Welder Qualification

`-
WELDER QUALIFICATION

Welder and welding operator qualification testing determines the ability of those tested to
produce acceptably sound welds with the processes, electrodes/wires, and procedures to be
used under field conditions.

Qualification testing is one of the controls that assist in obtaining satisfactory welds in finished
products. It should be realized, however, that test welds are rather special welds made with
deliberate attention and effort, to determine whether a welder can produce acceptably sound
weld joints. Successful completion of the test does not ensure that the welder will make the
same quality of weld on a daily basis under every field condition. As there are many factors
which impact on final weld quality, the production welds should be inspected both during and
after completion of the actual weld.

The various codes, specifications, and governing regulations prescribe the different methods or
details for qualifying welders and welding operators. Depending upon the construction
specification requirements, welder qualification may be by destructive or non-destructive testing.
DOT Part 192 states that welder qualification for compressor stations must be by destructive
testing.

The welding inspector is responsible for ensuring that the welder qualification is in accordance
with the specification requirements, and the documentation is properly completed and
certification issued to the welder.

It is worth noting that on some projects, the welders have been qualified on pipe other than the
pipe to be welded in the field and that "generic" procedures are given to the contractor rather
than conducting a procedure on the actual pipe to be welded.

Both of these activities are within the codes, but in reality, the actual pipe to be welded may not
have the desired weldability characteristics (for various reasons) and it would always be
recommended to, at the very least, have the contractor make a confirmation weld on the actual
pipe to be welded. Making the actual procedure weld and conducting all of the test specimens
would be preferred, of course. The confirmation weld and/or procedure weld should be
radiographed using the same equipment to be used in the field to assure that the weld or welds
made will meet the production acceptance criteria.

Testing welders on small pipe might save time and money up front, but in the event the pipe
later is found to be unweldable, any money saved is spent working out the problems which
perhaps could have been identified during welder qualification or procedure development prior
to field welding. In other words, eliminate any excuses by assuring everything is covered in
terms of welding and weldability. Welder qualification and procedures should be conducted
using the same welding machines and ground connections as will be used in the field.
Elements of Inspection

Elements of Inspection
ln order for a welding inspector to perform his duties in a competent manner he must be aware
of the various elements which affect the quality of welds. In many cases the inspector can have
some input or influence over these important elements.

These elements of inspection are presented herein and the inspector should know how each
element can affect final workmanship.

A. WELDING PROCESSES

8. PIPE CONDITION

C. JOINT DESIGN

D. PREHEAT

E. ELECTRODES

F. WELD PASSES

G. ARC BURNS

H. Weld Repairs

I. WELD TOUGHNESS AT LOW TEMPERATURES

J. HARDNESS IN WELD AND HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE

K. MAGNETISM

L. WELDING PARAMETERS

As we get into the Elements we must remember that it is a Welders responsibility to know what
his task is. The Foreman should outline the work for the Welder and give him directions for the
task. An Inspector documents and records what the Welder does.

Elements of Inspection
A. WELDING PROCESSES
While the Shielded Metal-Arc process still dominates the pipe welding industry, both the Flux-
Core and Gas Metal-Arc processes are being used more frequently. This is due in a large part
to the many improvements in the design of the new power supplies by the major manufacturers.
Due to the difficulty with setting up the older machines, many companies who previously had
given up on these processes now find the new power supplies welder friendly and easier to set-
up to get high quality welds on a repeatable basis.

The welding inspector who intends to be a part of the pipe welding industry in the future needs
to become familiar with all of the processes and be open minded regarding their use.

In fact, some of the mechanical properties such as tensile strength, yield strength and notch
toughness required for joining pipe grades of X80 and higher are presently not attainable using
existing cellulosic E8010 or E9010 electrodes. The use of the flux-core and/or gas metal-arc
processes may well be the preferred processes for the higher grade pipeline steels of the future.

Each process (SMAW, FCAW) has certain characteristics which must be considered for each
specific application. Also, each process has certain features that require constant observation to
assure that the process is being properly applied.

Examples of the different aspects of each process which the inspector should be aware of are
listed:

Shielded Metal-Arc

1) Electrodes

a. Moisture content of the coating

b. Age of the electrodes

c. Eccentricity of the coating to core wire

d. General condition of the coating

2) Welding Machines

a. Machine settings

b. Machine condition

c. Welding leads or cables (condition and size)

d. Ground connections

Elements of Inspection
Gas MetallArc

1 ) Wire

a. Protection from the weather, dirt, etc.

b. Cleanliness

2) Shielding Gas

a. Proper type of gas; C02; C02-Ar

b. Free from moisture

c. Proper fittings and hoses; tightness and leaks

d. Gas Separation considerations

e. Bottle safety

3) Wire Feeders

a. Cleanliness of unit

b. Proper drive rolls and condition

c. Pre-purge to eliminate start porosity

4) Welding Machines

a. Proper machine capability

b. Machine settings

c. Ground connections

d. Weld cables (condition and size)

e. Contact tip on welding gun and condition of gun

The above listing presents a few of the items which need to be considered when inspecting
welds made with these processes. While each process has a different defect potential; both
processes are capable of excellent weld quality if care is taken to assure their proper
application.

Elements of Inspection
 WELD CABLE
Wl RE DIAMETER/CROSS-SECTl ON
Weld Cable Size Copper Wire Diameter Area of Wire (sq. inches)
# 1 /4'' 0.05
#2 3/8;, 0.11
1/0 7/16„ 0.15
2/0 1/2„ 0.20
3/0 9/16„ 0.25
4/0 5/8'' 0.30

Note±.Stee,I has en plectrica.I con.duptivity factor.Of approximately one-seventh that Of copper.

Therefore, steel ground contact surfaces should be seven times that Of the cross-s6btion Of
the vyslding cable.. T.his., Of coyrse,.is .impractical buf_ consideration should be given to
providipg. as much steel ground contact area as possible to eliminate a choking affect on
current flow.

Note on Ground Connections

The use of steel grounds sharpened to a point or "torch cut" to a point and placed into the weld
joint do not, in many cases, have the proper cross-section for the amperage involved. This leads
to overheating of the ground and welding cable. The small "point" contact results in a "choke" or
"resistor" effect in the electrical circuit which creates the overheating and reduces the welding

machine's capability to provide proper amperage and voltage at a given setting.

The "point" of this discussion is to avoid ground and cable overheating by providing the proper
cross-sectional area of ground contact in the weld groove or, when possible, use commercially
available ground clamps.

Elements of Inspection
a. PIPE CONDITION
In general, the majority of pipe purchased in accordance with Apl 5L, Specification for Line
Pipe. This specification includes the chemical composition, dimensional tolerances and
mechanical properties for the pipe. The welding inspector must be knowledgeable of this
specification and know how to inspect pipe at the pipe mill, in the stack or on the right-of-way
(ROW). This specification is discussed in this program along with the tools for measuring the
pipe diameter, wall thickness, out-of roundness, as well as checking for residual magnetism
which can certainly affect the welding arc.

It is essential that the welding inspector be familiar with the following tools for the inspection of
pipe which are used for checking pipe tolerances and magnetic fields.

1 ) Diameter or "Pi" tape (measure to three decimal places)

2) Digital or Dial Caliper (6")

3) Inside Diameter Micrometer (various diameters)

4) Outside calipers (various diameters)

5) Gauss meter (Hall-effect type such as F.W. Bell)

6) Pipe Bevel and Land Gage

From a pipe inspection viewpoint, the inspector should also be familiar with the chemical
composition and physical properties of the material being welded.

Elements of Inspection
C. JOINT DESIGN
The success of any welding operation including pipeline welding begins with the selection of the
proper bevel and root face. Although several joint designs have been evaluated for pipe
welding, the accepted bevel and root face (land) when using the manual welding processes is
3o° +5°/-o° and 1/16" ±1/32" respectively. This is shown in the following figure.

L±lRE
Typical Joint Design for Pipe Welding

There are several reasons why this joint design continues to be used.

1 ) The joint is sufficiently wide at the top to permit access for making the root pass.

2) The angle of the bevel permits good tie-in (fusion) to the bevels by weld metal.

3) The completed joint provides desirable geometric characteristics for radiography.

The opening between the adjacent ends of the pipe to be welded is called the root space
(sometimes referred to as the "root opening or gap"). This dimension is extremely important in
terms of achieving a quality root-pass weld. The nominal dimension for the space will vary
depending on the welding process or electrode size to be used for the root pass. As an
example, the gas metal-arc process may require a slightly wider space (3/32") to assure full
penetration and good tie-in to both root faces or lands of the weld joint.

On the other hand, the shielded metal-arc process (SMAW) with a space of 1/16" is sufficient
due to the high penetration characteristics of the process.

Regardless of the electrode size or process used, an improper space around the circumference
will cause one of two types of defects.

1 ) Excessive Space will cause burn-through

2) Tight Space may cause Inadequate Penetration

The welding inspector should assure himself that the joint space is in conformance with the
welding procedure. This will eliminate any guesswork in the event some problems are found
during radiographic film interpretation.

Elements of Inspection
D. PREHEAT
Preheating is conducted for the purpose of lowering the hardness of the metallurgical structure
of the weld and heat-affected zones, thereby minimizing the risk of cracking. Preheating also
aids in driving out the hydrogen from the weld deposit, which is a contributor to weld cracking.

The preheat temperatures are generally measured by touching the pipe adjacent to the weld
bevels with an indicating crayon (Tempil stick), or a contact or infrared pyrometer. (2-3" back)

For a given set of welding conditions (current, welding speed, etc.), cooling rates will be faster
for a weld made without preheat than with preheat. The higher the preheat temperature, the
slower the cooling rates will be after the welds have been completed.

In addition to reducing the temperature gradually, preheating lowers the thermal conductivity,
which at 1100° Fahrenheit is only half of the conductivity at room temperature.

Low thermal conductivity results in slow withdrawal of heat from the welding zone and
correspondingly slows the cooling rate.

Also, an increase in pipe temperature supplements the superheating of the weld puddle. As a
result, beads deposited in preheated joints tend to be more fluid and exhibit flatter or more
concave surfaces than beads deposited without preheat.

In regards to pipe welding in low ambient temperatures, it is recognized that most metallurgical
difficulties are caused by the increased cooling rate of weld metal and heat-affected zones.
While cracking is the defect most likely to be encountered, some difficulty with slag entrapment
may be experienced because of the molten slag's tendency to chill on the very cold bevel face
of the weld joint.

A further effect of rapid cooling, even if cracking does not occur, is low ductility and toughness in
the welded joint. Of course, the composition of the pipe material and the welding procedure will
determine the extent to which ductility and toughness are lowered.

Many pipe steels have sufficient latitude in toughness to offer adequate properties even when
welded at a very low temperature. However, when a question exists on the capability of the
steel, it is usually recommended that preheating be applied.

It should be noted that there is no real lower limit to the base-metal temperature at which
welding can be performed providing suitable precautions are made in the welding procedure.

Elements of Inspection
E. ELECTRODES
ln many cases, the welding electrodes for pipeline applications are given very little thought prior
to their arrival on the right-of-way. With increasing levels of quality control activity and additional
requirements for improved mechanical properties, the care of electrodes require deliberate
consideration.

Downhill pipeline welding electrodes have a thin cellulose coating and provide a penetrating arc
with relatively fast-freeze characteristic of the weld puddle. This coating principally produces a
gaseous film with a minimum slagging action which improves its ability for out-of-position
welding. Therefore, pipe welds made with this type of electrode have excellent mechanical
properties and are capable of producing welds of high quality.

In order to ensure a good pipe weld, two variables must be considered when selecting the
correct electrode:

1 ) Electrode Type (As to coating and deposit analysis)

2) Electrode Diameter

The selection, type and size are based on the knowledge of:

1 ) Chemical composition of the pipe

2) Wall thickness of the pipe

3) Mechanical property requirements (tensile/yield)

4) Construction specification requirements for the weld deposit

The specification which prescribe the requirements for mild steel and Low Alloy electrodes are
prepared by the American Welding Society. These specifications are discussed in this course
and should be referred to when reviewing welding procedure requirements. AWS 5.5 includes
the requirements for the Low Alloy Steel electrodes and AWS 5.1 covers the Mild Steel
electrodes.

In terms of electrode condition, age and storage conditions play an important role in the
moisture content of the electrode. The cellulose coated electrodes should contain 3-6°/o
moisture to perform as they were intended. As electrodes age, or under improper storage
conditions, the moisture content can easily be altered to a point where the electrodes should be
discarded. It is well understood that the cellulose coated electrodes should be stored above
freezing and below |oo° F.

All electrode manufacturers use a unique date code on each container. Without this code it is
not possible to know the date of manufacture of the electrodes. In general, electrodes over a
year old may be suspect in terms of proper moisture. Electrodes with too little moisture can
have inferior weldability characteristics. The puddle stiffness and penetration ability diminish as
the electrodes lose moisture. The radiographic quality appears to suffer in that dryer electrodes
produce small, scattered porosity. This has been found with electrodes which have been

Elements of Inspection
subjected to freezing conditions (Alaska or equivalent) and with electrodes which are stored in
their containers and exposed to considerable heat (120°F or greater) such as desert conditions.
There is no acceptable way to reintroduce moisture back into the electrode coating.

If a problem with excessive porosity or other welding problems is encountered and if the
electrodes are suspect, the electrode manufacturer should be contacted for assistance.

Elements of Inspection
F. WELD PASSES
The number of weld passes required to complete a pipe weld is usually not considered a
significant variable where mechanical properties are concerned. However, the number of weld
passes can be a significant factor in determining the notch toughness of the weld deposit. This
fact is quite important, especially for welds subjected to low temperatures.

In the event that a reduced number of passes can effectively decrease welding time without
sacrificing mechanical properties, the change should be made and approved by the engineering
department (or proper authority).

It should be recognized that each additional pass tends to refine the grain structure of the
previous pass and this is an important consideration when designing a weld deposit for
maximum notch toughness values.

It is also noted that the time between passes can affect the extent to which the grain size is
refined, and depositing beads one immediately after another may result in no grain refinement.
Also, allowing previous passes to cool to ambient temperature, before depositing the next pass
will provide less grain refinement than depositing the next pass while the preceding one is hot,
but below the critical temperature (1100° F.)

Although tensile values are not substantially affected by the degree to which successive passes
are refined, a high degree of grain refinement is always favorable for high notch-toughness
values of weld metal, particularly for low temperature service requirements.

Elements of Inspection
G. ARC BURNS
Technically, an arc burn or arc strike is the result of momentarily touching the electrode holder,
or ground clamp to the pipe surface. These arc burns are usually of short duration and the depth
of heating is superficial; however, the area contains a much harder metallurgical structure called
"martensite" from which small cracks have initiated. In addition to the hard structure and rapid

cooling, the thin, fused area of the arc burn is not properly protected from the atmosphere since
the gas-generating ingredients and the slag formers in the electrode coating have not been
heated and brought into use.

For these reasons, arc burns often contain small cracks, porosity and hard zones. Despite their
small size, these conditions may cause a maj.or failure when located in a highly stressed area.
An effective repair for arc burns is presented herein. The repair of arc burns must, of course, be
authorized by the construction specification. Once approval is obtained, the repair sequence
would generally follow the format listed:

1) Remove all evidence of the arc burn by grinding and/or filing

2) Upon removal of all evidence, swab the ground area with a 20 solution of ammonium
persulfate. If a blackened spot appears, the metallurgical notch (arc burn) has not been
completely removed, and additional grinding/ filing should be performed and the
application of ammonium persulfate repeated.

3) When the arc burn has been removed, measure the area using an ultrasonic
thickness gauge to determine the remaining thickness of the pipe wall.

4) lf the resulting wall thickness is less than that permitted by the material specification
after grinding, the portion of the pipe which contained the arc burn should be removed as
a cylinder. If the remaining wall thickness is equal to or greater than the material
specification requirements, the arc burn is acceptably repaired (eliminated).

Elements of Inspection
 EXAMPLE

Note: This area to be ground/filed

to remove arc burn
Arc Burn -`
M axi in urn th iekn ess
to be removed
i:I`i`
1 -`+, ---+ I

3/8" or 0 375" ``
------- +``
Arc Burn on 18" 0.D. Pipe -3/8" W.T.

Apl 5L X42

• Wall thickness tolerance for this pipe found in Apl 5L is +15°/o, -12.5°/o;
• 12.5°/o ofo.375" = 0.046" which is maximum thickness which can be removed;
• 0.375" -0.046" = 0.329" is the minimum remaining wall thickness (unless otherwise
noted in the construction specifications).

Elements of Inspection
H. Weld Repairs
All repairs to original welds must be performed in accordance with an approved welding
procedure. Also, the repair procedure should specify the manner by which the defective area is
to be removed, re-welded and re-inspected.

Although a repair of a missed repair is now allowable, providing a weld procedure was
prepared, the inspector should always be aware of the manner by which repairs are made and
that every effort is made to "do it right the first time".

Extreme care should be taken to ensure the defective area is marked for repair. The
radiographic interpretation reports should be carefully read and the area marked accordingly.
Some interpretation reports indicate the location of the defect in reference to the weld cross-
section in addition to its circumferential location which is helpful in defect removal.

The interpretation reports should be distributed to the welding foreman for the welder's review
prior to the repair operation. As required by the procedure, caution should be taken to ensure
proper preheat and inter-pass temperatures before and during repair welding.

As a result of visual inspection, the weld may require repair prior to radiographic examination.
The obvious visual defects include surface porosity, arc burns, external undercut, incomplete
fusion of the cap pass and low cap.

The construction specifications will dictate how these defects are to be repaired to assure the
final weld quality will meet all governing codes and requirements.

Elements of Inspection
I. WELD TOUGHNESS AT LOW TEMPERATURES
The construction of pipelines for low temperature service created the need for welding
procedures which provide improved notch toughness at low temperatures.

Essentially, notch toughness is the ability of the weld to resist fracture initiation and this property
becomes increasingly significant at lower ambient temperatures.

The test to determine toughness is performed on machined specimens in groups of three or five
at varying temperatures. The following figures show the Charpy "V'-Notch Impact testing
machine and a broken specimen.

CVN Testing Machine CVN Specimen after Test

To assure adequate weld toughness at low temperatures, the weld procedure should include;

1 ) Electrodes or wires with a chemical composition which would provide a weld deposit
meeting the strength and impact requirements of the specification.

2) Preheating/interpass temperature consideration.

3) Weld process of modest heat input to ensure that coarse-grained weld deposits are
not produced.

4) Complete weld should have a smooth transition to pipe material thus avoiding
mechanical notches.

Elements of Inspection
J. HARDNESS IN WELD AND HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE
Hardness is affected by the composition of the pipe and weld metal; the metallurgical effects of
the welding process, heat treatment, and many other factors. Experience has proved that
limitations should be placed on the hardness of the pipe metal, heat-affected zones and weld
metal. If too hard they will not have sufficient ductility for the service conditions, their corrosion
resistance may be impaired, or some other factor may dictate this limitation.

This is particularly important for weldments exposed to hydrogen-bearing environments such as

sour-crude or sour gas service in pipelines. In some cases high hardness coupled with
hydrogen has caused cracking.

In regards to hardness measurements, there are several types of testing machines for various
applications. The three most widely used machines for hardness measurements are:

1 ) Brinell Hardness

2) Rockwell Hardness

3) Vickers Hardness

The below figures shows a Vickers Hardness machine and the diamond indication. The
technician measures the diagonal dimensions to calculate the Vickers's Hardness number.

Vickers Micro-Hardness Testing Machine Diamond Impression

Elements of Inspection
K. MAGNETISM
lt is a well-known fact that magnetic fields in pipe can affect the deposition of the root pass. The
magnetic field in the pipe may be due to the pipe mill inspection procedures, handling (lifting) of
the pipe with electromagnets, coating of the pipe with AC coils out of phase with one another, or
by internal pipeline inspection equipment. These appear to be the primary causes of pipe
magnetism encountered by the welding inspector. Other sources may also create significant
magnetic fields usually referred to as "Residual Magnetism" as it is the magnetism remaining
after the initial operation created the field.

The amount of "arc blow" or arc deflection in the root pass is a function of the strength of the
magnetic field (Gauss Level) in the "gap" or "space" between adjacent pipe ends aligned for
welding.

The welding inspector should always be aware of the seriousness of trying to weld pipe which is
magnetized.

Whenever possible, pipe ends should be checked for magnetism using a Hall-effect gauss
meter such as the F.W. Bell meter at the pipe mill and after coating operations which involved
AC induction heating coils. This gauss meter measures the longitudinal component on the weld
land using a transverse probe placed directly on the land. Usually four measurements are made
on the weld lands at ninety degrees apart. Experience has proven that gauss levels increase
exponentially when the two pipe ends are spaced (approximately 1/16") for welding. Two pipe
ends each having gauss levels of 10 will create a combined field strength closer to 100 gauss
which is within the range of weldability. However, gauss levels that exceed 100 in the joint
space will begin to create arc blow sufficient to result in an asymmetrical root pass condition.
This asymmetrical bead shape will result in internal undercutting (lu), incomplete fusion of the
root pass (lFR) and finally root pass cracking due to the lifting of the pipe with this root bead
condition.

Gauss levels of 150-300, in the space of 1/16", are quite sufficient to create these welding
problems but unfortunately are not readily identifiable by the welder during the deposition of the
root pass. As the gauss levels exceed 100, the welder may see the arc deflect and favor one
side of the joint but will not necessarily comment or mention this occurrence as he might also
feel it is something he is doing. There are many examples of cracked welds and rejects which
were due to the excessive gauss levels in the space (150-300) for which the welder did not
recognize and/or mention during the welding operation.

As the gauss level increases to the 300-400 range the welder will comment that one pipe is
"harder" as he has to push the electrode to get it to fuse. In fact, this is simply the intense

magnetic field repelling the arc and the pipe is actually not "hard". This total range of gauss
levels (150-400) should not be confused with gauss levels from "smart pigging" operations

Elements of Inspection
which have been found to be as high as 2700. Of course, this field strength is obvious from the
beginning of the work and welding cables are wrapped around the pipe connected to 300 or 400
amp machines to deal with this situation. The gauss levels encountered, on occasion, on new
pipe are much lower in strength and not as readily identified but still create the serious problems
mentioned herein.

The welding inspector must become familiar with the proper gauss meter and the correct
method of using the meter. Experience has demonstrated that pipe gauss levels should be
checked properly in the pipe mill, in the coating mill and at handling locations. Finding
magnetized pipe on the ROW is something that is sure to create problems which are most
difficult to resolve.

In conducting welder qualification testing, the welding inspector should check the pipe for
magnetism to assure the welders don't get looked out for internal undercutting due to the
residual magnetic field keeping the root pass from tying-in properly to both sides of the joint.
Again the correct meter, along with the knowledge to use it, is important.

Measuring Gauss Level with Transverse Probe Directly on Land

(41 Gauss will create a much higher value when
Aligned to another pipe resulting in welding problems)

Elements of Inspection
 Measuring Gauss Level in Space -192 Weld Cross-Section of Root Pass
Welding Problems were IFR and Cracking Measured Gauss Level of 260
(Note: Asymmetrical Bead Shape)
cccccc

Gauss Level (2700) on "Smart-Pigged" Pipe Wrapped Leads on Pipe to Offset

8 lb. Hammer stays on pipe Magnetic Field for Welding on "Smart-Pigged" Pipe

Elements of Inspection
L. WELDING PARAMETERS
The welding inspector should always be aware of the welding parameters to be followed during
the course of making the weld. The important parameters are amperage, voltage, and travel
speed.

These parameters are a part of the welding procedure and the inspector must have the
equipment to measure the parameters during welding.

The impact or effect of each parameter is discussed below.

Amperage

The amperage is the welding current which dictates the burn-off or melting rate of the electrode.
A range of amperage is usually presented for each electrode diameter. As an example, a 5/32"
diameter E7010-G might have a typical range of 130-170. It is important to note that the specific
amperage range presented in the procedure is only established during actual welding procedure
development.

A digital or analog type of meter may be used for measuring the current; however, the inspector
should be familiar with the type of meter and recognize that the digital meter may present a
quite wide range of values, the extreme high and lows which may not be suitable for presenting
in the procedure.

A range of 50-200 for a 5/32" E7010-G or E6010 would not be acceptable as the high and low
values are actually not practical for this electrode diameter. The welding inspector should refer
to welding handbooks or other material to assure the amperages which are measured during
procedure development and recorded and written into the procedure are realistic. This applies
to the voltage and travel speed as well.

Voltage

The arc voltage is a function of the length of the arc. The longer the arc, the higher the voltage.
During the deposition of the root pass, the arc should be buried and the resulting arc voltage will
be low (20-23) with a 5/32" diameter E6010 electrode.

When depositing the hot pass, the arc voltage will be somewhat higher and will vary as the arc
length changes as the welder manipulates the arc to wash out any slag in the edges of the root
Pass.

The fill and cap pass voltage will be fairly consistent and in the 25-30 volt range.

During the measurement of the arc voltage, it should be recognized that due to electrical
resistance in the welding leads, grounds, etc., the voltage may be 2-3 volts higher at the
terminals of the welding machine than at the electrode holder.

Elements of Inspection
Open Circuit Voltage (OCV)

Although not a part of the welding parameters in the procedure, this important item controls the
characteristics of the arc.

Obviously, not all welding machines are constructed alike; some machines have the OCV as
part of the fine current selector. When this is the type of machine used for procedure and field
welding, it is important to know that as the fine selector is increased for current, the OCV is also
being increased. High open circuit voltage results in a deeply penetrating, highly forceful (almost
cutting) type of arc. This is not desirable when depositing a root pass or making a cap pass.
This type of arc (high OCV) results in excessive force thereby creating the potential for internal
or external undercutting in the root or cap pass respectively.

The use of low open circuit voltage is preferred for the root and cap pass to eliminate the
undercutting problem.

The understanding of how open circuit voltage can affect the arc characteristics will allow the
welding inspector to be of assistance to the welder and the contractor.

The suggested machine settings chart in the 'Welding lnspector's Handbook" presented in this
course will be helpful in selecting the right range for each electrode diameter.

Travel Speed

The travel speed is the indicator for speed of welding. The welding inspector should use his stop
watch and tape to measure this important parameter and compare it to the welding procedure.

Excessive travel speed is usually an indicator that excessive amperage is being used and vice-
versa. This may lead to a thinner than desirable root bead and perhaps root bead cracking.

One method for checking travel speed is to mark the pipe for a place to start and mark it
below for a place to end.

This gives an Inspector a view out of the way of the work, where the travel speed can be
timed. You know the distance between your marks, so start the time when an electrode
is started and clock the time when it is out of the marks.

Elements of Inspection
Figure 1 -Check Travel Speed

Elements of Inspection
Welding Inspection Equipment
WELDING INSPECTION EQUIPMENT

1 ) Tongmeter or ammeter -DC Digital or Analog (Grainger Supply)

2) Voltmeter (The ammeter and voltmeter may be combined in one meter)

3) 6" Dial or Digital Caliper (Grainger Supply)

4) Depth Gage for Pits and undercut

5) Tempil Sticks or Pyrometer (Welding Supply)

6) 6' Tape measure

7) Stop Watch

8) Calculator

9) Diameter Tape for various pipe sizes (Pi Tape company, Escondido, CA)

10) F. W. Bell gaussmeter should be available as needed to check pipe on arrival andat
pipe mill (F.W. Bell, Orlando, FL)

11 ) ultrasonic thickness Gage should be available as needed (NOT supply store)

The above recommended equipment will be needed to assure all welding activity is in
accordance with the construction specifications and welding procedures.
ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS
 Abbreviations and Meanings
Symbols Definition
& Letters or Meanin
equal to or greater than
equal to or less than
change
wall thickness
Pipe diameter
greater than
less than
carbon equivalent
carbon content

11. Radiographic Abbreviations

Abbreviation Radio hic Defect
Elongated Slag Inclusion
Isolated Slag Inclusion
Crack
Internal Concavity
Hollow Bead
Porosity
Gas Pocket
Cluster Porosity
External Undercut
Internal Undercut
Inadequate Fusion-Root
Inadequate Fusion-Cap
Incomplete Fusion Due to Cold Lap
Inadequate Penetration
Inadequate Penetration Due to Hi-Low
Burn Through
Arc Burn
Crater Crack

Page 2 of 7
Ill. Weld pags sequence
A. Root pass
The first and most critical pass of a pipe weld.

a. Hot pass
The second pass of a pipe weld.
_Hot Pass
'.

The purpose of the "hot pass" is to burn out any slag at the edges of the root pass and to
add weld metal for strength. The "hot pass" amperage is usually higher or "hotter" than the
root pass amperage and provides good penetration and remelts at least 50°/o of the root
pass. The root and hot passes are the foundation of a good weld.

C. Fill pass
The fill passes serve the purpose of filling the weld joint.

The number of fill passes necessary is a direct relationship with the pipe wall thickness. For
example, on 0.250" wall pipe, only one "fill pass" may be required, whereas on 0.500" wall
pipe, 3 or 4 fill passes may be required.

Page 3 of 7
 D. Cappass
The cap pass is the final pass of a pipe weld.
_Cap Pass

The cap pass should not be a thick pass, but should merely tie-in the top edges of the pipe
bevels. The cap pass should not be more than 1/16" above the adjacent pipe and the cap
pass must not be below the pipe surface.

E. Heat-Affected zone (HAZ)

The heat-affected zone is the area immediately adj.acent to the weld metal which is affected
by the heat of welding.

``````\ Heat Affected zone

The area will usually have a different hardness and strength than the weld metal. One of the
purposes of the welding procedure tests is to assure the "HAZ" does not exhibit properties
which may create problems in service.

lv. Properties
A. Yield strength (Yield point)
Permanent reduction of test specimen.

During testing, the tensile specimen is pulled until jt fails. Before actually failing, the material
yields or reduces permanently, in cross-section, as shown above. It is not required to
measure this yield strength or yield point in Apl 1104 testing. However, it is important to
know that all pipelines and piping systems are designed using the '`yield strength" of the

Page 4 of 7
 piping material. This, of course, provides a factor Of safety in operation rather than using the
actual tensile strength" in the design formulas.
When selecting the proper welding electrodes for pipe welding, it is important to match the
yield strength of the electrode material to the yield strength of the pipe material.

8. Tensile strength
The point at which the specimen actually fails. The purpose of the "Tensile Test" is to
determine the ultimate strength of the groove weld joint.

In API 1104 testing, it is the tensile strength that is measured using the formula S = P/A.

The value is compared to the tensile strength of the pipe material in Apl 5L, "Specification
for Pipe", to determine if the welding procedure is satisfactory. If one specimen fails in the
pipe and is below the minimum value listed in Apl 5L, then the pipe should be examined
further.

C. H ardness
The ability of a material to resist penetration, denting, etc. This property is measured by
hardness testing machines, portable or in the laboratory.

Typical machines are Rockwe[l, Vickers, and Brinnell.

D. Impactstrength
The resistance of metal to impact loads. This property is important when pipe or associated
equipment is to be installed in lower temperature climates or subjected to dynamic loads.
Welding procedure testing may include Charpy V-Notch impact testing when low
temperature service is anticipated. Testing is usually done at several temperatures to
determine the ductile-brittle transition temperature of the weld or pipe material.

E. Ductility

The ability of a material to bend without failing. Weld and pipe material with good ductility is
preferred as cracking is less like[y in service.
Guided Bend testing is conducted for determining the ductility of the groove weld, heat-
affected zone and pipe material.

Page 5 of 7
 Run Pipe -Horizontal
Fitting @ 12:00
2F

Run Pipe -Vertical

Fitting - Horizontal
5F

Run Pipe -Horizontal

Fitting @ 6:00
4F

Fillet Welds (F)

Pipe / Fitting Positions

ASME Terminology
 --J

----.------------ J- _ .-_ ._.____ __ _ __

Ftun Pipe - Hon.zontal Ftolled

Weld -Rolled ( Weld made at or near 12:00)
1G

Run Pipe - Horizontal

Weld - Vertical
5G
L`,=`,-/!
Run Pipe - Vertl.cal
Weld - Hon-zonfal
2G

i__

Run Pipe @ 45o

6G

GROOVE (G) WELDS

Pipe Positions
ASME Teminology

-
_--i

Page 7 of 7