Agile Sample 2024

SELF-LEARNING MANAGEMENT SERIES
AGILE
ESSENTIALS
YOU ALWAYS WANTED TO KNOW
TM
KALPESH ASHAR
Agile
Essentials
You Always Wanted To Know
© 2021, By Vibrant Publishers, USA. All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database
or retrieval system, without the prior permission of the publisher.
Paperback ISBN 10: 1-63651-005-1

Paperback EAN 13: 978-1-63651-005-7
Ebook ISBN 10: 1-63651-006-X

Ebook ISBN EAN 13: 978-1-63651-006-4
Hardback ISBN 10: 1-63651-007-8

Hardback ISBN 13: 978-1-63651-007-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2020945832
This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information

in regard to the subject matter covered. The Author has made every effort in the
preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy of the information. However,
information in this book is sold without warranty either expressed or implied. The
Author or the Publisher will not be liable for any damages caused or alleged to be
caused either directly or indirectly by this book.
Vibrant Publishers books are available at special quantity discount for sales
promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. For more information please
write to bulkorders@vibrantpublishers.com
Please email feedback / corrections (technical, grammatical or spelling) to

spellerrors@vibrantpublishers.com
To access the complete catalogue of Vibrant Publishers, visit

www.vibrantpublishers.com
PAPERBACK*
TITLE
ISBN
ACCOUNTING, FINANCE & ECONOMICS

COST ACCOUNTING AND
9781636511030
MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS
FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING ESSENTIALS 9781636510972
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636511009
MACROECONOMICS ESSENTIALS 9781636511818
MICROECONOMICS ESSENTIALS 9781636511153
PERSONAL FINANCE ESSENTIALS 9781636511849
ENTREPRENEURSHIP & STRATEGY

BUSINESS PLAN ESSENTIALS 9781636511214
BUSINESS STRATEGY ESSENTIALS 9781949395778
ENTREPRENEURSHIP ESSENTIALS 9781636511603
GENERAL MANAGEMENT
BUSINESS LAW ESSENTIALS 9781636511702
DECISION MAKING ESSENTIALS 9781636510026
LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS 9781636510316
PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636511542
TIME MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636511665

*Also available in Hardback & Ebook formats
PAPERBACK*
TITLE
ISBN
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

DIVERSITY IN THE WORKPLACE ESSENTIALS 9781636511122
HR ANALYTICS ESSENTIALS 9781636510347
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781949395839
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR ESSENTIALS 9781636510378
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636511481
MARKETING & SALES MANAGEMENT

DIGITAL MARKETING ESSENTIALS 9781949395747
MARKETING MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636511788
SALES MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636510743
SERVICES MARKETING ESSENTIALS 9781636511733
OPERATIONS & PROJECT MANAGEMENT

AGILE ESSENTIALS 9781636510057
OPERATIONS & SUPPLY CHAIN

9781949395242
MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS
PROJECT MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636510712
STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636511511

*Also available in Hardback & Ebook formats
What experts say about this book!
Agile Essentials is an excellent introduction to Agile for the newcomer.
It is also not only an excellent review for the experienced practitioner,
as it may cover areas that you may not be as familiar with. In my case,
it was interesting to read the discussion on Earned Value Management
and Contracting in Agile (Chapter 5). Games such as “Remember the
Future” and “Speedboat/Sailboat” (Chapter 3) are welcome additions
to my toolkit.
Well written, it is a fast read if you are knowledgeable on Agile yet it

provides a lot of information to learn from.
– Jose Solera, PMP, CSM, CSPO, CSP

Agile practitioner since the 1990s
Agile Essentials is an excellent book to learn the foundational elements

of Agile project management. Agile Essentials effectively outlines the
key concepts that all Agile project leader, Scrum Master or Product
Owner must know and master to become an effective manager of
Agile projects. Specifically, I like the in-depth overview of the agile
requirements elicitation techniques which are critical to developing,
prioritizing and grooming a customer-responsive scope for any effective
project. Moreover, the discussion on agile execution is effective easy
to understand for students new to Agile project management. I highly
recommend this book as a foundation text for new students learning
agile project management. I’m eager to add this book as required for my
introductory Agile Project Management class.
– Tim Mills, MBA, MS, CPL, ITIL, SS-GB, CSM, PMP

Lead Instructor, Agile Project Management
Harvard Extension School
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA
About the Author
Kalpesh Ashar is a management consultant and
corporate trainer holding an MBA (Dean’s
Award Winner) from SPJIMR, one of Asia’s top
business schools, and an Engineering degree
with honors in Electronics. He has over 23 years
of experience in large organizations and start-
ups in Asia, USA, and Europe.
Kalpesh has worked in several project management roles, like
Senior Project Manager, Delivery Manager, and Program Manager.
He is passionate about writing on management subjects. His
techno-business background gives him a unique position to write
on management topics that are easy to understand for non-MBA
graduates. His books are authored in a simple to understand manner
without unnecessary use of management jargons.
Preface
The buzz word going on for a few years has been Agile. However,
it is still a black box to many people. Although there are many great
books on Agile, most of them focus on one or a few of the Agile
methodologies and several practices within them. This book takes a
different approach. It concentrates only on describing the commonly
used Agile practices and how to implement them.
In today’s enviornment, we see projects and operations that fails

to deliver successful outcomes. Most of them attempt to use the
Agile concepts, albeit without complete knowledge of its process or
implementation. The results, in most cases, are failure.
Agile Essentials You Always Wanted To Know seeks to guide you in

your quest to understand the how and why of Agile. The book starts
by describing why Agile should be used and what are the situations
where it is applicable. It then goes on to describe the most common
Agile practices from various methodologies. Emphasis is given in the
application aspect of the Agile practices.
This page is intentionally left blank
Table of Contents
1 Agile Overview 15
1.1 What is Agile? 16
1.2 Need for Agile 17
1.3 Agile Characteristics 21
1.4 Agile Myths 24
1.5 Agile Manifesto 25
1.5.1 Agile Mindset 25
1.5.2 Agile Manifesto Values 26
1.5.3 Agile Manifesto Principles 30
1.6 Agile Methodologies 35
1.6.1 Scrum 36
1.6.2 XP 37
1.6.3 Lean 43
1.6.4 Kanban 45
Chapter Summary 49
Solved Examples 50
Practice Exercises 53
2 Scrum 55
2.1 Scrum Overview 56
2.2 Scrum Pillars 57
2.3 Scrum Roles 58
2.3.1 Product Owner 58
2.3.2 ScrumMaster 59
2.3.3 Development Team 59
2.4 Scrum Events 60
2.5 Scrum Artifacts 63
2.6 Scrum Chronology of Events 67
Chapter Summary 69
Solved Examples 70
3 Agile Planning 73
3.1 Agile Planning vs. Traditional Planning 74
3.1.1 Minimum Viable Product (MVP) 75
3.1.2 Minimally Marketable Product (MMP) / Minimally Marketable
Feature (MMF) 76
3.2 Requirements Gathering 78
3.2.1 User Stories 78
3.2.2 Requirements Hierarchy 82
3.2.3 Remember the Future (Agile Game for requirements
elicitation) 83
3.2.4 Speedboat / Sailboat (Agile Game for risk identification) 84
3.3 Prioritization 85
3.3.1 Customer Valued Prioritization 85
3.3.2 Story Map 88
3.4 Estimation 89
3.4.1 Relative Sizing / Story Points 89
3.4.2 Wideband Delphi 91
3.4.3 Planning Poker (Agile Game for Estimation) 93
3.4.4 Affinity Estimating (Agile Game for Estimation) 96
3.4.5 Story Point Estimation Guidelines 97
3.4.6 Ideal Time and Real Time Estimation 97
Chapter Summary 99
Solved Examples 101
4 Agile Execution 107

4.1 Risk Management 108
4.1.1 Risk-Based Spike 108
4.1.2 Risk-Adjusted Backlog 109
4.2 Prototypes, Simulations, Demonstrations 111
4.3 Test-Driven Development (TDD) /
Test-First Development (TFD) 113
4.4 Acceptance Test-Driven Development (ATDD) 115
4.5 Cycle Time 116
4.6 Escaped Defects 117
4.7 Agile Contracting 119
4.7.1 Money for Nothing and Change for Free Contract 120
4.7.2 Graduated Fixed Price / Cost Targeted Contract 121
4.7.3 Fixed Price Work Packages Contract 122
Chapter Summary 124
Solved Examples 125
5 Agile Tracking and Reporting 129

5.1 Agile Communications 130
5.2 Information Radiators 131
5.2.1 Burndown Chart 133
5.2.2 Burnup Chart 134
5.2.3 Cumulative Flow Diagram (CFD) 135
5.2.4 Velocity Chart 137
5.2.5 Kanban / Task Board 138
5.3 Agile Earned Value Management (EVM) 139
Chapter Summary 143
Solved Examples 144
6 Agile Project Management 149

6.1 Agile Team Characteristics 150
6.1.1 Empowered Team 150
6.1.2 High-performance Team 150
6.1.3 Team Space 151
6.1.4 Co-located & Distributed Team 153
6.2 Agile Leadership 155
6.2.1 Adaptive Leadership 156
6.2.2 Servant Leadership 158
Chapter Summary 160
Solved Examples 161
Glossary 165
Introduction
This book does not attempt to cover every facet of the Agile system,
such an attempt would exceed the scope of a beginner’s text.
The objective is to provide a basic holistic approach to creating
workplaces that draw on the talents of those doing the work. By
focusing on those talents, organizations can deliver extraordinary
value to their customers and other stakeholders for whom the work
is being done. To do this, we will concentrate on the commonly used
elements of Agile and those applications that have been shown to
produce value added outcomes.
To know about Agile, it is important that we first understand what it

is, where it fits, and why it came into being. This is where the book
begins. It describes the basic concepts of Agile and its methodologies.
We then dig deeper into the most popular Agile methodology –

Scrum. We then see various useful practices that are applied at
various stages of work, like planning, execution, and reporting. It
ends with some soft skill aspects about Agile leadership and team
characteristics. After reading this book, you would be able to answer
the following questions about Agile:
● When do we need to use Agile?
● What are basic Agile principles that should be applied?
● How does Scrum work?
● Which are the main Agile practices and how and when to
apply them?
● How do the softer aspects of leadership and team working

change in Agile?
Chapter 1
Agile Overview
I n this chapter we shall look at what is Agile and why

it is needed. We shall also learn the pre-requisites to
use Agile, its main characteristics, and the myths around it.
Here we shall take a brief look at the various popular Agile
methodologies.
Key learnings:
● The meaning of Agile
● Background of Agile
● Applicability of Agile
● The Agile Manifesto
● Agile characteristics and the myths around it
● The most popular Agile methodologies – Scrum, XP,

Lean, and Kanban
16 Agile Essentials You Always Wanted To Know
Agile is a word that has gained immense popularity in the

recent decade or so. It is quite likely that you have heard about
it from your colleagues, friends, customers, or other professional
acquaintances. It is also quite possible that you have been
involved in Agile projects yourself. Whichever be the case, there
is a general realization out there that Agile is the way to go for
executing work on a lot of projects and operations in future.
Even though Agile as a term has been used by several people,

its understanding might still be hazy in their minds. In this
chapter we shall try to clarify what Agile is and what it is not,
where it is needed, why it is needed, its basic characteristics, and
methodologies.
1.1 What is Agile?
Agile is simply a concept that states how work should be done.

This work can be a part of a project or regular operations. The
concept of Agile has several different implementations, which
are called methodologies. These methodologies can either be
applied individually to work or together in combination. Most
common Agile implementations are a combination of several Agile
methodologies.
Agile is not recommended for all kind of work. There are two
pre-requisites that need to be satisfied to get the real benefits of
Agile. There pre-requisites are:
1. Work has high uncertainty in scope – Scope means the

work that needs to be done on the project or operations.
In several cases, scope is quite clear in the minds of the
customer and other stakeholders. However, in most cases,
facebook.com/vibrantpublishers
Agile Overview 17
the customer only knows some part of the problem. Hence,

the solution providers are asked to take up a few known
requirements to start off and learn as they go. In such cases,
scope is not clear in the beginning and it evolves as the
work progresses. This is especially common on projects, as
scope on projects is progressively elaborated – clarified as
the work progresses.
2. Work involves “knowledge workers” – The term

“knowledge workers” stands for highly skilled resources.
Work that requires such resources is best positioned to
apply Agile concepts, as one of the key characteristics of
Agile is to give a lot of decision-making authority to the
team. Hence, the team needs to have the required skills to
take proper decisions.
1.2 Need for Agile
Work was happening in the past even without Agile. Then the
question that comes to mind is – why do we need Agile? In order
to understand the answer to this question, let’s look at how work
happened in the past and what were the major drawbacks of that
approach.
The traditional approach to perform work was to gather and

document all the requirements in the beginning, plan all of them
at once, and then begin execution.
This is depicted in the diagram below.
Figure 1.1
This kind of approach is termed as a “Waterfall Model” in

software industry. However, similar model was being used in
several industries, where each stage was done completely before
moving to the next stage. When using this delivery approach, the
customer gets to see the final deliverables only during later part
of testing or during delivery stage. If at that time the customer
does not like some of the deliverables and requests major changes,
then one needs to go back to the previous stages of requirements,
design, or development to incorporate them. This could involve
a lot of rework, which involves time, effort, and money. Hence,
making changes using this approach was quite cumbersome.
Agile Overview 19
This approach is sometimes even referred to as the “Big Bang

Approach”, as all the deliverables are shown to the customer
together at a later part of the project.
One other issue that arises with the above sequential approach
is that if the customer needs to request for changes anywhere
during the stages, for example, during development or testing,
then once again that could involve a lot of rework by going back
to the previous stages.
As we discuss above, handling changes could be quite a

challenge in the sequential model. Due to this, the team is most
often reluctant to incorporate changes in the work. This means
that the team is not customer centric (does not concentrate on the
customer’s benefit). As appalling as this may sound, it is quite
true.
This is where we enter the world of Agile. The main reason

why Agile came into existence is in order to manage changes
better. The term Agile comes from the term “Agility”, which
means our ability to change course rapidly and easily. Agile keeps
customer benefit as the top priority by “embracing” changes.
When we apply Agile, we always concentrate only on delivering
what is beneficial to the customer.
The diagram below describes how work is done in Agile.
Figure 1.2
Work on Agile is done in short cycles called iterations,

where each iteration consists of all the stages. The total work is
completed by going through several such small cycles, each cycle
delivering some part of the functionality.
Agile Overview 21
1.3 Agile Characteristics
The key characteristics of Agile are as follows:
1. Incremental – The entire system is divided into pieces and

built piece by piece. For example, if we have requirements
for building various features of a system, and each feature
is divided into sub-features, we will build all sub-features of
one feature before moving to the next feature. This is shown
in the diagram below:
Figure 1.3
2. Iterative – A few initial parts of the system are built and

improved upon as we get customer feedback. The entire
system is built little by little and continuously improved
until it is acceptable. For example, if we have requirements
for building various features of a system, and each feature is
divided into sub-features, we will build a few sub-features

of multiple features before moving to the rest of the sub-
features. This is shown in the diagram below:
Figure 1.4
3. Adaptive – Being able to change course rapidly and easily is

one of the key characteristics and the foundation of Agile.
Agile Overview 23
The main difference between traditional approach and Agile

approach is as shown in the below diagram.
Figure 1.5
Note: You may have noticed that Test is coming in an earlier stage in
Agile. This is not a mistake but by design. We shall see later in this book
a concept called Test Driven Development, that is commonly practiced in
Agile.
1.4 Agile Myths
Over the years as Agile became popular, there have been

several myths that have also crept in about it. Some of them could
also be due to the human inertia to change. Here are these myths:
1. It is a silver bullet that ensures success of a project – It is

seen that some people think that if their project is failing,
they should introduce Agile and all the issues will get
resolved and success will be guaranteed. This is not true.
Agile does help in improving project success, but only
when the pre-requisites (two pre-requisites described in an
earlier section) are satisfied. However, it does not guarantee
success.
2. It does not require documentation – Agile is about being

customer centric by doing only value-added things and
cutting waste. This means that critical documentation would
still be made, but those documents that are less useful and
seen as a waste, might not be made. So, making a statement
that no documentation is needed is incorrect.
3. There is no need to plan – Planning in Agile is done in

increments (parts) instead of all upfront planning. Planning
might not be as detailed as in the traditional approach, but it
does exist and done only to the extent that the team deems
adequate.
4. It does not need a disciplined approach – There are several

values, principles, and practices defined in various Agile
methodologies that we follow. Some of them are stringent,
but most of them are quite flexible and are left to the team
to decide how and which ones to apply. This does not
mean that it is not a disciplined approach; it is simply more
Agile Overview 25
flexible in allowing selection and implementation of the

approach.
5. It involves a lot of rework – This is exactly the opposite,

as we get customer feedback for each iteration and build
further. Due to this early feedback, the rework is in fact
lesser than in the traditional approach.
1.5 Agile Manifesto
The work we do in Agile must adhere to the Agile Manifesto.

This document was prepared by the founding fathers of Agile, and
it consists of 4 values and 12 principles.
1.5.1 Agile Mindset
Figure 1.6
The Agile Mindset is the way we think in Agile. It starts with

4 values, that are further elaborated in 12 principles, which are
finally converted to several practices. These practices are defined
differently in the various Agile methodologies.
1.5.2 Agile Manifesto Values
Figure 1.7
The whole gambit of Agile revolves around the 4 Values seen

above. In these four statements, we have a left side and a right
side. We value the left side more than the right side, although the
right side is also given importance.
Agile Overview 27
Here is an explanation of each of these statements:
Individuals and interactions over Processes and tools
This means that in Agile we care more about individuals and

their interactions than we care for following processes and tools.
This does not mean that we do not have processes and tools,
nor do we mean that we do not follow the processes. It means
that although processes and tools do exist, they need to take a
back seat when compared to people and communication. This
statement states that our success depends more upon the kind of
people we have and how effectively they can communicate with
each other. It has lesser dependence on the processes and tools
being used.
In traditional work environment more stress is put the

process definitions and adherence. This leads to more predictable
outcomes. However, on Agile, there is expected to be greater
complexity and uncertainty. So, more importance is given to the
people and communication to deliver the work successfully.
Working product over Comprehensive documentation
This statement states that we should concentrate on developing

and delivering something of value, namely working product.
Less focus should be put on developing detailed documentation
as that adds lesser value to the customer. It does not mean that
documentation is not important. However, a product that works is
of greater importance.
In traditional way of doing work, we put a lot of focus on

documentation as that reduces our dependency on individuals
and makes it easier to maintain in future. However, several times
the team loses focus on the actual deliverables while they make
the accompanying documentation. Agile tries to fix this anomaly

by providing higher priority to value adding deliverables. This, in
no way means that documentation is not created. It simply means
that we prioritize correctly so that we deliver greater value.
Customer collaboration over Contract negotiation
On Agile, we work closely with the customer and other

stakeholders through daily collaboration. This may lead to
constant change in work priority or scope. In such cases we try to
accommodate the changes instead of going back to the contract
and trying to negotiate with the customer. Hence, Agile contracts
are also drafted in a different way so as to provide flexibility. This
does not mean that we do not respect the contract terms, instead
we give more importance to close collaboration with the customer
and draft the contract accordingly.
Several times, we have rigid contracts with clear scope

definition and any change has to go through a lengthy change
control process. This makes it difficult to accommodate changes
quickly. However, Agile work is expected to have greater
uncertainty. Hence, we provide more flexibility in the contract so
that the team can take on changes more easily. This is purely to
ensure that the deliveries keep providing business value to the
customer.
Responding to change over Following a plan
As discussed earlier, Agile came into existence so that changes

can be managed better for greater business value. Hence, we try
to accommodate changes, even late in development. It is more
important to accept or embrace changes than to simply follow the
original plan. In Agile, we do not do elaborate planning too far
off as we know that changes could come up and we may need to
Agile Overview 29
make changes. Hence, we plan as we go. It does not in any way

mean that Agile work does not have a plan. It means that Agile
plans are more dynamic, and planning happens several times
rather than just once during the early stage.
In the traditional way of working, we have planning stage that

happens before execution starts. Most of the planning is done in
that stage. However, on Agile there is greater uncertainty. Hence,
we plan in chunks. This means that planning happens multiple
times as changes are identified. This allows us to respond to
changes better than following an original plan that is rigid and
difficult to change.
1.5.3 Agile Manifesto Principles
Figure 1.8

Agile Sample 2024

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Agile Sample 2024

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Agile Sample 2024

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SELF-LEARNING MANAGEMENT SERIES

Paperback ISBN 10: 1-63651-005-1

Ebook ISBN 10: 1-63651-006-X

Hardback ISBN 10: 1-63651-007-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020945832

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information

Please email feedback / corrections (technical, grammatical or spelling) to

To access the complete catalogue of Vibrant Publishers, visit

ACCOUNTING, FINANCE & ECONOMICS

FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING ESSENTIALS 9781636510972

FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636511009

MACROECONOMICS ESSENTIALS 9781636511818

MICROECONOMICS ESSENTIALS 9781636511153

PERSONAL FINANCE ESSENTIALS 9781636511849

ENTREPRENEURSHIP & STRATEGY

BUSINESS STRATEGY ESSENTIALS 9781949395778

ENTREPRENEURSHIP ESSENTIALS 9781636511603

DECISION MAKING ESSENTIALS 9781636510026

LEADERSHIP ESSENTIALS 9781636510316

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636511542

TIME MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636511665

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

HR ANALYTICS ESSENTIALS 9781636510347

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781949395839

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR ESSENTIALS 9781636510378

ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636511481

MARKETING & SALES MANAGEMENT

MARKETING MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636511788

SALES MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636510743

SERVICES MARKETING ESSENTIALS 9781636511733

OPERATIONS & PROJECT MANAGEMENT

OPERATIONS & SUPPLY CHAIN

PROJECT MANAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636510712

STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT ESSENTIALS 9781636511511

Well written, it is a fast read if you are knowledgeable on Agile yet it

– Jose Solera, PMP, CSM, CSPO, CSP

Agile Essentials is an excellent book to learn the foundational elements

– Tim Mills, MBA, MS, CPL, ITIL, SS-GB, CSM, PMP

In today’s enviornment, we see projects and operations that fails

Agile Essentials You Always Wanted To Know seeks to guide you in

4 Agile Execution 107

5 Agile Tracking and Reporting 129

6 Agile Project Management 149

To know about Agile, it is important that we first understand what it

We then dig deeper into the most popular Agile methodology –

● When do we need to use Agile?

● What are basic Agile principles that should be applied?

● How does Scrum work?

● How do the softer aspects of leadership and team working

I n this chapter we shall look at what is Agile and why

● The meaning of Agile

● The Agile Manifesto

● Agile characteristics and the myths around it

● The most popular Agile methodologies – Scrum, XP,

Agile is a word that has gained immense popularity in the

Even though Agile as a term has been used by several people,

1.1 What is Agile?

Agile is simply a concept that states how work should be done.

1. Work has high uncertainty in scope – Scope means the

the customer only knows some part of the problem. Hence,