Problems Ill

PROBLEMS

3.1 (<Calculation of mass transfer coefficients ) 1 Ammonia (A ) is being absorbed in water

from a mixture with nitrogen(#). The partial pressure of the solute in the bulk gas is
40 mm Hg and that at the gas-liquid interface is negligibly small. Diffusion occurs
through a stagnant film of thickness 1 mm. The total pressure is 1 atm and the
temperature is 25°C. Diffusivity of NH 3 in N2 is 0.23 cm 2/s. Calculate the absorption flux
of NH 3 as well as the mass transfer coefficients kG , ky , kc, kY , and FG .
3.2 (Interrelation among mass transfer coefficients ) 1 A stream of nitrogen containing
7.5% benzene vapour is scrubbed with a nonvolatile absorption oil in a tower at 35°C
and 1.2 bar total pressure. The gas-phase mass transfer coefficient is estimated to be
-4 2
kG = 9.8 x 10 kmol/(m )(s)( bar). The mole fraction of benzene at the gas-liquid
interface is yt = 0.01. Calculate the gas- phase mass transfer coefficients ky , kc and kY .
Also calculate the values of the mass transfer coefficient in terms of lbmol/(ft 2)( h )(Ay) ,
lbmol/(ft2)(s)(lbmol /ft3), and lbmol/(ft2)(h )(psi).
3.3 ( Dissolution of a bubble) 2 A 0.8 cm diameter bubble of pure C02 is injected into an
excess well-stirred liquid at 25°C. The bubble diameter shrinks to 0.2 cm after 80 s.
Given: total pressure = 1 atm; solubility of C02 in water = 1.45 x 10-3 mass fraction ;
diffusivity of C02 in water = 1.9 x 10-5 cm 2/s.
Calculate the average value of the mass transfer coefficients, kL and kx. How long will
it take for the bubble to vanish if the mass transfer coefficients remain constant? (Is this
a reasonable assumption ?)
—
3.4 ( Mass transfer coefficient in counterdiffusion ) 2 The gas- phase reaction A » B occurs
on the surface of a catalyst in the form of a wire gauge. The bulk concentration of the
species A is 0.002 kmol/m 3 and the rate of reaction of A is measured at 0.08 kmol per
hour per m 2 area of the catalyst. If the reaction is instantaneous and the entire diffusional
resistance to the transport of the reactive species from the bulk gas to the catalyst
surface is offered by a stagnant film of the gas, calculate ( a) the thickness of the film ;
( b) the mass transfer coefficients, k'G , ky and (c) the concentration of A halfway the gas
film. Given: total pressure =1.5 bar; temperature 250°C ; DAB 0.16 cm 2/s at
= =
1 bar and 100°C.
3.5 ( Evaporative mass transfer from a drop in free fall )2 A raindrop of initial diameter
0.8 mm starts falling from a sufficiently high altitude. The terminal free fall velocity
depends upon the properties of the medium as well as on the diameter of the drop. As
the drop moves through the air, its size reduces because of evaporation . The gas- phase
mass transfer coefficient for the evaporation of water changes as a result. It is required
to calculate the time required for the size of the drop to reduce to 0.6 mm . The terminal
velocity of fall for the given range of drop size can be calculated from the following
equation:

^ a
(dm - 8.3 x 10 6);
“

the diameter d is in metre and vt in m /s.

The following assumptions may be made: (i ) the drop is always at its terminal velocity
of fall corresponding to its instantaneous diameter ( this is also a kind of pseudo-steady
112 Chapter 3 Convective Mass Transfer and Mass Transfer Coefficient

state assumption); (ii ) the ambient air is at 25°C , 1 atm total pressure and 70 % relative
humidity ; (iii ) the shape of the drop remains spherical all the time; and (iv) the drop
temperature is 22°C ( which is nearly equal to the wet- bulb temperature). The mass
transfer coefficient can be estimated from the Ranz and Marshall correlation given by
Sh = 2 + 0.6(Re)° 5(Sc) 0.33
The following data are available: diffusivity of moisture in air 0.257 cm 2/s at the mean
=
film temperature; density of air 1.18 kg /m 3; viscosity of air 1.8 x 10-5 kg / m s;
= = -
vapour pressure of water at 22°C is 0.02605 atm .
3.6 ( An application of dimensional analysis) 2 It has been observed experimentally that
the rate of toxin removal in an artificial kidney (see Section 14.5.2) is a function of blood
velocity, density, viscosity, diffusion coefficient of toxin and the diameter of the dialysis
tubing. Using dimensional analysis, determine the dimensionless groups and the type of
correlation that may be applicable.
-
3.7 ( Mass transfer in a wetted wall column ) 1 In a wetted - wall tower, H 2S is being ab-
sorbed from air into water at 1.6 bar total pressure and 25°C . The gas- phase mass
transfer coefficient is predicted to be kc = 3.42 kmol/(h )(m 2)(AC, kmol/m 3). At a given
point in the column, the mole fraction of H 2S in the liquid at the gas-liquid interface is
1.8 x 10 5 and that in the bulk gas is 0.15. The solubility of H 2S in water at the given
“

temperature is 0.00337 mass fraction per atmosphere pressure of the gas. Calculate the
local flux.
-
3.8 ( Evaporation of water in a wetted wall column ) l Water is being evaporated into a
counter-current stream of air in a wetted- wall column, 30 mm in diameter. Estimate the
evaporative flux of water at a point in the column where the water temperature is 305 K
and the mole fraction of water vapour in the bulk air is 0.0098.
=
The following data and information are supplied: air rate (dry basis) 1 kg / min ; water
=
rate 0.2 kg / min; air temperature at the location =
38°C; air viscosity ( at 38°C ) =
-
1.85 x 10-5 lb/ft s; total pressure 1 atm. Vapour pressure of water at the given
=
temperature can be obtained from Antoine equation (see Problem 2.2). The gas-phase
mass transfer coefficient can be calculated using the Gilliland and Sherwood correlation
given by (note that it resembles the Dittus-Boelter equation for heat transfer )
Sh = 0.023( Re)a 8(Sc)°- 33
The Reynolds number of air may be calculated at the bulk condition ( to be more precise ,
the air velocity should be taken relative to free surface velocity of water ).
3.9 ( Gas absorption in a falling film )2 Air mixed with a soluble gas flows countercurrent
to water flowing down as a thin film covering the inner wall of an experimental column ,
5 cm in diameter (refer to Figure 3.5). The water-film thickness is 1 mm and it flows
at an average velocity, v 2.1 m /s. The diffusion coefficient D of the solute is
=
1.7 x 10-5 cm 2/s. If the water leaving the tower is 10 % saturated , calculate the height
of the tower. The mass transfer coefficient for a falling film can be calculated using the
correlation
( kLz/ D ) = 0.69{ zv/ D f 5 ,
where z is the position along the film measured from the top.
 Problems 113
Assume that the gas flow rate is large so that the concentration of the solute in the gas
remains essentially constant.
3.10 (Mass transfer in crystal growth)2 In an experiment on the growth of a single crystal
of NaCl at 30°C, a supersaturated solution of the salt containing 39 g NaCl per 100 g
of water flows at a velocity of 0.12 m /s past a suspended crystal of 2.5 mm size. For
the sake of simplicity, the shape of the crystal may be assumed to be spherical. If the
experimentally measured rate of growth of the crystal is dr/dt = 9.5 x 10-5 mm /s (where
r is the equivalent radius of the crystal), determine whether the growth process can be
considered to be ‘diffusion-controlled’.
The following data are given: solubility of NaCl in water at 30°C = 36.3 g per 100 g
water; density of the solution = 1300 kg /m 3; density of solid NaCl = 2160 kg /m 3;
viscosity of the solution = 1.0 cP; diffusivity of NaCl in water under the given conditions
= 1.4 x 10-9 m 2/s. The mass transfer coefficient1/2at the solid surface can be calculated
from the Rowe’s correlation, Sh = 2 + 0.79Re Sc 1 /3.
3.11 { An application of the penetration theory)2 Air bubbles of 0.005 m diameter rise
through an otherwise stagnant pool of ‘oxygen -free’ water at 30°C . The steady velocity
of rise is 0.1 m /s. If the diffusivity of 02 in water at 25°C is 2.1 x 10-9 m 2/s, calculate
the liquid side coefficient and the rate of mass transfer from a single bubble. The
solubility of 02 in water at 30°C can be calculated by using the Henry’s law coefficient
as 4.75 x 104 atm / mol fraction. The viscosities of water are 0.911 cP and 0.817 cP at
25°C and 30°C respectively.
3.12 { Mass transfer coefficient from the penetration theory )3 For the experimental confir -
mation of his penetration theory, Higbie devised a small set- up comprising a narrow
vertical glass tube filled with water in which pure carbon dioxide was released at the
bottom at a regular frequency. The bubbles moving through the tube were of the shape
of a capsule. The length of a bubble, its residence time in the water in the tube , and the
velocity of rise were measured. The contact time of a liquid element on the surface of
a bubble with the gas was estimated from these measurements. The C02 content in the
exit water was determined by chemical analysis.
In an experiment to test the validity of the Higbie’s theory, carbon dioxide gas (1 atm ,
25°C ) is introduced at the bottom of a narrow tube , 3 mm in diameter and 0.6 m long ,
through which water is flowing downwards slowly. The bubbles are of capsule shape,
0.05 m long. The thickness of the water film between the bubble and the tube wall is
small. The bubble rise velocity is 0.2 m /s. Bubbles enter the tube at V3 second interval
and the rate of absorption of carbon dioxide is estimated to be 40 mg / min . The solubility
of C02 in water at 1 atm and 25°C is 1.5 kg /m 3. The concentration of C02 in bulk water
is very small. Does the Higbie’s thoery appear to work in this case? The bubbles may
be assumed cylindrical for calculation of the area.
3.13 { Gas absorption from rising bubbles )3 A ‘pure gas’ is being bubbled through a column
of liquid. The bubbles are spherical, 6 mm average diameter ( assumed constant), and rise
with a constant velocity of 0.18 m /s. The volume of gas-liquid dispersion is 2.5 litre and
the fractional gas hold-up (the volume fraction of gas in the dispersion ) is 0.02. The
liquid is well-mixed and there is no dissolved gas at the beginning . The diffusivity of the
114 Chapter 3 Convective Mass Transfer and Mass Transfer Coefficient

gas in the liquid is 1.8 x 10 9 m 2/s. The liquid - phase mass transfer coefficient may be
“

calculated by using the penetration theory. Determine the time it takes for the liquid to
attain 50% of the saturation concentration.
3.14 { Boundary- layer mass transfer ) A plate, 0.5 m square , coated with a layer of benzoic
acid , is placed in a stream of water flowing at a velocity of 0.25 m /s at a temperature
of 25°C. Calculate the average rate of dissolution of the acid per unit area of the plate
and also the equivalent thickness of a stagnant liquid film that would offer the same
resistance to mass transfer.
The following data are available: solubility of benzoic acid in water at 25°C =
3.01 kg/m 3; diffusivity of benzoic acid in water = 10-9 m 2/s and the viscosity of water
at 25°C = 8.9 x lO 4 kg / m s.
^

3.15 { Boundary- layer mass transfer)2 A rectangular pan, 40 cm long and 30 cm wide , full
of water is placed in a wind tunnel (in effect, it is a case of boundary -layer flow on a
flat surface). Wind flows at a linear velocity of 5 m /s through the tunnel. Calculate the
rate of evaporation of water. The resistance to mass transfer is offered only by the
boundary layer on the surface of the liquid. The following data are available:
The air temperature is 300 K and has a humidity of 60 % . Vapour pressure of water
at 300 K = 0.0353 bar; diffusivity of moisture in air at 300 K and 1 atm = 0.262 cm 2/s;
Pair = 1.16 kg /m ; vair = 1.59 x 10 m /s. Take the water temperature as 300 K ( although ,
3 -5 2

in reality, it will gradually approach the wet- bulb temperature; see Chapter 10).
3.16 { Boundary- layer mass transfer ) A stream of air at 101.3 kPa pressure and 300 K
flows over the top surface of a sheet of naphthalene of length 0.25 m at a velocity of
15 m /s.
Given: diffusivity of naphthalene vapour in air under the given conditions = 6 x 10-6
m /s; kinematic viscosity of air = 1.6 x 10 5 m 2/s; vapour pressure of naphthalene at
2 ~

300 K = 0.235 mm Hg.

Calculate ( a) the molar concentration of naphthalene at the plate surface , ( b) the
average mass transfer coefficient, and (c) the rate of loss of naphthalene from the
surface per unit width.
It is known that for boundary layer heat transfer from a flat plate, the average heat
transfer coefficient can be calculated from the equation: Nu = 0.664( ReL )1 / 2(Pr 1 /3).
3.17 { Gas absorption in a falling film )2 Pure chlorine gas is being absorbed in water in a
small experimental wetted-wall tower, 2 cm in diameter and 30 cm in height. The free
surface velocity of the water film is 40 cm /s. Under the given conditions, the solubility
of chlorine in water is 0.823 g /100 g water and its diffusivity is 1.26 x 10-5 cm 2/s.
What is the rate of absorption of the gas in gmol/h ?
Assume: (i ) the ‘depth of penetration’ of the dissolved gas is small; (ii) a flat velocity
profile of the liquid near the free surface.
3.18 { Oxygen absorption in water from air bubbles )3 Air at 25°C and 1 atm pressure is
bubbled through water in a 100-litre aquarium for oxygenation . The tank is initially filled
with water having 0.001 kg / m 3 oxygen. At any time there is 1 litre of air dispersed in
the water in the form of 5 mm diameter (on the average) bubbles that have a rise velocity
of 0.26 m /s. The solubility of oxygen in water at the given temperature and pressure is
0.0085 kg /m 3.
 Problems 115
(a) Calculate the average mass transfer coefficient, ( b) How long should it take for
the oxygen concentration in the water to reach 60 % of the saturation value? (c) Calculate
the maximum and the minimum oxygen flux over this time.
3.19 ( Problem 3.18 continued )2 Let there be a total of 50 fishes in the aquarium described
in Problem 3.18. Each fish needs, on the average, 1.5 x 10-8 kg oxygen per second for
healthy survival. What should be the fractional air hold - up in the tank if the oxygen
content in the water is to be maintained at 60 % ( this is reasonable for survival of fish )
of the saturation value at steady state? The average bubble size , rise velocity, physical
properties are as in Problem 3.18.
3.20 (Mass transfer in flow through a pipe )3 Air containing 5 % C02 enters a tube of
40 mm i.d. at the bottom at a velocity of 4 m /s. The inner wall of the tube is irrigated
with a strong solution of NaOH. The tube has a 3 m wetted section and 75 % of the
entering C02 is absorbed before the gas leaves the tube. Calculate the gas-phase mass
transfer coefficient.
Make differential mass balance over a thin section of the tube taking into account the
variation of the gas flow rate. Also estimate the mass transfer coefficient using the
°
correlation kcd! D = 0.026Re 8Sc033. Use the gas velocity relative to the free surface
liquid velocity (that has a value of 0.15 m /s) in the calculation of Reynolds number. Take
D = 0.165 cm 2/s. The pressure drop of the gas across the tube may be neglected.
3.21 ( Mass transfer in a laboratory stirred cell )3 The ‘laboratory stirred cell’ is a simple
device for the study of mass transfer accompanied by a chemical reaction in a gas-liquid
system (Danckwerts, P.V., Gas Liquid Reactions, McGraw - Hill , 1970). The apparatus
is a small cylindrical vessel partly filled with the absorbent liquid or solution . A stirrer
enters the cell at the top and the stirrer blades just touch the flat liquid surface. The
surface of the liquid gets continuously ‘renewed’ as the stirrer rotates ( Figure 3.13). The
gas, pure or diluted with an ‘inert’ carrier, flows through the space above the liquid.

Gas out
c> Stirrer

Gas stirrer The stirrer blades

/touch the liquid surface

Gas in

Liquid sample

Figure 3.13 A simplified sketch of a stirred cell (gas absorption occurs at the flat gas-liquid interface) .

An experiment has been conducted with such an apparatus on the absorption of pure
C02 at 1 atm pressure in water in order to measure the rate of surface renewal at a given
stirrer speed. When 100 ml of water is taken in the cell and the experiment is run for
116 Chapter 3 Convective Mass Transfer and Mass Transfer Coefficient

12 minutes, the concentration of C02 in the liquid is found to be 0.112 mass% . The gas-
liquid contact area, which is virtually the same as the cross-sectional area of the cell ,
is 31.5 cm 2. The temperature of the system is maintained at 25°C . The solubility of C02
in water at 1 atm pressure can be calculated from the Henry’s law : p A = HxA , where
H = 1.64 x 103 atm per unit mole fraction. The gas-phase mass transfer resistance is
absent for absorption of a pure gas.
Calculate the liquid-phase mass transfer coefficient for the given experiment and the
fractional rate of surface renewal.
The liquid in the cell may be assumed ‘well- mixed’ and the solution density may be
assumed to be the same as that of water. The inlet C02 gas is saturated with water
vapour at 25°C so that there is no evaporation of water during the experiment. The
diffusion coefficient of C02 in water at 25°C is 1.92 x 10-5 cm 2/s.
3.22 (Gas - phase mass transfer coefficient in a stirred cell ) 1 In order to measure the gas-
phase mass transfer coefficient in a stirred cell at a given stirrer speed , absorption of
ammonia diluted with dry air in aqueous sulphuric acid is carried out for a given period
of time. The gas mixture flows into the cell at a constant rate and the outlet gas contains
3% of ammonia by volume. The gas in the cell is ‘well-stirred’ and the cross-sectional
area is 31.5 cm 2. If the volume of acid taken is 100 ml at 1( N) concentration and at the
end of 20 minutes the liquid is found to contain 0.82 gmole ammonia per litre , calculate
the gas- phase mass transfer coefficient.
3.23 (Mass transfer to suspended catalyst particles )2 A liquid -phase catalytic reaction A > —
B + C occurs on the surface of 50 g suspended catalyst particles ( mean diameter =
1 mm; density = 3800 kg /m 3) in an experimental batch agitated reactor. Two litre feed
solution containing 0.5 kmol of A /m 3 is taken in the reactor. Given that: (i) the reaction
is diffusion-controlled; (ii) the catalyst is non- porous (the reaction occurs on the external
surface only ); and (iii) the liquid-solid mass transfer coefficient, kL = 3.5 x 10-5 m /s,
calculate the conversion of A at the end of 30 minutes.
3.24 (Time of dissolution of suspended particles )3 In an experiment on the dissolution of
salt in water, 500 g of salt of average particle size 0.7 mm ( assumed spherical) is
suspended in 10 litre water in an agitated vessel. The dissolution rate is measured by
collecting and analyzing small volumes of liquid samples from time to time. The density
of salt is 2160 kg /m 3 and its solubility in water at the experimental temperature is
350 kg/m 3. If the initial dissolution rate is 20.8 g /s, calculate the dissolution mass transfer
coefficient. Also, calculate the time of dissolution of the solid if the mass transfer
coefficient is assumed to be independent of particle size. The density of the solution may
be taken to be essentially the same as that of water.
3.25 (Dissolution of particles in a stirred vessel )3 A 5 % solution of a reagent is required
in the process of synthesis of a pharmaceutical intermediate. The solid reagent, available
as crystals (density = 1580 kg /m 3) of average particle size 0.75 mm , is dissolved in a
stirred vessel to prepare 1.2 m 3 solution in a batch . The requisite volume of water and
the calculated quantity of the solid are charged into a 1.15 m diameter tank fitted with
a 0.6 m diameter impeller.
 Problems 117
Given: agitator rpm = 120; diffusivity of the solute = 1.5 x 10-5 cm 2/s; average
viscosity of the solution = 0.98 cP; solubility of the solid in water = 7.6 g per hundred
gram water.
Calculate the time required for the dissolution of the solid.
The Sherwood number correlation given in Example 3.4 can be used. (Solution density
= 1000 kg/m 3.)
3.26 (Mass transfer in a packed bed )3 Air at 20°C and 1 atm pressure flows through a bed of
naphthalene balls, 5 mm in average diameter. Given: the superficial gas velocity
= =
0.20 m /s; fractional bed voidage 0.65; specific surface area of the bed 140 =
2
m /m 3; gas- phase mass transfer coefficient, kc 70 m /h ; vapour pressure of naphthalene
=
at 20°C 1.7 x 10 4 bar. If the air leaving the bed has 0.0138 mol % naphthalene vapour
= ~

in it, calculate the bed height. Also calculate the sublimation flux at the inlet and at the exit
1.17 Re-0.415
of the bed. Estimate the mass transfer coefficient using the correlation ,;
^=
-5
(see Table 3.3) and compare with the given value. Take v 1.5 x 10 m 2/s for air;
=
DAB 5.8 x 10 6 m2/s.
= ~

3.27 (Mass transfer in flow past a sphere)3 A 0.5 cm diameter spherical pellet is kept
suspended in a flowing stream of water. If the water velocity is 1 m /s, calculate the time
required for the size of the sphere to be reduced to 1 mm . The following correlations
for mass transfer (Sandoval-Robles et al., 1980) may be used.
= °
Sh 0.803( Re ) -474(Sc) 1/3 for 20 < Re < 2000; Sh 0.3(Re) 0 593(Sc) 1 /3 for 2000 < Re
=
< 23,000
Given: solubility of the solid = 30 kg /m 3; diffusivity = 1.5 x 10 9 m 2/s; viscosity of liquid
~

= 0.95 cP; and density of the solid = 1800 kg /m 3 . The bulk water is free from the solute.
Assume that the spherical shape of the pellet is retained.
3.28 ( Diffusivity measurement by a laminar jet apparatus ) 2 In an experiment for the
determination of the diffusivity of C02 in water, the rate of absorption of the pure gas
was measured using a laminar jet apparatus (see Figure 3.9) at 1.05 atm and 25°C. The
following data are given: jet length 4 cm ; gas flow rates 30.5 cm 3/min at the inlet ,
= =
and 23.5 cm 3/min at the outlet; water flow rate 15 ml/s; Henry’s law constant ( p
= =
HxA ) was H 1540 atm per unit mole fraction. Calculate the diffusivity of C02 in water.
=
3.29 ( Evaporation time of a liquid spill )2 Accidental spill of a liquid during storage or
transportation may sometimes happen in a chemical plant. Prior estimation of the evapo-
ration rate from a possible spill is necessary for an analysis of the potential hazard. The
evaporation data is also used as an input to dispersion models to predict the vulnerability
zone and potential hazard to the neighbouring community. Peress ( Chem. Eng . Progress,
April 2003, 32-34; also see Berry, J., Chem. Eng . Progress, Jan 2005, 32-39) cited the
following simple correlation for the mass transfer coefficient during evaporation of a
spill in air.
= 0.67 M0 78(MH./M/) 1/3, in cm/s
kc '

where u = wind speed ( m /s), Mw = mol. wt. of water, Mt = mol. wt. of the liquid spilled.
One hundred gallons of toluene is spilled during pumping to a storage tank and spreads
over an area of 75 m 2. The wind velocity is u = 12 km /h, temperature = 25°C , and
118 Chapter 3 Convective Mass Transfer and Mass Transfer Coefficient

=
pressure 1 atm. Calculate the rate of evaporation of the liquid and the time of its
complete disappearance. Given: vapour pressure of toluene at 25°C 28.44 mm Hg ; =
density of the liquid 860 kg /m 3; 1 ft 3 7.48 gal.
= =
3.30 {Correlation of mass transfer data for pipe flow ) 2 Dissolution of a soluble solid coated
on the inner surface of a tube in a liquid flowing through it has been studied by many
workers with the purpose of developing mass transfer correlations. The mass transfer
coefficient kL is expected to depend upon the following variables: tube diameter, d\ liquid
velocity, v; its density, p and viscosity, p; and diffusivity of the solute, D . Using the
‘power law technique’, develop a suitable form of correlation for the mass transfer
coefficient in terms of dimensionless quantities.
3.31 { Boundary layer mass transfer covering both laminar and turbulent regimes )3 A pan
containing water at 80°F is placed in a wind tunnel (Figure 3.14) through which dry air
flows at a velocity of 12 mile/h. The pan has a length of i 3 m in the longitudinal =
direction and contains water at a uniform depth of 10 mm . The correlations for the
‘local’ Sherwood number are:

ShA = 0.332(ReA) l /2(Sc) l /3 for laminar boundary layer flow, Re < 3 x 105
= 0.0292(ReA) (Sc) ° 8
for turbulent boundary layer flow, Re > 3 x 105
Calculate the time of evaporation of the water. Given: pressure = 1 atm ; kinematic
viscosity of air = 1.7 x KT4 ft2/s; diffusivity of moisture = 2.8 x 10^ ft2/s; vapour
pressure of water = 26 mm Hg.

Laminar Turbulent
boundary layer boundary layer
Wind

Evaporation of water
±-± Water :4>E:-E

0
X =l x=L

Figure 3.14 Evaporation of water in flowing air.

3.32 { Oxygen absorption in a rotating disk device )3 The ‘rotating disk reactor’ is a novel
oxygenation device for wastewater treatment [Kim et al., Chem. Eng. Sci. 40{ 1985) 9

2281-2286; Dionysiou et al., Env. Sci. Technol., 36(2002) 3834-3843]. It consists of

a number of closely spaced disks mounted on a rotating horizontal shaft. The disks are
kept partly submerged in wastewater (Figure 3.15). The area of a disk above the water
remains covered with a water-film. The time of exposure of a liquid element of the
water-film depends upon the rotational speed of the disk as well as the fraction sub-
merged in water. Mass transfer correlations for oxygen absorption in such a device have
been proposed in the literature (see the above two and related references). However, the
penetration theory provides a simple but approximate method of calculation of the mass
transfer coefficient.
 Problems 119

Rotating disk Disk

ITH
Area above
water
\ e
Wastewater Motor
U: mm
Figure 3.15 A rotating disk oxygenator.

The segment of a disk, 3 m in diameter, submerged in water forms an angle 0 120° =

at its centre. The rotational speed is 30 rpm. If the water in the trough has 5 ppm of
oxygen in it at steady state, calculate the theoretical rate of oxygen absorption on both
sides of a disk using the penetration theory.
Given: Henry’s law ( p Hx ) constant for oxygen, H 4.2 x 104 atm at the given
= =
temperature, and the diffusivity of oxygen in water, D 2.05 x 10-9 m 2/s.
=
3.33 ( DO sag in a non - tidal river )3 Contamination of a natural water system (rivers, lakes,
for example) is partly removed by self purification processes involving dilution , sedimen -
tation and aeration. Wastewater containing biodegradable organics is often discharged
into a river and this is a very important source of contamination . The oxygen demand
for bacterial degradation of organics (called biochemical oxygen demand , BOD ) is met
by absorption of oxygen from air. Depletion of oxygen below about 5 ppm becomes
critical for the aquatic life.
A non-tidal river has a BOD load of L0 (expressed as milligram oxygen required for
biodegradation of the organics present in one litre wastewater ) and a dissolved oxygen
concentration w0 ( mg /1 or g /m 3) at a certain position ( z = 0) along the river where the
wastewater is discharged. The cross-section of the river ( a\ m 2) is uniform and the
average water velocity is u (m /s). The breadth of the river at the water surface is b ( m ).
As the water flows downstream, degradation of BOD continues following a first order
kinetics, Lt = L0exp(- kt), where Lt is the BOD in an element of water at a position z such
that z = ut. This means that the rate of consumption of dissolved oxygen at the position
Z = ut is - d( Lt )/ dt. Absorption of oxygen occurs at the water surface, the mass transfer
coefficient being kL ( m /s). Over a certain distance from the reference point ( z = 0) , the
rate of consumption of oxygen for biodegradation of orgaincs is usually more than the
rate of its absorption from air. This causes a lowering of dissolved oxygen ( DO ) level ,
called the ‘DO sag’. But at a longer distance along the river, the BOD becomes lower
(since much of it has already been removed), the oxygen consumption rate gets reduced ,
and the DO level builds up because of replenishment by absorption from air. Under such
an idealized condition, a minimum DO should occur at some distance from z = 0.
Develop a simple model for the process (called the ‘Streeter - Phelp model’ ) for the
calculation of distribution of DO along the river and the point where the minimum of DO
occurs (see G.M. Masters, Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science,
Prentice Hall , New Delhi , 1991). A sketch of the system is given in Figure 3.16.
120 Chapter 3 Convective Mass Transfer and Mass Transfer Coefficient

Oxygen absorption at the water surface

A E F
/
/
/
/
/ /
u B / I H G
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
D x
C x X

z=0 z — z z = z + Az
Figure 3.16 Schematic of a river subjected to a BOD load. [ ABCD = cross -section of the river at z 0; breadth of the river =
at the free surface, AB = b\ EFGH = a differential area ( = b.dz on the water surface at z z ] =
- - .
3.34 ( A non catalytic gas solid reaction proceeding with the formation of an ‘ash layer ’
— the ‘ shrinking core model 9 )2 There are many industrially important gas-solid reac-
tions of the type A (s) + B( g ) —» C(s) + D( g ) A typical example is the roasting of zinc .
ore (ZnS ) in air which is a major step of zinc metallurgy. A porous layer of the oxidation
product, ZnO, forms on the surface of a pellet of ZnS . This is often called the ‘ash layer ’.
Oxygen from air diffuses through an external ‘gas-film ’ surrounding the pellet, and then
through the ash layer to reach the surface of the unreacted core of ZnS . As the reaction
proceeds, the size of core reduces or ‘shrinks’ and the thickness of the ash layer
increases. The above visualization of the diffusion-reaction process, which pretty much
simulates the phenomenon, is called the shrinking -core model as illustrated in Figure 3.17.

h- V -H
'
'b -r—
I
Unreacted core
s
u X
< x
<
/ \
Outer
( "
LVi/ gas film -
/

i
II,

:
•«**
m +
i
\
i
Oxygen
\ /
/
Ash layer ( b)
'

Figure 3.17 Schematic of the ‘shrinking core model’ : ( a) initial state; ( b ) state at time t.

Consider a non-porous spherical pellet of solid A (initial radius = r0)# that undergoes
reaction with gas B at the surface with the formation of a layer of the product ( ‘ash’ )
of porosity e. It is assumed that the diameter of the pellet remains unchanged even with
the progress of reaction (the diameter of the inner core , however, decreases). The
reaction between A and B at the surface of the unreacted solid core is ‘instantaneous’ .
There is an external gas-film resistance as well.
Develop an expression for the rate of reaction of the solid. Assume that the radius of
the core is rc at any time. The gas B diffuses through the air -film (let the corresponding
mass transfer coefficient be kc ) and then through the ash layer which is of the form of
a spherical shell. Since the reaction is instantaneous, the concentration or partial pressure
#
In reality, the ZnS particles fed to a kiln for roasting are never spherical. A regular shape (for example,
spherical ) is often assumed for the sake of a simplified theoretical analysis.
 References 121
of B at the core surface is virtually zero. Determine the rate of transport of B ( area x
flux ) and equate it to the rate of reaction of A. How can the model be verified using
experimental data? What is the time of complete reaction of the sphere?
3.35 The rate and time of dissolution of a drug are important pharmacological parameters.
Seventy-five milligrams of fairly uniform-sized particles (diameter, dp - 150 pm ) of the
drug tolbutamide was added to 1000 ml water in a stirred vessel to conduct a dissolution
experiment. The amount dissolved was determined by analyzing the samples withdrawn
from time to time and the results are given below.
Determine the ‘dissolution rate constant’ k! = kLCsldpps (see Martin , A. , Physical
Pharmacy , 4th ed., 2001) of the drug under the prevailing conditions. Here kL = dis-
solution mass transfer coefficient, m/s; Cs = solubility of the drug in water, kg /m 3; dp =
initial diameter in metre; ps = density of the solid , kg / m 3. The drug concentration in the
bulk water may be considered negligible.
Time , in min 0 10 20 30 40 50
Solute concentration, in mg /ml 0 0.0197 0.0374 0.0510 0.0595 0.0650

REFERENCES

Benitez , J., Principles and Modern Applications of Mass Transfer, Wiley Interscience , New York ,
2002.
Bird , R.B., W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena , 2nd ed ., Wiley, New York ,
2002.
Danckwerts, P.V., ‘Significance of liquid-film coefficients in gas absorption ,’ Ind. Eng . Chem. ,
43( 1951) 1460-1493.
Davies, G.A., et al , ‘The diffusion of carbon dioxide in organic liquid’ , Canad.J. Chem. Eng .,
45( 1967 ) 372-376.
Deen , W.M., Analysis of Transport Phenomenona, Oxford University Press, London , 1998.
—
Dutta, B.K ., Heat Transfer Principles and Applications, Prentice- Hall, New Delhi , 2001.
Higbie, R., ‘The rate of absorption of a pure gas into a still liquid during short periods of
exposure,’ Trans. AIChE, 37(1935) 365-389.
Hines, A.L., and R.N. Maddox, Mass Transfer Fundamantals and Applications, Prentice Hall ,
New Jersey, 1985.
Perry’s Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 7th ed., McGraw - Hill, New York , 1997.
Rohsehow, W.M., J.P. Hartnett, and E. N. Ganik (Eds.), Handbook of Heat Transfer
Fundamentals, 2nd ed., McGraw - Hill, New York, 1985.
Sandoval-Robles, J.G., J.P. Riba, and J.P. Couderc, ‘Mass transfer around a sphere,’ New York
Trans. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 58(1980) 132-134.
Skelland , A.H.P., Diffusional Mass transfer, Wiley, New York , 1974.
Sherwood , T.K., R .L. Pigford, and C.R . Reid, Mass Transfer, McGraw - Hill, New York , 1975.
Treybal, R .E., Mass Transfer Operations, 3rd ed., McGraw - Hill, New York , 1980.
Whitman , W.G., Chem. Met. Engg ., 29 ( 1923) 146.
 Problems 163
(d ) What is the value of the absorption factor (A = L/mG ) at the section referred to in
part ( b) above?
(i) 1.342 (ii) 0.584 (hi) 2.157
20. Make a sketch to show typical concentration profiles of the solute during mass transfer
across an interface. Qualitatively explain the concentration profiles.
21. A gas mixture containing four components (Aj, A 2 and A 3 are soluble; B is the carrier )
is equilibrated with a solvent. Apply the phase rule to decide which parameters should
be specified to describe the system completely.
22. The Kremser equation can be written in the form
T\ N
(A ) YN + I - °^o 1
l -= 1
+=
Yx - cXo A A
The equation appears to be satisfied by A = 1. Can A = 1 be really considered as a
solution to this equation ?
23. The solubility of A in water is 0.5 kmol/m 3 at a partial pressure of 60 mm Hg . If the
total pressure is 1.2 atm and the Henry’s law is applicable , calculate the Henry’s law
constant (‘m’ in y mx ).
=
PROBLEMS

4.1 (The equilibrium relation in different forms )1 The solubility of a gaseous substance A
( mol. wt. = 26) in water is given by Henry’s law : pA = 105xA , pA in mm Hg. Convert
the equilibrium relation to the following forms: ( a) yA = mxA if the total pressure is
10 bar; (b) pA = ra'CA , CA in gmol/litre. Also write down the equilibrium relation using
the mole ratio unit. Assume that the solution is dilute and has a density equal to that of
water (1000 kg /m 3).
4.2 0Calculation of the overall coefficient )1 At a particular section of an equipment for
absorption of the solute A in a liquid, the bulk gas phase contains 9.5 mol % A and the
liquid contains 2 mol% of it. The gas-film coefficient is ky 10 kmol/ (h )(m 2)( Ay) and
=
60% of the mass transfer resistance occurs in the liquid -film. The Henry’s law applies,
yA = 0.85;tA . Calculate (a) the overall mass transfer coefficient, Kx ; ( b) the molar flux
of A ; and (c) the interfacial concentrations of the solute, xAi and yAi.
4.3 (<Calculation of the interfacial concentrations )1 In a certain equipment used for the
absorption of S02 from air by water, at one section , the gas and liquid phase
concentrations of the solute are 10 mole% and 4 mass% respectively. The solution
density is 61.8 lb/ft3. At the given temperature (40°C ) and pressure (10 atm) , the
distribution of the S02 between air and water can be approximately described as
pA - 25*4 , where pA is the partial pressure of S02 in the gas phase in atm. The individual
mass transfer coefficients are kx = 10 kmol/(h )(m 2)(Ax) and ky = 8 kmol/ (h )(m 2)( Ay) .
Calculate the overall coefficient, Kc in kmol/(h ) ( m2)(A/? , mm Hg ) and xAi and pAi at the
gas-liquid interface.
164 Chapter 4 Interphase Mass Transfer

-
4.4 (Use of the two resistance model) 1 Absorption of oxygen from an air bubble occurs
in ‘pure’ water. Calculate the overall coefficients Ky and Kx for the following cases: (a)
The two-film model is applicable. The air-film thickness is 2 mm , and the water-film
thickness is 0.02 mm. ( b) The film model is applicable for the gas-phase transport and
the penetration model for transport in the liquid - phase. The contact time of a liquid
element with the gas is Is. Given: diffusivity of 02 in air 0.176 cm 2/s, in water
= =
2.1 x 10 9 m 2/s; the equilibrium relation is p 4.36 x 104*, p partial pressure of 02
~

= =
in atm; temperature 298 K; total pressure 1 atm .
= =
4.5 ( Controlling resistance in mass transfer )1 Jasmone is a high - value product used in
perfumery and cosmetic industries. A suspension of jasmine flowers in water is
contacted with an organic solvent to recover the compound. During extraction , the
compound diffuses from the aqueous phase to the dispersed organic phase. The
individual mass transfer coefficients are 3.5 x 10-6 cm/s (organic phase) and 2.7 x 10 5 ~

cm/s (aqueous phase). The solute is 175 times more soluble in the organic phase ( y =
175JC; y = mole fraction of the solute in the organic phase). The aqueous solution is dilute
and the total molar concentration of the organic phase is 10 kmol/m 3. Calculate the
overall mass transfer coefficient Ky. Which phase resistance controls?
4.6 ( Controlling resistance )1 In a liquid-liquid contacting device the equilibrium distribution
of solute C in the solvents A and B can be represented as
y = 10.5*
where * and y are the concentrations of the solute C in phases A and B respectively. If
the individual mass transfer resistances are

kx = 10.21 lbmol/hft 2 and ky = 4.35 lbmol/h ft2

which phase resistance controls the rate of mass transfer ?
4.7 ( Release of a VOC from an open wastewater treatment basin )2 Many volatile organic
compounds (some of these are obnoxious and toxic) are formed in open wastewater
treatment basins. Sadel et al. [ Environ. Progr., 15 (1996) 82-92] studied the release of
VOCs from an open basin in the wastewater treatment facility of Ciba-Geigy Corp. at
McIntosh , Alabama. The liquid- phase mass transfer coefficient for methyl -isobutyl
ketone ( MIBK ), a VOC, under a wind velocity of 3 m /s over the basin was found to be
kL 3 cm /h and the gas-phase coefficient was kc 0.028 m /s at 25°C . If the Henry’s
= =
law constant ( pA - HxA ) for MIBK is H 5.5 atm , and its average concentration in the
=
basin is 8.7 ppm , calculate (a) the overall mass transfer coefficients, KL and KG\
( b) the fraction of the total resistance offered by the gas-phase; and (c) the flux of MIBK
if the bulk air is assumed to be free from the VOC .
4.8 ( Use of the relative mass transfer resistance ) 1 The overall gas-phase mass transfer
coefficient in an absorption tower is Ky 5.35 kmol/(h )(m 2)(Ay) and 70 % of the total
=
mass transfer resistance is known to be in the gas-phase. The equilibrium relation is
given by
y = 3.2*
The total pressure is 760 mm Hg. Calculate ( a) the individual gas- phase and liquid -phase
mass transfer coefficients; (b) the overall liquid -phase mass transfer coefficient, Kx .\ and
 Problems 165
(c) the overall mass transfer coefficients, Kc and KY. The total molar concentration of
the gas is 0.041 kmol/m 3; the bulk liquid is essentially water.
4.9 ( An application to gas absorption) 2 Consider absorption of the solute C from a carrier
gas A using the solvent B. The gas- phase mass transfer coefficient is kG 0.05 kmol/ =
(m 2)(h) (kPa). At a particular section of the absorber, the mole fraction of C in the bulk
gas is 0.15 and the total pressure is 120 kPa. The bulk liquid concentration is 0.045 mole
fraction, and the local flux is known to be 0.08 kmol/m 2 h . -
(a) Calculate the interfacial concentration of the solute and the fraction of the total
resistance lying in the gas phase.
( b) If the gas- phase mass transfer coefficient increases by 50 % but all other parameters
remain the same, what would be the fractional increase in the molar flux of the
solute?
The equilibrium solubility of the gas (i.e. the equilibrium relation ) is linear y = 2.5x for
y < 0.15.
4.10 ( Equilibrium calculation )1 Equilibrium data for ammonia-water system at 20°C and
30°C are given below [Sherwood, T.K., Ind. Eng. Chern ., 77(1925) 745].
kg NH3 per kg water 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.075 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
pNH 3, mm Hg at 20°C 12 18.2 24.9 31.7 50 69.5 114 166 227
pNH 3, mm Hg at 30°C 19.3 29.6 40.1 51 79.5 110 169 260 352
Densities of ammonia solutions in this temperature range are given below.
Mass % NH3 1 2 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Density, kg/m3 994 985.9 981.1 965.1 950.1 936.2 922.9 910.9 898
If the total pressure is maintained at 1 atm, calculate and plot vs yA and CA vs yA ( A
- ammonia) diagrams for the ammonia-water system.
4.11 ( Mass transfer calculations using tabular equilibrium data )2 Vapour pressures of
H20 ( mm Hg) over H 2S04 of various concentrations at 25°C are given below:
Mass% H 2S04 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Vapour pressure of H20 13.5 11.1 8.74 6.36 4.09 2.34 1.23 0.546 0.19
The relative humidity of moist air is to be reduced by contacting it with sulphuric acid
in a packed tower. The absorbent, 70% H 2S04, is fed at the top of the column at a rate
-
of 1000 kg /h m 2, and air of relative humidity of 80 % enters at the bottom at a rate of
3000 kg /h - m 2. The dry air must not have a relative humidity over 2 % . The temperature
is 25°C and the pressure is 1 atm. Although drying of air by highly concentrated H 2S04
(as done in a H 2S04 plant) is gas-film resistance controlled (why ?), the liquid -phase
mass transfer resistance is not negligible if the acid concentration is not high . In the
present case, the mass transfer coefficients are estimated to be
fcG - 0.016 kmol/(h)(m 2)(mm Hg ) and kx - 0.96 kmol/( h ) (m 2)( Ax) .
Calculate (a) the overall coefficient Ky and ( b) the interfacial concentrations ( xh yj) at
a section of the tower where the relative humidity of bulk air is 40 % . The Antoine
equation for water is given under Example 2.2 and also in Table 7.2.
166 Chapter 4 Interphase Mass Transfer

Since absorption of moisture in H 2S04 is highly exothermic, there will be significant

temperature variation along the column. But, for the sake of simplicity, the temperature
may be assumed to remain constant at 25°C.
4.12 ( Determination of the number of ideal trays ) 1 It is required to absorb 95% of the
acetone from a mixture with nitrogen containing 1.5 mol % of the compound in a
countercurrent tray tower. The total gas input is 30 kmol/h and water enters the tower
at a rate of 90 kmol/h. The tower operates at 300 K and 1 atm. The equilibrium relation
is y - 2.53*. Determine the number of ideal trays necessary for this separation . Use the
graphical method as well as the Kremser analytical method.
—
4.13 ( An inverse problem calculation of the fractional separation, the number of trays
being given ) 2 Acetone from a mixture with air containing 2 mol % acetone is absorbed
counter-currently in water in a plate tower containing four theoretical stages. The inlet
gas rate is 40 kmol /h and acetone-free water is supplied to the column at a rate of 110
kmol/h. The equilibrium relation is y - 2.5*. Determine the concentration of the solute
in the exit liquid analytically as well as graphically.
4.14 ( Another inverse problem ) An aqueous waste stream containing a toxic volatile organic
compound (VOC) has to be air-stripped in a tray tower so that the air, loaded with the
VOC may flow to the flare for incineration. The waste stream has 0.1 kg of the organic
per 100 kg of water and the concentration has to be reduced to 50 ppm . The equilibrium
distribution of the solute between air and water is linear and can be expressed as
Y = 4.35X ( X , Y : kg VOC per kg air or water )
A column of suitable diameter having 20 trays that are 50 % efficient is available. Can
the tower meet the requirement? The air rate is 1500 kg /h and the wastewater is to be
treated at a rate of 4000 kg /h.
4.15 ( The equation of the operating line)3 A countercurrent absorption tower receives 100
kmol of a gas mixture per hour having 15% of a solute A . It is required to absorb 95%
of the solute. ‘Pure’ solvent enters at a rate of 80 kmol/h at the top. (a) What is the
equation of the operating line if the concentrations are expressed in the mole ratio unit?
(b) If the mole fraction unit is used, what would be the slope of the operating line at a
section where the bulk gas concentration is 10 mol % ? What is the maximum slope of
the operating line and where does it occur ?
4.16 ( Overall driving force at a section of a column )2 A gas mixture having 7 mol % of the
solute A is to be scrubbed in a packed tower at a rate of 70 kmol/h . The solvent, water,
is fed at a rate of 80 kmol/h. In the concentration range involved , the solubility of the
gas is described by the equation: y*A = 1.2*4 - 0.62*4. It is desired to absorb 98% of A
present in the feed. Determine the equation of the operating line and the overall gas- phase
driving force at a point in the column where the bulk liquid concentration is
*4 = 0.04.
4.17 ( Adsorption from a solution ) Laboratory test data on a newly developed adsorbent
material show the material to be quite attractive for the removal of colour from
 Problems 167
wastewater from a textile dying plant. The following equilibrium relation was derived
from the test data.
Y = 0.62 X 0.48
where Y = kg colouring matter adsorbed per kg of the adsorbent , and X = kg colour per
1000 kg water.
(a) What per cent of the colouring matter will be removed if 100 kg of the wastewater
containing 1 part colouring matter per 100 part of water is treated with 1 kg of the
adsorbent in the following ways? (i) The entire adsorbent is used in a single batch ;
or (ii) half of the adsorbent is used to treat the solution in a batch , the adsorbent
is removed and the water is further treated with the rest of the adsorbent again .
( b) Calculate the quantity of adsorbent required to remove 99 % of the colour from
100 kg solution containing 0.8% of colour by weight in (i) a single batch , (ii) an
‘ideal crosscurrent contact’ in which a differential amount of the absorbent is added
to each stage (see Example 4.9).
4.18 ( An optimization problem )3 A solution of C in A has to be treated with a solvent B
in a two-stage crosscurrent separation unit. The liquids A and B are immiscible and the
equilibrium relation is linear, Y = aX , where X = kg C per kg A and Y = kg C per kg
B. For a given total amount of solvent used for a two-stage crosscurrent contact, show
that for the maximum removal of C from the feed , half of the solvent needs to be used
in each stage.
4.19 ( Crosscurrent extraction )3 One hundred kilogram of an aqueous solution of
/?-chlorophenol at a concentration of 1 g per kg water is to be treated with 2 kg of an
adsorbent to recover the compound from the solution by a two-stage crosscurrent
contact. Calculate the maximum percentage recovery of the solute if the equilibrium
relation at the operating temperature of 298 K is given by
Y = 0.6X
where X - kg solute (here it is p-chlorophenol) per 1000 kg water and Y = kg solute per
kg adsorbent.
4.20 ( Calculation of solvent requirement for crosscurrent extraction )3 One thousand
kilograms of an aqueous solution has 0.12 kg solute per kg water. It is treated with an
organic solvent, immiscible with water, in a three-stage mixer - settler unit in order to
recover 96% of the solute. In the first stage, 1200 kg of the solvent is used , and equal
amounts of solvent are used in the next two stages so that the desired recovery of the
=
solute is achieved. The equilibrium relation is Ws 1.25 Ww, where Ws is kg solute per
kg organic solvent and Ww is kg solute per kg water. Calculate the total solvent
requirement.
4.21 ( Calculation of solvent requirement)3 Nicotine is to be extracted from a liquor by
using a solvent in a three-stage crosscurrent device. The feed rate is 2000 kg / h ,
containing 10 mass% nicotine. 95% of the solute has to be recovered. The solvent has
0.001 mass% nicotine in it. The equilibrium in the system can be expressed as
W [ = 0.85Ws> where Wt is kg nicotine per kg nicotine-free feed and Ws is kg nicotine per
168 Chapter 4 Interphase Mass Transfer

kg of nicotine-free solvent. If equal amounts of solvent are used in the stages, calculate
the total solvent requirement for the job.
4.22 (Comparing the modes of contact )3 A solution of C in the solvent A containing 25
mol % C is fed to a multi-stage separation device at a rate of 10 kmol per hour in which
it is to be treated with the extracting solvent B entering at equal molar rate. It is required
to calculate and compare the performance of the separation device if (a) it is a cocurrent
cascade, ( b ) a countercurrent cascade, (c) a crosscurrent cascade. The stages in a
cascade are ideal in each case. Calculate the fraction of the solute C removed from the
solution against the number of stages in each of the above three configurations. The
equilibrium relation is Y - X .
4.23 ( Gas-solid equilibrium )2 The equilibrium moisture absorption by a variety of silica gel
= =
is a linear function of the humidity in air: Wa 0.0344WS where Wa humidity of air,
9

kg moisture per kg dry air, and Ws kg moisture absorbed per kg of dry gel. In an
=
experiment, 0.5 kg of silica gel containing 5 % moisture is placed in a vessel fitted with
a frictionless piston (in order to maintain the total pressure constant). The vessel
contains 1 m 3 of moist air in which the partial pressure of moisture is
15 mm Hg at the beginning. The total pressure is 1 atm and the temperature is 25°C.
Calculate (a) the amount of moisture picked up by the gel and ( b) the final partial
pressure of moisture in the vessel.
4.24 ( Mass transfer to a pellet)3 A spherical adsorbent particle of diameter 10 mm and mass
0.04 gmol is kept in contact with a large volume of moist air at 25°C. The partial pressure
of moisture is 15 mm Hg and the total pressure is 1 atm . The equilibrium relation is
Y 0.1X; Y kmol moisture/kmol dry air, and X kmol moisture/kmol dry adsorbent.
= = =
After 3 minutes of contact, the sphere contains 0.16 kmol moisture/kmol dry adsorbent.
If the size of the adsorbent particle remains unchanged , calculate the mass transfer
coefficient of moisture. Resistance to moisture diffusion within the pellet is negligible.
4.25 ( Mass transfer from a falling drop )3 Single uniform drops of chloroform , 6 mm in
diameter, are in free fall through a large volume of a dilute aqueous solution of acetone
(5 mass% ) at a terminal velocity of vd = 0.1 m /s at 25°C . Acetone is transported from
the bulk of the aqueous phase into a drop. The depth of the pool of the aqueous layer
is 1.0 m. The drops are collected at the bottom and the liquid is found to contain 1.02
mass% acetone. The distribution of acetone between chloroform and water is given by
wd = 1.72 wc, where wd is the mass fraction acetone in the dispersed phase (i .e.
chloroform ) and wc is the same parameter in the continuous phase (water ). Calculate the
overall mass transfer coefficient Kx based on the overall aqueous phase driving force.
The density of the aqueous phase is pc = 990 kg /m 3 and that of the dispersed phase is
pd = 1480 kg /m .
3

Many semi-theoretical and empirical correlations are available in the literature for
estimation of both continuous phase and dispersed phase mass transfer coefficients for
extraction of a solute from falling drops (see, for example , Perry's Handbook , 7 th ed.;
Skelland , A.H.P., Diffusional Mass Transfer ). It will be interesting to estimate the mass
transfer coefficient using the available correlations and to compare with the value
calculated above. Here are two such correlations applicable to falling (or rising ) drops
in a liquid.
 Problems 169

{ kL )cdp
Continuous phase (c): (Sh )c = Dc = 0.6(Re)1/2(Sc)1/2;
dp Vd Pc Pc . ,= Pel
Re = Pc
(Sc) c = PCDC '
(Sc)
PdDd
0)

L )CI dp 4 Ddtf
\
— 0.34
dpVd Pc
\ 0.37

Dispersed phase ( d ): (Sh ) ,= = 31.4 (Sc )-0.125

Dd d p2 ^ a
(ii)

Here dp drop diameter, and tf contact time.

= =
—
Following values of the different parameters are given diffusivity of acetone: in water,
Dc 2 x 10 9 m 2/s, in the drop, Dd 4.0 x 10 9; viscosity: water, pc 0.88 cP, chloroform ,
= = =
“ ~

fid= 0.53 cP; interfacial tension, a 30 dyne/cm . Also calculate the continuous-phase
=
mass transfer coefficient using the penetration theory# and compare with the value
obtained from correlation (i) above.
4.26 ( Selection of the mode of contact )3 A solution of C in the liquid L is contacted with
solvent G. The flow rates of the phases (on solute-free basis) are Ls and Gs kmol/h ; feed
concentration is X 0 and the solvent B fed to the column is solute-free; the equilibrium
relation is linear, Y aX . It is necessary to choose between two devices a three- stage
= —
countercurrent device and a three-stage crosscurrent device. Which device will offer
better recovery of the solute ? Compare by numerical calculation for A = LslaGs = 0.9.
4.27 ( Calculation of the overall coefficients) 2 In a countercurrent column , the bulk con -
centrations of the solute at a section are x 0.05(liquid), and y 0.17 (gas). The
= =
individual coefficients are ky 2.9 x 10^ and kx 5 x 10-4, and the equilibrium relation
= =
can be approximated by the function: y* 2.5x + 8x2, 0 < x < 0.2. What is the direction
=
of mass transfer (gas to liquid or the reverse) ? Calculate the overall coefficients Kx and
Ky. What fraction of the mass transfer resistance occurs in the liquid phase?
4.28 Derive Eqs. (4.43) and (4.44).
4.29 ( Number of stages in crosscurrent extraction )2 Reconsider Example 4.9. The same
amount of solvent Es is supplied to each stage as before. But the solvent has some
residual solute in it that has a concentration of Y 0 kg per kg solute-free solvent. Show
that the number of ideal contact stages required to reduce the solute concentration from
X0 to XN is given by

A log (1 + A') = log

aXN - Y0 ’
A' = aEJRs
#
A ‘small’ drop is found to behave like a ‘rigid’ sphere; there is virtually no motion within it. But in a bigger
drop the ‘interfacial shear’ acting on the moving drop may be sufficient to cause a circulating motion within it.
This is called ‘internal circulation’ within a drop which significantly increases the drop-side mass transfer
coefficient. Another important factor is the surface tension gradient along the drop surface that occurs during
transport of a solute across the interface. These factors greatly influence the mass transfer coefficient. These
points are also discussed in Chapter 8.
170 Chapter 4 Interphase Mass Transfer
/ y
4.30 { Controlled release of a drug ) The release rate of a steroid ester from an implanted
capsule was determined experimentally in order to measure the relevant parameters.
Following data are available (see Section 4.7 for meanings of the notations used): solubility
of the steroid in the polymer 100 mg /cm 3; partition coefficient, /3 0.15; diffusivities,
= =
Dm 1.083 x 10-7 m 2/h, DL 1.042 x 10-6 m 2/h ; polymer membrane thickness,
= =
lm 1 mm. If the release rate is 1 mg /cm 2 h, estimate the thickness of the diffusion layer
=
of the outer fluid. Which transport resistance appears to be more prominent?
4.31 { Drug diffusion through a dialysis membrane )2 Measurement of diffusivity or
permeability of a drug through a membrane is very important for determining its potential
for drug delivery applications. Famg and Nelson [/. Pharm. Sci., 66 (1977) 1611-1614]
used a two-compartment diffusion cell (see Figure 4.23) to measure the diffusivity and
permeability of sodium salicylate, a model compound , through a microporous cellophane
membrane. They also studied the influence of addition of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC , a polymer) on the rate of transport of the solute. In a particular experiment ,
compartment- 1 of the diffusion cell was filled with a solution having 8 mmol/litre of the
solute in 3% CMC, while the other compartment was filled with pure water. The steady -
state solute flux through the membrane was 2.18 x 10 9 gmol/cm 2 s.
"

CLp
m Water
Compartment 2
C2,
Solute in CMC
CLpi
solution
Compartment 1
cLw
Diffusion Diffusion
film
—
/// Membrane VA
yy////^
film

Figure 4.23 Concentration profiles of the solute in the membrane and in the liquid films on both sides (schematic) .

Given the following data, calculate the ‘effective’ diffusivity and the permeability of
sodium salicylate through the cellophane membrane: estimated thickness of the liquid
diffusion layer on either side of the membrane, / = 8.2 x 10 3 cm (equal on both the
~

sides); thickness of the cellophane film, lm = 4.66 x 10-3 cm; diffusivity of the solute
in the aqueous CMC solution , D { = 1.33 x 10-5 cm 2/s and in water, D2 = 1.11 x 10-5
cm 2/s; volume fraction of water in the membrane = 0.667 (this is the same as the average
fractional void volume of the membrane).
It is to be noted that the membrane is first soaked in water. When fitted in the diffusion
cell, transport of the solute occurs through the pores filled with water. Physically the
process is similar to transport through a porous diaphragm (see Section 2.9). However,
the solubilities of sodium salicylate in CMC solution and in water being different ,
partitioning of the solute occurs at the upstream surface of the membrane. The partition