Module Finding the Answers to the Research

Questions
1 Lesson 1- Data Analysis Method

This module will give you guidance on the appropriate method analysis of data
obtained. It will enable you to think critically and solve problems, organize and evaluate
information, and understand and manipulate data. It will guide beginner researchers
to investigate, communicate results, conceptualize framework of the research paper,
and practice the research integrity and intellectual honesty.
In the previous weeks, you learned about the understanding and ways to collect
data along with the research design, population and sampling method, and data
collection procedure.
Lesson 1 of this module will help you familiarize on the data analysis method
along with the intellectual honesty in research.

Learning Target
In this module, you are expected to analyze data with intellectual honesty
using suitable techniques.

Vocabulary List

The following terms will be encountered in the lesson:

Data - factual information [as measurements or statistics] used as a basis for

reasoning, discussion, or calculation.

Data Analysis - a process of understanding data or known facts or assumptions

serving as the basis of any claims or conclusions you have about something.

Bias - defined as any tendency which prevents unprejudiced consideration. In

research, bias occurs when “systematic error [is] introduced into sampling or
testing by selecting or encouraging one outcome or answer over others”

Plagiarism - is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own, with or

without their consent, by incorporating it into your work without full
acknowledgement. All published and unpublished material, whether in
manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this definition.

Intellectual honesty - is honesty in the acquisition, analysis, and transmission

of ideas. A person is being intellectually honest when he or she, knowing the
truth, states that truth.
1
 Warming Up

Task 1. The Prior

A. Using a concept web, write words/ideas that you can connect to the given words
(DATA and ANALYSIS). From those words you thought, try to construct your own
meaning of DATA ANALYSIS. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the
activity.

DATA ANALYSIS

Your own definition of the word DATA ANALYSIS

______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________.

B. Familiarize yourself with dos and don’ts in citing sources in research. Then group
the words accordingly using the template. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering
the activity.

Plagiarism Honesty Selective Reporting Impartiality

Disinformation Fabrication Transparency Logical Fallacies
Proper Citation Bias Intellectual Property Rights False Analogies

Correct Practice Wrong Practice

2
 Learning About It
Data Analysis Methods

In reporting the results, the researcher stays close to the statistical findings
without drawing broader implications or meaning from them. Further, this section
includes summaries of the data rather than the raw data (e.g., the actual scores for
individuals). A results section includes tables, figures, and detailed explanations about
the statistical results.

Before writing this section:

Rewrite the Chapters 1-3 before or after data analysis and before writing
Chapter 4.
Rewrite the chapters in past tense, wherever applicable, and make
corrections for actual data collection and data analysis procedures.

What is the first thing that comes to mind when we see data? The first instinct
is to find patterns, connections, and relationships. We look at the data to find meaning
in it.

Similarly, in research, once data is collected, the next step is to get insights
from it. For example, if a clothing brand is trying to identify the latest trends among
young women, the brand will first reach out to young women and ask them questions
relevant to the research objective. After collecting this information, the brand will
analyze that data to identify patterns — for example, it may discover that most young
women would like to see more variety of jeans.

Data analysis is how researchers go from a mass of data to meaningful insights.

There are many different data analysis methods, depending on the type of research.
Here are a few methods you can use to analyze quantitative and qualitative data.

Analyzing Qualitative Data

Qualitative data analysis works a little differently from quantitative data,
primarily because qualitative data is made up of words, observations, images, and
even symbols. Deriving absolute meaning from such data is nearly impossible; hence,
it is mostly used for exploratory research. While in quantitative research there is a clear
distinction between the data preparation and data analysis stage, analysis for
qualitative research often begins as soon as the data is available.

Data Preparation and Basic Data Analysis

Analysis and preparation happen in parallel and include the following steps:
1. Getting familiar with the data: Since most qualitative data is just words, the
researcher should start by reading the data several times to get familiar with it
and start looking for basic observations or patterns. This also includes
transcribing the data.

3
 2. Revisiting research objectives: Here, the researcher revisits the research
objective and identifies the questions that can be answered through the
collected data.
3. Developing a framework: Also known as
coding or indexing, here the researcher
identifies broad ideas, concepts, behaviors,
or phrases and assigns codes to them. For
example, coding age, gender, socio-
economic status, and even concepts such
as the positive or negative response to a
question. Coding is helpful in structuring
and labeling the data.
4. Identifying patterns and connections: Once the data is coded, the research
can start identifying themes, looking for the most common responses to
questions, identifying data or patterns that can answer research questions, and
finding areas that can be explored further.

Qualitative Data Analysis Methods

Several methods are available to analyze qualitative data. The most commonly
used data analysis methods are:

 Content analysis: This is one of the most common methods to analyze

qualitative data. It is used to analyze documented information in the form of
texts, media, or even physical items. When to use this method depends on the
research questions. Content analysis is usually used to analyze responses from
interviewees.
 Narrative analysis: This method is used to analyze content from various
sources, such as interviews of respondents, observations from the field, or
surveys. It focuses on using the stories and experiences shared by people to
answer the research questions.
 Framework analysis. This is more advanced method that consists of several
stages such as familiarization, identifying a thematic framework, coding,
charting, mapping and interpretation.
 Discourse analysis: Like narrative analysis, discourse analysis is used to
analyze interactions with people. However, it focuses on analyzing the social
context in which the communication between the researcher and the
respondent occurred. Discourse analysis also looks at the respondent’s day-to-
day environment and uses that information during analysis.
 Grounded theory: This refers to using qualitative data to explain why a certain
phenomenon happened. It does this by studying a variety of similar cases in
different settings and using the data to derive causal explanations. Researchers
may alter the explanations or create new ones as they study more cases until
they arrive at an explanation that fits all cases.

These methods are the ones used most commonly. However, other data analysis
methods, such as conversational analysis, are also available.

4
Qualitative data analysis can also be conducted through the following three
steps:

Step 1: Developing and Applying Codes. Coding can be explained as

categorization of data. A ‘code’ can be a word or a short phrase that represents a
theme or an idea. All codes need to be assigned meaningful titles. A wide range of
non-quantifiable elements such as events, behaviors, activities, meanings etc. can be
coded.

There are three types of coding:

1. Open coding. The initial organization of raw data to try to make sense of it.
2. Axial coding. Interconnecting and linking the categories of codes.
3. Selective coding. Formulating the story through connecting the categories.

Coding can be done manually or using qualitative data analysis software such as

NVivo, Atlas ti 6.0, Hyper RESEARCH 2.8, Max QDA and others.

When using manual coding you can use folders, filing cabinets, wallets etc. to
gather together materials that are examples of similar themes or analytic ideas.
Manual method of coding in qualitative data analysis is rightly considered as labor-
intensive, time-consuming and outdated.

In computer-based coding, on the other hand, physical files and cabinets are
replaced with computer based directories and files. When choosing software for
qualitative data analysis you need to consider a wide range of factors such as the type
and amount of data you need to analyze, time required to master the software and
cost considerations.

Moreover, it is important to get confirmation from your dissertation supervisor prior

to application of any specific qualitative data analysis software.

The following table contains examples of research titles, elements to be coded and
identification of relevant codes:

Research title Elements to be coded Codes

Born or bred: revising The Born leaders
Great Man theory of Made leaders
Leadership practice
leadership in the Leadership
21st century effectiveness

Wholly-owned
A study into advantages
subsidiaries
and disadvantages of
Joint-ventures
various entry strategies to Market entry strategies
Franchising
Chinese market
Exporting
Licensing

5
 Philanthropy
Impacts of CSR programs Supporting charitable
and initiative on brand courses
Activities, phenomenon
image: a case study of Ethical behavior
Coca-Cola Company UK. Brand awareness
Brand value
An investigation into the Viral messages
ways of customer Customer retention
relationship management in Tactics Popularity of social
mobile marketing networking sites
environment

Qualitative data coding

Step 2: Identifying themes, patterns and relationships. Unlike quantitative

methods, in qualitative data analysis there are no universally applicable techniques
that can be applied to generate findings. Analytical and critical thinking skills of
researcher plays significant role in data analysis in qualitative studies. Therefore, no
qualitative study can be repeated to generate the same results.

Nevertheless, there is a set of techniques that you can use to identify common
themes, patterns and relationships within responses of sample group members in
relation to codes that have been specified in the previous stage.

Specifically, the most popular and effective methods of qualitative data

interpretation include the following:

 Word and phrase repetitions – scanning primary data for words and phrases
most commonly used by respondents, as well as, words and phrases used with
unusual emotions;
 Primary and secondary data comparisons – comparing the findings of
interview/focus group/observation/any other qualitative data collection method
with the findings of literature review and discussing differences between them;
 Search for missing information – discussions about which aspects of the
issue was not mentioned by respondents, although you expected them to be
mentioned;
 Metaphors and analogues – comparing primary research findings to
phenomena from a different area and discussing similarities and differences.

Step 3: Summarizing the data. At this last stage you need to link research findings
to hypotheses or research aim and objectives. When writing data analysis chapter,
you can use noteworthy quotations from the transcript in order to highlight major
themes within findings and possible contradictions.

It is important to note that the process of qualitative data analysis described above
is general and different types of qualitative studies may require slightly different
methods of data analysis.

6
Analyzing Quantitative Data
Data Preparation
The first stage of analyzing data is data preparation, where the aim is to convert
raw data into something meaningful and readable. It includes four steps:
Step 1: Data Validation
The purpose of data validation is to find out, as far as possible, whether the
data collection was done as per the pre-set standards and without any bias. It is a four-
step process, which includes…

 Fraud, to infer whether each respondent

was actually interviewed or not.
 Screening, to make sure that respondents
were chosen as per the research criteria.
 Procedure, to check whether the data
collection procedure was duly followed.
 Completeness, to ensure that the
interviewer asked the respondent all the
Figure 1Source:https://humansofdata.atlan.com/2018/09/qualitative-
questions, rather than just a few required quantitative-data-analysis-methods/
ones.

To do this, researchers would need to pick a random sample of completed

surveys and validate the collected data. (Note that this can be time-consuming for
surveys with lots of responses.) For example, imagine a survey with 200 respondents
split into 2 cities. The researcher can pick a sample of 20 random respondents from
each city. After this, the researcher can reach out to them through email or phone and
check their responses to a certain set of questions.

Step 2: Data Editing

Typically, large data sets include errors. For example, respondents may fill
fields incorrectly or skip them accidentally. To make sure that there are no such errors,
the researcher should conduct basic data checks, check for outliers, and edit the raw
research data to identify and clear out any data points that may hamper the accuracy
of the results.

For example, an error could be fields that were left empty by respondents. While
editing the data, it is important to make sure to remove or fill all the empty fields.

Step 3: Data Coding

This is one of the most important steps in data preparation. It refers to grouping and
assigning values to responses from the survey.

For example, if a researcher has interviewed 1,000 people and now wants to
find the average age of the respondents, the researcher will create age buckets and
categorize the age of each of the respondent as per these codes. (For example,
respondents between 13-15 years old would have their age coded as 0, 16-18 as 1,
18-20 as 2, etc.)

7
 Then during analysis, the researcher can deal with simplified age brackets,
rather than a massive range of individual ages.

Quantitative Data Analysis Methods

After these steps, the data is ready for analysis. The two most commonly used
quantitative data analysis methods are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

Descriptive Statistics
Typically descriptive statistics (also known as descriptive analysis) is the first
level of analysis. It helps researchers summarize the data and find patterns. A few
commonly used descriptive statistics are:

 Mean: numerical average of a set of values.

 Median: midpoint of a set of numerical values.
 Mode: most common value among a set of values.
 Percentage: used to express how a value or group of respondents within the
data relates to a larger group of respondents.
 Frequency: the number of times a value is found.
 Range: the highest and lowest value in a set of values.

Descriptive statistics provide absolute numbers. However, they do not explain the
rationale or reasoning behind those numbers. Before applying descriptive statistics,
it’s important to think about which one is best suited for your research question and
what you want to show. For example, a percentage is a good way to show the gender
distribution of respondents.

Descriptive statistics are most

helpful when the research is limited to
the sample and does not need to be
generalized to a larger population. For
example, if you are comparing the
percentage of children vaccinated in
two different villages, then descriptive
statistics is enough.

Since descriptive analysis is mostly used for analyzing single variable, it is often called
univariate analysis.

Intellectual Honesty in Research

Intellectual Honesty is an applied method of problem solving, characterized by an
unbiased, honest attitude, which can be demonstrated in a number of different ways
including:

 Ensuring support for chosen ideologies does not interfere with the pursuit of
truth;
 Relevant facts and information are not purposefully omitted even when such
things may contradict one's hypothesis;

8
  Facts are presented in an unbiased manner, and not twisted to give misleading
impressions or to support one view over another;
 References, or earlier work, are acknowledged where possible,
and plagiarism is avoided.

Ten Signs of Intellectual Honesty

1. Do not overstate the power of your argument. One’s sense of conviction should
be in proportion to the level of clear evidence assessable by most. If someone
portrays their opponents as being stupid or dishonest for disagreeing, intellectual
dishonesty is probably in play. Intellectual honesty is most often associated with
humility, not arrogance.

2. Show willingness to publicly acknowledge that reasonable alternative

viewpoints exist. The alternative views do not have to be treated as equally valid
or powerful, but rarely is it the case that one and only one viewpoint has a complete
monopoly on reason and evidence.

3. Be willing to publicly acknowledge and question one’s own assumptions and

biases. All of us rely on assumptions when applying our world view to make sense
of the data about the world. And all of us bring various biases to the table.

4. Be willing to publicly acknowledge where your argument is weak. Almost all

arguments have weak spots, but those who are trying to sell an ideology will have
great difficulty with this point and would rather obscure or downplay any weak
points.

5. Be willing to publicly acknowledge when you are wrong. Those selling an

ideology likewise have great difficulty admitting to being wrong, as this undercuts
the rhetoric and image that is being sold. You get small points for admitting to being
wrong on trivial matters and big points for admitting to being wrong on substantive
points. You lose big points for failing to admit being wrong on something trivial.

6. Demonstrate consistency. A clear sign of intellectual dishonesty is when someone

extensively relies on double standards. Typically, an excessively high standard is
applied to the perceived opponent(s), while a very low standard is applied to the
ideologues’ allies.

7. Address the argument instead of attacking the person making the argument.
Ad hominem arguments are a clear sign of intellectual dishonesty. However, often
times, the dishonesty is more subtle. For example, someone might make a token
effort at debunking an argument and then turn significant attention to the person
making the argument, relying on stereotypes, guilt-by-association, and innocent-
sounding gotcha questions.

9
8. When addressing an argument, do not misrepresent it. A common tactic of the
intellectually dishonest is to portray their opponent’s argument in straw man terms.
In politics, this is called spin. Typically, such tactics eschew quoting the person in
context, but instead rely heavily on out-of-context quotes, paraphrasing and
impression. When addressing an argument, one should shows signs of having
made a serious effort to first understand the argument and then accurately
represent it in its strongest form.

9. Show a commitment to critical thinking.

10. Be willing to publicly acknowledge when a point or criticism is good. If

someone is unable or unwilling to admit when their opponent raises a good point
or makes a good criticism, it demonstrates an unwillingness to participate in the
give-and-take that characterizes an honest exchange.

While no one is perfect, and even those who strive for intellectual honesty can
have a bad day, simply be on the lookout for how many and how often these criteria
apply to someone. In the arena of public discourse, it is not intelligence or knowledge
that matters most – it is whether you can trust the intelligence or knowledge of another.
After all, intelligence and knowledge can sometimes be the best tools of an
intellectually dishonest approach.

Keeping You in Practice

Practice Task 1. Honest Test

A. Certain forms of communications may influence your beliefs or decision

making. These communications may include: product advertisements, sales
materials, blog posts, social media, news reports, medical advice, nutritional
advice, editorials, sermons, appeals to support some issue, organization, or
cause; political speeches, books, lectures, research reports, documentary
films, rumors, or routine conversations. Accomplish the table below based on
the forms of communication. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the
activity.
Column A Column B
Intellectually Honest Form of Misleading Form of Communication
Communication

10