metals

Article
Behavior and Performance of Reinforced Concrete Columns
Subjected to Accelerated Corrosion
Asif Hameed 1 , Muhammad Faheem Ud Din Afzal 2, * , Ali Javed 2 , Ali Murtaza Rasool 3,4, * ,
Mohsin Usman Qureshi 5 , Armin B. Mehrabi 2 and Imran Ashraf 1

1 Civil Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore 54000, Pakistan;
asifhameed@uet.edu.pk (A.H.); imran.ashrafuet@yahoo.com (I.A.)
2 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33174, USA;
ajave010@fiu.edu (A.J.); amehrabi@fiu.edu (A.B.M.)
3 Diamer Basha Dam Consultant Group (DBCG)—National Engineering Services Pakistan (NESPAK),
Lahore 54000, Pakistan
4 Visiting Faculty, University of Central Punjab (UCP), Lahore 54000, Pakistan
5 Faculty of Engineering, Sohar University, P.O. Box. 44, Sohar 311, Oman; mqureshi@su.edu.om
* Correspondence: mafza001@fiu.edu (M.F.U.D.A.); ali.murtaza@nespak.com.pk (A.M.R.)

Abstract: Steel reinforcement corrosion in concrete structures such as bridges, industrial plants,
marine structures, and coastal buildings is a growing concern due to its impact on cost, safety, and
serviceability. Corrosion leads to spalling, cracking, and reduced reinforcement diameter, which
can compromise structural integrity. This study examines the behavior of concrete columns with
corroded reinforcement in two phases. In the first phase, 72 columns of 150 × 150 mm cross-sectional
dimensions and 300 mm length were cast and subjected to an accelerated corrosion technique. The
study examined variables such as concrete cover, concrete strength, and corrosion exposure. The
second phase involved studying the axial behavior of corroded columns concerning the effect of
column length. Column specimens of 150 × 150 mm cross-sectional dimensions and lengths of
500 mm, 700 mm, and 900 mm were cast, corroded, and tested under axial compressive load. The
study revealed that a 30 mm concrete cover offers 10% more protection against corrosion than a
20 mm cover. Continuous exposure to a corrosive environment reduces the load-carrying capacity by
Citation: Hameed, A.; Afzal,
50%, while columns with 28 MPa concrete strength can carry 4% more load. Longer columns are more
M.F.U.D.; Javed, A.; Rasool, A.M.;
susceptible to corrosion, leading to a significant reduction in load-carrying capacity and concrete
Qureshi, M.U.; Mehrabi, A.B.; Ashraf,
cover damage. Therefore, maintaining adequate concrete cover, strength, and regular inspections are
I. Behavior and Performance of
essential to address steel reinforcement corrosion and preserve structural integrity.
Reinforced Concrete Columns
Subjected to Accelerated Corrosion.
Metals 2023, 13, 930. https://doi.org/ Keywords: reinforced concrete columns; corroded rebars; corrosion exposure; axial performance;
10.3390/met13050930 concrete cover

Academic Editor: Yanxin Qiao

Received: 9 April 2023

Revised: 4 May 2023 1. Introduction
Accepted: 8 May 2023 Reinforced concrete (RC) is a versatile construction material used globally for its dura-
Published: 10 May 2023 bility [1], premature failures such as the Lowe’s Motor Speedway Bridge collapse in North
Carolina in 2000 raised concerns [2]. Even with the ever-increasing development of sustain-
able materials [3–6] and use of alternative reinforcement [7], corrosion remains a worldwide
issue causing millions of dollars in losses annually [8] and is a major contributor to the
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
degradation of reinforced concrete structures. Furthermore, failures in reinforced structures
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
can also be attributed to defects that are not related to engineering [9,10]. Deterioration due
This article is an open access article
to the aging of reinforced concrete members necessitate the repair of concrete structures [11].
distributed under the terms and
Accurate evaluations of the aerodynamic characteristics of these structures are necessary
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
to ensure their stability and safety, given their adaptable nature [12–15]. Steel embedded
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
within concrete corrodes when the external environment alters [16] the composition of the
4.0/).
pore solution present in the concrete, leading to the destruction of the passive oxide film

Metals 2023, 13, 930. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13050930 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2023, 13, 930 2 of 22

formed on the steel. Corrosion results in a loss of steel area provided during the design
phase, leading to a reduction in the load carrying capacity of the sections. As a counter
measure, numerous researchers adopted non-destructive techniques to detect damage to
reinforcement that is related to corrosion [17]. The rate of corrosion is affected by factors
such as the environment, cover thickness, concrete alkalinity and permeability, steel type,
chloride environment, and cracks. Considering the growing use of additive manufacturing
in the construction sector, it is crucial to comprehend the consequences of corrosion [18].
Chloride-induced corrosion of steel rebar is a common cause of concrete deterioration,
resulting in physical degradation of reinforced concrete elements, including cracking
of concrete cover, reduction in bond strength between concrete and steel, and loss of
cross-sectional area of reinforcing steel due to rust formation. These combined effects
compromise the load-carrying capacity and safety of structural elements such as beams,
slabs, and columns especially in marine and chloride-rich environments [19]. The corrosion
of beams and slabs usually causes their collapse, while the corrosion of columns can lead to
the entire structure collapsing. While researchers studied the flexural behavior of corroded
beams and slabs and seismic performance of corroded columns [20–23], less attention was
given to the axial behavior of corroded columns. Therefore, significant experimental work
was carried out to investigate the behavior of reinforced concrete columns affected by steel
bar corrosion.
Uomoto [24] discovered that corroded reinforced concrete columns and beams showed
reduced load-carrying capacity due to loss of reinforcement diameter and concrete cover
spalling. Increasing current density did not always result in a linear decrease in load
carrying capacity. After a certain value of current density, the concrete core carried the load
primarily. The two least corroded columns had residual load carrying capacities of 88% and
98% of control samples, while the other six ranged from 77% to 84%. Rodriguez [25] studied
the impact of accelerated corrosion on 24 concrete columns, grouped by reinforcement
samples and exposed to a current density of 0.1 mA/cm2 . Both reinforcement diameter loss
and spalling of concrete cover contributed to reduced load-carrying capacity. Corrosion
decreased axial load capacity to a point beyond which further corrosion had no effect.
Loss of gross area converted columns from stocky to slender, increasing effective length.
Azad [26] studied the behavior of 48 concrete samples under eccentric axial loading, with
36 corroded. Load capacity reduction was due to reinforcement area loss and bond strength
reduction from corrosion. Higher IcorrT values led to greater strength reduction. Residual
strength under combined loading was affected by corrosion-induced damaging effects
beyond reinforcement area loss.
This study aims to investigate the behavior of reinforced concrete (RC) columns when
subjected to concentric axial loads after undergoing accelerated corrosion. Furthermore,
the study aims to examine the effect of accelerated corrosion duration on the behavior
of RC columns. In addition, the study analyzes the impact of concrete cover on the
resistance of reinforced concrete structures against corrosion. The study utilizes different
concrete strengths to determine the effect of this parameter on the resistance to corrosion of
reinforced concrete structures.

2. Corrosion Mechanism
Steel reinforcement in concrete corrodes due to an electrochemical reaction, with the
solution in the concrete acting as an electrolyte and the reinforcement as an electrical
conductor. Corrosion begins with electron release at the anode, followed by their reaction
with oxygen and water to form hydroxyl ions at the cathode [27]. Water and oxygen
accelerate the corrosion process, leading to reactions between hydroxyl and iron ions
that corrode the reinforcement [28], as shown in Equations (3)–(5). The variable ‘n’ in
Equation (5) depends on the presence of water and oxygen. Corrosion usually starts with a
Metals 2023, 13, 930 3 of 22

puncture in the resistive layer or cover of the steel reinforcement in concrete, which can be
caused by carbonation, chloride ion attacks, and freeze–thaw cycles [29].

Fe → Fe+2 + 2e− (1)

1
2e− + H2 O + O2 → 2OH − (2)
2

Fe+2 + 2OH − → Fe(OH )2 (3)

4Fe(OH )2 + O2 + 2H 2 O → 4Fe(OH )3 (4)

2Fe(OH )3 → Fe2 O3 ·nH2 O + 2H 2 O (5)

2.1. Carbonation
Carbonation of concrete is the chemical reaction of portlandite, Ca(OH)2 , in the cement
matrix with carbon dioxide (CO2 ) gas leading to calcite (CaCO3 ) [30]. The reaction between
carbon dioxide and concrete produces carbonic acid (H2 CO3 ), as shown in Equation (6).
Carbonic acid then reacts with calcium hydroxides in the pore solution, producing calcium
carbonate (CaCO3 ), as shown in Equation (7). This lowers the pH value below 10 and
disrupts the passive layer around steel reinforcement, leading to corrosion. Corrosion from
carbonation is influenced by factors such as permeability, concrete quality, concrete cover,
and surrounding carbon dioxide levels [31]. Carbonation can be monitored using a pH
indicator such as phenolphthalein, which turns clear in carbonated regions and pink in
un-carbonated regions when exposed to the concrete surface.

CO2 + H2 O → H2 CO3 (6)

H2 CO3 + Ca(OH )2 → CACO3 + 2H2 O (7)

2.2. Chloride Ions Attack

Chloride-induced corrosion is a costly and challenging deterioration for concrete
infrastructure. Sea water, accelerators, and chloride-polluted aggregates are major sources
of chlorides in concrete. Sea salt spray, de-icing salts, and alternate wetting and drying
of offshore structures also contribute to chloride presence. Unlike carbonation, chloride
ion attack does not neutralize the passive layer. Chloride ions act as catalysts, remaining
present and attacking the reinforcement surface [32]. Chloride ions disturb the passive layer
surrounding embedded steel reinforcement, reacting with ferrous ions at the anode to form
a soluble compound that oxidizes into insoluble iron hydroxide at the cathode, producing
chloride ions. These ions can continue to react with iron ions [27]. Chloride ions permeate
and accumulate on embedded steel reinforcement mainly through diffusion. Contributing
factors to chloride ion attack include concrete cover, cracks, and water/cement ratio.

3. Effects of Corrosion
Corrosion can result in three types of damage to reinforced concrete structures, hap-
pening simultaneously: cracking in the concrete cover leading to spalling, loss of bond
between the reinforcement and concrete, and reduction in cross-sectional area due to rust
formation. These effects reduce the load-carrying capacity of the column or member, reduce
ductility, and primarily affect the concrete cover’s cracking and bond strength [33]. Details
on these mechanisms are explained below.
Metals 2023, 13, 930 4 of 22

3.1. Cracking
Cracking of concrete cover is a potential effect of embedded steel corrosion as rust
product occupies more volume than the original reinforcement bars. Several researchers
investigated the conditions under which corrosion of reinforcement occurs.
Andrade [34] studied the effects of accelerated corrosion on concrete samples. Chang-
ing cover and current density impacted cracking, but calculated section loss may be overes-
timated due to initial infiltration of corrosion products into concrete pores. Chernin [35]
presented a new analytical model for predicting cover cracking in concrete structures
caused by corrosion of reinforcing steel. The model considers the concrete as a thick-walled
cylinder subjected to pressure from corrosion products, leading to the formation of radial
cracks. Guzman [36] studied the deterioration of reinforced concrete structures exposed to
marine environments and presented two models for analyzing corrosion-induced cracking.
The models were incorporated into a finite element program and compared with experi-
mental results, resulting in a step forward in evaluating the service life of these structures.
Alonso [34] conducted experiments on 27 concrete samples and found that the cover to
bar diameter ratio and corrosion rate were significant factors in the amount of corrosion
required to cause cracking. A higher corrosion rate required more corrosion to induce
cracking and larger corrosion products were necessary to generate larger crack widths.
Bossio [37] proposed FEM and analytical models to evaluate stress development and crack
propagation due to pitting or general corrosion. It was found that crack propagation de-
pends mostly on the concrete cover, while oxide penetration increases slightly as the elastic
modulus of concrete decreases. Cabrera [38] conducted research on slabs with different
bar diameters and cover types. Accelerated corrosion caused cracks in the bottom face of
some slabs, while crack width had a linear relationship with corrosion. Faraday’s law was
used to calculate the amount of corrosion. A relation between crack width and increasing
corrosion is plotted in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Relation of average crack width to corrosion, adapted with permission from Ref. [38].
1996, Elsevier.

3.2. Bond Strength

Design codes and standards have a basic assumption that there is a perfect bond
between the embedded reinforcement and concrete, as the strain in both is assumed to be
equal. However, corrosion can negatively affect the bond strength of concrete elements.
Choi [39] found that corrosion of reinforcing bars in concrete structures reduces bond
strength and stiffness, leading to deterioration and shortening of service life. Al-sulaimani [40]
conducted experiments to investigate the bond strength of corroded specimens and found
that pre-cracking and post-cracking stages are determined by the percentage of corrosion.
Larger cover to rebar diameter ratios have a significant effect on bond strength, with
larger amounts of corrosion required to produce the internal fine cracking necessary to
reduce bond strength. Ma [41] observed that an increase in corrosion of a sample can
significantly reduce bond strength once cracking has started. Clark and Saifullah [42]
Metals 2023, 13, 930 5 of 22

conducted tests on plain and deformed reinforcement to study the influence of accelerated
corrosion and concluded that the sharp decrease in bond strength before cracking is the
main difference between the four stages of corrosion. Fang [43] showed that confinement
can counteract bond loss for corroded steel bars, but substantial reduction in bond occurred
when corrosion increased beyond 6%.

3.3. Mechanical Properties of Reinforcement

The corrosion of the reinforcement in the concrete can affect its mechanical proper-
ties due to the reduction in its cross-sectional area. Wang et al. [44] studied the effect of
corrosion on reinforced concrete structures constructed using bimetallic steel bars. The
accelerated corrosion led to a reduction in the tensile performance of the specimens. It
also badly affected the low-cycle fatigue performance of the specimens. Hua et al. [45,46]
investigated the mechanical properties of stainless steel rebars experimentally and numer-
ically. They conducted tensile coupon test on the bimetallic bars which were corroded
through accelerated electrochemical reactions. The results showed a clear yield plateau
in the stress–strain curve of the bars. Francois et al. [47] checked the impact of corrosion
on the mechanical properties of rebars in RC beams. The results showed a reduction in
the ultimate elongation of all rebars. Apostolopoulos [48] investigated the influence of
corrosion on mechanical properties of steel and found that corrosion is a major contributor
in producing stress concentration points by creating pits and notches, which ultimately
reduces ductility and tensile strength of the rebars.

4. Methodology
Corrosion in reinforced concrete structures can be reduced by improving quality
of concrete and by providing thick cover around the rebars. It can also be reduced by
using a low water/cement ratio. These preventive measures do not prove to be best in all
environmental scenarios, especially where marine water or environment is in contact with
the concrete structures. Several structures built according to modern codes and standards
may be prone to the condition of reinforcement corrosion. To overcome this corrosion
problem, there is a need to know more about corrosion process and its products. The
experimental work conducted in this research consists of the following two phases.

4.1. Parametric Investigations

In parametric investigation, the concrete column specimens were cast and corroded in
the lab. Parametric studies were performed previously for axially loaded piles [49] and also
laterally loaded piles in multi layered soil [50]. Corrosion of embedded steel in concrete is
a very slow process and it takes years to occur. Due to time constraints, the corrosion of
the samples was performed artificially in the laboratory by passing the current through
concrete samples. The original corrosion process is different than accelerated corrosion in
the laboratory, and so, the study and effects of accelerated corrosion on concrete samples
was required. In lieu of this, before commencing formal research, a series of preliminary
tests to confirm the effectiveness of accelerated corrosion technique was performed on
concrete columns. The following three parameters are considered to study this effect.
1. Concrete strength;
2. Cover to reinforcement diameter (c/D) ratio;
3. Level of corrosion in days.
Generally, the corrosion of reinforcement is carried out by impressed current technique.
With help of this method, a significant corrosion of reinforcement can be achieved in limited
time only. In the past, different researchers used impressed current technique to study
the effect of reinforcement corrosion on concrete cover cracking, bond strength, and load
bearing capacity of reinforced concrete members [51]. Some alternate methods were
also suggested by various researchers. Ha [52] used an impressed voltage and microcell
corrosion technique rather than impressed current technique to corrode reinforcement in
concrete specimen. Yuan [53] created an artificial climate of high chlorides and humidity
Metals 2023, 13, 930 6 of 22

level to simulate natural corrosion process to corrode reinforcement. Husain [54] evaluated
performance of embedded reinforcement and its passivity breakdown by using accelerated
AC impedance technique. C. Geng [55] devised a brand in technique in which chloride
ions were diffused on to surface of embedded reinforcement that caused rapid corrosion of
reinforcement. Auyenug [56] found that actual mass loss and theoretical mass loss due to
impressed current technique were not the same due to factors such as the need of electrical
energy to initiate corrosion, resistance of concrete, reinforcement composition, and due to
electrical properties of minerals present within concrete. Based upon the results found by
all cited technique, it can be summarized that impressed current technique is considered to
be a very effective and reliable technique to induce corrosion in embedded reinforcement
in the limited time available.
In impressed current technique, a DC source is supplied to embedded steel in concrete
specimens which are placed in chloride solution. According to Care and Raharinaivo [57],
concrete specimens should be immersed into solution containing chlorides rather than pure
water because the immersed specimens obey the Faraday’s law in case of chlorides, while
in case of pure water, a complex phenomenon occurs during the process of accelerated
corrosion method. After applying current for a specific duration, the weight loss of spec-
imen is calculated by Faraday’s law, as shown in Equation (8). Similarly, the percentage
of actual amount of steel lost can be accessed by gravimetric test conducted on obtained
reinforcement after crushing of concrete samples.

tAI
∆ω = (8)
FZ
where ∆ω is metal loss due to corrosion, A represent atomic weight of iron (56 g), I is
corrosion current (amp), t is corrosion duration (s), Z is the valency of reacting electrode
(2 for iron), and F is Faraday’s constant (96,000 amp s).

4.2. Behavioral Investigations of Corroded Columns

After analyzing effectiveness of accelerated corrosion technique using the above-
mentioned parameters, the structural behavior of concrete columns was evaluated for
different lengths of concrete column specimens.

5. Specimen Preparation and Instrumentation

For the preparation of the specimens, locally available material was utilized. Ordinary
Portland cement, Lawrencepur sand (Lawrencepur Sand Supply Company, Punjab, Pak-
istan), Marghalla crush (Margalla Crush Stone, Taxila, Pakistan), and potable water were
used for the specimen casting. Two different types of concrete mixes were used to achieve
a target strength of 21 MPa and 28 MPa. The mix proportions of both mixes are shown
in Table 1.

Table 1. Mix Proportion of Concrete.

Sample No. Cement Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate Mix Proportion Target Strength (MPa) w/c Ratio
1 1.0 1.74 3.40 1:1.74:3.4 21 0.55
2 1.0 1.75 3.00 1:1.75:3 28 0.47

In general, four types of concrete specimens were cast. Based upon the length of the
concrete samples, specimens were designated as R1 to R4. R1 had the least length equal to
300 mm; however, the remaining R2, R3, and R4 specimens had lengths as 500 mm, 700 mm,
and 900 mm, respectively. Each group of samples was further divided into two subgroups,
named corroded samples and control specimens. Control specimens were designated as
“C”; however, the concrete specimens that were gone through the process of accelerated
corrosion of embedded reinforcement were designated with the duration of corrosion. The
nomenclature for the cast concrete samples is shown in Figure 2.
Metals 2023, 13, 930 7 of 22

Figure 2. Nomenclature for columns specimen.

In this study, a total of 90 different specimens were cast. The details of these specimens
are provided in Table 2. The specimens were reinforced with 4 numbers of 10 mm diameters
rebars as longitudinal bar at each corner and lateral stirrups of 10 mm dia. Bar at 100 mm
center-to-center as shown in Figure 3. It can be understood from the figure that 300 mm
specimen had 3 stirrups while 900 mm specimen had 9 stirrups.

Table 2. Test specimens and designations.

Specimen Concrete Corrosion

Specimen Strength Concrete Cover Specimen No. of
Sr. No. Length Strength Exposure
Type Designation Cover Designation Designation Specimens
(mm) (MPa) (Days)
1 R1 300 21 A 20 X - R1AX-C 3
2 R1 300 21 A 25 Y - R1AY-C 3
3 R1 300 21 A 30 Z - R1AZ-C 3
4 R1 300 28 B 20 X - R1BX-C 3
5 R1 300 28 B 25 Y - R1BY-C 3
6 R1 300 28 B 30 Z - R1BZ-C 3
7 R1 300 21 A 20 X 3 R1AX-3 3
8 R1 300 21 A 20 X 5 R1AX-5 3
9 R1 300 21 A 20 X 8 R1AX-8 3
10 R1 300 21 A 25 Y 3 R1AY-3 3
11 R1 300 21 A 25 Y 5 R1AY-5 3
12 R1 300 21 A 25 Y 8 R1AY-8 3
13 R1 300 21 A 30 Z 3 R1AZ-3 3
14 R1 300 21 A 30 Z 5 R1AZ-5 3
15 R1 300 21 A 30 Z 8 R1AZ-8 3
16 R1 300 28 B 20 X 3 R1BX-3 3
17 R1 300 28 B 20 X 5 R1BX-5 3
18 R1 300 28 B 20 X 8 R1BX-8 3
19 R1 300 28 B 25 Y 3 R1BY-3 3
20 R1 300 28 B 25 Y 5 R1BY-5 3
21 R1 300 28 B 25 Y 8 R1BY-8 3
22 R1 300 28 B 30 Z 3 R1BZ-3 3
23 R1 300 28 B 30 Z 5 R1BZ-5 3
24 R1 300 28 B 30 Z 8 R1BZ-8 3
25 R2 500 21 A 25 Y 5 R2AY-5 3
26 R3 700 21 A 25 Y 5 R3AY-5 3
27 R4 900 21 A 25 Y 5 R4AY-5 3
28 R2 500 21 A 25 Y - R2AY-C 3
29 R3 700 21 A 25 Y - R3AY-C 3
30 R4 900 21 A 25 Y - R4AY-C 3
Metals 2023, 13, 930 8 of 22

Figure 3. Specimen dimensions (a) Elevation view (b) Cross section view.

5.1. Reinforcement Caging, Electrical Wiring and Concrete Casting

To facilitate the current flow through concrete specimens, before casting samples,
electrical connection was made with the reinforcement cage. Electrical wire was connected
to one of the bar among reinforcement cage and brought out of the specimen mold to
connect with DC source supply. Remaining bars were connected with each other by
winding a copper wire on their surface, as shown in Figure 4a,b. The concrete ingredients
were weighed separately, as per the ratio of concrete mix, and were added to the concrete
mixer. After preparing concrete, it was poured into the molds which were then placed over
the shake table and were vibrated for 30 s to release entrapped air within concrete pores.
The cast specimens are shown in Figure 4c.

Figure 4. (a) Reinforcement cage with electrical wires. (b) Casting molds. (c) Casted specimens.

5.2. Instrumentation and Accelerated Corrosion Setup

After casting, the column specimens were cured for 28 days, and they were then passed
through the process of accelerated corrosion. A constant current was passed through the
specimens. In parametric studies, the current was applied to the column specimens for 3, 5,
and 8 days. It is important to note that current supply time is an important parameter to
obtain constant corrosion in all specimens. For this reason, an hour counter was introduced
into the DC source supply. The purpose of the hour counter was to measure the number of
Metals 2023, 13, 930 9 of 22

hours through which the circuit was alive. In case of any power failure, the hour counter
would stop automatically and on recovery of power supply, hour counter started form the
same reading as it was. Output knob consist of anode and cathode, anode was attached to
the wire coming from the concrete specimens while cathode was attached to copper strips.
Columns samples were placed in a solution which contain 3.5% NaCl as electrolyte as
shown in Figure 5a. NaCl contents of 3.5% resembles the concentration of chloride ions
in marine environment. Electrical wires were connected to the reinforcement cage which
worked as anode and copper strips present in electrolyte behaved as cathode as shown in
Figure 5b. After applying current for specified time of 3, 5 and 8 days, the specimens were
removed from circuit.

Figure 5. (a) Accelerated corrosion setup. (b) Copper strips (cathode).

6. Testing Results and Discussions

6.1. Specimen Observations
On completion of accelerated corrosion process for specified time, the specimens
were removed from the corrosion process. Specimens were inspected against the effect
of corrosion on column specimens. The following two major effects of corrosion were
observed after accelerated corrosion of concrete columns.

6.1.1. Surface Cracking

The corrosion products occupy almost 6 times more space than the iron particles.
These corrosion products exert pressure on the surrounding concrete. Due to this pressure,
cracking develops within and on concrete surface. Same phenomena were observed after
the accelerated corrosion of column specimens. The corrosion in the column specimens
produced diagonal and horizontal cracks due to the corrosion of different rebars, as shown
in Figure 6. The diagonal cracks were produced due to the corrosion of longitudinal
reinforcement while horizontal cracks produced due to the corrosion of shear ties.
Metals 2023, 13, 930 10 of 22

Figure 6. (a) Longitudinal cracking on concrete surface. (b) Horizontal cracking on concrete surface.

6.1.2. Surface Pitting

Concrete surface pitting refers to the formation of small cavities or depressions on
the surface of the concrete. This phenomenon can occur due to various factors, including
physical damage, chemical attack, or exposure to harsh environmental conditions, which
can cause the concrete surface to break down. Concrete surface pitting can accelerate the
corrosion process by increasing the surface area of the steel that is exposed to the corrosive
environment and it also facilitates a pathway for chloride ions to reach the reinforcement.
Poor quality of the concrete can contribute to concrete surface pitting, and the porosity
within the concrete affects the rate of chloride ion penetration into the reinforcement.
Initially, the concrete specimens resist the flow of chloride contents, making it difficult
for current to flow. However, as the corrosion progresses and the ingress of chloride ions
reaches the reinforcement, it leads to an increase in the corrosion rate over time, as shown
in Figure 7. Therefore, the presence of surface pitting and the level of porosity within
the concrete surface affect the rate of chloride ingress, which, in turn, can impact the rate
of corrosion.

Figure 7. (a) Surface pitting on column specimen after 5 days. (b) Surface pitting on column specimen
after 8 days.
Metals 2023, 13, 930 11 of 22

6.2. Axial Compression Testing

On the completion of corrosion process, the specimens were removed from the NaCl
solution and were placed in the open environment to dry. After drying, an axial test was
performed on the concrete columns. Axial load was applied with the help of 200 ton axial
compression machine in laboratory. Before placing the specimens for axial compression
test, all type of rust products were removed from the column specimens and loading edges
were made plain to distribute load uniformly on the entire surface of the concrete column
and produce homogenous results. Corroded and control specimens were loaded up till
failure, as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8. (a) Compression test 300 mm specimen. (b) Compression test 700 mm specimen.

In parametric studies, the column length was taken as 300 mm. In the second phase,
columns specimens with varying lengths were tested. In the second phase of study, pa-
rameters such as concrete strength, corrosion exposure and concrete cover were taken as
constant. Concrete cover was taken as 25 mm; however, corrosion exposure was selected as
5 days. The concrete strength selected for second phase of study was 21 MPa after using
the results from parametric studies.

6.3. Effect of Concrete Cover to Axial Load Carrying Capacity

The effect of concrete cover on the axial load carrying capacity of all columns was
evaluated and the important results are discussed below.

6.3.1. 21 MPa Specimens

The ultimate load values for the 21 MPa column specimens with 20 mm, 25 mm,
and 30 mm concrete covers are shown in Table 3. The results show a gradual decrease in
the ultimate load bearing capacity as the corrosion exposure increased form in 3 days to
8 days. This shows that the continuous application of accelerated corrosion caused more
corrosion products to form, which produce cracking on concrete surface, and hence, peeled
off the concrete cover. The corrosion products also decreased the embedded reinforcement
diameter that decreased the ultimate load carrying capacity of concrete columns, as can be
observed in Figure 9. The data show a similar trend for 25 mm and 30 mm concrete cover,
with a slight increase in the ultimate load capacity of column specimens. This shows that
the resistance to corrosion increased as the concrete cover increased.
Metals 2023, 13, 930 12 of 22

Table 3. Ultimate capacity for 21 MPa concrete column specimens.

Specimen Concrete Strength Corrosion Exposure Ultimate Strength

Concrete Cover (mm)
Designation (MPa) (days) (KN)
R1AX-3 21 20 3 539.55
R1AX-3 21 20 3 529.74
R1AX-3 21 20 3 535.36
R1AX-5 21 20 5 519.93
R1AX-5 21 20 5 519.93
R1AX-5 21 20 5 500.31
R1AX-8 21 20 8 490.5
R1AX-8 21 20 8 488.69
R1AX-8 21 20 8 495.405
R1AX-C 21 20 Control 607.46
R1AX-C 21 20 Control 619.6
R1AY-3 21 25 3 557.36
R1AY-3 21 25 3 561.36
R1AY-3 21 25 3 567.55
R1AY-5 21 25 5 541.93
R1AY-5 21 25 5 532.74
R1AY-5 21 25 5 537.12
R1AY-8 21 25 8 501.34
R1AY-8 21 25 8 495.69
R1AY-8 21 25 8 489.5
R1AY-C 21 25 Control 612.13
R1AY-C 21 25 Control 618.08
R1AZ-3 21 30 3 585.6
R1AZ-3 21 30 3 589.41
R1AZ-3 21 30 3 575.17
R1AZ-5 21 30 5 559.17
R1AZ-5 21 30 5 556.36
R1AZ-5 21 30 5 565.31
R1AZ-8 21 30 8 529.74
R1AZ-8 21 30 8 519.93
R1AZ-8 21 30 8 539.55
R1AZ-C 21 30 Control 620.37
R1AZ-C 21 30 Control 612.7

Figure 9. Axial load capacity of column specimens against different exposure levels (a) 20 mm cover
(b) 25 mm cover (c) 30 mm cover.

The average values of 3 test specimens for each category of corrosion exposure for
specimens having concrete cover 20 mm, 25 mm, and 30 mm is shown in Figure 10. The
red line shows the ultimate strength of control specimen. The concrete cover is the primary
defense against corrosion initiation in the rebars. A thicker concrete cover offers greater
resistance to chloride penetration, making it more difficult for chlorides to reach the rebars
and start the corrosion process ultimately providing greater corrosion resistance. As a
result, the rebars corrode less and provide better structural integrity for the reinforced
Metals 2023, 13, 930 13 of 22

concrete. The result of control samples in Table 3 also indicates that with the increase
concrete cover, the ultimate axial load capacity value moves toward the un-corroded
control specimens. The percentage difference from the control specimens show much less
difference in case of corrosion exposure of 3 days. This represents the fact that the extended
corrosive environment causes the reduction in axial load capacity of concrete columns.

Figure 10. Ultimate axial load capacity vs. exposure level of specimens and concrete cover.

6.3.2. 28 MPa Specimens

The ultimate load values for the 28 Mpa column specimens with 20 mm, 25 mm, and
30 mm concrete cover are shown in Table 4. Figure 11 shows the plot of ultimate strength
of these specimens. The results showed a similar trend to 21 MPa specimens. With the
increase in corrosion exposure, the load carrying capacity decreased.

Table 4. Ultimate capacity for 28 MPa concrete column specimens.

Specimen Concrete Strength Concrete Cover Corrosion Exposure Ultimate Strength

Designation (MPa) (mm) (Days) (KN)
R1BX-3 28 20 3 562.79
R1BX-3 28 20 3 568.98
R1BX-3 28 20 3 549.36
R1BX-5 28 20 5 529.74
R1BX-5 28 20 5 535.12
R1BX-5 28 20 5 519.93
R1BX-8 28 20 8 500.31
R1BX-8 28 20 8 507.93
R1BX-8 28 20 8 500.31
R1BX-C 28 20 Control 641.04
R1BX-C 28 20 Control 655.52
R1BY-3 28 25 3 583.17
R1BY-3 28 25 3 588.6
R1BY-3 28 25 3 581.17
R1BY-5 28 25 5 549.36
R1BY-5 28 25 5 545.93
R1BY-5 28 25 5 539.55
R1BY-8 28 25 8 510.12
R1BY-8 28 25 8 507.31
R1BY-8 28 25 8 498.5
R1BY-C 28 25 Control 647.55
R1BY-C 28 25 Control 657.55
R1BZ-3 28 30 3 620.08
R1BZ-3 28 30 3 612.32
R1BZ-3 28 30 3 629.7
R1BZ-5 28 30 5 595.27
R1BZ-5 28 30 5 607.7
R1BZ-5 28 30 5 599.65
R1BZ-8 28 30 8 559.17
R1BZ-8 28 30 8 568.6
R1BZ-8 28 30 8 561.22
R1BZ-C 28 30 Control 658.93
R1BZ-C 28 30 Control 643.94
Metals 2023, 13, 930 14 of 22

Figure 11. Axial load capacity of column specimens against different exposure levels. (a) 20 mm
cover; (b) 25 mm cover; (c) 30 mm cover.

The average values of 3 test specimens for each category of corrosion exposure having
concrete cover 20 mm, 25 mm, and 30 mm is shown in Figure 12. The red line shows the
ultimate strength of control specimen. Overall, the axial load capacity trend for concrete
specimens on longer corrosion exposure decreased. This can be simply explained as the
diminishing of oxide layer around the embedded reinforcement that protects steel against
corrosion. The resistance of this layer continuously decreased as the corrosion process
continued for a longer duration. It also indicates that as we move to higher concrete cover
of the column specimens, the load carrying capacity approaches towards the control value.
The percentage difference forms the control values for the specimens with higher cover is
comparatively less than the column specimens having less concrete cover. When we see
the effect of corrosion exposure to the concrete column, it can be concluded that corrosion
exposure for longer time reduces the axial load capacity considerably by almost 20%. It
was also observed that almost 50% axial load capacity reduction only occurred at the initial
stage of corrosion. Hence, once the corrosion started, with each passing day, resistance to
corrosion started to diminish.

Figure 12. Ultimate axial load capacity vs. exposure level of specimens.

6.4. Reinforcement Weight Loss

The effect of reinforcement weight loss was calculated for both types of concrete and
is explained below.

6.4.1. 21 MPa Specimens

The metal loss during the accelerated corrosion process was calculated based upon the
weight of reinforcement before and after accelerated corrosion process. The weight of the
embedded reinforcement was taken before casting. Once the specimens were tested and
cracked, embedded reinforcement in column specimens was extracted and weighted to
Metals 2023, 13, 930 15 of 22

determine the loss of metal during the process of accelerated corrosion. Table 5 represents
the values of weight of reinforcement prior and after the accelerated corrosion process.

Table 5. Expected vs. actual weight loss of reinforcement for 21 MPa.

Expected
Concrete Corrosion Weight before Weight after
Concrete Cover Weight Loss Percentage
Strength Exposure Corrosion Corrosion
(mm) (Faraday’s Law) Loss (%)
(MPa) (days) (g) (g)
(g)
21 20 3 6.38 1500 1417 5.53
21 20 3 6.38 1505 1421 5.58
21 20 3 6.38 1486 1405 5.45
21 20 5 10.64 1565 1421 9.20
21 20 5 10.64 1550 1410 9.03
21 20 5 10.64 1567 1428 8.87
21 20 8 17.02 1499 1267 15.48
21 20 8 17.02 1540 1307 15.13
21 20 8 17.02 1476 1250 15.31
21 25 3 6.54 1475 1411 4.34
21 25 3 6.54 1480 1409 4.80
21 25 3 6.54 1584 1509 4.73
21 25 5 10.91 1603 1470 8.30
21 25 5 10.91 1690 1541 8.82
21 25 5 10.91 1590 1453 8.62
21 25 8 17.45 1601 1363 14.87
21 25 8 17.45 1569 1342 14.47
21 25 8 17.45 1589 1352 14.92
21 30 3 6.71 1315 1279 2.74
21 30 3 6.71 1407 1354 3.77
21 30 3 6.71 1479 1421 3.92
21 30 5 11.18 1414 1302 7.92
21 30 5 11.18 1561 1435 8.07
21 30 5 11.18 1344 1238 7.89
21 30 8 17.89 1483 1284 13.42
21 30 8 17.89 1408 1218 13.49
21 30 8 17.89 1463 1265 13.53

The expected vs. actual weight loss for 21 MPa concrete is plotted in Figure 13.
The horizontal lines represent the theoretical weight loss which was expected during the
application of direct current. These values are based upon the formulation by Faraday’s
law. The vertical bars in Figure 13 show the actual percentage loss of rebars that occurred
during the accelerated corrosion technique. The reason behind the difference between
expected and actual weight loss was due to the resistance provided by the concrete which
required a definite amount of current to start the corrosion process, as also explained by
Azad et al. [26].
Figure 14 shows the percentage weight loss and axial load-carrying capacity for the
concrete strength of 21 MPa. The determination of such a parameter is very important to
predict the residual strength of concrete columns against known weight loss.
Metals 2023, 13, 930 16 of 22

Figure 13. Expected vs. actual weight loss for concrete strength of 21 MPa.

Figure 14. Percentage weight loss vs. ultimate Axial load capacity, for 21 MPa concrete.

6.4.2. 28 MPa Specimens

The actual and expected metal loss for the 28 MPa concrete columns is shown in Table 6.
The difference of the percentage of mass loss for higher concrete strength was higher due
to the more resistance offered to the applied current to de-pacify the oxidized layer around
the embedded reinforcement, as shown in Figure 15. Furthermore, the percentage weight
loss and axial load-carrying capacity for 28 MPa concrete columns is shown in Figure 16. A
rapid decrease in the load carrying capacity was observed; hence, with such representation
one can access the remaining axial load capacity of corroded columns.
Metals 2023, 13, 930 17 of 22

Table 6. Expected vs. actual weight loss of reinforcement for 28 MPa.

Concrete Concrete Corrosion Expected Weight Weight before Weight after

Strength Cover Exposure Loss Corrosion Corrosion Percentage (%)
(MPa) (mm) (days) (Faraday’s Law) (g) (g) (g)
28 20 3 6.38 1460 1389 4.86
28 20 3 6.38 1546 1468 5.05
28 20 3 6.38 1391 1323 4.89
28 20 5 10.64 1484 1354 8.76
28 20 5 10.64 1402 1281 8.63
28 20 5 10.64 1559 1427 8.47
28 20 8 17.02 1534 1301 15.19
28 20 8 17.02 1475 1253 15.05
28 20 8 17.02 1495 1276 14.65
28 25 3 6.54 1544 1481 4.08
28 25 3 6.54 1404 1345 4.20
28 25 3 6.54 1532 1474 3.79
28 25 5 10.91 1574 1449 7.94
28 25 5 10.91 1560 1443 7.50
28 25 5 10.91 1381 1267 8.25
28 25 8 17.45 1465 1259 14.06
28 25 8 17.45 1493 1284 14.00
28 25 8 17.45 1570 1329 15.35
28 30 3 6.71 1432 1396 2.51
28 30 3 6.71 1496 1451 3.01
28 30 3 6.71 1404 1361 3.06
28 30 5 11.18 1578 1473 6.65
28 30 5 11.18 1603 1501 6.36
28 30 5 11.18 1548 1439 7.04
28 30 8 17.89 1533 1334 12.98
28 30 8 17.89 1569 1379 12.11
28 30 8 17.89 1552 1349 13.08

Figure 15. Expected vs. actual weight loss for concrete strength of 28 MPa.
Metals 2023, 13, 930 18 of 22

Figure 16. Percentage weight loss vs. ultimate Axial load capacity, for 28 MPa concrete.

6.5. Effect of Corroded Column Length on Axial Load Capacity

The effect of corrosion on axial strength of column was also investigated for 21 MPa
concrete strength specimens with 25 mm concrete cover and with varying lengths of
columns including 500 mm, 700 mm, and 900 mm. The specimens were applied to the
process of accelerated corrosion for the duration of 5 days. Although increasing length
of column reduces the ultimate load carrying as per Euler buckling formula, the focus
of this study was the effect of corrosion on columns. The tabular results of percentage
in weight loss are shown in Table 7. The ultimate load capacity of different columns is
shown in Figure 17, where the red arrows show the direction along the axis in which the
column length is increasing. The compression load capacity decreased with increase in
the length of column. The same trend can be seen in the control specimens axial load
capacities, i.e., column with least height shows higher axial load capacity, and column
having greater lengths shows the lower load capacity. A visible reduction in test samples
and control samples can be seen. However, the difference between axial load capacities of
control and corroded concrete columns for smaller length of column was less compared to
the column with longer length. The reason behind this phenomenon was the combined
effect of corrosion of longitudinal reinforcement and lateral ties. Corrosion of longitudinal
reinforcement produces corrosion products that exert higher pressure on surrounding
concrete and result in loss of concrete cover. Secondly, the corrosion of ties reduces the
cross-sectional area of the ties and reduces confinement of concrete. This is why concrete
columns having greater length of columns exhibit more loss in load carrying capacity due
to no or very less confinement and reduction in reinforcement steel diameter. An important
thing to be noted here is that for the column with length of 900 mm, the percentage weight
loss of metal was just about 2.5%. The value of steel loss did not make a significant impact
on the reduction in steel diameter. This is why we can conclude that the load-carrying
capacity of column not only depends upon the reduction in reinforcement, but it also
depends upon the spalling of concrete and loss of bond between concrete and steel.

Figure 17. (a) Ultimate load capacity vs. corroded length of columns; (b) expected vs. actual weight
loss for different corroded lengths.
Metals 2023, 13, 930 19 of 22

Table 7. Effect of corroded length of column on axial strength of column.

Specimen Expected Weight Weight before Weight after

Sample Ultimate Load
Length Loss Corrosion Corrosion Percentage (%)
Designation (KN)
(mm) (Faraday’s Law) (g) (g) (g)
500 R2AY-5 492.462 6.78 1700 1631 4.06
500 R2AY-51 476.766 6.78 1675 1605 4.18
500 R2AY-52 441.45 6.78 1567 1493 4.72
500 R2AY-C 525.816 NA NA NA NA
500 R2AY-C 547.398 NA NA NA NA
700 R3AY-5 397.305 5.35 2150 2067 3.86
700 R3AY-5 406.134 5.35 2100 2021 3.76
700 R3AY-5 381.609 5.35 1800 1731 3.83
700 R3AY-C 458.127 NA NA NA NA
700 R3AY-C 482.652 NA NA NA NA
900 R4AY-5 290.376 4.42 2500 2443 2.28
900 R4AY-5 327.654 4.42 2375 2313 2.61
900 R4AY-5 279.585 4.42 2333 2286 2.01
900 R4AY-C 410.058 NA NA NA NA
900 R4AY-C 457.146 NA NA NA NA

7. Conclusions
Based upon the experimental results as discussed above, the following conclusions
can be drawn.
• The concrete cover serves as the initial line of defense against corrosion of the rein-
forcement. A thicker concrete cover provides greater resistance against corrosion. The
results demonstrated a 10% difference in percentage between column specimens with
a cover of 30 mm and those with a cover of 20 mm.
• The column specimens that encounter corrosive and hostile environment exhibit a
10–20% decrease in axial control capacity. Out of this reduction, a corroded column
with less concrete cover experiences a reduction of over 50% during the early stages
of corrosion.
• The concrete strength also has a significant effect on the corrosion of specimens. The
specimens with higher concrete strength exhibit less surface cracking and surface
pitting, resulting in reduced corrosion. The experimental findings identified that when
concrete strength was raised by 25%, column specimens’ axial capacities increased
by 4%.
• The corrosion can have a substantial impact on the axial load capacity of the column
specimens when they have small cover combined with reduced reinforcement area
and increased length. The experimental results indicated a 25% reduction in the axial
capacity when the column height was increased from 700 mm to 900 mm.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.H. and I.A.; formal analysis, A.M.R.; funding acqui-
sition, A.B.M.; investigation, I.A., A.M.R., M.F.U.D.A., A.J. and A.H.; methodology, A.H. and I.A.;
supervision, A.H. and A.B.M.; writing—original draft, M.F.U.D.A., A.J. and I.A.; writing—review
and editing, A.H., A.M.R., M.U.Q. and A.B.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: Internally funded by the Civil Engineering Department, University of Engineering and
Technology, Lahore 54000, Pakistan.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Metals 2023, 13, 930 20 of 22

Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the Department of Civil Engineering, Uni-
versity of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan, for providing research, financial, and
experimental facilities. Experts from National Engineering Services Pakistan (NESPAK) are gratefully
acknowledged for providing technical assistance. The authors would like to thank Florida Inter-
national University, Miami, Florida, USA, and Sohar University, Sohar, Oman, for supporting the
publication of this manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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