UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, LAHORE

OPEN ENDED LAB REPORT

(Ch. E-404L- INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL)

Submitted By Submitted To

Saba Javed (2020-CH-16) Ma’am Sidra Jabeen

Shayan Kashif (2020-CH-20)

Muhammad Bin Shakeel (2020-CH-32)

Muhammad Usman Amjad (2020-CH-36)

 TABLE OF CONTENT
1.1. Objective: .................................................................................................................. 3
1.2. List of Equipment:.................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Theory:...................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.1. Level Sensors: .................................................................................................... 3
1.3.2. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT): ........................................ 4
1.3.3. Working Principle: ............................................................................................ 4
1.3.4. Types of Level Sensors: ..................................................................................... 4
1.3.4.1. Contact Level Sensors: ............................................................................... 4
1.3.4.2. Non-Contact Level Sensors: ....................................................................... 4
1.3.5. What is a Controller? ........................................................................................ 5
1.3.6. Types of Controllers: ......................................................................................... 5
1.3.6.1. Proportional Controllers: .............................................................................. 5
1.3.6.1.1. Advantages: ............................................................................................. 6
1.3.6.1.2. Disadvantages: ........................................................................................ 7
1.3.6.2. Integral Controllers: ...................................................................................... 7
1.3.6.2.1. Advantages: ............................................................................................. 8
1.3.6.2.2. Disadvantages: ........................................................................................ 8
1.3.6.3. Derivative Controllers: .................................................................................. 9
1.3.6.3.1. Advantages: ............................................................................................. 9
1.3.6.3.2. Disadvantages: ...................................................................................... 10
1.4. Circuit Schematic: .................................................................................................. 11
1.5. Procedure: .............................................................................................................. 11
1.6. Precautions: ............................................................................................................ 12
1.7 Observations & Calculations: ..................................................................................... 13
1.7.1 PID Controller (Varying Derivative Controller) ................................................. 13

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 TITLE: LEVEL CONTROL PROCESS MODULE

1.1. Objective:

➢ To verify the effect of the gain of the loop on the dynamic response of the PID
controller
➢ To compare PID controller response by changing integral and derivative gains

1.2. List of Equipment:

• Connecting leads
• Flow control process module
• Digital voltmeter
• Flow control training Console

1.3. Theory:

1.3.1. Level Sensors:

Level sensors are devices used to measure the level or volume of a substance within a container
or tank. They are employed in various industrial and commercial applications to monitor and
control the level of liquids, granular materials, or even gases. These sensors are crucial for
ensuring the efficient and safe operation of processes, and they can range from simple float
switches to sophisticated electronic devices. In this detailed theory, we'll explore the principles
and types of level sensors, as well as their applications and considerations for selection.

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1.3.2. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT):

The linear variable differential transformer is a type of electrical transformer used for
measuring linear displacement (position). It is a common type of electromechanical transducer
that can convert the rectilinear motion of an object to which it is coupled mechanically into a
corresponding electrical signal.

1.3.3. Working Principle:

It works on the principle of mutual induction LVDT is based on a mutual induction in which a
magnetic core, which moves through the bobbin, provides a path for magnetic flux linkage
between coils. The position of the magnetic core control the mutual inductance between the
primary coils and two secondary coils.

1.3.4. Types of Level Sensors:

1.3.4.1. Contact Level Sensors:

✓ Float Switches:

These are simple devices with a buoyant float connected to a mechanical switch. When the
float reaches a certain level, it triggers the switch.

✓ Capacitive Probes:

These sensors use the change in capacitance as a liquid or solid material contacts a probe.

✓ Pressure Sensors:

Pressure transducers or sensors measure the pressure at the bottom of the tank and convert it
into a level reading.

1.3.4.2. Non-Contact Level Sensors:

✓ Ultrasonic Sensors:

Emit and receive ultrasonic waves to measure the time taken for the signal to bounce back from
the liquid surface.

✓ Radar Sensors:

Use microwave frequencies and can provide accurate measurements even in challenging
conditions.

✓ Optical Sensors:

These sensors use light beams to detect liquid levels and are often used in clear liquids.

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1.3.5. What is a Controller?

In control systems, a controller is a mechanism that seeks to minimize the difference between
the actual value of a system (i.e. the process variable) and the desired value of the system (i.e.
the set point). Controllers are a fundamental part of control engineering and used in all complex
control systems.

Before we introduce you to various controllers in detail, it is essential to know the uses of
controllers in the theory of control systems. The important uses of the controllers include:

1. Controllers improve the steady-state accuracy by decreasing the steady state error.
2. As the steady-state accuracy improves, the stability also improves.
3. Controllers also help in reducing the unwanted offsets produced by the system.
4. Controllers can control the maximum overshoot of the system.
5. Controllers can help in reducing the noise signals produced by the system.
6. Controllers can help to speed up the slow response of an overdamped system.

Different varieties of these controllers are codified within industrial automotive devices such
as programmable logic controllers and SCADA systems. The various types of controllers are
discussed in detail below.
1.3.6. Types of Controllers:

Compared to continuous controllers, discontinuous controllers operate on very simple,

switching final controlling elements. The main feature of continuous controllers is that the
controlled variable (also known as the manipulated variable) can have any value within the
controller’s output range.

Now in the continuous controller theory, there are three basic modes on which the whole
control action takes place, which are:
1. Proportional controllers.
2. Integral controllers.
3. Derivative controllers.
We use the combination of these modes to control our system such that the process variable is
equal to the set point (or as close as we can get it). These three types of controllers can be
combined into new controllers:

1. Proportional and integral controllers (PI Controller)

2. Proportional and derivative controllers (PD Controller)
3. Proportional integral derivative control (PID Controller)
Now let’s discuss each of these control modes in detail below.

1.3.6.1. Proportional Controllers:

All controllers have a specific use case to which they are best suited. We cannot just insert any
type of controller at any system and expect a good result – there are certain conditions that
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must be fulfilled. For a proportional controller, there are two conditions and these are written
below:
1. The deviation should not be large; i.e. there should not be a large deviation between the
input and output.
2. The deviation should not be sudden.
Now we are in a condition to discuss proportional controllers, as the name suggests in a
proportional controller the output (also called the actuating signal) is directly proportional to
the error signal. Now let us analyze the proportional controller mathematically.

As we know in proportional controller output is directly proportional to the error signal, writing
this mathematically we have,

Removing the sign of proportionality we have,

Where Kp is proportional constant also known as controller gain.

It is recommended that Kp should be kept greater than unity. If the value of Kp is greater than
unity (>1), then it will amplify the error signal and thus the amplified error signal can be
detected easily.

1.3.6.1.1. Advantages:

The advantages of proportional controller are given as:

✓ Simple Design: Proportional controllers have a simple design, making them easy to
implement and understand. This simplicity is advantageous in applications where
complexity needs to be minimized.
✓ Stability: Proportional controllers provide stability to control systems by continuously
adjusting the control output based on the error signal. This helps in maintaining the
system close to the desired set point without oscillations.
✓ Quick Response: Proportional controllers respond quickly to changes in the error
signal. As soon as a deviation from the setpoint is detected, the controller takes
immediate action to bring the system back to the desired state.
✓ Linear Response: The response of a proportional controller is linear, which means the
output is directly proportional to the error signal. This linearity simplifies the analysis
and tuning of the controller.

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 ✓ Cost-Effective: Proportional controllers are often cost-effective and can provide
satisfactory performance in many applications without the need for more complex
control strategies.

1.3.6.1.2. Disadvantages:

The disadvantages of proportional controller are given as:

✓ Limited in Handling Complex Systems: Proportional controllers are less effective for
systems with complex dynamics, nonlinearities, or large time delays. They may not
provide sufficient control in such situations, and more advanced control strategies, such
as proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control, are often required.
✓ Limited Control Performance: In some cases, a proportional controller alone may not
be able to achieve the desired level of control performance. It might not be enough to
eliminate oscillations or disturbances, and additional control features (integral and
derivative components) may be necessary.
✓ Sensitivity to Parameter Changes: Proportional controllers can be sensitive to
changes in system parameters. If the characteristics of the system change, the controller
parameters might need to be readjusted for optimal performance.
✓ Prone to Overcompensation: In certain situations, a proportional controller may lead
to overcompensation, causing the system to overshoot the set point and then oscillate
around it. This can be problematic in applications where stability is critical.
✓ Difficulty in Tuning: While tuning a proportional controller is generally simpler
compared to more complex controllers, finding the right proportional gain (P-gain) can
still be a trial-and-error process. Achieving optimal performance may require adjusting
other parameters or considering additional control components.

1.3.6.2. Integral Controllers:

As the name suggests in integral controllers the output (also called the actuating signal) is
directly proportional to the integral of the error signal. Now let us analyze integral controller
mathematically.
As we know in an integral controller output is directly proportional to the integration of the
error signal, writing this mathematically we have,

Removing the sign of proportionality we have,

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Where Ki is an integral constant also known as controller gain. The integral controller is also
known as reset controller.

1.3.6.2.1. Advantages:
The advantages of Integral controller are given as:

✓ Elimination of Steady-State Error: One of the primary advantages of integral control

is its ability to eliminate steady-state error. The integral action continuously integrates
the error signal over time, correcting any residual error and ensuring that the system
reaches and maintains the desired set point.
✓ Improved System Stability: Integral controllers contribute to system stability by
addressing issues related to steady-state error and offset. The integral action helps bring
the system to a stable state and prevents long-term deviations from the set point.
✓ Suitability for Integrating Processes: Integral control is particularly effective for
processes with integrating characteristics. Integrating processes tend to accumulate
error over time, and the integral action is well-suited to handle such situations.
✓ Enhanced Disturbance Rejection: Integral controllers improve disturbance rejection
capabilities. They continuously integrate the error signal, correcting for any sustained
disturbances and ensuring that the system returns to the desired state.
✓ Improved Accuracy in Control: Integral action leads to improved accuracy in
maintaining the set point by compensating for any long-term errors that may occur in
the system. This is crucial in applications where precise control is necessary.

1.3.6.2.2. Disadvantages:
The disadvantages of Integral controller are given as:

✓ Integral Windup: One of the primary challenges with integral control is the potential
for integral windup. Integral windup occurs when the integral term accumulates
excessively during periods of large error, such as during startup or when the system is
subjected to a disturbance. This can lead to overshooting, prolonged settling times, or
instability when the error eventually decreases.
✓ Slow Response to Transients: Integral control tends to have a slow response to sudden
changes or transients in the system. While it is effective in eliminating steady-state
error, it may not respond quickly to rapid changes, which can affect the system's
transient response.
✓ Potential for Instability in Unstable Systems: In inherently unstable systems, integral
control may exacerbate instability issues. If the system is already prone to oscillations
or instability, the continuous integration of error by the integral controller may lead to
further instability.
✓ Difficulty in Tuning: Tuning integral controllers can be challenging. Finding the right
balance between the proportional, integral, and derivative terms (in the case of PID
controllers) to achieve optimal performance requires careful consideration and
sometimes trial-and-error tuning.

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 ✓ Overshooting in Response to Large Set point Changes: When there are significant
changes in the set point, integral control can cause the system to overshoot before
gradually settling down. This overshooting can be undesirable in applications where
rapid and precise control is necessary.

1.3.6.3. Derivative Controllers:

We never use derivative controllers alone. It should be used in combinations with other modes
of controllers because of its few disadvantages which are written below:

1. It never improves the steady-state error.

2. It produces saturation effects and also amplifies the noise signals produced in the
system.
Now, as the name suggests in a derivative controller the output (also called the actuating signal)
is directly proportional to the derivative of the error signal.

1.3.6.3.1. Advantages:
The advantages of derivative controller are given as:

✓ Improved Stability: Derivative control contributes to stability by anticipating the

future trend of the error signal. It helps dampen oscillations and reduces the likelihood
of overshooting, enhancing overall system stability.
✓ Fast Response to Rapid Changes: Derivative controllers provide a rapid response to
changes in the error signal. When the error is increasing or decreasing rapidly, the
derivative action increases the control output to counteract the change, helping the
system respond quickly to disturbances.
✓ Reduced Overshooting: Derivative control is effective in reducing overshooting in
response to sudden changes or disturbances. By anticipating the rate of change in the
error, the derivative action can apply corrective measures to prevent the system from
overshooting the set point.
✓ Enhanced Damping: Derivative action provides damping to the system, helping to
suppress oscillations. It is particularly useful in systems where natural oscillations may
occur, and damping is needed for stable and controlled behavior.
✓ Increased System Bandwidth: Derivative control increases the bandwidth of the
control system. This means that the system can respond to a broader range of
frequencies, allowing for better performance in dynamic and rapidly changing
environments.
✓ Mitigation of Integral Windup: Derivative control can help mitigate integral windup,
a common issue in integral control where the integral term accumulates excessively
during periods of large error. The derivative action can counteract the effects of integral
windup by reducing the control output when the error is changing rapidly.
✓ Effective in Processes with Time Delays: Derivative control is useful in systems with
time delays. It anticipates the future behavior of the error signal and provides corrective
action, compensating for delays in the system's response.

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1.3.6.3.2. Disadvantages:

The disadvantages of derivative controller are given as:

✓ Amplification of Noise: Derivative control can amplify high-frequency noise present

in the system. Rapid changes in the error signal, especially those caused by noise, can
lead to significant fluctuations in the derivative term, which may result in an unstable
or erratic control response.
✓ Sensitivity to Measurement Noise: The derivative term is particularly sensitive to
noise in the measured signal. Small, random fluctuations in the process variable can
introduce unwanted variations in the derivative term, potentially leading to undesirable
control actions.
✓ Potential for Chattering: Derivative control can lead to chattering, which is
characterized by rapid and frequent changes in the control output. Chattering can occur
when the error signal contains noise or when there are sudden, frequent changes in the
set point.
✓ Limited Effectiveness in Noisy Environments: In environments with high levels of
noise, the benefits of derivative control may be limited. The amplification of noise can
overshadow the intended control action, making it challenging to achieve the desired
performance improvements.
✓ Difficulties in Tuning: Derivative control is sensitive to the choice of tuning
parameters. Finding the right balance between the proportional, integral, and derivative
terms (in the case of PID controllers) can be challenging, and improper tuning may lead
to instability or poor control performance.
✓ Degrades Performance in the Presence of Outliers: Outliers or sudden extreme
values in the error signal can have a significant impact on the derivative term. These
outliers can lead to abrupt changes in the control output, affecting system stability and
performance.

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1.4. Circuit Schematic:

1.5. Procedure:
✓ Connect, through leads, bush No. 11 of the WATER PUMP DRIVER to bush No. 11and
bush No. 12 to bush No. 12.
✓ Connect the bush of SET POINT 1 to bush No. 10 of the WATER PUMP DRIVER.
✓ Press the main switch (ON).
✓ Turn OFF the main switch.
✓ Bring again the water level in the tank to a value of 6.5cm.
✓ Remove the lead from bush No. 10 of the WATER PUMP DRIVER and from the bush
of SET POINT 1 and put the knob to 0V.
✓ Connect bush No. 1 of the Level Sensor to bush No. 1 of the relevant interface and bush
No. 2 to bush No. 2.
✓ Connect the bush of SET POINT 2 to bush No. 6 of the PID controller and bush No.
5of the level interface to bush No. 5 of the PID controller.
✓ Insert one terminal of the digital voltmeter, set in dc, in the bush of SET POINT 2 and
the other one in the earth bush.
✓ Turn ON the main switch.
✓ Regulate the voltage on SET POINT 2 at 3V.

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 ✓ Move the terminal of the digital voltmeter from the bush of SET POINT 2 to bush No.5
of the PID controller: the voltage value must be equal to 3V; if the voltage is different,
then check if the water level in the tank is 6.5cm, otherwise calibrate the sensor
following the procedures shown in Worksheet No. 2.
✓ Move the terminal of the digital voltmeter to bush X1 of the PID controller: the voltage
value must be equal to the difference between the voltage applied to bush No.6 and that
applied to bush No. 5, which is 0V.
✓ Connect the bush of SET POINT 1 to bush EXT of the PID controller.
✓ Insert the terminal of the digital voltmeter in bush X1.
✓ Regulate the voltage on SET POINT 1 to read on the digital voltmeter a voltage of 2V:
this voltage represents the width of the reference step which corresponds to an increase
of about 3cm of the water level.
✓ Momentarily remove the lead from bush EXT of the PID controller.
✓ Regulate the PROPORTIONAL knob at 25%.
✓ Connect bush No. 7 of the PID controller to bush No. 7 and bush No. 10 to bush No.10
of the WATER PUMP DRIVER.
✓ Connect bush No. 8 and 9 of the PID controller to bush No.8 and 9 respectively.
✓ Regulate the INTEGRAL and DERIVATE knob at 25%.
✓ Move the terminal of the digital voltmeter to bush No. 5 of the PID controller: write
down in Table the voltage value (3V).
✓ Insert back the lead in bush EXT of the PID controller and at the same time start the
chronometer.
✓ Write down in Table the voltage value read every 15 seconds until the transitory is
completed.
✓ Momentarily remove the lead from bush EXT of the PID controller.
✓ Remove the lead from bush No. 10.
✓ Bring back the water level in the tank to 6.5cm.
✓ Move the terminal of the digital voltmeter to bush No. 5 of the PID controller: write
down in Table the voltage value.
✓ Regulate the DERIVATIVE knob at 50%, 75%, 100% leaving the PROPORTIONAL
and INTEGRAL knob at 25% and repeat the procedure.
✓ Repeat the procedure by regulate the Integral knob at 25%, 50%, 75%, 100% leaving
the PROPORTIONAL and DERIVATIVE knobs at 25% and repeat the procedure.
✓ Draw the curves of the closed loop dynamic response for all the values listed in the
table.
✓ Analyse and compare the results.

1.6. Precautions:
• Personal safety:
Wear laboratory coats and closed shoes in laboratory premises
• Equipment safety:
Connect the connection leads as in manual.

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1.7 Observations & Calculations:
1.7.1 PID Controller (Varying Derivative Controller)

Kp = Ki = 25%
kd
Time 25% 50% 75% 100% Set Point
s mV
0 0 5 5.1 4.98 5.1
15 2.87 4.97 5.1 4.96 5.1
30 3.82 4.99 5.08 5.02 5.1
45 4.19 5 5.1 5.01 5.1
60 4.42 5 5.1 5.01 5.1
75 4.59 5.01 5.1 5.02 5.1
90 4.68 5 5.12 5.03 5.1
105 4.72 5 5.1 5.01 5.1
120 4.72 4.96 5.1 5.01 5.1
135 4.74 4.92 5.1 5.01 5.1
150 4.78 4.97 5.1 5.03 5.1
165 4.83 4.97 5.09 5.04 5.1
180 4.88 5 5.09 5.04 5.1
195 4.9 5 5.09 4.96 5.1
210 4.95 5.01 5.09 5.04 5.1
225 4.92 4.96 5.09 5.05 5.1
240 4.96 5 5.09 5.06 5.1
255 4.98 4.97 5.07 5.07 5.1
270 5 4.95 5.07 5.06 5.1
285 5 5 5.07 5.06 5.1
300 5.02 4.94 5.05 5.08 5.1
315 5.02 5.07 5.06 5.08 5.1
330 5.03 4.99 5.05 5.08 5.1
345 5 5.07 5.05 5.09 5.1
360 4.99 5.1 5.05 5.09 5.1
375 4.99 5.1 5.05 5.09 5.1
390 4.99 5.12 5.05 5.1 5.1
405 4.99 5.12 4.98 5.1 5.1
420 5 5 4.98 5.1 5.1

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Graph:

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1.7.2 PID Controller (Varying Integral Controller)

Kp = Kd = 25%

ki
Time s 25% 50% 75% 100% Set point
s mV
0 0 5 5.06 5.13 5.1
15 3.54 5.02 5.06 5.12 5.1
30 3.94 5.02 5.05 5.11 5.1
45 4.23 5.04 5.04 5.11 5.1
60 4.4 5.04 5.04 5.11 5.1
75 4.57 5.04 5.03 5.09 5.1
90 4.67 5.04 5.02 5.09 5.1
105 4.76 5.04 5.02 5.09 5.1
120 4.82 5.05 5.04 5.09 5.1
135 4.84 5.05 5.04 5.07 5.1
150 4.9 5.05 5.05 5.07 5.1
165 4.9 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.1
180 4.93 5.06 5.05 5.08 5.1
195 4.96 5.06 5.05 5.08 5.1
210 4.96 5.06 5.06 5.08 5.1
225 4.96 5.06 5.04 5.07 5.1
240 4.96 5.05 5.04 5.07 5.1
255 4.98 5.05 5.04 5.07 5.1
270 4.97 5.05 5.04 5.08 5.1
285 4.95 5.05 5.03 5.08 5.1
300 4.94 5.04 5.03 5.08 5.1
315 4.94 5.05 5.03 5.09 5.1
330 4.97 5.05 5.04 5.09 5.1
345 4.97 5.05 5.04 5.09 5.1
360 4.97 5.06 5.07 5.06 5.1
375 5 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.1
390 5 5.05 5.08 5.08 5.1
405 5 5.05 5.08 5.08 5.1
420 5 5.06 5.08 5.08 5.1

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Graph:

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