Chapter 3.

Differentiation

Le Cong Nhan

Faculty of Applied Sciences

HCMC University of Technology and Education

January 14, 2022

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 Contents

1 An Introduction to the Derivative

2 Techniques of Differentiation

3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

4 Rate of Changes and Applications

5 The Chain Rule

6 The Implicit Differentiation

7 Related Rates and Applications

8 Linear Approximation and Differentials

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 3.1 An Introduction to the Derivative: Tangent lines

The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at

the point P (x0 , f (x0 )) is the line through P
with slope

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
m = lim (1)
h→0 h
provided that this limit exists. Alternatively

f (x) − f (x0 ) Figure: Slope of a curve

m = lim (2)
x→x0 x − x0

Point–slope form for a line through the point (x0 , y0 ) with slope m:

y − y0 = m (x − x0 ) (3)

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 3.1 An Introduction to the Derivative: Velocities

Suppose an object moves along a straight line ac-

cording to an equation of motion

s = f (t)

The average velocity over the time interval

[a, a + h] is

displacement
average velocity =
time
f (a + h) − f (a)
=
h

The velocity (or instantaneous velocity) v (a) at time a is

f (a + h) − f (a)
v (a) = lim (4)
h→0 h

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 Example 1
If a rock is thrown upward on the planet Mars with a velocity of 10 m/s, its height
in meters t seconds later is given by y = 10t − 1.86t 2 .
(a) Find the average velocity over the given time intervals:

[1, 2], [1, 1.5], [1, 1.1], [1, 1.01], [1, 1.001].

(b) Estimate the instantaneous velocity when t = 1.

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 3.1 An Introduciton to Derivative: Derivatives

Definition 2 (Derivative)
The derivative of a function f at a number a, denoted by f 0 (a), is

f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim (5)
h→0 h
if this limit exists.

Alternatively, by setting x = a + h we can write

f (x) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim (6)
x→a x −a

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 Example 3
Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x 2 at the number 1?

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 Example 4
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x 2 at the point P(1, 1).

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 Example 5
Find an equation of the normal line to the parabola y = x 2 at the point P(1, 1).

Normal line to a graph: The normal line to a graph of f at the point P is the line
that is perpendicular to the tangent line at the point P.

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 Derivative Notation

Given the function y = f (x). Then the function f 0 defined through

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim (7)
h→0 h
is so-called the derivative of f .
Leibniz Notation:
Derivative of a function f
dy df
= = f 0 (x)
dx dx
Derivative of a function f at a specific number a

dy df
= = f 0 (a)
dx x=a dx x=a

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 Example 6
√
(a) Differentiate f (x) = x.
dy
(b) Find if y = x 2 .
dx x=1

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 Definition 7 (Differentiability)
A function f is differentiable at a if f 0 (a) exists. It is differentiable on an open
interval (a, b) (or (a, ∞) or (−∞, a) or (−∞, ∞)) if it is differentiable at every
number in the interval.

Example 8
Show that the absolute value function f (x) = |x| is not differentiable at 0?

Notice:
Differentiability =⇒ continuity, that is,
If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.
The converse is false.

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 How Can a Function Fail to Be Differentiable?

Figure: Common examples where a derivative does not exist

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 3.2 Techniques of Differentiation
Derivatives of Polynomials, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

1. Derivative of a Constant Function

d
(c) = 0
dx
2. The Power Rule: If n is any real number, then
d n
[x ] = nx n−1
dx
3. Derivative of the Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

d d x
(e x ) = e x (a ) = ax ln a, (0 < a 6= 1)
dx dx
d 1 d 1
(ln |x|) = (loga |x|) =
dx x dx x ln a

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 3.2 Techniques of Differentiation
General Formulas

If f and g are both differentiable, then

0
(1) [cf (x)] = cf 0 (x), where c is a constant.
(2) The sum and the difference rules:

0
[f (x) ± g (x)] = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x)

(3) The product rule:

0
[f (x)g (x)] = f 0 (x)g (x) + f (x)g 0 (x)

(4) The quotient rule:

0
f 0 (x)g (x) − f (x)g 0 (x)

f (x)
= 2
g (x) [g (x)]

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 3.2 Techniques of Differentiation
Higher Derivatives

Let f be a differentiable function.

The first derivative of f
dy d
y 0 = f 0 (x) = = f (x)
dx dx
The second derivative of f
d 2y
 
d dy
y 00 = f 00 (x) = =
dx dx dx 2

The nth derivative of f is denoted by

d n−1 y d ny
 
(n) (n) d
y =f (x) = =
dx dx n−1 dx n

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 Example 9
If f (x) = x 3 − x, find f 000 (x) and f (4) (x).

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 3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions The Chain Rule

0 0
[sin x] = cos x [sin u] = u 0 cos u
0 0
[cos x] = − sin x [cos u] = −u 0 sin u

0 1 0 u0
[tan x] = 1 + tan2 x = [tan u] = u 0 1 + tan2 u =


cos2 x cos2 u

0 1 0 u0
[cot x] = − 1 + cot2 x = − [cot u] = −u 0 1 + cot2 u = − 2



sin2 x sin u
0 0
[csc x] = − csc x cot x [csc u] = −u 0 csc u cot u
0 0
[sec x] = sec x tan x [sec u] = u 0 sec u tan u

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 Example 10
Find the standard form equation for the line tangent to the graph of

3x 2 + 5
f (x) =
2x 2 + x − 3
at the point where x = −1.

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 Example 11
Let y = (x − 2)(x 2 + 4x − 7). Find all points on this curve where the tangent line
is horizontal.

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 3.4 Rate of Changes and Applications
The average rate of change of y w.r.t to
x over the interval [x1 , x2 ] is

∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
=
∆x x2 − x1
where
∆x = x2 − x1 is the increment of x
∆y is the increment of y

The (instantaneous) rate of change of y with respect to x at x = x1 is

defined by

∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
(Rate of Change at x1 ) = lim = lim = f 0 (x1 )
∆x→0 ∆x x2 →x1 x2 − x1
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 Example 12 (Exercise 38, p. 171)
A bucket containing 5 gal of water has a leak. After t second, there are
 t 2
Q(t) = 5 1 −
25
gallons of water in the bucket.
a. At what rate (to the nearest hundredth gal) is water leaking from the bucket
after 2 seconds?
b. How long does it take for all the water to leak out of the bucket?
c. At what rate is the water leaking when the last drop leaks out?

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 Example 13 (Rates of Change of Functions given by Table of Values)
Let D(t) be the US national debt at time t. The table below gives approximate
values of this function by providing end of year estimates, in billions of dollars, from
1980 to 2005. Interpret and estimate the value of D 0 (1990).

By definition, we know that

D(t) − D(1990)
D 0 (1990) = lim
t→1990 t − 1990

Figure: the US national debt Figure: The average rates of change

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 3.4 Rate of Changes and Applications
Rectilinear Motion

Let s = f (t) be the position function of a particle that is moving in a straight line,
then we have that:
The instantaneous velocity at the time t is
∆s
v (t) = s 0 (t) = lim .
∆t→0 ∆t
The acceleration at the time t is

a(t) = v 0 (t) = s 00 (t)

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 Discuss the motion of a particle

Velocity of the particle:

the particle is advancing if v (t) > 0;
it is retreating if v (t) < 0;
it is stationary if v (t) = 0.
Acceleration of the particle:
the particle is accelerating when a(t) > 0;
the particle is decelerating when a(t) < 0.
The speed of the particle |v (t)|:
The speed increases when the velocity and acceleration have the same signs.
The speed decreases when the velocity and acceleration have the opposite
signs.

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 Example 14
The position of a particle is given by the equation

s(t) = t 3 − 6t 2 + 9t

where t is measured in seconds and s in meters. Find the initial position, velocity,
acceleration for the particle and discuss the motion. Compute the total distance
traveled by the particle during the first five seconds.

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 Example 15
If a ball is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 80 ft/s, then its height after
t seconds is s(t) = 80t − 16t 2 .
(a) What is the maximum height reached by the ball?
(b) What is the velocity of the ball when it is 96 ft above the ground on its way
up? On its way down?

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 3.4 Rate of Changes and Applications
Falling Body Problems

Falling Body Problems

Assume that an object is projected (that is, thrown, fired, droped, etc.) vertically
in such a way that the only acceleration acting on the object is the constant
downward accelerating g due to gravity.

Then at the time t the height of the projectile is given by the following formula
1
h(t) = − gt 2 + v0 t + s0 (8)
2
where
s0 is the initial height
v0 is the initial velocity
g is the acceleration due to gravity, g ≈ 9.8m/s 2 (or 32ft/s 2 ).

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 Example 16
Suppose a person standing at the top of the Tower of Pisa (176 ft high) throws a
ball directly upward with an initial speed 96 ft/s.
a. Find the ball’s height, its velocity, and its acceleration at the time t.
b. When does the ball hit the ground and is its impact velocity?
c. How far does the ball travel during its flight?

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 Example 17 (Exercise 39, p. 171)
A person standing at the edge of the cliff throws a rock directly upward. It is
observed that 2 seconds later the rock is at its maximum height (in ft) and that 5
seconds after that, it hits the ground at the base of the cliff.
a. What is the initial velocity of the rock?
b. How high is the cliff?
c. What is the velocity of the rock at time t?
d. With what velocity does the rock hit the ground?

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 3.5 The Chain Rule

The Chain Rule

If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at f (g (x)), then the composite
function F = f ◦ g defined by F (x) = f (g (x)) is differentiable at x and F 0 is given
by the product

F 0 (x) = f 0 (g (x)) g 0 (x) (9)

If y = f (u) and u = g (x), then the Chain Rule can be written in Leibniz notation:

dy dy du
= · (10)
dx du dx

Example 18
√
Find F 0 (x), if F (x) = x 2 + 1.

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 Example 19
Differentiate the functions
 9
3

100 sin x t −1
a. y = x − 1 b. y = e c. g (t) =
2t + 1

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 Example 20 (Exercise 47, p. 179)
An importer of Rwandan coffee estimates that local consumers will buy
approximately
4, 374
D(p) =
p2
pound of coffee per week when the price is p dollars per pound. It is estimated
that t weeks from now, the price of Rwandan coffee will be

p(t) = 0.02t 2 + 0.01t + 6

dollar per pound. At what rate will the weekly demand for the coffee be changing
with respect to time 10 weeks from now? Will the demand be increasing or
decreasing?

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 3.6 The Implicit Differentiation

In this section
1 What is implicit function?
2 How to differentiate an implicit function?
3 Applications: Differentiate inverse functions, logarithmic differentiation.
The functions that can be described by expressing one variable explicitly in terms
of another variable which is so-called explicit functions
p
y= x3 + 1 or y = x sin x

or, in general, y = f (x).

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 Some functions y = y (x) are defined implicitly through an equation

x 2 + y 2 = 25 or x 3 + y 3 = 6xy

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 Implicit Differentiation
Suppose y = y (x) is an implicit function defined through an equation

F (x, y ) = 0

To find the derivative dy /dx:

Step 1: Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x.
Step 2: Solve the resulting equation for dy /dx.

Example 21
dy
(a) If x 2 + y 2 = 25, find .
dx
(b) Find an equation of the tangent to the circle x 2 +y 2 = 25 at the point P (3, 4).

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 Example 22
(a) Find y 0 if x 3 + y 3 = 6xy .
(b) Find the tangent to the folium of Descartes x 3 +y 3 = 6xy at the point P (3, 3).
(c) At what point in the first quadrant is the tangent line horizontal?

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 Example 23
(a) Find y 0 if sin (x + y ) = y 2 cos x.
(b) Find y 00 if x 4 + y 4 = 16.

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 3.6 The Implicit Differentiations
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

d 1 d 1
sin−1 x = √ sec−1 x = √



dx 1 − x2 dx x x2 − 1

d 1 d 1
cos−1 x = − √ csc−1 x = − √



dx 1 − x2 dx x x2 − 1

d 1 d 1
tan−1 x = cot−1 x = −



dx 1 + x2 dx 1 + x2

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 Sketch the proof

Find y 0 if y = sin−1 x. Recall the definition of the arcsine function:

π π
y = sin−1 x ⇐⇒ sin y = x, − ≤y ≤ .
2 2

Differentiating the equation sin y = x with respect to x, we obtain

dy dy 1
cos y =1 or =
dx dx cos y
Now cos y ≥ 0, since − π2 ≤ y ≤ π
2, so
q p
cos y = 1 − sin2 y = 1 − x2

Thus if y = sin−1 x, then

dy 1 1
y0 = = =√ .
dx cos y 1 − x2

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 Example 24
Differentiate each of the following functions
√ p
a. f (x) = tan−1 x b. g (x) = 1 − x 2 arccos x c. h(x) = arctan x 2 − x

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 3.6 The Implicit Differentiations
Logarithmic Differentiation

Logarithmic Differentiation
1. Take natural logarithms of both sides of an equation y = f (x) and use the
Laws of Logarithms to simplify.
2. Differentiate implicitly with respect to x.
3. Solve the resulting equation for y 0 .

Example 25
Differentiate
√
x 3/4 x 2 + 1 √
x
a. y = 5 b. y = x
(3x + 2)

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 3.7 Related Rates and Applications

Certain practical problems involve a functional relationship

y = f (x) or F (x, y ) = 0 (11)

where x = x(t) and y = y (t). Using implicit differentiation we can relate the rate
of change dy /dt to the rate dx/dt. This is so-called related rate problems.

Example 26
Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon so that its volume increases at a rate
of 100 cm3 /s. How fast is the radius of the balloon increasing when the diameter
is 50 cm?

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 Example 27 (Learning ladder problem)
A ladder 10 ft long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder slides
away from the wall at a rate of 1 ft/s, how fast is the top of the ladder sliding down
the wall when the bottom of the ladder is 6 ft from the wall?

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 Example 28 (The water level in a cone-shaped tank)
A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone with base radius 2 m and
height 4 m. If water is being pumped into the tank at a rate of 2 m3 /min, find the
rate at which the water level is rising when the water is 3 m deep.

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 Example 29 (Angle of elevation)
Every day, a flight to Los Angeles flies directly over my home at a constant altitude
of 4 mi. If i assume that the plane is flying at a constant speed of 400 mi/h, at
what rate is the angle of elevation of my line of sight changing with respect to
time when the horizontal distance between the approaching plane and my location
is exactly 3 mi?

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 Example 30
Car A is traveling west at 50 mi/h and car B is traveling north at 60 mi/h. Both are
headed for the intersection of the two roads. At what rate are the cars approaching
each other when car A is 0.3 mi and car B is 0.4 mi from the intersection?

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 Example 31
A man walks along a straight path at a speed of 4 ft/s. A searchlight is located on
the ground 20 ft from the path and is kept focused on the man. At what rate is
the searchlight rotating when the man is 15 ft from the point on the path closest
to the searchlight?

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 3.8 Linear Approximation and Differentials
Linear Approximation

1 The approximation

f (x) ≈ f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a) (12)

is called the linear approximation or

tangent line approximation of f at a.
2 The linear function

L(x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a) (13)

is called the linearization of f at a. Figure: The relationship between

the increment ∆y and the differen-
tial dy

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 Example 32
√
(a) Find the linearization
√ of the function
√ f (x) = x at a = 4 and use it to approx-
imate the numbers 3.98 and 4.05. Are these approximations overestimates
or underestimates?
(b) For what values of x is the linear approximation in (a) accurate to within 0.5?
What about accuracy to within 0.1?

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 3.8 Linear Approximation and Differentials
Differentials

The differential of a differentiable function y = f (x) denoted dy , is defined by

dy = f 0 (x)dx (14)

where dx is an independent variable.

Let P (x, f (x)) and Q (x + ∆x, f (x + ∆x)).

Then change in y

∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x) ≈ dy (15)

when dx = ∆x is small.

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 Application of Differentials: Error Propagation

Given a functional relationship y = f (x) and assume that

x is the measured value of a variable
∆x is the error in measurement
Then the corresponding error in y which is called the propagated error at x

∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x) ≈ dy (16)

The relative error is

∆y dy
≈ (17)
y y
∆y
The errors can also be expressed as percentage error 100 (%).
y

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 Example 33
The radius of a sphere was measured and found to be 21 cm with a possible error
in measurement of at most 0.05 cm. What is the maximum error in using this value
of the radius to compute the volume of the sphere?

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 Example 34 (Exercise 29, p. 212)
At an certain factory, the daily output is

Q(L) = 60, 000L1/3

units, where L denotes the size of the labor force measured in worker-hours. Cur-
rently 1,000 worker-hours of labor are used each day. Estimate the effect on output
that will be produced if the labor force is cut to 940 worker-hours.

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