Chapter 8 − Nasolacrimal duct – empties lacrimal

Special Senses fluid into the nasal cavity

 Function of the Lacrimal
Apparatus
 The Senses  Properties of lacrimal fluid
 General senses of touch (tactile) → Dilute salt solution (tears)
● Temperature- thermoreceptors → Contains antibodies (fight antigens-
(heat) foreign substance) and lysozyme
● Pressure- mechanoreceptors (enzyme that destroys bacteria)
(movement)  Protects, moistens, and lubricates the eye
● Pain- mechanoreceptors  Empties into the nasal cavity
 Special senses  Extrinsic Eye Muscles
● Smell- chemoreceptors (chemicals)  Muscles attach to the outer surface of the
● Taste- chemoreceptors eye
● Sight- photoreceptors (light)  Produce eye movements
● Hearing- mechanoreceptors  When Extrinsic Eye Muscles
● Equilibrium- (balance) Contract
mechanoreceptors ● Superior oblique- eyes look out and down
 The Eye and Vision ● Superior rectus- eyes looks up
 70 percent of all sensory receptors are in ● Lateral rectus- eyes look outward
the eyes ● Medial rectus- eyes look inward
 Each eye has over a million nerve fibers ● Inferior rectus- eyes looks down
 Protection for the eye ● Inferior oblique- eyes look in and up
− Most of the eye is enclosed in a bony  Structure of the Eye
orbit made up of the lacrimal ● The wall is composed of three tunics
(medial), ethmoid (posterior), ▪ Fibrous tunic – outside layer
sphenoid (lateral), frontal (superior), ▪ Choroid – middle layer
and zygomatic and maxilla (inferior) ▪ Sensory tunic – inside layer
− A cushion of fat surrounds most of the  The Fibrous Tunic
eye ◘ Sclera
 Accessory Structures of the Eye − White connective tissue layer
▪ Eyelids − Seen anteriorly as the “white of the
− brush particles out of eye or cover eye eye”
▪ Eyelashes − Semi-transparent
− trap particles and keep them out of ◘ Cornea
the eye − Transparent, central anterior portion
▪ Ciliary glands − Allows for light to pass through (refracts, or
− modified sweat glands between the bends, light slightly)
eyelashes eyelashes − Repairs itself easily
− secrete acidic sweat to kill bacteria, − The only human tissue that can be
lubricate eyelashes transplanted without fear of rejection
 Choroid Layer
▪ Conjunctiva
 Blood-rich nutritive tunic
− Membrane that lines the eyelids
 Pigment prevents light from scattering
− Connects to the surface of the eye-
(opaque- blocks light from getting in, has
forms a seal
melanin)
− Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye
 Modified interiorly into two structures
▪ Lacrimal apparatus
▪ Cilliary body – smooth muscle
− Lacrimal gland – produces lacrimal
(contracts to adjust the shape of the
fluid
lens)
− Lacrimal canals – drains lacrimal fluid
▪ Iris- pigmented layer that gives eye
from eyes
color (contracts to adjust the size of
− Lacrimal sac – provides passage of
lacrimal fluid towards nasal cavity
PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.
 the pupil- regulates entry of light into  To see any color, the brain must compare
the eye) the input from different kinds of cone cells
▪ Pupil – rounded opening in the iris —and then make many other comparisons
 Sensory Tunic (Retina) as well.
 Contains receptor cells (photoreceptors)  The lightning-fast work of judging a color
→ Rods begins in the retina, which has three layers
→ Cones of cells. Signals from the red and green
→ Signals leave the retina toward the cones in the first layer are compared by
brain through the optic nerve specialized red-green "opponent" cells in
 Signals pass from photoreceptors via a two- the second layer. These opponent cells
neuron chain compute the balance between red and
→ Bipolar neurons and Ganglion cells green light coming from a particular part of
 Visual Pigments the visual field. Other opponent cells then
 Rhodopsin- visual purple, in high compare signals from blue cones with the
concentration in RODS combined signals from red and green
 Composed of opsin and retinal (a derivative cones.
of vitamin A) proteins  COLORBLINDNESS
 When light hits the protein it “bleaches”-  An inherited trait that is transferred on the
turns yellow and then colorless. It sex chromosomes (23rd pair)- sex-linked
straightens out and breaks down into opsin trait
and retinal.  Occurs more often in males
 There are three different other opsins  Can not be cured or corrected
beside rhodopsin, with absorption for  Comes from a lack of one or more types of
yellowish-green (photopsin I), green color receptors.
(photopsin II), and bluish-violet (photopsin  Most are green or red or both and that is
III) light. due to a lack of red receptors.
 Neurons of the Retina and Vision  Another possibility is to have the color
▪ Rods receptors missing entirely, which would
− Most are found towards the edges of result in black and white vision.
the retina  Lens
− Allow dim light vision and peripheral  Biconvex crystal-like structure
vision (more sensitive to light, do not  Held in place by a suspensory ligament
respond in bright light) attached to the ciliary body
− Perception is all in gray tones  Refracts light greatly
▪ Cones  Internal Eye Chamber Fluids
− Allow for detailed color vision ▪ Aqueous humor
− Densest in the center of the retina − Watery fluid found in chamber
− Fovea centralis – area of the retina between the lens and cornea
with only cones − Similar to blood plasma
− Respond best in bright light − Helps maintain intraocular pressure
 No photoreceptor cells are at the optic − Provides nutrients for the lens and
disk, or blind spot cornea
 Cone Sensitivity − Reabsorbed into venous blood
 There are three types of cones through the canal of Schlemm
 Different cones are sensitive to different ▪ Vitreous humor
wavelengths − Gel-like substance behind the lens
● red- long − Keeps the eye from collapsing
● green- medium − Lasts a lifetime and is not replaced
● blue- short  Lens Accommodation
 Color blindness is the result of lack of one  Light must be focused to a point on the
or more cone type retina for optimal vision
 How do we see colors?  The eye is set for distance vision
(over 20 ft away)
PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.
 20/20 vision- at 20 feet, you see what a  Receptors are mechanoreceptors
normal eye would see at 20 feet (20/100-  Different organs house receptors for each
at 20, normal person would see at 100) sense
 The lens must change shape to focus for  Anatomy of the Ear
closer objects  The ear is divided into three areas
 MYOPIA ● Outer (external) ear
→ Nearsightedness, or myopia is the difficulty ● Middle ear
of seeing objects at a distance. ● Inner ear
→ Myopia occurs when the eyeball is slightly  The External Ear
longer than usual from front to back. This  Involved in hearing only
causes light rays to focus at a point in front  Structures of the external ear
of the retina, rather than directly on its → Pinna (auricle)- collects sound
surface. → External auditory canal- channels
→ Concave lenses are used to correct the sound inward
problem.  The External Auditory Canal
 HYPEROPIA  Narrow chamber in the temporal bone-
→ Hyperopia, or farsightedness, is when light through the external auditory meatus
entering the eye focuses behind the retina.  Lined with skin
→ Hyperoptic eyes are shorter than normal.  Ceruminous (wax) glands are present
→ Hyperopia is treated using a convex lens.  Ends at the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
 Images Formed on the Retina  The Middle Ear or Tympanic
 If the image is focused at the spot where Cavity
the optic disk is located, nothing will be  Air-filled cavity within the temporal bone
seen. This is known as the blind spot.  Only involved in the sense of hearing
There are no photoreceptors there, as  Two tubes are associated with the inner ear
nerves and blood vessels pass through this → The opening from the auditory canal is
point. covered by the tympanic membrane
 Visual Pathway (eardrum)
 Photoreceptors of the retina → The auditory tube connecting the middle
 Optic nerve ear with the throat (also know as the
 Optic nerve crosses at the optic chiasma eustacian tube)
 Optic tracts − Allows for equalizing pressure
 Thalamus (axons form optic radiation) during yawning or swallowing
 Visual cortex of the occipital lobe − This tube is otherwise collapsed
 Eye Reflexes  Bones of the Tympanic Cavity
 Internal muscles are controlled by the  Three bones span the cavity
autonomic nervous system ● Malleus (hammer)
→ Bright light causes pupils to constrict ● Incus (anvil)
through action of radial (iris) and ● Stapes (stirrip)
ciliary muscles  Vibrations from eardrum move the malleus
→ Viewing close objects causes  These bones transfer sound to the inner
accommodation ear
 External muscles control eye movement to  Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth
follow objects- voluntary, controlled at the  Also known as osseous labyrinth- twisted
frontal eye field bony tubes
 Viewing close objects causes convergence  Includes sense organs for hearing and
(eyes moving medially) balance
 The Ear  Filled with perilymph
 Houses two senses  Vibrations of the stapes push and pull
− Hearing (interpreted in the auditory on the membranous oval window, moving
cortex of the temporal lobe) the perilymph through the cochlea. The
− Equilibrium (balance) (interpreted in
the cerebellum)
PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.
 round window is a membrane at the → Tuft of hair cells
opposite end to relieve pressure. → Cupula (gelatinous cap) covers the
 A maze of bony chambers within the hair cells
temporal bone  Action of angular head movements
● Cochlea → The cupula stimulates the hair cells
● Upper chamber is the scala vestibuli → Movement of endolymph pushes the
● Lower chamber is the scala tympani cupula over and pulls the hairs
● Vestibule → An impulse is sent via the vestibular
● Semicircular canals nerve to the cerebellum
 Organ of Corti  Chemical Senses – Taste and
 Located within the cochlea Smell
 Receptors = hair cells on the basilar
membrane  Both senses use chemoreceptors
 Mechanisms of Hearing ▪ Stimulated by chemicals in solution
1. Vibrations from sound waves move ▪ Taste has four types of receptors
tectorial membrane (pass through the ▪ Smell can differentiate a large range
endolymph fluid filling the membranous of chemicals
labyrinth in the cochlear duct)  Both senses complement each other and
2. Hair cells are bent by the membrane respond to many of the same stimuli
3. An action potential starts in the cochlear
nerve
 Olfaction – The Sense of Smell
 Olfactory receptors are in the roof of the
4. The signal is transmitted to the midbrain
nasal cavity
(for auditory reflexes and then directed to
→ Neurons with long cilia
the auditory cortex of the temporal lobe)
→ Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus
5. Continued stimulation can lead to
for detection
adaptation (over stimulation to the brain
 Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory
makes it stop interpreting the sounds)
nerve
 Organs of Equilibrium
 Receptor cells are in two structures  Interpretation of smells is made in the
▪ Vestibule cortex (olfactory area of temporal lobe)
▪ Semicircular canals  The Sense of Taste
 Equilibrium has two functional parts  Taste buds house the receptor organs
▪ Static equilibrium- in the vestibule  Location of taste buds
▪ Dynamic equilibrium- in the ● Most are on the tongue
semicircular canals ● Soft palate
 Static Equilibrium ● Cheeks
 Maculae – receptors in the vestibule  Structure of Taste Buds
→ Report on the position of the head  Gustatory cells are the receptors
→ Send information via the vestibular → Have gustatory hairs (long microvilli)
nerve → Hairs are stimulated by chemicals
 Anatomy of the maculae dissolved in saliva
→ Hair cells are embedded in the  Impulses are carried to the gustatory
otolithic membrane complex (pareital lobe) by several cranial
→ Otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel nerves because taste buds are found in
around the hair cells different areas
 Function of Maculae ● Facial nerve
 Movements cause otoliths to bend the hair ● Glossopharyngeal nerve
cells (gravity moves the “rocks” over and ● Vagus nerve
pulls the hairs)  Taste Sensations
 Dynamic Equilibrium  Sweet receptors
 Whole structure is the ampulla ▪ Sugars
 Crista ampullaris – receptors in the ▪ Saccharine
semicircular canals ▪ Some amino acids

PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.
 Sour receptors
▪ Acids
 Bitter receptors
▪ Alkaloids
 Salty receptors
▪ Metal ions
 Umami
▪ Glutamate, aspartate (MSG, meats)
 Developmental Aspects of the
Special Senses
► Formed early in embryonic development
► Eyes are outgrowths of the brain
► All special senses are functional at birth

PILONES,RISHELLE MAE M.