detect an active attack and
recover from them.
Security attacks can be on users, computer hardware and computer
software:
✓ Attacks on users could be to the identity of user and to the
privacy of user. Identity attacks result in someone else acting on
your behalf by using personal information like password, PIN
number in an ATM, credit card number, social security number
etc. Attacks on the privacy of user involve tracking of user’s
habits and actions: the website user visits, the buying habit of the
user etc. Cookies and spam mails are used for attacking the
privacy of users.
✓ Attacks on computer hardware could be due to a natural
calamity like floods or earthquakes; due to power related
problems like power fluctuations etc.; or by destructive actions of
a burglar.
✓ Software attacks harm the data stored in the computer. Software
attacks may be due to malicious software, or, due to hacking.

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 Malicious software or malware is a software code included into
the system with a purpose to harm the system. Hacking is
intruding into another computer or network to perform an illegal
act.

MALICIOUS SOFTWARE
Malicious users use different methods to break into the systems.
Malicious Software is the software that is intentionally included into
a system with the intention to harm the system. Viruses, Trojan horse,
and Worms are examples of malicious programs.
✓ Virus
Virus is a software program that is destructive in nature. Virus
programs have the following properties:
a. It can attach itself to other healthy programs.
b. It can replicate itself and thus can spread across a network.
c. It is difficult to trace a virus after it has spread across a
network.
d. Viruses harm the computer in many ways: corrupt or delete
data or files on the computer, change the functionality of
software applications, use e-mail program to spread itself to
other computers, erase everything on the hard disk, or, degrade
performance of the system by utilizing resources such as
memory or disk space.
e. Virus infects an executable file or program. The virus executes
when a program infected with virus is executed or you start a
computer from a disk that has infected system files.
f. Once a virus is active, it loads into the computer’s memory and
may save itself to the hard drive or copies itself to applications
or system files on the disk.
g. However, viruses cannot infect write protected disks or infect
written documents. Viruses do not infect an already

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 compressed file. Viruses also do not infect computer hardware;
they only infect software.
h. Viruses are most easily spread by attachments in e-mail
messages. Viruses also spread through download on the
Internet.
For example, the first computer virus, a boot sector virus called
"Brain", was developed in 1986. Tired of customers pirating software
from their shop, two brothers claim to have designed the virus to infect
the boot sector of software thieves' floppy disks. The virus spread
through infected copies of the pirated software, jumping from the
infected floppy disk to the computer hard drive when the program was
booted, or loaded onto the new machine.
Symptoms of Virus Infection on Computer
• The computer runs slower than usual.
• The computer stops responding, or it locks up frequently.
• The computer crashes, and then it restarts every few minutes.
• The computer restarts on its own. Additionally, the computer
does not run as usual.
• Applications on the computer do not work correctly.
• Disks or disk drives become inaccessible.
• Unusual error messages start displaying.
• Menus and dialog boxes are seen in distorted form.
• New icons appear on the desktops that have not been put there, or
the icons are not associated with any recently installed programs.
• Strange sounds or music plays from the speakers unexpectedly.
• A program disappears from the computer even though it has not
been intentionally removed.
To Read: Types of Computer Viruses.
✓ Worm
Worm is self-replicating software that uses network and security holes
to replicate itself. A copy of the worm scans the network for another
machine that has a specific security hole. It copies itself to the new
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machine using the security hole, and then starts replicating from there,
as well.
A worm is however different from a virus. A worm does not modify a
program like a virus, however, it replicates so much that it consumes
the resources of the computer and makes it slow.
Example of a Worm is ILOVEYOU worm which was released in the
early 2000’s and it was the most damaging malware event since back
them malware was a myth. It overwrote system files and personal files
and spread over and over again. It was spread via email with the subject
“I love you” and it was hidden in ‘LOVE-LETTER-FOR-
YOU.TXT.vbs’ attachment.
✓ Trojan Horse
Trojan horse is destructive programs that masquerade as useful
programs. The name “Trojan horse” is given because of the Greek
soldiers who reached the city of Troy by hiding themselves inside a
large wooden horse. The people of the city of Troy themselves pulled
the horse inside their city, unaware of the fact that the Greek soldiers
were hiding inside the horse.
Similarly, users install Trojan horses thinking that it will serve a useful
purpose such as a game or provide entertainment. However, Trojan
horses contain programs that corrupt the data or damage the files.
Trojan horses can corrupt software applications. They can also damage
files and can contain viruses that destroy and corrupt data and
programs. Trojan horse does not replicate themselves like viruses.
An example of a Trojan Horse is CryptoLocker which is a
ransomware, which means is a malware that takes your files hostage. It
was released in September 2013 and spread through email attachments
and they encrypted the user’s files so that they could access them.
To Read: Research more on other types of malware.
Preventive Measures for Data Safety and Avoid Virus Infections

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• “Keep regular backup of data” is highly recommended to avoid
losing it.
• Avoid suspicious web sites. A good virus protection program
alerts while visiting a web site that attempts to install or run a
program on the computer.
• Avoid using unknown USB drives. When data is copied from a
computer that is infected with a virus and transferred to the other
computer, it may cause virus infection in that computer too.
Therefore, it is always advisable that the USB drives should be
scanned for viruses before copying their data to a computer
system.
• Install a reliable antivirus program. Even if the computer is not
hooked up to the internet, a reliable antivirus program is low cost
and makes common sense. Some antivirus programs are free and
work almost as well as industry giants such as Norton and
McAfee.
• Install anti-spyware and antimalware programs. Many of the
top anti-spyware programs are completely free. Spybot Search
and Destroy and CCleaner are just two free programs that can
help prevent computer viruses. As helpful as these programs are,
one must update them and run them on a regular basis to do any
good.
• Never open e-mail attachments without scanning them first.
The most common way by which viruses are spread throughout
the internet is still via e-mail. Some attachments, like pictures,
now display in e-mails and do not require an attachment to be
manually opened, but other documents do. One should make sure
that they are using an e-mail client that scans all e-mail
attachments beforehand.
• Watch the downloads. Downloading music, movies and other
items are so massive that it may be easy to sneak a virus along for
the ride. These files should be downloaded from trusted sites, or,
at the very least, should be scanned before opening them.

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 • Stay away from cracked software. It is so secret that one can
download illegal, cracked versions of some programs online. As
tempting as it may be, these files are almost always infested with
advanced and difficult to detect malware. Therefore, one should
play it safe and get software from a trusted source.
• Install a firewall. A firewall is a program that screens incoming
internet and network traffic. Along with the virus program, it can
help prevent unauthorized access to the computer.

SECURITY SERVICES
Security services are the services that are provided by a system for a
specific kind of protection to the system resources. Security services
ensure Confidentiality, Integrity, Authentication, and Non-
Repudiation of data or message stored on the computer, or when
transmitted over the network. Additionally, it provides assurance for
access control and availability of resources to its authorized users.
✓ Confidentiality: The confidentiality aspect specifies availability
of information to only authorized users. In other words, it is the
protection of data from unauthorized disclosure. It requires
ensuring the privacy of data stored on a server or transmitted via
a network, from being intercepted or stolen by unauthorized
users. Data encryption stores or transmits data, in a form that
unauthorized users cannot understand. Data encryption is used for
ensuring confidentiality.
✓ Integrity: It assures that the received data is exactly as sent by
the sender, i.e. the data has not been modified, duplicated,
reordered, inserted or deleted before reaching the intended
recipient. The data received is the one actually sent and is not
modified in transit.
✓ Authentication: Authentication is the process of ensuring and
confirming the identity of the user before revealing any
information to the user. Authentication provides confidence in the
identity of the user or the entity connected. It also assures that the
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 source of the received data is as claimed. Authentication is
facilitated by the use of username and password, smart cards,
biometric methods like retina scanning and fingerprints.
✓ Non-Repudiation prevents either sender or receiver from
denying a transmitted message. For a message that is transmitted,
proofs are available that the message was sent by the alleged
sender and the message was received by the intended recipient.
For example, if a sender places an order for a certain product to
be purchased in a particular quantity, the receiver knows that it
came from a specified sender. Non-repudiation deals with
signatures.
✓ Access Control: It is the prevention of unauthorized use of a
resource. This specifies the users who can have access to the
resource, and what are the users permitted to do once access is
allowed.
✓ Availability: It assures that the data and resources requested by
authorized users are available to them when requested.

ANTIVIRUS
Antivirus is a software that aims to detect, isolate and if necessary,
delete malware on a computer before it can harm data. Antivirus
software uses several techniques to identify malware: the two most
common are known as signature-based (virus dictionary) detection
and heuristic-based detection.
✓ Signature-Based (Virus Dictionary) Detection.
A malware’s signature is a distinctive pattern of data either in
memory or in a file. An antivirus program may contain thousands of
signatures, but it can only detect malware for which a signature has
been identified and published by the antivirus program’s authors.
As a result, there is a period between a new piece of malware being
released ‘into the wild’ and when its signature can be incorporated into
antivirus products. A weakness of signatures is that more
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sophisticated malware has the ability to change its program (it is said
to be polymorphic or metamorphic), disguising itself without affecting
its operation.
✓ Heuristic-Based Detection.
Complementing signatures, heuristics use rules to identify viruses
based on previous experience of known viruses. Heuristic detection
may execute suspicious programs in a virtual machine (a software
recreation of a physical computer) and analyses the program for
operations typical of known malware (such as replicating itself or
attempting to overwrite key operating system files); or it might revert
the program back to its original source code and look for malware-like
instructions.
If the heuristic analysis considers that the file acts in a malware-like
manner, it is flagged as potentially dangerous. Unlike signatures,
heuristics do not require specific knowledge about individual types of
malware – they can detect new malware, for which signatures do not
exist, simply by their behavior.
The main setback with Heuristic-based detection is that it can generate
FALSE POSITIVE matches i.e; the antivirus scanner may report a file
as being infected that is not infected.

FIREWALL
A Firewall is a security mechanism to protect a local network from the
threats it may face while interacting with other networks (Internet). A
firewall can be a hardware component, a software component, or a
combination of both. All communication takes place through the
firewall, which examines all incoming data before allowing it to enter
the local network.

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Functions of Firewall
✓ Firewalls provide security by examining the incoming data
packets and allowing them to enter the local network only if the
conditions are met.
✓ Firewalls provide user authentication by verifying the username
and password. This ensures that only authorized users have access
to the local network.
Working of Firewall:
The working of firewall is based on a Filtering Mechanism. The
filtering mechanism keeps track of source address of data,
destination address of data and contents of data.
The Filtering Mechanism allows information to be passed to the
Internet from a local network without any authentication. It makes
sure that the downloading of information from the Internet to a local
network happens based only on a request by an authorized user.

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