UNIT-5

Energy Sources For Electric Vehicles

BATTERIES:

A basic requirement for electric vehicles (EVs) is a portable source of

electrical energy, which is converted to mechanical energy in the electric motor
for vehicle propulsion. Electrical energy is typically obtained through
conversion of chemical energy stored in devices such as batteries and fuel
cells.

A flywheel is an alternative portable source in which energy is stored in

mechanical form to be converted into electrical energy on demand for vehicle
propulsion. The portable electrical energy source presents the biggest obstacle
in commercialization of EVs Among the available choices of portable energy
sources, batteries have been the most popular choice of energy source for EVs
since the beginning of research and development programs in these vehicles.

The EVs and HEVs commercially available today use batteries as the electrical
energy source. The various batteries are usually compared in terms of
descriptors, such as specific energy, specific power, operating life, etc. Similar
to specific energy, specific power is the power available per unit mass from the
source.

The batteries are made of unit cells containing the chemical energy that is
convertible to electrical energy. One or more of these electrolytic cells are
connected in series to form one battery. The grouped cells are enclosed in a
casing to form a battery module. A battery pack is a collection of these
individual battery modules connected in a series and parallel combination to
deliver the desired voltage and energy to the power electronic drive system.

The energy stored in a battery is the difference in free energy between

chemical components in the charged and discharged states. This available
chemical energy in a cell is converted into electrical energy only on demand.

The basic components of a unit cell, which are the positive and negative
electrodes, the separators, and the electrolytes.

1. Positive electrode: The positive electrode is an oxide or some other

compound that is capable of being reduced during cell discharge. This
electrode consumes electrons from the external circuit during cell discharge.
Examples of positive electrodes are lead oxide (PbO 2) and nickel oxyhydroxide
(NiOOH). The electrode materials are in the solid state.

2. Negative electrode: The negative electrode is a metal or an alloy that is

capable of being oxidized during cell discharge. This electrode generates
electrons in the external circuit during cell discharge. Examples of negative
electodes are lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd). Negative electrode materials are
also in the solid state within the battery cell.

3. Electrolyte: The electrolyte is the medium that permits ionic conduction

between positive and negative electrodes of a cell. The electrolyte must have
high and selective conductivity Traditional batteries such as lead-acid and
nickel cadmium use liquid electrolytes.

In lead-acid batteries, the electrolyte is the aqueous solution of sulfuric acid

[H2SO4(aq)]. Advanced batteries currently under development for EVs, such as
sealed lead-acid, nickel metal-hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion batteries use
an electrolyte that is gel, paste, or resin. Lithium-polymer batteries use a solid
electrolyte.

4. Separator: The separator is the electrically insulating layer of material that

physically separates electrodes of opposite polarity. Separators must be
permeable to the ions of the electrolyte and may also have the function of
storing or immobilizing the electrolyte. Present day separators are made from
synthetic polymers.

TYPES OF BATTERIES :

There are two basic types of batteries: primary batteries and secondary
batteries.

Batteries that cannot be recharged and are designed for a single discharge are
known as primary batteries. Examples of these are the lithium batteries used
in watches, calculators, cameras, etc.,

Batteries that can be recharged by flowing current in the direction opposite to

that during discharge are known as secondary batteries. The chemical
reaction process during cell charge operation when electrical energy is
converted into chemical energy is the reverse of that during discharge. The
batteries needed and used for EVs and HEVs are all secondary batteries,
because they are recharged during regeneration cycles of vehicle operation or
during the battery recharging cycle in the stopped condition using a charger.

All the batteries that will be discussed in the following are examples of
secondary batteries. The major types of rechargeable batteries considered for
EV and HEV applications are:

•Lithium-ion (Li-ion)

•Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)

•Lead-acid (Pb-acid)

LITHIUM -ION BATTERY:

Lithium-ion technology is becoming the battery technology of choice, but it

still has plenty of potential to offer. Today’s batteries have an energy density
of up to 140 Wh/kg or more in some cases, but have the potential to go as high
as 280 Wh/kg. Much research in cell optimization is taking place to create a
battery with a higher energy density and increased range. Lithium-ion
technology is currently considered the safest.

WORKING:

The Li-ion battery works as follows. A negative pole (anode) and a positive
pole (cathode) are part of the individual cells of a lithium-ion battery together
with the electrolyte and a separator. The anode is a graphite structure and the
cathode is layered metal oxide. Lithium-ions are deposited between these
layers. When the battery is charging, the lithium-ions move from the anode to
the cathode and take on electrons. The number of ions therefore determines the
energy density. When the battery is discharging, the lithium-ions release the
electrons to the anode, and move back to the cathode.
One issue with this type of battery is that in cold conditions, the lithium-ions’
movement is slower during the charging process. This tends to make them
reach the electrons on the surface of the anode rather than inside it. Also, using
a charging current that is too high creates elemental lithium.

This can be deposited on top of the anode covering the surface, which can seal
the passage. This is known as lithium plating. Research is ongoing and one
possible solution could be to warm up the battery before charging.

NICKEL-METAL-HYDRIDE (NiMH) BATTERY:

The nickel-metal-hydride battery is a successor to the nickel-hydrogen battery

and is already in use in production HEVs. In NiMH batteries, the positive
electrode is a nickel oxide, while the negative electrode is a metal hydride
where hydrogen is stored.

The two electrode chemical reactions in a NiMH battery are:

At the positive electrode,

At the negative electrode,

M stands for metallic alloy, which takes up hydrogen at ambient temperature

to form the metal hydride MHX. The negative electrode consists of a
compressed mass of fine metal particles.

NiMH batteries have a much longer life cycle than lead-acid batteries and are
safe and abuse tolerant. The disadvantages of NiMH batteries are the relatively
high cost, higher self-discharge.

NiMH is likely to survive as the leading rechargeable battery in the future for
traction applications, with strong challenge coming only from lithium-ion
batteries

LEAD-ACID BATTERY:

Lead-acid batteries have been the most popular choice of batteries for EVs.
Lead acid batteries can be designed to be high powered and are inexpensive,
safe, and reliable. A recycling infrastructure is in place for them. However, low
specific energy, poor cold temperature performance, uses in EVs and HEVs.

The lead-acid battery has a history that dates to the middle of the 19th century,
and it is currently a mature technology. The first lead-acid battery was
produced as early as in 1859. In the early 1980s, over 100,000,000 lead-acid
batteries were produced per year.

The long existence of the lead-acid battery is due to the following:

• Relatively low cost

• Easy availability of raw materials (lead, sulfur)

• Ease of manufacture

• Favorable electromechanical characteristics

The battery cell operation consists of a cell discharge operation, when the
energy is supplied from the battery to the electric motor to develop propulsion
power, and a cell charge operation, when energy is supplied from an external
source to store energy in the battery.

CONSTRUCTION OF LEAD-ACID:

Construction of a typical battery consists of positive and negative electrode

groups (elements) interleaved to form a cell. The through partition connection
in the battery is illustrated in Figure.

The positive plate is made of stiff paste of the active material on a lattice-type
grid, which is shown in Figure. The grid, made of a suitably selected lead
alloy, is the framework of a portable battery to hold the active material. The
positive plates can be configured in flat pasted or tubular fashion. The negative
plates are always manufactured as pasted types.

CELL DISCHARGE OPERATION:

In the cell discharge operation in figure, electrons are consumed at the positive
electrode, the supply of which comes from the negative electrode. The current
flow is, therefore, out of the positive electrode into the motor-load, with the
battery acting as the source.

The positive electrode equation is given by:

The negative electrode equation during cell discharge is

The electrons are released at the negative electrode during discharge operation.
The production of PbSO4(s) can degrade battery performance by making the
negative electrode more passive.

The overall cell discharge chemical reaction is:

CELL CHARGE OPERATION:

The cell charge operation in Figure is the reverse of the cell discharge
operation. During cell charging, lead sulfate is converted back to the reactant
states of lead and lead oxide. The electrons are consumed from the external
source at the negative electrode, while the positive electrode releases the
electrons. The current flows into the positive electrode from the external
source, thereby delivering electrical energy into the cell, where it gets
converted into chemical energy.

The chemical reaction at the positive electrode during cell charging is:

The chemical reaction at the negative electrode during cell charging is:

The overall chemical reaction during cell charging is:

 Fig: Lead-acid battery: cell charge operation

COMPARISION OF BATTERIES:

.
Battery Management System (BMS) for Electric Vehicle:

Rechargeable batteries are used to deliver power to the auxiliary systems

and motors in electric vehicle applications. Among all rechargeable batteries,
Lithium-Ion Batteries will give high efficiency for electric mobility because
Li-Ion batteries have a low self-discharge rate, wide operating range,
maximum energy density, and high life cycle.
To improve the quality of the battery and safe operation, a Battery
Management System (BMS) is employed and it plays a vital role in the
application of Electric Mobility.
Functions of Battery Management System in EV:
The primary function of a BMS is to fulfill safety requirements. But there’s
more to it. Objectives related to the more efficient usage of battery cells and
prolongation of their lifetime is also being increasingly integrated into the
design of BMS.
BMS should be designed with a minimal set of requirements Such as-

 It must measure individual cell voltages

 The BMS must measure temperatures at different points as close as
possible to the battery
 It must measure currents flowing through it
 The BMS should communicate information to control units and
undertake action to ensure the battery will be operated within safety
limits
 The BMS should balance battery cells passively or actively
 And, the BMS should provide thermal management
ULTRA CAPACITORS:

Capacitors are devices that store energy by the separation of equal positive and
negative electrostatic charges. The basic structure of a capacitor consists of two
conductors, known as plates, separated by a dielectric, which is an insulator.
These conventional capacitors are commonly known as “electrolytic
capacitors.”

The terms of capacitance, which is directly proportional to the dielectric

constant of the insulating material and inversely proportional to the space
between the two conducting plates. The capacitance is measured by the ratio of
the magnitude of the charge between either plate and the potential difference
between them (C=q/V).

Ultra capacitors are derivatives of conventional capacitors, where energy

density has been increased at the expense of power density to make the devices
function more like a battery.

Power density and energy density of ultra capacitors are of the order of 104
Wh/m3, respectively.

Ultra capacitors are versions of electrolytic capacitors that use electrochemical

systems to store energy in a polarized liquid layer at the interface between an
ionically conducting electrolyte and an electrically conducting electrode.
Energy storage capacity is increased by increasing the surface area of the
interface, similar to that in a super capacitor.

FUEL CELL:

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that produces electricity by means of a

chemical reaction, much like a battery. The major difference between batteries
and fuel cells is that the fuel cell can produce electricity as long as fuel is
supplied, while batteries produce electricity from stored chemical energy and,
hence, require frequent recharging. The basic structure of a fuel cell is shown
in figure consists of an anode and a cathode, similar to a battery. The fuel
supplied to the cell is hydrogen and oxygen. The concept of fuel cell is the
opposite of electrolysis of water, where hydrogen and oxygen are combined to
form electricity and water.
 The hydrogen fuel supplied to the fuel cell consists of two hydrogen atoms per
molecule chemically bonded together in the form H2. This molecule includes
two separate nuclei, each containing one proton, while sharing two electrons.
The fuel cell breaks apart these hydrogen molecules to produce electricity. The
hydrogen molecule breaks into four parts at the anode due to the chemical
reaction, releasing hydrogen ions and electrons.

For the overall cell reaction to complete, oxygen or air must be passed over the
cathode. The cathode reaction takes place in two stages. First, the bond
between the two oxygen atoms in the molecule breaks and then each ionized
oxygen atom grabs two electrons coming from the anode through the external
circuit to become negatively charged. The negatively charged oxygen atoms
are balanced by the positively charged hydrogen atoms at the cathode, and the
combination produces H2O commonly known as water. The chemical reaction
taking place in a fuel cell is as follows:

The fuel cell was first developed for space applications as an alternative power
source. The source was first used in a moon buggy and is still used in NASA’s
space shuttles. There has been tremendous interest in fuel cells in recent years
for applications in other areas, such as EVs and stationary power systems.

The six major types of fuel cells are as follows: alkaline, proton exchange
membrane, direct methanol, phosphoric acid, molten carbonate, and solid
oxide.
FLYWHEELS:

The flywheel is the kind of energy supply unit that stores energy in mechanical
form. Flywheels store kinetic energy within a rotating wheel-like rotor or disk
made of composite materials. Flywheels have a long history of usage in
automobiles, being routinely used in all of today’s IC engines to store energy
and smooth the power delivered by abrupt pulses of the engine.

However, the amount of energy storage required in flywheels of IC engines is

small and is limited by the need of the vehicle to accelerate rapidly. The
flywheel is currently being looked into for use in a number of different
capacities.

Flywheels can be used in HEVs with a standard IC engine as a power assist

device. Alternatively, flywheels can be used to replace chemical batteries in
EVs to serve as the primary energy source or could be used in conjunction with
batteries.

However, technological breakthroughs in increasing the specific energy of

flywheels are necessary before they can be considered as the energy source for
EVs and HEVs. The flywheels of today are quite complex, large, and heavy.
Safety is also a concern with flywheels. The flywheel design objective is to
maximize energy density. The energy U stored in the flywheel is given by
where J is the polar moment of inertia, and ω is the angular velocity.

Energy storage is increased by spinning at higher velocities without increasing

the inertia, which is directly proportional to mass. Increasing angular velocity
ω, in turn, increases centrifugal stress, which must not exceed failure stress
with a given factor of safety. Stored energy per unit mass can be expressed as
follows:

Where k is a constant depending on the geometry, σ is the tensile strength, and

ρ is the density of the material.
Flywheels have several advantages as an energy source, the most important of
which is the high specific power. Theoretically, specific power of fly wheels
has been shown to be of the order of 5 to 10 kW/kg, with a specific power of 2
kW/ kg being easily achievable without exceeding safe working stresses.

A flywheel, similar to a battery, goes through charge and discharge processes

in order to store and extract energy, which earned it the name
“electromechanical battery.” The rotor’s shaft is coupled with a motor and
generator, which, during charging, spin the rotor to store the kinetic energy
and, during discharging, convert the stored energy into electric energy.