UNIT 1

1.) Analysis-synthesis model of compilation

The analysis-synthesis model of compilation is a common
approach used in the process of translating high-level
programming languages into machine code that can be
executed by a computer. It consists of two main phases: the
analysis phase and the synthesis phase. Let's explore each
phase in detail:
1. Analysis Phase: The analysis phase involves understanding
and processing the source code of a program to gather
 information about its structure, syntax, and semantics.
This phase typically includes the following steps:
a. Lexical Analysis: The first step is to perform lexical analysis,
also known as scanning. In this step, the source code is divided
into smaller units called tokens, such as keywords, identifiers,
constants, and operators. This process helps in identifying the
basic building blocks of the program.

b. Syntax Analysis: After lexical analysis, the syntax analysis, or

parsing, takes place. It checks the sequence of tokens against
the grammar of the programming language to ensure that the
program follows the language's syntactic rules. This step
generates a parse tree or an abstract syntax tree (AST) that
represents the structure of the program.
c. Semantic Analysis: Once the syntax analysis is complete, the
semantic analysis phase begins. It focuses on understanding the
meaning of the program by checking for semantic correctness
and resolving any ambiguities. This involves type checking,
scope analysis, and detecting potential errors. The output of
this phase is a decorated syntax tree or an annotated AST.
d. Intermediate Code Generation: In some compilation models,
an intermediate representation of the program is generated at
this stage. This intermediate code is often closer to the target
machine language but still independent of the specific target
architecture. It serves as an abstraction that allows further
optimization before generating the final machine code.
 2. Synthesis Phase: The synthesis phase takes the results of
the analysis phase and generates the final machine code
that can be executed by the target machine. This phase
typically includes the following steps:
a. Optimization: Before generating the final machine code,
optimization techniques are applied to enhance the efficiency,
speed, and size of the program. Optimization may involve
analyzing and transforming the intermediate representation or
the annotated AST to improve the program's performance.

b. Code Generation: In this step, the compiler generates the

actual machine code based on the optimized intermediate
representation or annotated AST. It translates the high-level
program constructs into a sequence of low-level instructions
specific to the target machine architecture. This includes
handling memory management, register allocation, and
instruction selection.
c. Symbol Table Management: Throughout the analysis and
synthesis phases, a symbol table is maintained. It stores
information about identifiers, their types, scopes, and memory
locations. During code generation, the symbol table is used to
resolve references to variables, functions, and other program
elements.
d. Error Handling: Error handling is an important aspect of the
synthesis phase. Any errors detected during the analysis phase
or during code generation are reported to the programmer,
indicating the nature and location of the errors.
e. Linking and Loading (optional): In some cases, an additional
step of linking and loading is performed to combine multiple
compiled modules or libraries and resolve external references.
This step produces the final executable file that can be directly
run on the target machine.
By following the analysis-synthesis model, a compiler can
effectively analyze the source code, identify potential errors,
and generate optimized machine code. This model allows for
modular and organized compilation processes, making it easier
to maintain and improve the compiler over time.

2.) Context of a Compiler :-

The context of a compiler refers to the broader environment
and factors in which the compiler operates. It encompasses
various aspects that influence the design, functionality, and
usage of the compiler. Let's explore some key elements of the
compiler's context:
1. Programming Language: The programming language for
which the compiler is designed plays a crucial role in
defining the context. Different programming languages
have varying syntax, semantics, and features, which
directly impact how the compiler analyzes and translates
the source code. The context of the compiler is heavily
influenced by the design principles and requirements of
the programming language.
2. Target Architecture: The target architecture refers to the
specific hardware or virtual machine on which the
compiled code is intended to run. It includes details such
as the instruction set architecture, memory organization,
available registers, and supported data types. The context
of the compiler is influenced by the characteristics and
constraints of the target architecture, as the generated
code must be compatible and efficient on the given
platform.
3. Compilation Model: The compilation model adopted by
the compiler also affects its context. Different compilation
 models, such as single-pass, multi-pass, just-in-time (JIT),
or ahead-of-time (AOT), have distinct requirements, trade-
offs, and optimizations. The choice of compilation model
influences factors like compilation speed, memory usage,
and the level of optimization performed by the compiler.
4. Development Environment: The development
environment in which the compiler is used is an essential
part of its context. This includes the tools, libraries, and
frameworks available to the compiler and the integration
with other software development tools. The context may
also encompass the specific requirements of the
development workflow, such as debugging support,
profiling, and build automation.
5. Compiler Infrastructure: The underlying infrastructure and
technologies used to implement the compiler contribute
to its context. This includes the programming languages,
frameworks, and libraries utilized to build the compiler
itself. The context may also involve the availability of
relevant compiler-related tools and utilities, such as lexer
and parser generators, intermediate code representations,
and optimization frameworks.
6. Performance and Portability: The context of the compiler
often encompasses considerations related to performance
and portability. Compiler designers need to balance the
 efficiency of the generated code with the need for
platform independence. The context may involve the
ability to generate optimized code, support for platform-
specific features, and the ability to target different
operating systems or hardware architectures.
7. Language Ecosystem: The context of a compiler can also
be influenced by the broader ecosystem of tools, libraries,
and frameworks associated with the programming
language. This includes the availability of standard
libraries, third-party libraries, and community support. The
context may encompass compatibility with existing
codebases, adherence to language standards, and support
for language extensions or variations.
Understanding the context of a compiler is crucial for its design,
implementation, and usage. It helps compiler developers make
informed decisions regarding language support, optimization
strategies, target platform compatibility, and integration with
the development workflow. Additionally, considering the
context allows programmers to choose an appropriate compiler
that aligns with their specific requirements and constraints.
3.) Analysis of the source program: Lexical
Analysis, Syntax Analysis, Semantic Analysis:-
The analysis phase of a compiler is responsible for analyzing the
source program to gather information about its structure,
syntax, and semantics. This phase is typically the first step in
the compilation process and involves several key tasks
In compiling, analysis of source program consists of three
phases:
1. Lexical Analysis
2. Syntax Analysis
3. Semantic Analysis

1. Lexical Analysis: The analysis phase begins with lexical

analysis, also known as scanning. The source program is
divided into smaller units called tokens. The lexical
analyzer scans the source code character by character,
identifying and grouping sequences of characters into
tokens. Tokens can represent keywords, identifiers,
constants, operators, punctuation symbols, and other
language-specific constructs. Lexical analysis helps in
identifying the basic building blocks of the program.
Example :
position : = initial + rate * 60
Identifiers – position, initial, rate.
Operators - + , *
Assignment symbol - : =
Number - 60
Blanks – eliminated.
2. Syntax Analysis: Once lexical analysis is complete, the next
step is syntax analysis, also known as parsing. Syntax analysis
ensures that the sequence of tokens adheres to the rules of
the programming language's grammar. It constructs a parse
tree or an abstract syntax tree (AST) that represents the
hierarchical structure of the program. Syntax analysis checks
for syntactic correctness, identifies the relationships
between language constructs, and helps in detecting syntax
errors.
 A syntax tree is the tree generated as a result of syntax
analysis in which the interior nodes are the operators and the
exterior nodes are the operands.
This analysis shows an error when the syntax is incorrect.
Example :
position : = initial + rate * 60

3. Semantic Analysis: After the parse tree or AST is

constructed, semantic analysis takes place. Semantic analysis
focuses on understanding the meaning of the program by
checking for semantic correctness and resolving ambiguities.
This phase involves various tasks, including type checking,
scope analysis, and name resolution. Semantic analysis
ensures that the program follows the rules and constraints of
the programming language and detects potential errors or
inconsistencies.
4.) Phases of Compiler :-
The compiler is software that converts a program written in a
high-level language (Source Language) to a low-level language
(Object/Target/Machine Language/0, 1’s).
A translator or language processor is a program that translates
an input program written in a programming language into an
equivalent program in another language. The compiler is a type
of translator, which takes a program written in a high-level
programming language as input and translates it into an
equivalent program in low-level languages such as machine
language or assembly language.
A compiler is a computer program that decodes computer code
composed in one programming language into another
language. Or we can say that the compiler helps in translating
the source code composed in a high-level programming
language into the machine code
Phases of Compiler
The 6 phases of a compiler are:
1. Lexical Analysis
2. Syntactic Analysis or Parsing
3. Semantic Analysis
4. Intermediate Code Generation
5. Code Optimization
6. Code Generation
1. Lexical Analysis: The first phase of a compiler is lexical
analysis, also known as scanning. It deals with the source
 code at the character level and breaks it down into
meaningful tokens. The lexical analyzer scans the source
code character by character and groups sequences of
characters into tokens based on predefined patterns.
Tokens can represent keywords, identifiers, constants,
operators, punctuation symbols, and other language-
specific constructs. The output of lexical analysis is a
stream of tokens that serve as input for the next phase.
Roles and Responsibilities of Lexical Analyzer
 It is accountable for terminating the comments and white
spaces from the source program.
 It helps in identifying the tokens.
 Categorization of lexical units.

2.) Syntax Analysis: The next phase is syntax analysis, also

known as parsing. It focuses on the structure of the source code
and checks whether it conforms to the grammar of the
programming language. The syntax analyzer uses the stream of
tokens generated by the lexical analyzer to construct a parse
tree or an abstract syntax tree (AST). The parse tree represents
the hierarchical structure of the program, capturing the
relationships between language constructs. Syntax analysis
ensures that the source code is syntactically correct and helps
identify syntax errors.
Here, is a list of tasks performed in this phase:
 Obtain tokens from the lexical analyzer
 Checks if the expression is syntactically correct or not
 Report all syntax errors
 Construct a hierarchical structure which is known as a
parse tree
3. Semantic Analysis: After the parse tree or AST is
constructed, semantic analysis takes place. Semantic analysis
is concerned with the meaning of the program and checks
whether it adheres to the semantics of the programming
language. This phase performs tasks such as type checking,
scope analysis, name resolution, and error detection. It
ensures that the program is semantically correct, enforces
language-specific rules and constraints, and identifies
potential semantic errors or inconsistencies.
Roles and Responsibilities of Semantic Analyzer:
 Saving collected data to symbol tables or syntax trees.
  It notifies semantic errors.
 Scanning for semantic errors.

4.) Intermediate Code Generation: In some compiler designs,

an intermediate representation (IR) is generated after the
semantic analysis phase. The IR is a language-agnostic
representation of the program that is closer to the target
machine language but still independent of the specific target
architecture. The intermediate code serves as an abstraction
that allows for further optimization before generating the
final machine code. Intermediate code generation may
involve transforming the parse tree or AST into a more
suitable representation for optimization.
Roles and Responsibilities:
 Helps in maintaining the priority ordering of the source
language.
 Translate the intermediate code into the machine code.
  Having operands of instructions.

5.) Code Optimization: The optimization phase focuses on

improving the efficiency, speed, and size of the program. It
operates on the intermediate code or the representation
generated in the previous phase. Various optimization
techniques are applied, such as constant folding, dead code
elimination, loop optimization, and register allocation.
Optimization aims to enhance the performance of the
compiled code while preserving the program's functionality.
Roles and Responsibilities:
 Remove the unused variables and unreachable code.
 Enhance runtime and execution of the program.
  Produce streamlined code from the intermediate
expression.

6.) Code Generation: Code generation is the phase where the

final machine code is generated. It takes the optimized
intermediate representation or the output of the previous
phase and translates it into the specific target machine
language. Code generation involves handling memory
management, register allocation, instruction selection, and
producing the sequence of instructions that the target
machine can execute. The output of this phase is the
executable machine code that can be directly run on the
target platform.
Roles and Responsibilities:
 Translate the intermediate code to target machine code.
  Select and allocate memory spots and registers.

7.) Symbol Table Management: Throughout the compilation

process, a symbol table is maintained. The symbol table is a
data structure that stores information about identifiers, their
types, scopes, and memory locations. It is populated during
lexical and syntax analysis and is used during semantic
analysis and code generation to resolve references to
variables, functions, and other program elements. Symbol
table management ensures proper handling and analysis of
identifiers in the program.
The symbol table is defined as the set of Name and Value pairs.
Symbol Table is an important data structure created and
maintained by the compiler in order to keep track of semantics of
variables i.e. it stores information about the scope and binding
information about names, information about instances of various
entities such as variable and function names, classes, objects,
etc.
 The information is collected by the analysis phases of the
compiler and is used by the synthesis phases of the compiler
to generate code.
 It is used by the compiler to achieve compile-time efficiency.
 It is used by various phases of the compiler as follows:-
 Lexical Analysis: Creates new table entries in the
table, for example like entries about tokens.
 Syntax Analysis: Adds information regarding attribute
type, scope, dimension, line of reference, use, etc in
the table.
 Semantic Analysis: Uses available information in the
table to check for semantics i.e. to verify that
expressions and assignments are semantically
correct(type checking) and update it accordingly.
 Intermediate Code generation: Refers symbol table
for knowing how much and what type of run-time is
allocated and table helps in adding temporary variable
information.
 Code Optimization: Uses information present in the
symbol table for machine-dependent optimization.
 Target Code generation: Generates code by using
address information of identifier present in the table.
Items stored in Symbol table:
 Variable names and constants
 Procedure and function names
 Literal constants and strings
 Compiler generated temporaries
 Labels in source languages
 Operations of Symbol table – The basic operations
defined on a symbol table include:

Implementation
If a compiler is to handle a small amount of data, then the symbol
table can be implemented as an unordered list, which is easy to code,
but it is only suitable for small tables only. A symbol table can be
implemented in one of the following ways:
 Linear (sorted or unsorted) list
 Binary Search Tree
 Hash table
Among all, symbol tables are mostly implemented as hash tables,
where the source code symbol itself is treated as a key for the hash
function and the return value is the information about the symbol.
1. Linked List –
 This implementation is using a linked list. A link field is
added to each record.
 Searching of names is done in order pointed by the link of
the link field.
 A pointer “First” is maintained to point to the first record
of the symbol table.
 Insertion is fast O(1), but lookup is slow for large tables –
O(n) on average
lookup()
lookup() operation is used to search a name in the symbol
table to determine:
 if the symbol exists in the table.
 if it is declared before it is being used.
 if the name is used in the scope.
 if the symbol is initialized.
 if the symbol declared multiple times.
The format of lookup() function varies according to the
programming language. The basic format should match the
following:
lookup(symbol)
This method returns 0 (zero) if the symbol does not exist in
the symbol table. If the symbol exists in the symbol table, it
returns its attributes stored in the table.

8.) Error Handling: Error handling is an integral part of each

phase of the compiler. Any errors detected during lexical
analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, or code
generation are reported to the programmer. Error handling
aims to provide informative and helpful error messages to
assist programmers in identifying and fixing issues in their
source code.
Symbol Table Management :-
Symbol table is an important data structure created and
maintained by compilers in order to store information about
the occurrence of various entities such as variable names,
function names, objects, classes, interfaces, etc. Symbol table is
used by both the analysis and the synthesis parts of a compiler.
A symbol table may serve the following purposes depending
upon the language in hand:
 To store the names of all entities in a structured form at
one place.
  To verify if a variable has been declared.
 To implement type checking, by verifying assignments and
expressions in the source code are semantically correct.
 To determine the scope of a name (scope resolution).

A symbol table is simply a table which can be either linear or a

hash table. It maintains an entry for each name in the following
format:
<symbol name, type, attribute>
For example, if a symbol table has to store information about
the following variable declaration:
static int interest;
then it should store the entry such as:
<interest, int, static>
The attribute clause contains the entries related to the name.

Symbol table management is an important aspect of compiler

design that involves the creation, organization, and retrieval of
information about identifiers encountered in the source
program. A symbol table is a data structure used to store and
manage this information. Let's explore symbol table
management in compiler design with a detailed example:
Consider the following C code snippet:
int main()
{
int a = 5;
int b = 10;
int sum = a + b;
return sum;
}
1. Creation and Population of the Symbol Table: During
lexical analysis and syntax analysis, the compiler
encounters identifiers like variable names, function names,
and constants. The symbol table is initially empty and gets
populated as the compiler encounters identifiers in the
code.
Example Entries in the Symbol Table:
 Identifier: main
 Type: Function
  Return Type: int
 Parameters: None
 Identifier: a
 Type: Variable
 Data Type: int
 Scope: main
 Memory Location: Offset 0
 Identifier: b
 Type: Variable
 Data Type: int
 Scope: main
 Memory Location: Offset 4
 Identifier: sum
 Type: Variable
 Data Type: int
 Scope: main
 Memory Location: Offset 8
2. Retrieval and Usage of Symbol Table Information: During
semantic analysis and code generation, the compiler
 requires information from the symbol table to perform
various tasks. This information can include data types,
memory locations, scopes, and other relevant details.
Example Usage of Symbol Table Information:
 When encountering an identifier like a in an
expression, the compiler refers to the symbol table to
retrieve the data type (int) and memory location
(Offset 0) of the variable a.
 When generating code for an assignment statement
like sum = a + b;, the compiler looks up the symbol
table to determine the memory locations of sum, a,
and b for generating appropriate load and store
instructions.
3. Scope Management: The symbol table also plays a crucial
role in managing scopes in the source program. Scopes
define the visibility and accessibility of identifiers within
different sections of the code.
Example Scope Management:
 The symbol table maintains scope information for
each identifier. In the example code, all variables (a,
b, sum) have the scope of the main function. This
information is useful during semantic analysis to
 ensure that identifiers are correctly accessed within
their respective scopes.
4. Error Detection and Reporting: The symbol table facilitates
error detection and reporting during the compilation
process. It can help detect issues like undeclared
identifiers, duplicate declarations, or incompatible
assignments.
Example Error Detection:
 If an identifier is referenced before its declaration,
the compiler can detect this error by checking the
symbol table for the identifier's existence and scope
information.
 If there are multiple declarations of the same
identifier within the same scope, the symbol table can
flag this as a duplicate declaration error.
Symbol table management ensures that identifiers are properly
defined, accessed, and resolved within the source program. It
aids in resolving variable names, tracking data types, managing
scope rules, and detecting errors related to identifiers. The
symbol table acts as a central repository of information,
enabling the compiler to perform various analysis and code
generation tasks effectively.
Error Detection & Reporting :-
Error detection and reporting is an essential aspect of compiler
design. It involves identifying and reporting various types of
errors and anomalies present in the source code being
compiled. Detecting errors helps programmers identify and fix
issues in their code, leading to more reliable and correct
programs. Let's explore error detection and reporting in
compiler design in detail:

1. Lexical Errors: Lexical errors occur when the scanner

(lexical analyzer) encounters characters or sequences of
characters that do not conform to the language's lexical
rules. Examples include misspelled identifiers, invalid
characters, and unrecognized tokens. The lexical analyzer
is responsible for detecting these errors and reporting
them to the programmer. The error message typically
 includes the line number and a description of the
encountered lexical error.
Example Lexical Error:
Error: Invalid character '@' at line 5.

Error recovery for lexical errors:

Panic Mode Recovery
 In this method, successive characters from the input are
removed one at a time until a designated set of
synchronizing tokens is found. Synchronizing tokens are
delimiters such as; or }
 The advantage is that it is easy to implement and
guarantees not to go into an infinite loop
 The disadvantage is that a considerable amount of input is
skipped without checking it for additional errors

2. Syntax Errors: Syntax errors occur when the parser (syntax

analyzer) detects violations of the language's grammar
rules. These errors indicate that the source code does not
conform to the expected structure and syntax of the
programming language. Examples include missing
 semicolons, mismatched parentheses, and incorrect usage
of language constructs. The syntax analyzer identifies
these errors and provides meaningful error messages,
usually indicating the line number and the specific syntax
error encountered.
Example Syntax Error:
Error: Missing ';' at line 10.

Error recovery for syntactic phase error:

1. Panic Mode Recovery
 In this method, successive characters from the input are
removed one at a time until a designated set of
synchronizing tokens is found. Synchronizing tokens are
deli-meters such as; or }
 The advantage is that it’s easy to implement and
guarantees not to go into an infinite loop
 The disadvantage is that a considerable amount of input is
skipped without checking it for additional errors
2. Statement Mode recovery
 In this method, when a parser encounters an error, it
performs the necessary correction on the remaining input
 so that the rest of the input statement allows the parser to
parse ahead.
 The correction can be deletion of extra semicolons,
replacing the comma with semicolons, or inserting a
missing semicolon.
 While performing correction, utmost care should be taken
for not going in an infinite loop.
 A disadvantage is that it finds it difficult to handle
situations where the actual error occurred before pointing
of detection.
3. Error production
 If a user has knowledge of common errors that can be
encountered then, these errors can be incorporated by
augmenting the grammar with error productions that
generate erroneous constructs.
 If this is used then, during parsing appropriate error
messages can be generated and parsing can be continued.
 The disadvantage is that it’s difficult to maintain.
4. Global Correction
 The parser examines the whole program and tries to find
out the closest match for it which is error-free.
  The closest match program has less number of insertions,
deletions, and changes of tokens to recover from
erroneous input.
 Due to high time and space complexity, this method is not
implemented practically.

3. Semantic Errors: Semantic errors occur when the compiler

detects issues related to the meaning and semantics of the
program. These errors are identified during semantic
analysis, which involves checking type compatibility,
scoping rules, and other semantic constraints. Examples
include type mismatch errors, undeclared variables, and
incompatible function arguments. Semantic errors are
typically reported with descriptive error messages,
including the line number and a description of the specific
semantic issue.
Example Semantic Error:
Error: Undeclared identifier 'x' at line 15.
Error recovery for Semantic errors
 If the error “Undeclared Identifier” is encountered then,
to recover from this a symbol table entry for the
corresponding identifier is made.
  If data types of two operands are incompatible then,
automatic type conversion is done by the compiler.

4. Duplicate Declarations: Duplicate declaration errors occur

when the same identifier is declared multiple times within
the same scope. This error is detected during semantic
analysis and prevents conflicting definitions of variables,
functions, or other program elements. The error message
indicates the duplicated identifier and the line number
where the duplicate declaration occurs.
Example Duplicate Declaration Error:
Error: Duplicate declaration of identifier 'x' at line 8.
5. Type Errors: Type errors occur when there is a mismatch
or inconsistency in the usage of data types within the
program. The compiler performs type checking during
semantic analysis to ensure that operations and
assignments are performed on compatible data types.
Type errors are reported with informative error messages,
indicating the line number and a description of the type
mismatch or inconsistency.
Example Type Error:
Error: Type mismatch in assignment. Expected 'int' but found
'float' at line 12.
6. Other Errors: Apart from the above categories, compilers
may also detect and report other specific errors based on
language-specific rules and constraints. This includes
errors related to function calls, control flow, memory
management, and library usage. These errors are reported
with appropriate error messages, helping programmers
identify and resolve the specific issues.
Example Other Error:
Error: Invalid function call. No matching function signature
found for 'foo' at line 20
In addition to reporting errors, compilers may provide
additional information to aid programmers in debugging and
fixing the identified issues. This can include suggestions for
potential fixes, highlighting the relevant code snippets, and
providing context-specific error messages.
Effective error detection and reporting in compilers help
programmers identify and address issues in their code early in
the development process. Well-crafted error messages improve
the programmer's experience and facilitate the production of
more robust and correct software.
 COUSINS OF COMPILER

1.) System Software :-

System software refers to the collection of programs and
software components that enable a computer or computing
device to function properly.
System software plays a crucial role in the design and
implementation of compilers. It provides the necessary
infrastructure and tools to support the compilation process
It acts as an intermediary between the user and the computer
hardware, allowing the user to interact with the hardware and
use various applications and programs.
Some common types of system software include operating
systems (such as Windows, macOS, or Linux), device drivers,
utility programs, programming languages, and system libraries.

System software plays a crucial role in the design and

implementation of compilers. It provides the necessary
infrastructure and tools to support the compilation process.

The role of system software in compiler design :-

1. Operating System: The operating system provides a
runtime environment for the execution of the compiler
and the compiled programs. It manages system resources,
such as memory, file I/O, and process scheduling, which
are crucial for efficient compilation. The compiler interacts
with the operating system to allocate memory, read and
write files, and execute system commands.
2. Text Editors and Integrated Development Environments
(IDEs): Text editors and IDEs are software tools that
programmers use to write, modify, and manage source
code. They provide features like syntax highlighting, code
completion, and debugging capabilities, which facilitate
the development and debugging of compiler code. These
tools enhance the productivity and efficiency of compiler
developers by providing an intuitive interface and helpful
functionalities.
3. Build Systems: Build systems are responsible for
automating the compilation process and managing the
dependencies between source files and libraries. They
help organize and streamline the compilation process by
 determining which source files need to be recompiled,
handling complex project structures, and managing
external libraries. Build systems such as Make, CMake, and
Gradle are commonly used in compiler development to
manage large-scale projects and ensure efficient code
compilation.
4. Libraries and Runtime Environments: Libraries and runtime
environments provide pre-compiled code that can be
utilized by the compiled programs. Compiler developers
rely on system libraries and runtime environments to
provide essential functionalities, such as I/O operations,
networking, graphical user interfaces, and math
operations. These libraries and runtime environments
ensure that compiled programs can leverage existing
software infrastructure, saving development time and
effort.
5. System Utilities: System utilities, such as command-line
tools and scripting languages, are used in various stages of
the compiler development process. They assist in tasks
such as file manipulation, automated testing, version
control, and code generation. System utilities provide a
flexible and powerful environment for compiler
developers to automate repetitive tasks and streamline
the overall development workflow.
Features of System Software
There is a list of some important features of System Software:
o It is very difficult to design system software.
o System software is responsible to directly connect the
computer with hardware that enables the computer to
run.
o Difficulties in manipulation.
o It is smaller in size.
o System Software is difficult to understand.
o It is usually written in a low-level language.
o It must be as efficient as possible for the smooth
functioning of the computer system.
ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE:
1. Resource management: System software manages and
allocates resources such as memory, CPU, and
input/output devices to different programs.
2. Improved performance: System software optimizes the
performance of the computer and reduces the workload
on the user.
 3. Security: System software provides security features such
as firewalls, anti-virus protection, and access controls to
protect the computer from malicious attacks.
4. Compatibility: System software ensures compatibility
between different hardware and software components,
making it easier for users to work with a wide range of
devices and software.
5. Ease of use: System software provides a user-friendly
interface and graphical environment, making it easier for
users to interact with and control the computer.
6. Reliability: System software helps ensure the stability and
reliability of the computer, reducing the risk of crashes and
malfunctions.
DISADVANTAGES OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE:
1. Complexity: System software can be complex and difficult
to understand, especially for non-technical users.
2. Cost: Some system software, such as operating systems
and security software, can be expensive.
3. Vulnerability: System software, especially the operating
system, can be vulnerable to security threats and viruses,
which can compromise the security and stability of the
computer.
 4. Upgrades: Upgrading to a newer version of system
software can be time-consuming and may cause
compatibility issues with existing software and hardware.
5. Dependency: Other software programs and devices may
depend on the system software, making it difficult to
replace or upgrade without disrupting other systems.

6. 2.) Interpreter :-
An interpreter is also a software program that translates a
source code into a executable code. However, an interpreter
converts high-level programming language into machine
language line-by-line while interpreting and running the
program.
An interpreter is a program that directly executes the
instructions in a high-level language, without converting it into
machine code. In programming, we can execute a program in
two ways. Firstly, through compilation and secondly, through
an interpreter. The common way is to use a compiler.
The interpreter in the compiler checks the source code line-by-
line and if an error is found on any line, it stops the execution
until the error is resolved.
Error correction is quite easy for the interpreter as the
interpreter provides a line-by-line error.
But the program takes more time to complete the execution
successfully. Interpreters were first used in 1952 to ease
programming within the limitations of computers at the time.
It translates source code into some efficient intermediate
representation and executes them immediately.
Strategies of an Interpreter
It can work in three ways:
 Execute the source code directly and produce the output.
 Translate the source code in some intermediate code and
then execute this code.
 Using an internal compiler to produce a precompiled code.
Then, execute this precompiled code.

Need for an Interpreter

The first and vital need of an interpreter is to translate source
code from high-level language to machine language. However,
we already had the compiler to serve the purpose, the compiler
is a very powerful tool for developing programs in a high-level
language. However, there are several demerits associated with
the compiler. If the source code is huge in size, then it might
take hours to compile the source code, which will significantly
increase the compilation duration. Here, the Interpreter plays its
role. The interpreter can cut this huge compilation duration. As
they are designed to translate single instruction at a time and
execute them immediately. So instead of waiting for the entire
code, the interpreter translates a single line and executes it.

Interpreters offer several advantages and disadvantages

compared to other execution models like compilers. Let's
explore the advantages and disadvantages of interpreters:
Advantages of Interpreters:
1. Portability: Interpreters are often designed to be portable
across different platforms and operating systems. They
provide a consistent execution environment for the source
code, allowing it to run on different systems without the
need for recompilation.
2. Immediate Feedback: Interpreters provide immediate
feedback during development. Since there is no separate
compilation step, developers can quickly run and test their
code, receiving instant results and error messages. This
 characteristic makes interpreters suitable for interactive
and iterative programming, allowing developers to
experiment and debug code more efficiently.
3. Flexibility: Interpreters generally offer more flexibility than
compilers. They often support dynamic typing, allowing
variables to hold values of different types during runtime.
Interpreters also support dynamic binding, enabling late
binding of functions and objects, and allowing for more
dynamic program behavior.
4. Debugging and Error Handling: Interpreters provide built-
in error handling mechanisms and often offer better error
reporting compared to compiled programs. They can
provide detailed error messages with line numbers and
diagnostic information, making it easier to identify and fix
issues in the code.
5. Prototyping and Scripting: Interpreters are commonly used
for rapid prototyping and scripting purposes. They allow
developers to quickly write and test code without the
need for a lengthy compilation process. This makes them
well-suited for scenarios where speed of development and
immediate feedback are crucial.
Disadvantages of Interpreters:
1. Execution Speed: Interpreted programs generally run
slower than compiled programs. Since interpreters
interpret and execute the code line by line, they introduce
overhead in the execution process. Interpreters are not
able to perform the same level of optimization as
compilers, which analyze and transform the entire code
before execution.
2. Efficiency: Interpreters may be less efficient in terms of
memory usage compared to compiled programs.
Interpreters often allocate and deallocate memory
dynamically, which can lead to increased memory
overhead and slower performance. Garbage collection, a
common memory management technique in interpreters,
can introduce additional runtime costs.
3. Lack of Static Type Checking: Interpreters that support
dynamic typing may lack the benefits of static type
checking. Dynamic typing can lead to potential type errors
only being discovered during runtime, which can result in
more challenging debugging processes and potentially less
robust code.
4. Deployment and Distribution: Interpreted programs
typically require the interpreter to be installed on the
target system for execution. This dependency on the
interpreter can make deployment and distribution of the
 software more complex compared to standalone compiled
executables.
5. Limited Optimization Opportunities: Interpreters have
limited opportunities for advanced code optimizations
compared to compilers. Since interpreters perform
interpretation and execution simultaneously, they have
less opportunity to analyze the entire code and apply
complex optimization techniques such as loop unrolling or
function inlining.

types of interpreters:
1. Language Interpreters: Language interpreters are designed
to interpret and execute source code written in a specific
programming language. Examples include:
 Python Interpreter: Interprets and executes Python
code.
 JavaScript Interpreter: Interprets and executes
JavaScript code.
 Ruby Interpreter: Interprets and executes Ruby code.
 Perl Interpreter: Interprets and executes Perl code.
 PHP Interpreter: Interprets and executes PHP code.
These interpreters provide a runtime environment for their
respective programming languages and handle language-
specific features, syntax, and semantics.
2. Script Interpreters: Script interpreters are specialized
interpreters for scripting languages. They are often used
for automating tasks, writing small utility programs, or
creating dynamic web content. Examples include:
 Shell Interpreter (e.g., Bash): Interprets shell scripts
used in Unix-like operating systems.
 PowerShell Interpreter: Interprets scripts used in
Microsoft Windows environments.
 AWK Interpreter: Interprets AWK scripts for text
processing.
Script interpreters provide a convenient way to write and
execute scripts without the need for a separate compilation
step.
3. Bytecode Interpreters: Bytecode interpreters execute
bytecode, which is an intermediate representation of the
source code generated by a compiler. Bytecode is typically
more compact and platform-independent compared to
source code. Examples include:
 Java Virtual Machine (JVM): Interprets Java bytecode.
  Common Language Runtime (CLR): Interprets
Common Intermediate Language (CIL) bytecode used
by languages such as C#.
Bytecode interpreters provide a runtime environment for
executing bytecode and often include features like dynamic
memory management and garbage collection.
4. Just-in-Time (JIT) Interpreters: JIT interpreters combine
interpretation and dynamic compilation techniques to
improve execution performance. They dynamically
compile frequently executed code segments into machine
code for more efficient execution. Examples include:
 HotSpot JVM: Includes a JIT compiler that dynamically
compiles frequently executed Java bytecode into
machine code.
 V8 JavaScript Engine: Employs a JIT compiler to
optimize and execute JavaScript code.
JIT interpreters aim to bridge the performance gap between
pure interpreters and compilers by dynamically translating code
segments into machine code at runtime.
5. Embedded Interpreters: Embedded interpreters are
designed to be integrated into larger software systems or
applications. They provide scripting capabilities that allow
 users to extend or customize the functionality of the
software using a scripting language. Examples include:
 Lua Interpreter: Often embedded in game engines or
applications to provide scripting capabilities.
 Tcl Interpreter: Embedded in various applications for
extending functionality through scripting.
Embedded interpreters enable dynamic and flexible
customization of software without the need to recompile the
entire application.

difference between compiler and interpreter – read

Language Processor :-
A language processor is a special type of software program that has the potential
to translate the program codes into machine codes. Languages such
as COBOL and Fortran have language processors, which are generally used to
perform tasks like processing source code to object code. A specific description of
syntax, lexicon, and semantics of a high-level language is required to design a
language processor.

Mostly, high-level languages like Java, C++, Python, and more are used to write
the programs, called source code, as it is very uninteresting work to write a
computer program directly in machine code. These source codes need to
translate into machine language to be executed because they cannot be executed
directly by the computer. Hence, a special translator system, a language
processor, is used to convert source code into machine language.

Language Processing System

Compilers, interpreters, translate programs written in high-level languages into
machine code that a computer understands. And assemblers translate programs
written in low-level or assembly language into machine code. In the compilation
process, there are several stages.

The language processors can be any of the following three types:

1) Compiler :-

The language processor that reads the complete source program written in high-
level language as a whole in one go and translates it into an equivalent program in
machine language is called a Compiler. Example: C, C++, C#, Java.

In a compiler, the source code is translated to object code successfully if it is free

of errors. The compiler specifies the errors at the end of the compilation with line
numbers when there are any errors in the source code. The errors must be
removed before the compiler can successfully recompile the source code again
the object program can be executed number of times without translating it again.

While working on the Harvard Mark I computer, Grace Hopper created the first
compiler. In modern times, to compile the program, most of the high-level
languages have toolkits or a compiler. Gcc command for C and C++ and Eclipse
for Java are two popular compilers. It takes a few seconds or minutes while
compiling the program based on how big the program is.

2. Assembler: An assembler converts programs written in assembly language into

machine code. It is also referred to assembler as assembler language by some
users. The source program has assembly language instructions, which is an input
of the assembler. The assembler translates this source code into a code that is
understandable by the computer, called object code or machine code.

Assembler is basically the 1st interface that is able to communicate humans with
the machine. We need an Assembler to fill the gap between human and machine
so that they can communicate with each other. code written in assembly
language is some sort of mnemonics(instructions) like ADD, MUL, MUX, SUB, DIV,
MOV and so on. and the assembler is basically able to convert these mnemonics
in Binary code. Here, these mnemonics also depend upon the architecture of the
machine.

What is an Assembly Language?

An assembly language is a low-level language. It gives
instructions to the processors for different tasks. It is
specific for any processor. The machine language only
consists of 0s and 1s therefore, it is difficult to write a
program in it. On the other hand, the assembly language
is close to a machine language but has a simpler language
and code.

We can create an assembly language code using a

compiler or, a programmer can write it directly. Mostly,
programmers use high-level languages but, when more
specific code is required, assembly language is used. It
uses opcode for the instructions. An opcode basically
gives information about the particular instruction. The
symbolic representation of the opcode (machine level
instruction) is called mnemonics. Programmers use them
to remember the operations in assembly language.

For example ADD A,B

Here, ADD is the mnemonic that tells the processor that it

has to perform additional function. Moreover, A and B
are the operands. Also, SUB, MUL, DIVC, etc. are other
mnemonics.

Types of Assembler
Assemblers generate instruction. On the basis of a
number of phases used to convert to machine code,
assemblers have two types:
1. One-Pass Assembler
These assemblers perform the whole conversion of
assembly code to machine code in one go.

2. Multi-Pass/Two-Pass Assembler
These assemblers first process the assembly code and
store values in the opcode table and symbol table. And
then in the second step, they generate the machine code
using these tables.

a) Pass 1

 Symbol table and opcode tables are defined.

 keep the record of the location counter.
 Also, processes the pseudo instructions.
b) Pass 2

 Finally, converts the opcode into the corresponding

numeric opcode.
 Generates machine code according to values of literals
and symbols.
Some Important Terms

 Opcode table: They store the value of mnemonics and

their corresponding numeric values.
 Symbol table: They store the value of programming
language symbols used by the programmer, and their
corresponding numeric values.
 Location Counter: It stores the address of the location
where the current instruction will be stored.

Let's explore the functions of an assembler in detail:

1. Lexical Analysis:

 The assembler performs lexical analysis on the assembly language

source code, breaking it down into tokens.

 Lexical analysis involves scanning the source code and identifying

meaningful units such as labels, mnemonics, operands, and
directives.

 Tokens are generated, which serve as input for the subsequent

phases of the assembler.

2. Syntax Analysis:

 The assembler parses the tokens generated during lexical analysis to

determine the structure and syntax of the assembly instructions.

 It verifies the correctness of the assembly code by ensuring that the

instructions conform to the assembly language syntax.
  Syntax analysis also involves handling directives, which are special
instructions used to provide additional instructions to the assembler.

3. Symbol Table Management:

 The assembler maintains a symbol table to keep track of labels and

their corresponding memory addresses or values.

 During assembly, the assembler assigns addresses or values to labels

and resolves forward references.

 The symbol table ensures that labels are correctly resolved and
facilitates the generation of machine code instructions with proper
memory addresses.

4. Code Generation:

 The primary function of the assembler is to generate machine code

instructions from the assembly language instructions.

 It maps assembly mnemonics and operands to their respective binary

representations.

 The assembler translates assembly instructions into machine code

instructions using predefined rules, opcode tables, and operand
addressing modes.

 It handles the conversion of symbolic addresses or labels into their

appropriate memory addresses.

5. Error Handling:

 Assemblers perform error detection and reporting during the

assembly process.

 They detect syntax errors, semantic errors, undefined symbols, and

other potential issues in the assembly code.
  When an error is encountered, the assembler generates appropriate
error messages, indicating the line number and nature of the error.

6. Output Generation:

 After successfully translating the assembly code into machine code,

the assembler generates the executable output in a specific format.

 The output can be in the form of object files, executable files, or

relocatable files, depending on the target system or linker
requirements.

 The generated output contains the machine code instructions, data

sections, symbol table information, relocation information, and other
necessary details for further processing or linking.

The Assembler operates in two main phases: Analysis Phase and Synthesis Phase.
The Analysis Phase validates the syntax of the code, checks for errors, and creates
a symbol table. The Synthesis Phase converts the assembly language instructions
into machine code, using the information from the Analysis Phase. These two
phases work together to produce the final machine code that can be executed by
the computer. The combination of these two phases makes the Assembler an
essential tool for transforming assembly language into machine code, ensuring
high-quality and error-free software.

1) Analysis Phase

1. The primary function performed by the analysis phase is the building of the
symbol table. It must determine the memory address with which each
symbolic name used in a program is associated in the assembly program of
the address of N would be known only after fixing the addresses of all
program elements-whether instructions or memory areas-that preceding it.
This function is called memory allocation.

2. Memory allocation is performed by using a data structure called location

counter (LC).
3. The analysis phase ensures that the location counter always contains the
address that the next memory word in the target program should have

4. At the start of its processing, it initializes the location counter to the

constant specified in the START statement.

5. While processing a statement, it checks whether the statement has a label.

6. If so, it enters the label and the address contained in the location counter
in a new entry of the symbol table. It then finds how many memory words
are needed for the instruction or data represented by the assembly
statement and updates the address in the location counter by that number.
(Hence the word ‘counter’ in location counter”.).

7. The amount of memory needed for each assembly statement depends on

the mnemonic of an assembly statement. It obtains this information from
the length field in the mnemonics table.

8. It obtains this information from the length field in the mnemonics table. For
DC and DS statements, the memory requirement further depends on the
constant appearing in the operand field, so the analysis phase should
determine it appropriately.

9. We use the notation <LC> for the address contained in the location
counter.

10.The Symbol table is constructed during analysis and used during synthesis.
The Mnemonics table is a fixed table that is merely accessed by the analysis
synthesis phases (see the arrows depicting data access).
The tasks performed by the analysis and synthesis phases can be summarized.
followed as

Analysis phase:

 Separate contents of the label, mnemonic opcode and operand fields of a

statement.

 If a symbol is present in the label field, enter the pair (symbol, <LC>) in a
new entry of the symbol table.
  Check validity of the mnemonic opcode through a look-up in the
Mnemonics table.

 Perform LC processing, i.e., update the address contained in the location

counter by considering the opcode and operands of the statement.

Synthesis phase:

 Obtain the machine opcode corresponding to the mnemonic from the

Mnemonics table.

 Obtain the address of each memory operand from the Symbol table.

 Synthesize a machine instruction or the correct representation of a

constant, as the case may be.

3. Interpreter :
The translation of a single statement of the source program into machine code is
done by a language processor and executes immediately before moving on to the
next line is called an interpreter. If there is an error in the statement, the
interpreter terminates its translating process at that statement and displays an
error message. The interpreter moves on to the next line for execution only after
the removal of the error. An Interpreter directly executes instructions written in a
programming or scripting language without previously converting them to an
object code or machine code. An interpreter translates one line at a time and
then executes it.

Example: Perl, Python and Matlab.

Difference between Compiler and Interpreter –

Compiler Interpreter

A compiler is a program that converts the entire

An interpreter takes a source program
source code of a programming language into
and runs it line by line, translating each
executable machine code for a CPU.
line as it comes to it

The compiler takes a large amount of time to

An interpreter takes less amount of
analyze the entire source code but the overall
time to analyze the source code but
execution time of the program is comparatively
the overall execution time of the
faster.
program is slower.

The compiler generates the error message only

Its Debugging is easier as it continues
after scanning the whole program, so debugging
translating the program until the error
is comparatively hard as the error can be
is met.
present anywhere in the program.

The compiler requires a lot of memory for It requires less memory than a
generating object codes. compiler because no object code is
 Compiler Interpreter

generated.

No intermediate object code is

Generates intermediate object code.
generated.

The interpreter is a little vulnerable in

For Security purpose compiler is more useful.
case of security.

Examples: Python, Perl,

Examples: C, C++, Java
JavaScript, Ruby

COUSINS OF COMPILER
Cousin of compiler are

1. Preprocessor 2. Assembler 3. Loader and Link-editor

LOADER AND LINKER:=

In compiler design, loaders and linkers are essential components that handle
different aspects of the executable code preparation process. Let's explain loaders
and linkers in detail:

1. Loader:
In compiler design, linkers are responsible for combining multiple object files and
libraries to create an executable program or shared library. Linkers resolve
references between different object files, perform symbol resolution, and
generate the final executable code. There are primarily two types of linkers:

1. Static Linker:
  A static linker, also known as a traditional linker or a linker/loader,
performs the linking process at compile time.

 It combines object files and libraries directly into the final executable
file.

 During static linking, the linker resolves symbols and addresses,

performs relocation, and generates a single executable file that
contains all the necessary code and data.

 The resulting executable is standalone and does not depend on

external libraries at runtime.

 Advantages of static linking include faster program startup, better

control over dependencies, and improved portability.

 However, static linking can lead to larger executable sizes and

increased memory usage, as each program includes its own copy of
the required libraries.

2. Dynamic Linker:

 A dynamic linker, also known as a dynamic loader or runtime linker,

performs the linking process at runtime when the program is loaded
and executed.

 Instead of including the entire library code in the executable, the

dynamic linker links the program to shared libraries (.so files or .dll
files) at runtime.

 Dynamic linking allows for code and resource sharing among multiple
programs, reducing executable size and memory usage.

 The dynamic linker resolves symbol references and performs address

relocation during program execution, ensuring that the required
libraries are loaded into memory and linked appropriately.
  Advantages of dynamic linking include reduced memory footprint,
easier updates and maintenance of shared libraries, and the ability to
load shared libraries dynamically based on program needs.

 However, dynamic linking introduces runtime dependencies on

external libraries, and changes to shared libraries may impact
multiple programs that rely on them.

Linking is an essential phase in the compilation process that combines object files,
libraries, and other necessary resources to create an executable program or
shared library. The linker resolves symbol references, performs address
relocation, and generates the final executable code. Let's explore the
requirements and design considerations for a linker in compiler design:

Linking Requirements:

1. Symbol Resolution:

 The linker resolves symbol references across different object files and
libraries.

 It ensures that all symbols (variables, functions, etc.) referenced in

one object file are correctly linked to their definitions in other object
files or libraries.

2. Address Relocation:

 The linker performs address relocation to adjust the memory

addresses of symbols based on the final executable's memory layout.

 It resolves the differences between the relative addresses used

within an object file and the absolute addresses required in the final
executable.

3. Library Management:

 The linker handles the inclusion of libraries into the final executable.
  It ensures that all required library functions and resources are
correctly linked and available during program execution.

4. Optimization:

 The linker may perform optimization techniques such as dead code

elimination, function inlining, and code size reduction to optimize the
final executable's performance and size.

5. Link-Time Error Detection:

 The linker detects and reports link-time errors, such as undefined

symbols, duplicate symbols, or incompatible symbol references.

 It provides meaningful error messages to aid in resolving such issues.

Linker Design Considerations:

1. Symbol Table:

 The linker maintains a symbol table that stores information about

symbols and their definitions across different object files and
libraries.

 The symbol table allows for efficient symbol resolution and address
relocation during the linking process.

2. Relocation Information:

 Object files provide relocation information that indicates the

locations in the code or data sections that require address
adjustment.

 The linker uses this information to update memory addresses

appropriately during the linking process.

3. Linking Algorithm:
  The linker implements an algorithm to handle symbol resolution and
address relocation efficiently.

 Common algorithms include two-pass linking, incremental linking, or

more complex algorithms that handle advanced features like weak
symbols, visibility rules, or interposition.

4. External Library Handling:

 The linker manages the inclusion of external libraries, ensuring that

the required library functions and resources are available during
program execution.

 It maintains a library search path to locate the necessary libraries and

resolves symbol references to the appropriate library functions.

5. Error Handling and Reporting:

 The linker performs thorough error checking and provides

informative error messages for resolving linking issues.

 It detects and reports errors such as undefined symbols, duplicate

symbols, or incompatible symbol references to aid in debugging and
resolving link-time problems.

6. Optimization Techniques:

 The linker may implement various optimization techniques to

improve the final executable's performance and size.

 This can include dead code elimination, function inlining, or

reordering of instructions to reduce memory access overhead.
A loader is a program or component responsible for loading an executable file
into memory and preparing it for execution. Its main tasks include:

1. Memory Allocation: The loader allocates memory for the executable

program in the system's memory space. It determines the size and layout of
the program in memory, ensuring that there is enough space to
accommodate the code, data, and stack requirements.

2. Address Relocation: During the compilation and linking processes, different

parts of the program may have been assigned relative or symbolic
addresses. The loader resolves these addresses and performs address
relocation, adjusting the addresses to reflect the actual memory locations
where the program will be loaded.

3. Symbol Resolution: Symbol resolution involves resolving references to

external symbols or functions that are defined in other object files or
libraries. The loader resolves these references by locating the
corresponding symbols in the system libraries or other object files and
updating the necessary memory addresses.

4. Initialization: The loader initializes various data structures, runtime

libraries, and system resources required by the program. It sets up the
execution environment, initializes the program's stack and heap, and
prepares any other necessary runtime components.

5. Control Transfer: Once the loading and initialization tasks are complete, the
loader transfers control to the program's entry point, starting its execution.

In summary, the loader prepares the executable program for execution by

allocating memory, resolving addresses, resolving external symbols, initializing
resources, and transferring control to the program.
2. Linker: A linker is a program or component that combines multiple object files
generated by the compiler into a single executable file. Its primary tasks include:

1. Symbol Resolution: The linker resolves references to symbols or functions

that are defined in one object file but used in another. It ensures that all
symbols are properly linked and that their addresses are resolved.

2. Address Binding: The linker performs address binding, which involves

assigning final memory addresses to symbols and functions based on the
memory layout determined during the loading phase. It ensures that all
references to symbols and functions are correctly resolved.

3. Relocation: The linker performs relocation by adjusting the relative

addresses of symbols in the object files to match the final memory layout. It
updates the object code, replacing relative addresses with the appropriate
absolute addresses.

4. Library Handling: Linkers handle the inclusion of external libraries,

resolving references to functions or symbols defined in shared libraries or
dynamically linked libraries (DLLs). They link the necessary library code into
the final executable, enabling the program to access the required functions
or symbols.

5. Output Generation: After resolving symbols, performing relocations, and

handling library dependencies, the linker generates the final executable file
in a format suitable for execution on the target system. The output file may
include machine code, data sections, initialization routines, and other
necessary components.

Linkers are typically separate programs that are invoked after the compilation of
object files. They combine these object files, resolve symbol references, perform
address binding, and generate the final executable file ready for execution.

In summary, loaders and linkers play crucial roles in the compilation process and
executable preparation. Loaders handle tasks related to loading the program into
memory and preparing the execution environment, while linkers handle tasks
related to resolving symbols, performing address binding, and generating the final
executable file. Together, these components ensure that the compiled code is
properly prepared and ready for execution on the target system.

Differences between Linker and Loader are as follows:

LINKER LOADER

The main function of Linker is to generate Whereas main objective of Loader is to

executable files. load executable files to main memory.

The linker takes input of object code generated And the loader takes input of
by compiler/assembler. executable files generated by linker.

Linking can be defined as process of combining Loading can be defined as process of

various pieces of codes and source code to obtain loading executable codes to main
executable code. memory for further execution.

Linkers are of 2 types: Linkage Editor and Loaders are of 4 types: Absolute,
Dynamic Linker. Relocating, Direct Linking, Bootstrap.

Another use of linker is to combine all object It helps in allocating the address to
modules. executable codes/files.

Loader is also responsible for adjusting

Linker is also responsible for arranging objects in
references which are used within the
program’s address space.
program.

MACROS:-
In compiler design, macros are a mechanism for code generation
and code expansion. Macros allow programmers to define
reusable code blocks or fragments that can be invoked multiple
times within the source code. When a macro is invoked, it is
expanded, replacing the macro invocation with the
corresponding code defined in the macro definition.
Macros are typically defined using a preprocessor directive,
such as #define, in the source code. The #define directive
associates a macro name with a sequence of code or text. When
the preprocessor encounters a macro invocation with the
corresponding name, it replaces the invocation with the code or
text defined in the macro definition.

Certainly! Here's an example of a macro in compiler design:

#include <stdio.h>
#define SQUARE(x) ((x) * (x))
int main()
{
int num = 5;
int result = SQUARE(num);
printf("The square of %d is %d\n", num, result);
return 0; }
In this example, the macro SQUARE(x) is defined using the
#define directive. The macro takes an argument x and expands
to the expression ((x) * (x)), which calculates the square of the
given value.
In the main() function, we declare an integer variable num and
assign it the value 5. Then, we invoke the SQUARE() macro
with num as the argument. During the preprocessing phase, the
macro invocation SQUARE(num) is expanded, resulting in the
code (num * num).
After the preprocessing, the compiled code becomes:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int num = 5;
int result = (num * num);
printf("The square of %d is %d\n", num, result);
return 0;
}
During execution, the program calculates the square of num
(which is 25) and prints the result as "The square of 5 is 25".
This example demonstrates how the macro SQUARE() is used
to generate code for calculating the square of a number,
providing code reusability and simplifying the source code by
abstracting the calculation into a macro.

Macros serve several purposes in compiler design:

1. Code Reusability: Macros allow the programmer to define
code snippets or routines that can be reused multiple times
throughout the source code. Instead of rewriting the same
code repeatedly, macros provide a way to abstract and
encapsulate commonly used code segments.
2. Code Expansion: When a macro is invoked, it is
expanded, effectively inserting the code defined in the
macro definition at the location of the invocation. This
expansion occurs during the preprocessing phase before the
actual compilation. The expanded code becomes part of the
source code that the compiler will process.
3. Parameterized Macros: Macros can be parameterized,
allowing them to take arguments. The macro parameters act
as placeholders for values that will be provided when the
macro is invoked. Parameterized macros enhance code
flexibility and allow the generation of code variations based
on input values.
4. Conditional Macros: Macros can also be used in
conditional compilation. Conditional compilation
directives, such as #ifdef and #ifndef, can check whether a
 macro is defined or undefined. This allows certain sections
of code to be conditionally compiled or excluded based on
macro definitions, enabling code customization for
different environments or configurations.
5. Code Generation: Macros can be used to generate code
dynamically. By leveraging preprocessor directives and
conditional statements within macros, code can be
generated based on specific conditions, configurations, or
input values. This code generation capability can be helpful
in automatically adapting code for different scenarios or
generating repetitive code with minor variations.
It's important to note that macros operate at the textual level,
performing simple text substitution during preprocessing. They
do not have the full power of a programming language, as they
lack some features like proper scoping, type-checking, and error
handling. Therefore, care must be taken when using macros to
ensure they are used appropriately and do not introduce
unexpected behavior or code readability issues.
Overall, macros provide a means for code reusability, code
expansion, and code generation in compiler design. They
enhance code modularity, reduce duplication, and enable
customization and flexibility in the generated code.
Advantages of Macros in Compiler Design:
1. Code Reusability: Macros enable code reuse by allowing
the definition of reusable code blocks. They provide a way
 to define commonly used functionality that can be easily
invoked multiple times throughout the source code.
2. Simplified Syntax: Macros can simplify the syntax of code
by providing a more concise and expressive representation
for frequently used operations or calculations. They can
make the code easier to read and understand.
3. Performance Optimization: Macros can be used to
optimize code performance by replacing function calls with
inline code. Since macros are expanded during
preprocessing, the overhead of function call overhead is
eliminated, resulting in potentially faster execution.
4. Conditional Compilation: Macros enable conditional
compilation, allowing sections of code to be included or
excluded based on certain conditions or compile-time
options. This provides flexibility in tailoring the compiled
code to specific requirements or configurations.
Disadvantages of Macros in Compiler Design:
1. Textual Substitution: Macros operate at the textual level,
performing simple textual substitution. This can lead to
unexpected behavior or bugs if the macro is not used
properly or if there are side effects due to the textual
replacement.
2. Lack of Type Checking: Macros lack type checking
because they operate at the textual level and do not have
 access to the compiler's type system. This can lead to errors
if the macro is used with incorrect or incompatible types.
3. Limited Debugging: Debugging code that contains macros
can be challenging since the expanded code may not
directly correspond to the original source code. Debugging
tools may have difficulty mapping the expanded code back
to the original code, making it harder to pinpoint issues.
4. Name Collisions: Macros exist in the global namespace,
and their names can potentially clash with other identifiers
in the code. This can lead to naming conflicts and
unintended behavior if macro names are not carefully
chosen.
5. Readability and Maintainability: Macros can make code
harder to read and understand, especially if they are
complex or used extensively. Macros can introduce code
that is difficult to follow, especially when there are nested
or recursive macro invocations.
6. Compilation Time Increase: The use of macros can
increase compilation time, especially when macros are
heavily used or involve complex expansions. This is
because macro expansion is performed during the
preprocessing phase, which adds an additional step before
the actual compilation.
It is important to use macros judiciously and be aware of their
limitations to ensure they are used appropriately and do not
introduce unintended side effects or code
readability/maintenance issues.

In compiler design, a macro call refers to the invocation or use

of a macro definition within the source code. Macros are
preprocessor directives that allow programmers to define
reusable code snippets, which are expanded by the preprocessor
before the compilation process begins. A macro call replaces the
macro identifier with the corresponding macro definition,
allowing for code reuse and abstraction.
Here's a detailed explanation of macro calls in compiler design
with an example:
1. Macro Definition:
 A macro definition defines a reusable code snippet or
macro. It typically consists of a macro identifier and
the code block associated with it.
 For example, let's define a simple macro called
"MAX" that finds the maximum of two numbers:
cssCopy code
#define MAX(a, b) ((a) > (b) ? (a) : (b))
 2. Macro Call:
 A macro call is the actual usage of the macro within
the source code. It replaces the macro identifier with
the corresponding macro definition.
 To use the "MAX" macro defined above, we can make
a macro call as follows:
sqlCopy code
int result = MAX(x, y);
 In this example, "x" and "y" are variables or
expressions representing two numbers. The
macro call "MAX(x, y)" will be replaced with the
expanded code snippet from the macro definition.
 After expansion, the macro call will become:
scssCopy code
int result = ((x) > (y) ? (x) : (y));
 The macro call is expanded by the preprocessor
before the compilation process, allowing the
compiler to work with the expanded code.
3. Benefits of Macro Calls:
 Code Reuse: Macro calls enable code reuse by
abstracting complex or frequently used code snippets
 into macros. This reduces redundancy and improves
maintainability.
 Readability and Abstraction: Macros allow for the
creation of high-level abstractions, making the code
more readable and expressive.
 Compile-Time Evaluation: Macro calls are evaluated
at compile-time, which can lead to potential
performance optimizations. For example, in the
"MAX" macro, the comparison and selection of the
maximum value occur during compilation.
4. Considerations:
 Macro calls have some considerations to keep in mind:
 Lack of Type Safety: Macros operate purely on
textual substitution, so there is no type checking.
This can lead to unexpected behavior if incorrect
arguments are provided.
 Side Effects: Macros can have unintended side
effects if arguments contain increment/decrement
operations, function calls, or other complex
expressions. These side effects may occur
multiple times if the macro call is expanded
multiple times.
 Scoping: Macros are expanded globally
throughout the source code, so any local variables
 or definitions within the macro may cause
conflicts.
5. Preprocessor Directives:
 Macro calls are processed by the preprocessor, which
is a separate phase before compilation. The
preprocessor scans the source code, identifies macro
calls, and replaces them with the expanded code.
 The "#" symbol before the "define" directive indicates
a preprocessor directive that defines a macro.
Macro calls provide a powerful mechanism for code reuse and
abstraction in compiler design. By defining macros with specific
functionality and invoking them through macro calls, developers
can improve code organization, reduce redundancy, and enhance
code readability. However, it is important to be aware of the
considerations and potential pitfalls associated with macro
usage, such as lack of type safety and potential side effects.

FRONT END AND BACK END :- same as analysis and

synthesis phase
In compiler design, the terms "frontend" and "backend" are used
to refer to different phases or components of the compiler. These
phases are responsible for different aspects of the compilation
process, from parsing the source code to generating the target
code for a specific architecture. Let's dive into the details of the
frontend and backend in compiler design:
Frontend: The frontend of a compiler is responsible for the
initial stages of the compilation process, starting from the input
source code. It performs various tasks related to analyzing and
understanding the structure and semantics of the source code.
The frontend typically includes the following phases:
1. Lexical Analysis: The lexical analysis phase, also known
as scanning, reads the source code character by character
and breaks it down into a sequence of tokens. Tokens
represent the smallest meaningful units of the programming
language, such as keywords, identifiers, operators, and
literals.
2. Syntax Analysis: The syntax analysis phase, also known as
parsing, takes the stream of tokens generated by lexical
analysis and checks if they adhere to the grammar rules of
the programming language. It constructs a parse tree or an
abstract syntax tree (AST) that represents the syntactic
structure of the code.
3. Semantic Analysis: The semantic analysis phase checks
the semantics or meaning of the code by performing
various checks, such as type checking, variable
declarations, scoping rules, and other semantic rules
 specific to the programming language. It ensures that the
code is semantically correct and meaningful.
4. Intermediate Representation (IR) Generation: Some
compilers generate an intermediate representation (IR) of
the source code after the semantic analysis phase. The IR is
a language-independent and machine-independent
representation that simplifies further analysis and
optimizations.
The frontend focuses on language-specific aspects of the source
code, understanding its structure, and performing checks to
ensure correctness and adherence to language rules. It provides a
higher-level representation of the code, abstracting away some
low-level details.
Backend: The backend of a compiler takes the output from the
frontend (usually an intermediate representation) and is
responsible for generating the target code for a specific platform
or architecture. The backend performs various transformations
and optimizations to improve the efficiency and performance of
the generated code. The backend typically includes the
following phases:
1. Optimization: The optimization phase applies various
techniques to enhance the generated code. This includes
optimization algorithms and transformations such as
constant folding, loop optimization, dead code elimination,
and register allocation. The goal is to improve the
 efficiency, speed, or other desirable characteristics of the
code.
2. Code Generation: The code generation phase takes the
optimized intermediate representation or AST and
translates it into the target machine code or assembly
language. It maps the high-level constructs to the low-level
instructions of the target architecture, considering memory management,
addressing modes, and other platform-specific details.

3. Target-specific Optimization: In some cases, compilers include additional

optimization passes that are specific to the target architecture. These
passes focus on optimizing the code specifically for the target hardware,
taking advantage of architecture-specific features or instruction sets.

The backend focuses on generating efficient and optimized code specific to the
target platform or architecture. It considers low-level details and architectural
constraints while transforming the intermediate representation into executable
code.

Overall, the frontend and backend components of a compiler work together to

translate the source code into executable code. The frontend analyzes and
understands the structure and semantics of the code, while the backend performs
transformations, optimizations, and code generation to produce the final target
code. The separation of frontend and backend allows for modularity, flexibility,
and portability in the design and implementation of compilers.

REDUCING THE NUMBER OF PASSES :-

Reducing the number of passes in compiler design can bring several advantages
and benefits. Here are some reasons why there is a need to reduce the number of
passes in a compiler:
 1. Simplicity and Maintainability: A compiler with fewer passes is generally
simpler to implement, understand, and maintain. Each pass introduces
complexity, and reducing the number of passes can lead to a more
straightforward design, easier codebase, and reduced chances of
introducing bugs. It simplifies the overall compiler architecture and makes
it more manageable for developers.

2. Compilation Speed: Each pass in the compilation process incurs

computational overhead, and reducing the number of passes can lead to
faster compilation times. Fewer passes mean less time spent on
intermediate representations, transformations, and analysis. This can be
especially important for large codebases or in situations where rapid
compilation is desired, such as during development and debugging.

3. Memory Efficiency: Each pass typically requires memory to store

intermediate representations, symbol tables, and other data structures.
Reducing the number of passes can lead to lower memory requirements, as
there will be fewer data structures and less memory overhead. This can be
advantageous in resource-constrained environments or for large-scale
codebases.

4. Optimization Opportunities: Some optimizations can be more effective

when applied across multiple passes or on a broader context. By reducing
the number of passes, the compiler can focus on global optimizations that
consider a larger scope of code. This can lead to better optimization results
and improved code quality.

5. Debugging and Error Reporting: With fewer passes, it becomes easier to

track and debug issues in the compilation process. Debugging tools can
more accurately map errors or warnings to specific locations in the source
code, as there are fewer intermediate stages and transformations involved.
This facilitates faster bug fixing and improves the quality of error reporting.

It's important to note that reducing the number of passes is not always feasible or
desirable. Some languages or compilation requirements may necessitate multiple
passes for complex analysis, optimization, or target-specific code generation. The
decision to reduce passes should consider the trade-offs between simplicity,
compilation speed, optimization capabilities, and other specific requirements of
the language or target platform.

Ultimately, the goal is to strike a balance between the desired benefits of

reducing passes and the requirements of the language, performance goals, and
code quality expectations. The design of a compiler involves careful consideration
of these factors to achieve an optimal balance between simplicity, efficiency, and
the desired level of optimization.

Reducing the number of passes in compiler design can be beneficial in terms of

simplicity, efficiency, and compilation speed. However, it involves trade-offs, and
the feasibility of reducing passes depends on various factors such as language
complexity, optimization requirements, and design goals. Here are a few
approaches to reduce the number of passes in a compiler:

1. Combined Parsing and Semantic Analysis: Instead of having separate

passes for parsing and semantic analysis, some compilers merge these
phases into a single pass. This approach avoids the need to build an
intermediate representation (IR) between these phases, reducing the
number of passes required. The combined pass performs both syntactic
and semantic checks simultaneously, allowing for early error detection and
potentially better error reporting.

2. On-the-fly Code Generation: In traditional compiler designs, code

generation typically occurs after the semantic analysis and optimization
phases. However, in some cases, code generation can be performed on-
the-fly during the parsing or semantic analysis phase. This approach
eliminates the need for a separate code generation pass and reduces the
number of passes in the compiler. However, it may limit the optimization
opportunities that can be applied.
 3. Interleaved Optimization and Code Generation: Instead of having separate
optimization and code generation passes, these phases can be interleaved.
The compiler performs optimization on portions of code while generating
the target code simultaneously. This approach reduces the need for an
explicit optimization pass and enables more efficient code generation, as
optimizations can be applied in a context-sensitive manner.

4. Just-in-time (JIT) Compilation: JIT compilation is a technique where the

compilation happens at runtime, just before the code is executed. Instead
of performing all compilation passes upfront, JIT compilers can perform on-
demand compilation, dynamically generating machine code as needed. This
approach allows for adaptive optimization and reduces the need for
extensive upfront analysis and multiple passes.

While reducing the number of passes can simplify the compiler design and
potentially improve compilation speed, it may come at the expense of
optimization opportunities and code quality. The trade-offs need to be carefully
considered based on the specific requirements and constraints of the language
and compiler. It's important to strike a balance between simplicity, efficiency, and
the desired level of optimization when deciding to reduce the number of passes in
a compiler.

COMPILER CONSTRUCTION TOOLS :-

the compiler writer, like any programmer ,can profitably use software tools such
as debuggers,version managers, profilers, and so on .In addition to these software
development tools, other more specialised tools have been developed for
helping implement various phases of compiler. Some general tools that being
created for automatic design of specific compiler component .these tool uses
specialised language for specifying and implementing the component and many
use algorithms that are quite sophisticated. the most successful tools are those
that hides the details of the generation algorithm and produce components that
can be easily integrated into the remainder of a compiler.
list of some useful compiler construction tools :-

1) Parser generator :-

A parser generator, also known as a parser compiler, is a tool used in compiler

design to automatically generate parsers based on a formal grammar
specification. It simplifies the process of constructing parsers by automating the
generation of code that can analyze the syntactic structure of the input source
code.

A parser generator takes as input a formal grammar description, which defines

the syntax and structure of a programming language or a specific language
construct. The grammar is typically specified using context-free grammar (CFG)
notation or a variant such as Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF). The grammar
describes the valid combinations of tokens and syntactic rules that make up the
language.

The parser generator uses the grammar specification to generate code that can
parse the input source code according to the defined grammar. It typically
generates code in a programming language, such as C, C++, Java, or Python. The
generated code includes functions or classes that traverse the input code, match
patterns defined by the grammar, and construct a parse tree or an abstract syntax
tree (AST) that represents the syntactic structure of the code.

2.) Scanner Generator :-

In compiler design, a scanner generator, also known as a lexical analyzer

generator or scanner compiler, is a tool that helps automate the process of
generating lexical analyzers or scanners. It takes as input a set of regular
expressions or patterns and generates code for tokenizing the input source code
into a stream of tokens.

The role of a scanner generator is to simplify the implementation of the lexical

analysis phase of a compiler. The lexical analysis phase is responsible for breaking
down the input source code into a sequence of tokens, which are the smallest
meaningful units of the programming language, such as keywords, identifiers,
operators, and literals.It removes the non grammatical elements from the stream
– i.e. , space and comments.

4) automatic code generator :-

An automatic code generator, also known as a code generator or code generator

tool, is a component of a compiler or language processing system that
automatically generates target code based on input source code and associated
compiler-specific instructions. The code generator takes as input an intermediate
representation (IR) of the source code, produced by previous stages of the
compiler, and transforms it into executable machine code or code for a specific
target platform.

The main purpose of an automatic code generator is to translate the high-level

representations of the source code, such as abstract syntax trees (AST) or
intermediate representations, into low-level representations suitable for
execution on the target platform.

Automatic code generators are usually built as part of a compiler infrastructure

and can be specific to a particular language or target platform. They leverage
techniques and algorithms from the field of code generation, including pattern
matching, graph transformations, data flow analysis, and optimization strategies.

5) data flow engine :-

In compiler design, a data flow engine is a component or framework that analyzes

the flow of data through a program and performs optimizations based on this
analysis. It focuses on understanding the dependencies and relationships
between variables, expressions, and statements to optimize the execution of the
program.

The data flow analysis performed by the engine is based on the concept of data
flow graphs, which represent the flow of values or information through a
program. The engine builds and analyzes these graphs to determine various
properties of the program, such as reaching definitions, live variables, available
expressions, and control flow dependencies.
Data flow engines leverage algorithms and techniques from the field of data flow
analysis, such as iterative algorithms (e.g., fixed-point iteration), backward or
forward flow analysis, reaching definitions analysis, and data flow equations.

The use of a data flow engine in compiler design allows for sophisticated analysis
and optimization of the program based on the flow of data. By understanding the
relationships between variables and expressions, the engine can identify
opportunities for optimization and produce more efficient code. It enables
compilers to perform a wide range of optimizations to improve code quality,
execution speed, and resource usage.
 UNIT 2

LEXICAL ANALYSIS :-

Lexical analysis, also known as scanning or tokenization, is the initial phase of the
compiler design process. It is responsible for breaking down the source code into
a stream of tokens, which are the smallest meaningful units of the programming
language. Lexical analysis transforms a sequence of characters into a sequence of
tokens that can be processed by subsequent phases of the compiler.

The lexical analyzer is responsible for breaking these syntaxes into a series of
tokens, by removing whitespace in the source code. If the lexical analyzer gets any
invalid token, it generates an error. The stream of character is read by it and it
seeks the legal tokens, and then the data is passed to the syntax analyzer, when it
is asked for.

Lexical Analysis can be implemented with the Deterministic finite Automata.

Here's a high-level overview of the lexical analysis process:

1. Lexical Specification: The compiler designer defines the lexical rules of the
programming language using formal languages like regular expressions or
context-free grammars. These rules describe the valid patterns for each
token in the language.

2. Scanning: The source code is read character by character from left to right.
The scanner, also known as the lexer, applies the lexical rules to identify
and extract tokens. It keeps track of the current position in the source code
and identifies the boundaries of each token.

3. Tokenization: As the scanner identifies a token, it creates a token object

that contains the token type and any associated attributes or values. For
example, an identifier token might store the name of the identifier, while a
numeric literal token would store the actual numeric value.

4. Error Handling: If the scanner encounters an invalid or unrecognized

lexeme, it generates an error message indicating the location and nature of
the error. These errors may include lexical errors like misspelled keywords,
undefined symbols, or malformed tokens.

5. Output: The resulting sequence of tokens, often called a token stream or a

token sequence, is passed on to the next phase of the compiler, which is
usually the syntactic analysis (parsing) phase.
Terminologies

There are three terminologies-

 Token

 Pattern

 Lexeme

Token: It is a sequence of characters that represents a unit of information in the

source code.

There are different types of tokens:

o Identifiers (user-defined)

o Delimiters/ punctuations (;, ,, {}, etc.)

o Operators (+, -, *, /, etc.)

o Special symbols

o Keywords

o Numbers

Pattern: The description used by the token is known as a pattern.

A pattern is a set of rules a scanner follows to match a lexeme in the input

program to identify a valid token. It is like the lexical analyzer's description of a
token to validate a lexeme.
Lexeme: A sequence of characters in the source code, as per the matching pattern
of a token, is known as lexeme. It is also called the instance of a token.

The sequence of characters matched by a pattern to form the corresponding

token or a sequence of input characters that comprises a single token is called a
lexeme. eg- “float”, “abs_zero_Kelvin”, “=”, “-”, “273”, “;” .

The Architecture of Lexical Analyzer

To read the input character in the source code and produce a token is the most
important task of a lexical analyzer. The lexical analyzer goes through with the
entire source code and identifies each token one by one. The scanner is
responsible to produce tokens when it is requested by the parser. The lexical
analyzer avoids the whitespace and comments while creating these tokens. If any
error occurs, the analyzer correlates these errors with the source file and line
number.

Scanners are usually implemented to produce tokens only when

requested by a parser. Here is how recognition of tokens in compiler
design works-
 Lexical Analyzer Architecture

1. “Get next token” is a command which is sent from the parser to

the lexical analyzer.
2. On receiving this command, the lexical analyzer scans the input
until it finds the next token.
3. It returns the token to Parser.

Lexical Analyzer skips whitespaces and comments while creating

these tokens. If any error is present, then Lexical analyzer will
correlate that error with the source file and line number.

Example of Lexical Analysis, Tokens, Non-Tokens

Consider the following code that is fed to Lexical Analyzer
#include <stdio.h>
int maximum(int x, int y) {
// This will compare 2 numbers
if (x > y)
return x;
else {
return y;
}
}
Examples of Tokens created
Lexeme Token

int Keyword

maximum Identifier
( Operator

int Keyword

x Identifier

, Operator

int Keyword

Y Identifier

) Operator

{ Operator

If Keyword

Examples of Nontokens
Type Examples

Comment // This will compare 2 numbers

Pre-processor directive #include <stdio.h>

Pre-processor directive #define NUMS 8,9

Macro NUMS

Whitespace /n /b /t
ROLES OF LEXICAL ANALYSER:-

The lexical analyzer, also known as the lexer or scanner, plays several important
roles in the compiler design process. Let's delve into these roles in detail:

1. Tokenization: The primary role of the lexical analyzer is to break down the
input source code into tokens. It scans the source code character by
character, applying the lexical rules defined for the programming language.
It recognizes and extracts individual tokens such as keywords, identifiers,
literals, operators, and punctuation symbols. Each token is assigned a token
type and may have associated attributes or values.

2. Removing Irrelevant Characters: The lexical analyzer eliminates any

characters that are not relevant for further processing by the compiler. This
includes whitespace characters (spaces, tabs, line breaks) and comments.
Removing these irrelevant characters helps simplify the subsequent phases
of compilation and reduces the amount of data that needs to be processed.

3. Error Reporting: The lexical analyzer is responsible for detecting and

reporting lexical errors in the source code. If it encounters an invalid or
unrecognized lexeme, such as a misspelled keyword or an undefined
symbol, it generates an error message indicating the location and nature of
the error. This helps programmers identify and correct lexical mistakes in
their code.

4. Handling Language Constructs: The lexical analyzer is aware of the

language's syntax and handles language-specific constructs. For example, it
recognizes reserved keywords and treats them as separate tokens. It also
handles complex lexemes, such as string literals or multi-character
operators, by extracting the appropriate tokens and their associated
attributes.

5. Efficiency and Optimization: The lexical analyzer is designed to be efficient

in terms of time and space. It employs techniques such as buffering,
lookahead, and token caching to minimize the number of input characters
that need to be processed. Additionally, lexical analyzers can be optimized
 using techniques like state machine generation or table-driven approaches
to improve performance.

6. Interface with the Parser: The lexical analyzer acts as an interface between
the source code and the parser (syntactic analyzer). It provides the parser
with a sequence of tokens, often in the form of a token stream. The parser
uses these tokens to perform syntactic analysis and build the program's
abstract syntax tree.

Overall, the lexical analyzer plays a crucial role in the compilation process by
breaking down the source code into meaningful tokens, removing irrelevant
characters, detecting errors, and providing the parser with a structured
representation of the code. It acts as a foundation for subsequent compilation
phases and helps facilitate the understanding and analysis of the source code by
the compiler.

Roles of the Lexical analyzer

Lexical analyzer performs below given tasks:

 Helps to identify token into the symbol table

 Removes white spaces and comments from the source program
 Correlates error messages with the source program
 Helps you to expands the macros if it is found in the source
program
 Read input characters from the source program

Advantages of Lexical analysis

 Lexical analyzer method is used by programs like compilers
which can use the parsed data from a programmer’s code to
create a compiled binary executable code
 It is used by web browsers to format and display a web page
with the help of parsed data from JavsScript, HTML, CSS
 A separate lexical analyzer helps you to construct a specialized
and potentially more efficient processor for the task
Disadvantage of Lexical analysis
 You need to spend significant time reading the source program
and partitioning it in the form of tokens
 Some regular expressions are quite difficult to understand
compared to PEG or EBNF rules
 More effort is needed to develop and debug the lexer and its
token descriptions
 Additional runtime overhead is required to generate the lexer
tables and construct the tokens

LEXICAL ANALYSIS VS PARSING :-

Lexical analysis and parsing are two distinct phases in the compiler design
process, and they serve different purposes. Here are the key differences between
lexical analysis and parsing:

1. Role:

 Lexical Analysis: The main role of lexical analysis is to break down the
source code into a sequence of tokens. It performs tokenization,
which involves recognizing and categorizing lexemes, removing
irrelevant characters, and detecting lexical errors.

 Parsing: Parsing, also known as syntactic analysis, focuses on

analyzing the structure and syntax of the code based on a specified
grammar. It uses the token stream generated by the lexical analyzer
and constructs a parse tree or an abstract syntax tree (AST)
representing the hierarchical structure of the code.

2. Input:
  Lexical Analysis: The input to the lexical analyzer is the source code
itself, which is typically a stream of characters or a file containing the
code.

 Parsing: The input to the parser is the token stream generated by the
lexical analyzer. The token stream represents the lexical units
identified by the lexical analyzer, such as keywords, identifiers,
literals, operators, and punctuation symbols.

3. Processing:

 Lexical Analysis: The lexical analyzer scans the source code character
by character, applying lexical rules defined for the programming
language. It recognizes lexemes, generates tokens, removes
irrelevant characters like whitespace and comments, and detects
lexical errors.

 Parsing: The parser analyzes the sequence of tokens to determine

whether it conforms to the specified grammar rules. It uses parsing
techniques like recursive descent, bottom-up parsing (e.g., LR or
LALR), or top-down parsing (e.g., LL or LL(k)) to construct the parse
tree or AST. The parser verifies the syntactic correctness of the code
and identifies the relationships among the different tokens.

4. Output:

 Lexical Analysis: The output of lexical analysis is a token stream or a

sequence of tokens, where each token has a type and associated
attributes or values. The token stream serves as input for the parser.

 Parsing: The output of parsing is a parse tree or an abstract syntax

tree (AST), which represents the syntactic structure of the code. The
parse tree/AST captures the hierarchical relationships among the
tokens and serves as input for subsequent compiler phases, such as
semantic analysis and code generation.

5. Error Handling:
  Lexical Analysis: The lexical analyzer detects and reports lexical
errors, such as invalid or unrecognized lexemes, misspelled
keywords, or undefined symbols. It generates error messages
indicating the location and nature of the error.

 Parsing: The parser detects and reports syntax errors, such as

violations of the grammar rules. It generates error messages
indicating the location and nature of the error, typically involving the
specific grammar rule that is violated.

In summary, lexical analysis focuses on breaking down the source code into
tokens and removing irrelevant characters, while parsing analyzes the structure
and syntax of the code using a grammar. Lexical analysis precedes parsing,
providing the token stream as input for the parser. Both phases are crucial in the
overall compilation process, working together to understand and process the
source code.

Lexical Analysis and Syntax Analysis:

S.N Lexical Analysis Syntax Analysis/Parsing

Lexical analysis is the process of

Syntax analysis is the process of checking
converting a sequence of characters in
the tokens for correct syntax according to
a source code file into a sequence of
the rules of the programming language.
1. tokens.

Lexical analysis is often the first phase Syntax analysis is typically the second
2. of the compilation process. phase.

Lexical analysis is performed by a Syntax analysis is performed by a

component of the compiler called a component called a syntax analyzer or
3. lexical analyzer or tokenizer. parser.

The lexical analysis focuses on the Syntax analysis focuses on the structure and
4. individual tokens in the source code. meaning of the code as a whole.

5. Lexical analysis checks the source code Syntax analysis checks the tokens for
S.N Lexical Analysis Syntax Analysis/Parsing

correct syntax and generates a tree-like

for proper formatting and generates
structure called a parse tree or abstract
tokens based on the rules of the
syntax tree (AST) to represent the
programming language.
hierarchical structure of the program.

Lexical analysis is concerned with

Syntax analysis is concerned with the
identifying the basic building blocks of
relationships between these building blocks
the program’s syntax, such as
and the overall structure of the program.
6. keywords, identifiers, and punctuation.

Lexical analysis is used to generate

Syntax analysis is used to check the
tokens that can be easily processed by
program for correct syntax and structure.
7. the syntax analyzer.

Lexical analysis is important for

ensuring that the source code is Syntax analysis is important for ensuring
properly formatted and that the tokens that the source code follows the correct
it generates can be easily understood syntax and structure of the programming
and processed by the compiler or language.
8. interpreter.

Lexical analysis is used in a wide range

of applications, including compilers,
While syntax analysis is primarily used in
interpreters, text editors, code analysis
compilers and interpreters.
tools, natural language processing, and
9. information retrieval.

TOKENS :-
It is basically a sequence of characters that are treated as a unit as it cannot be
further broken down.

In compiler design, a token is a fundamental unit of lexical analysis and represents

a meaningful element of the programming language. Tokens are generated by the
lexical analyzer (also called the lexer or scanner) and serve as building blocks for
further processing by the compiler.

A token is a categorized unit of text in the source code that has a specific meaning
and role within the programming language. It represents a particular syntactic
construct, such as a keyword, identifier, literal, operator, or punctuation symbol.

1. Types of Tokens: Tokens can have different types, each representing a

specific category of lexeme in the language. Common token types include:

 Keywords:

o Examples: if, for, while, return

 o Explanation: Keywords are reserved words in the programming
language that have predefined meanings. They cannot be used as
identifiers. For instance, in the code snippet if (x > 0), the token if is a
keyword.

 Identifiers:

o Examples: count, calculateSum, myVariable

o Explanation: Identifiers are user-defined names for variables,

functions, classes, or other language elements. They must follow
certain naming conventions and cannot be the same as keywords. In
the code snippet int count = 0;, count is an identifier token.

 Literals:

o Examples: 42, 3.14, "Hello, World!", true

o Explanation: Literals represent constant values in the code. They can

be of various types, such as integer literals (42), floating-point literals
(3.14), string literals ("Hello, World!"), or boolean literals (true or
false).

 Operators:

o Examples: +, -, *, /, =, &&, ||

o Explanation: Operators are symbols used for arithmetic, logical, or

bitwise operations. They perform specific actions on operands. For
instance, in the code snippet x = y + z;, =, +, and ; are operator
tokens.

 Punctuation Symbols:

o Examples: (), {}, ,, ;, []

o Explanation: Punctuation symbols provide structure or delimit code

elements. They include parentheses (()), curly braces ({}), commas (,),
 semicolons (;), and brackets ([]). These symbols help define the
syntax and organization of the code.

2.Token Attributes: In addition to the token type, tokens may have associated
attributes or values. These attributes provide additional information about the
token, such as the name of an identifier or the value of a literal. For example,
an identifier token may have an attribute storing the actual name of the
identifier, like "identifier: count," while a numeric literal token may have an
attribute containing its value, like "literal: 3.14."

3. Tokenization Process: Tokenization is the process of breaking down the

source code into tokens. The lexical analyzer scans the source code character by
character, applying lexical rules defined for the programming language. It
recognizes lexemes and generates corresponding tokens. For example, the input
code "int x = 42;" might generate tokens: "keyword: int," "identifier: x,"
"operator: =," and "literal: 42."

4.Token Stream: The tokens generated by the lexical analyzer are usually
organized into a token stream or a sequence of tokens. The token stream
represents the structured representation of the source code. The token
stream is then passed to the parser (syntactic analyzer) for further analysis
and processing.

5.Error Handling: The lexical analyzer is responsible for detecting and reporting
lexical errors. If it encounters an invalid or unrecognized lexeme, it generates an
error message indicating the location and nature of the error. For example, if the
lexer encounters an undefined symbol, it might produce an error like "Undefined
symbol at line 5: 'foo'."

Tokens play a crucial role in the compilation process, as they provide a structured
representation of the source code. They facilitate subsequent phases of the
compiler, such as parsing, semantic analysis, and code generation, by providing
the necessary information about the code's syntax and structure.
In compiler design, a token represents a meaningful unit of text in the source
code. Tokens are generated by the lexical analyzer and serve as building blocks for
further processing by the compiler. Let's explore tokens with some examples:

During the tokenization process, the lexical analyzer scans the source code
character by character, recognizing lexemes and generating corresponding
tokens. For example, consider the code snippet:

int result = calculateSum(10, 20);

The lexical analyzer might generate the following tokens:

 keyword: int

 identifier: result

 operator: =

 identifier: calculateSum

 ( and ) as punctuation symbols

 literal: 10 and literal: 20

 ; as a punctuation symbol

These tokens represent the structured units of the source code, which are then
used by the parser and subsequent phases of the compiler for further analysis
and processing.

Tokens play a crucial role in the compilation process as they provide a structured
representation of the source code, enabling the compiler to understand the
syntax and semantics of the program.

LEXEME :-

In compiler design, a lexeme refers to a sequence of characters in the source code

that matches the pattern for a specific token. Lexemes are the input to the lexical
analyzer (lexer), which is responsible for recognizing and processing them. Here's
a detailed explanation of lexemes:

1. Definition: A lexeme represents a substring of characters in the source

code that forms a specific token. It is the actual text that matches the
pattern for a particular token type defined in the programming language's
grammar.

2. Tokenization Process: The process of identifying lexemes and generating

tokens is known as tokenization or lexical analysis. The lexer scans the
source code character by character and groups the characters into lexemes
based on predefined lexical rules.

3. Examples:

 If we consider the code snippet int x = 42;, the lexemes and

corresponding tokens would be:

 Lexeme: int -> Token: Keyword int

 Lexeme: x -> Token: Identifier x

 Lexeme: = -> Token: Operator =

 Lexeme: 42 -> Token: Integer Literal 42

 Lexeme: ; -> Token: Punctuation ;

4. Handling Lexical Errors: The lexer also detects and handles lexical errors. If
it encounters an invalid or unrecognized lexeme that does not match any
defined token pattern, it can generate an error or reject the lexeme,
indicating a lexical error in the code.

5. Lexeme Boundaries: Lexemes are typically defined by delimiter characters

or whitespace in the source code. Delimiter characters, such as
parentheses, braces, commas, and semicolons, help delineate lexeme
boundaries. Whitespace characters like spaces, tabs, and newlines are
 generally ignored by the lexer unless they are significant in specific contexts
(e.g., inside a string literal).

6. Escaping and Special Characters: Some lexemes, like string literals or

character literals, may contain special characters that need to be handled
appropriately. For example, in a string literal "Hello, \"World\"!", the
backslash character \ is used to escape the double quote character ". The
lexer must handle such escape sequences and interpret them correctly.

7. Multicharacter Lexemes: Some lexemes may consist of multiple characters,

forming a complex token. Examples include operators like && or <=. The
lexer needs to recognize and handle these multicharacter lexemes
appropriately.

8. Source Code Transformations: In some cases, the lexer may perform

transformations on the lexemes before generating tokens. For example, it
may remove comments or preprocess directives from the source code,
replace escape sequences with their actual character representation, or
normalize identifiers to a specific case.

Lexemes are the building blocks of tokenization and play a crucial role in the
lexical analysis phase of the compiler. They provide the input to the lexer, which
identifies and categorizes them into tokens based on their corresponding patterns
defined in the language's grammar.

PATTERN :-

In compiler design, a pattern refers to a set of rules or specifications that define

the structure or form of a specific language construct. Patterns are used to
recognize and match sequences of characters in the source code, enabling the
identification and classification of tokens during lexical analysis. Here's a detailed
explanation of patterns:

1. Definition: A pattern is a description or template that defines the valid

structure and characteristics of a language construct. It specifies the
 sequence, order, and possible variations of characters or lexemes that
constitute a particular token.

2. Regular Expressions: Patterns are often expressed using regular

expressions, which are a concise and powerful notation for describing text
patterns. Regular expressions allow the specification of rules such as
character ranges, repetition, alternation, and grouping.

3. Matching Lexemes: During lexical analysis, the pattern matching process

involves comparing the characters in the source code against the defined
patterns. When a sequence of characters matches a pattern, a
corresponding token is generated.

4. Examples:

 Pattern: [A-Za-z_][A-Za-z0-9_]*

 Explanation: This pattern represents the structure of an

identifier in many programming languages. It states that an
identifier should start with a letter or an underscore, followed
by zero or more letters, digits, or underscores. For instance,
the lexeme count matches this pattern and is recognized as an
identifier token.

 Pattern: "[^"]*"

 Explanation: This pattern represents the structure of a string

literal enclosed in double quotes. It states that a string literal
should begin and end with double quotes and can contain any
characters except double quotes. For example, the lexeme
"Hello, World!" matches this pattern and is recognized as a
string literal token.

 Pattern: \d+

 Explanation: This pattern represents the structure of an integer

literal. It specifies that an integer literal should consist of one
 or more digits. For example, the lexeme 42 matches this
pattern and is recognized as an integer literal token.

5. Handling Lexical Ambiguities: Patterns need to be carefully designed to

handle potential lexical ambiguities. When multiple patterns can match the
same input, the lexer typically follows a set of priority rules to select the
most appropriate pattern. For example, if a lexeme can be matched both by
a keyword and an identifier pattern, the keyword pattern is usually given
higher priority.

6. Pattern Composition: Patterns can be combined and composed to define

more complex language constructs. This allows for the recognition of
compound tokens or tokens with variable components. For instance, a
pattern for a floating-point literal may be composed of patterns for integer
literals, decimal points, and optional exponent parts.

Patterns are a crucial component of the lexical analysis phase in a compiler. They
provide a formal description of the valid structure of tokens and guide the lexer in
identifying and categorizing lexemes into appropriate token types.

Difference between Token, Lexeme, and Pattern

Criteria Token Lexeme Pattern

Definition Token is basically a It is a sequence of characters It specifies a

sequence of characters in the source code that are set of rules
that are treated as a matched by given predefined that a scanner
unit as it cannot be language rules for every follows to
further broken down. lexeme to be specified as a create a token.
 Criteria Token Lexeme Pattern

valid token.

all the reserved The sequence

Interpretation keywords of that of characters
int, goto
of type language(main, printf, that make the
Keyword etc.) keyword.

it must start
with the
name of a variable, alphabet,
main, a
Interpretation function, etc followed by the
of type alphabet or a
Identifier digit.

Interpretation
all the operators are
of type +, = +, =
considered tokens.
Operator

each kind of
punctuation is
Interpretation considered a token. (, ), {, } (, ), {, }
of type e.g. semicolon, bracket,
Punctuation comma, etc.

Interpretation a grammar rule or “Welcome to any string of

 Criteria Token Lexeme Pattern

characters
(except ‘ ‘)
boolean literal. GeeksforGeeks!”
between ” and
of type Literal “

Token attributes
During the parsing stage, the
compiler will only be concerned
with tokens. Any integer
constant, for example, is treated
like any other.
But during later processing, it
will certainly be important just
which constant was written.
To deal with that, a token that
can have many associated
lexemes has an attribute, which
can
be the lexeme if you like.
During semantic processing, the
compiler examines the token
attributes.
An attribute is not always a
lexeme. For example, the
attribute for a
TOK_INTCONST token
might be an integer, telling the
number that was writte
Token attributes
During the parsing stage, the
compiler will only be concerned
with tokens. Any integer
constant, for example, is treated
like any other.
But during later processing, it
will certainly be important just
which constant was written.
To deal with that, a token that
can have many associated
lexemes has an attribute, which
can
be the lexeme if you like.
During semantic processing, the
compiler examines the token
attributes.
An attribute is not always a
lexeme. For example, the
attribute for a
TOK_INTCONST token
might be an integer, telling the
number that was writte
Token attributes
During the parsing stage, the
compiler will only be concerned
with tokens. Any integer
constant, for example, is treated
like any other.
But during later processing, it
will certainly be important just
which constant was written.
To deal with that, a token that
can have many associated
lexemes has an attribute, which
can
be the lexeme if you like.
During semantic processing, the
compiler examines the token
attributes.
An attribute is not always a
lexeme. For example, the
attribute for a
TOK_INTCONST token
might be an integer, telling the
number that was writte
Token attributes
During the parsing stage, the
compiler will only be concerned
with tokens. Any integer
constant, for example, is treated
like any other.
But during later processing, it
will certainly be important just
which constant was written.
To deal with that, a token that
can have many associated
lexemes has an attribute, which
can
be the lexeme if you like.
During semantic processing, the
compiler examines the token
attributes.
An attribute is not always a
lexeme. For example, the
attribute for a
TOK_INTCONST token
might be an integer, telling the
number that was writte
In compiler design, attributes of tokens are additional information associated with
each token during the lexical analysis phase. These attributes provide valuable
data that is used in subsequent phases of the compiler for tasks such as semantic
analysis, code generation, and optimization. Here's an explanation of token
attributes:

1. Lexeme: The lexeme attribute of a token represents the actual sequence of

characters in the source code that matched the token's pattern. It stores
the original text associated with the token. For example, for the token
identifier with the lexeme count, the lexeme attribute would be set to
"count".

2. Token Type: The token type attribute represents the category or

classification of the token. It identifies the role or purpose of the token in
the programming language. Examples of token types include keywords,
identifiers, literals, operators, and punctuation symbols.

3. Position: The position attribute of a token stores the location information

of the token in the source code. It typically includes the line number and
column number where the token was found. This attribute is useful for
error reporting, debugging, and source code analysis.

4. Value: The value attribute represents the semantic value or meaning

associated with the token. It provides the interpreted or processed value of
the token, especially for literals or identifiers with known values. For
example, for the token integer literal with the lexeme 42, the value
attribute would store the integer value 42.

5. Data Type: The data type attribute represents the data type associated
with a token, particularly for literals or identifiers. It specifies the type of
the value stored in the token. For example, for the token floating-point
literal with the lexeme 3.14, the data type attribute might indicate that the
value is of type double.
 6. Symbol Table Reference: The symbol table reference attribute is used for
identifiers and represents a pointer or reference to the symbol table entry
associated with the identifier token. The symbol table contains information
about variables, functions, or other program entities declared in the source
code.

These attributes provide valuable information about tokens and enable

subsequent phases of the compiler to perform tasks such as type checking, scope
analysis, code optimization, and code generation. They facilitate the proper
understanding and processing of the source code by capturing essential
characteristics and metadata associated with each token.

LEXICAL ERROR:--
In compiler design, a lexical error, also known as a lexical or scanning error, occurs
when the lexical analyzer (lexer) encounters an invalid sequence of characters
that does not match any defined token or lexeme pattern. Lexical errors indicate
violations of the language's lexical rules and can result in the failure of the lexical
analysis phase.

In compiler design, lexical errors can manifest in various forms, each representing
a specific type of error. Let's explore the types of errors in lexical analysis along
with examples:

1. Invalid Character Error:

 Description: This error occurs when the lexer encounters characters

that are not allowed in the language's syntax.

 Example: In a programming language that only allows alphanumeric

characters, if the lexer encounters a special character like @, it would
result in an invalid character error.
2. Invalid Token Error:

 Description: This error occurs when the lexer encounters a sequence

of characters that does not match any defined token or lexeme
pattern in the language's grammar.

 Example: If a programming language does not recognize the token

&@, and it appears in the source code, the lexer would report an
invalid token error.

3. Unterminated Token Error:

 Description: This error occurs when a token or lexeme is not properly

terminated or closed according to the language's syntax rules.

 Example: If a string literal is missing the closing quotation mark, like

`"Hello, the lexer would report an unterminated token error.

4. Illegal Escape Sequence Error:

 Description: This error occurs when an invalid or unrecognized

escape sequence is used in string literals or character literals.

 Example: In a programming language where the escape sequence for

a newline character is \n, if a programmer mistakenly uses \z
instead, the lexer would report an illegal escape sequence error.

5. Whitespace Error:

 Description: This error occurs due to incorrect or inconsistent usage

of whitespace characters.

 Example: If the programmer uses inconsistent indentation, mixing

tabs and spaces, the lexer might report a whitespace error.

6. Unknown Token Error:

 Description: This error occurs when the lexer encounters a token that
is not recognized in the language's grammar or token definitions.
  Example: If the source code contains an unknown token such as @#$,
which does not match any known tokens, the lexer would report an
unknown token error.

These examples demonstrate different types of lexical errors that can occur
during the lexical analysis phase. It's important to note that these errors are
detected and reported by the lexer to help programmers identify and resolve
issues in their source code. By understanding the specific types of errors,
programmers can effectively address lexical issues and ensure the correctness of
their code before moving on to subsequent compilation phases.

Error recovery techniques in lexical analysis are used to handle lexical errors
gracefully and continue the tokenization process, even in the presence of errors.
These techniques aim to minimize the impact of errors on subsequent
compilation phases. Here are some common error recovery techniques used in
lexical analysis, along with examples:

1. Skipping or Ignoring Tokens:

 Description: When a lexical error is encountered, the lexer can skip or

ignore the erroneous token and continue analyzing the remaining
source code.

 Example: Suppose there is a lexical error when encountering an

invalid token @#$. The lexer can skip this token and continue
tokenizing the rest of the code, assuming the error was a
typographical mistake or an unrecognized symbol.

2. Inserting or Modifying Tokens:

 Description: In some cases, the lexer can insert or modify tokens to

recover from errors and continue tokenization. This involves adding
missing or correcting erroneous tokens to maintain syntactic
consistency.
  Example: If the lexer encounters a missing closing quotation mark in
a string literal like "Hello, it can insert the closing quotation mark ",
assuming it was missing due to a typographical error.

3. Resynchronization Points:

 Description: Resynchronization points are specific locations in the

source code where the lexer can reset its state and recover from
errors. These points are strategically placed to allow the lexer to
resume tokenization in a known state after encountering an error.

 Example: In a programming language that uses semicolons as

statement terminators, if a semicolon is missing in a line of code, the
lexer can treat the next semicolon encountered as a
resynchronization point and continue tokenizing from that point.

4. Error Reporting and Diagnostics:

 Description: The lexer can generate detailed error messages or

diagnostic information to inform the programmer about the
encountered lexical errors. This helps programmers identify and
correct errors in their source code effectively.

 Example: When a lexical error occurs, the lexer can generate an error
message indicating the specific location, type of error, and potentially
suggest a solution. For example, an error message might state,
"Lexical Error: Unexpected token '@' at line 5, column 10. Did you
mean to use the '+' operator?"

It's important to note that error recovery techniques in lexical analysis are
context-sensitive and depend on the specific programming language and the
compiler's design. The goal of these techniques is to minimize the impact of
lexical errors and enable the compiler to continue processing the source code,
even in the presence of errors. However, it's crucial to address and fix the
underlying lexical errors to ensure the accurate interpretation and compilation of
the source code.
SPECIFICATION OF TOKENS :-

the specification of tokens refers to the rules and patterns that define the lexical
structure of a programming language. These specifications provide a formal
description of how the source code should be tokenized, or in other words, how
the source code should be divided into individual meaningful units called tokens.

Analogous to the human language , all the programming languages have grammar
and language implemented in them .Lexical analyzer converts an input sequence
of characters into a sequence of tokens.

Pattern are made from regular expression or context free grammer .Specifying
and recognizing tokens required defining basic elements such as alphabets ,string,
languages etc ;further we will see that regular expressions are an important
notation for specifying patterns.

There are 3 specifications of tokens:

1)Strings
2) Language
3)Regular expression

1) STRING:-

The term alphabet or character class denotes any finite set of symbols.Typical
examples of symbol are letters and characters.

The set {0,1} is the binary alphabet .

A string over some alphabet is a finite sequence of symbols drawn from that
alphabet . In language theory , the term sentence and word are often used as a
synonyms for the term string.

The length of a string s ,usually written |s| , is the number of occurrences of

symbol in s.
for exam . , banana is a string of length six . The empty string , denoted ε , is
a special string of length zero .

Terms Related to String

1. Prefix of String

The prefix of the string is the preceding symbols present in

the string and the string s itself.

For example:

s = abcd

The prefix of the string abcd: ∈, a, ab, abc, abcd

2. Suffix of String

Suffix of the string is the ending symbols of the string and

the string s itself.

For example:

s = abcd

Suffix of the string abcd: ∈, d, cd, bcd, abcd

3. Proper Prefix of String

The proper prefix of the string includes all the prefixes of

the string excluding ∈ and the string s itself.

Proper Prefix of the string abcd: a, ab, abc

4. Proper Suffix of String

The proper suffix of the string includes all the suffixes
excluding ∈ and the string s itself.

Proper Suffix of the string abcd: d, cd, bcd

5. Substring of String

The substring of a string s is obtained by deleting any

prefix or suffix from the string.

Substring of the string abcd: ∈, abcd, bcd, abc, …

6. Proper Substring of String

The proper substring of a string s includes all the

substrings of s excluding ∈ and the string s itself.

Proper Substring of the string abcd: bcd, abc, cd, ab…

7. Subsequence of String

The subsequence of the string is obtained by eliminating

zero or more (not necessarily consecutive) symbols from the
string.

A subsequence of the string abcd: abd, bcd, bd, …

8. Concatenation of String

If s and t are two strings, then st denotes concatenation.

s = abc t = def

Concatenation of string s and t i.e. st = abcdef

2) LANGUAGE :-

The term language denotes any set of strings over fixed

alphabet.

ε
Abstract languages like ∅ , the empty set , or { } , the set containing
only the empty string , are languages under this definition.

Operation on Languages :-
As we have learnt language is a set of strings that are
constructed over some fixed alphabets. Now the operation
that can be performed on languages are:

1. Union

Union is the most common set operation. Consider the two

languages L and M. Then the union of these two languages
is denoted by:

L ∪ M = { s | s is in L or s is in M}

That means the string s from the union of two languages

can either be from language L or from language M.
If L = {a, b} and M = {c, d}Then L ∪ M = {a, b, c, d}

2. Concatenation

Concatenation links the string from one language to the

string of another language in a series in all possible ways.
The concatenation of two different languages is denoted by:

L.M = {st | s is in L and t is in M}

If L = {a, b} and M = {c, d}

Then L.M = {ac, ad, bc, bd}

3. Kleene Closure

Kleene closure of a language L provides you with a set of

strings. This set of strings is obtained by concatenating L
zero or more time. The Kleene closure of the language L is
denoted by:

If L = {a, b}

L* = {∈, a, b, aa, bb, aaa, bbb, …}

4. Positive Closure

The positive closure on a language L provides a set of

strings. This set of strings is obtained by concatenating ‘L’
one or more times. It is denoted by:

It is similar to the Kleene closure. Except for the term L0, i.e.
L+ excludes ∈ until it is in L itself.

If L = {a, b}

L+ = {a, b, aa, bb, aaa, bbb, …}

So, these are the four operations that can be performed on
the languages in the lexical analysis phase.

REGULAR EXPRESSION :-

https://www.javatpoint.com/automata-regular-expression

A regular expression is a sequence of symbols used to

specify lexeme patterns. A regular expression is helpful in
describing the languages that can be built using operators
such as union, concatenation, and closure over the symbols.

Regular expressions are a combination of input symbols and

language operators such as union, concatenation and
closure.

It can be used to describe the identifier for a language. The

identifier is a collection of letters, digits and underscore
which must begin with a letter. Hence, the regular
expression for an identifier can be given by,

Letter_ (letter I digit)*

Note: Vertical bar ( I ) refers to ‘or’ (Union operator).

A regular expression ‘r’ that denotes a language L(r) is built

recursively over the smaller regular expression using the
rules given below.

The following rules define the regular expression over some alphabet Σ and
the languages denoted by these regular expressions.
1. If ∈ is a regular expression that denotes a language L(∈). The language L(∈)
has a set of strings {∈} which means that this language has a single empty
string.
2. If there is a symbol ‘a’ in Σ, then ‘a’ is a regular expression that denotes a
language L(a). The language L(a) = {a} i.e. the language has only one string
of length one and the string holds ‘a’ in the first position.
3. Consider the two regular expressions r and s then:

 r|s denotes the language L(r) ∪ L(s).

 (r) (s) denotes the language L(r) ⋅ L(s).
 (r)* denotes the language (L(r))*.
 (r)+ denotes the language L(r)

Algebraic Law for Regular Expression

Consider the regular expressions r, s, t. Algebraic laws for these regular

expressions.
Regular set

A language that can be defined by a regular expression is called a regular set. If

two regular expressions r and s denote the same regular set, we say they are
equivalent and write r = s.

There are a number of algebraic laws for regular expressions that can be used to
manipulate into equivalent forms.
For instance, r|s = s|r is commutative; r|(s|t)=(r|s)|t is associative.

Regular Definition

The regular definition is the name given to the regular

expression. The regular definition (name) of a regular
expression is used in the subsequent expressions. The
regular definition used in an expression appears as if it is a
symbol.
If Σ is an alphabet of basic symbols, then a regular definition
is a sequence of definitions of the form

dl → r 1

d2 → r2

………

dn → rn

1.Each di is a distinct name.

2.Each ri is a regular expression over the alphabet Σ U {dl,

d2,. . . , di-l}.

Example: Identifiers is the set of strings of letters and digits

beginning with a letter.

Regular definition for this set:

letter → A | B | …. | Z | a | b | …. | z |

digit → 0 | 1 | …. | 9

id → letter ( letter | digit ) *

Shorthands
Till now we have studied the regular expression with the basic operand’s
union, concatenation and closure. The regular expression can be further
extended to specify string patterns.

Certain constructs occur so frequently in regular expressions that it is convenient to

introduce notational short hands for them.
1. One or more instances (+):
- The unary postfix operator + means “ one or more instances of” .

- If r is a regular expression that denotes the language L(r), then ( r ) + is a regular

expression that denotes the language (L (r ))+

- Thus the regular expression a+ denotes the set of all strings of one or more a’s.
- The operator + has the same precedence and associativity as the operator *.

2. Zero or one instance ( ?):

- The unary postfix operator ? means “zero or one instance of”.

- The notation r? is a shorthand for r | ε.

- If ‘r’ is a regular expression, then ( r )? is a regular expression that denotes the
language

3. Character Classes:
- The notation [abc] where a, b and c are alphabet symbols denotes the regular
expression a | b | c.
- Character class such as [a – z] denotes the regular expression a | b | c | d | ….|z.

- We can describe identifiers as being strings generated by the regular expression,

[A–Za–z][A– Za–z0–9]*

RECOGNITION OF TOKEN :-
https://www.brainkart.com/article/Recognition-of-
Tokens_8138/
+ go through notes handwritten

Transition Diagrams

As an intermediate step in the construction of a lexical analyzer, we first convert

patterns into stylized flowcharts, called "transition diagrams." In this section, we
perform the conversion from regular-expression patterns to transition dia-grams by
hand, but in Section 3.6, we shall see that there is a mechanical way to construct
these diagrams from collections of regular expressions.

Transition diagrams have a collection of nodes or circles, called states. Each state
represents a condition that could occur during the process of scanning the input
looking for a lexeme that matches one of several patterns. We may think of a state
as summarizing all we need to know about what characters we have seen between
the lexemeBegin pointer and the forward pointer (as in the situation of Fig. 3.3).
Edges are directed from one state of the transition diagram to another.
Each edge is labeled by a symbol or set of symbols. If we are in some state 5, and
the next input symbol is a, we look for an edge out of state s labeled by a (and
perhaps by other symbols, as well). If we find such an edge, we advance the
forward pointer arid enter the state of the transition diagram to which that edge
leads. We shall assume that all our transition diagrams are deterministic, meaning
that there is never more than one edge out of a given state with a given symbol
among its labels. Starting in Section 3.5, we shall relax the condition of
determinism, making life much easier for the designer of a lexical analyzer,
although trickier for the implementer. Some important conventions about transition
diagrams are:

1. Certain states are said to be accepting, or final. These states indicate that a
lexeme has been found, although the actual lexeme may not consist of all positions
between the lexemeBegin and forward pointers. We always indicate an accepting
state by a double circle, and if there is an action to be taken — typically returning a
token and an attribute value to the parser — we shall attach that action to the
accepting state.
2. In addition, if it is necessary to retract the forward pointer one position (i.e., the
lexeme does not include the symbol that got us to the accepting state), then we
shall additionally place a * near that accepting state. In our example, it is never
necessary to retract forward by more than one position, but if it were, we could
attach any number of *'s to the accepting state.

3. One state is designated the start state, or initial state; it is indicated by an edge,
labeled "start," entering from nowhere. The transition diagram always begins in the
start state before any input symbols have been read.

Transition Diagram
A transition diagram or state transition diagram is a directed graph which can
be constructed as follows:

o There is a node for each state in Q, which is represented by the circle.

o There is a directed edge from node q to node p labeled a if δ(q, a) = p.
o In the start state, there is an arrow with no source.
o Accepting states or final states are indicating by a double circle.

Some Notations that are used in the transition diagram:

There is a description of how a DFA operates:

1. In DFA, the input to the automata can be any string. Now, put a pointer to
the start state q and read the input string w from left to right and move the
pointer according to the transition function, δ. We can read one symbol at a
time. If the next symbol of string w is a and the pointer is on state p, move the
pointer to δ(p, a). When the end of the input string w is encountered, then the
pointer is on some state F.
2. The string w is said to be accepted by the DFA if r ∈ F that means the input
string w is processed successfully and the automata reached its final state. The
string is said to be rejected by DFA if r ∉ F.

Example 1:
DFA with ∑ = {0, 1} accepts all strings starting with 1.

Solution:

The finite automata can be represented using a transition graph. In the above
diagram, the machine initially is in start state q0 then on receiving input 1 the
machine changes its state to q1. From q0 on receiving 0, the machine changes
its state to q2, which is the dead state. From q1 on receiving input 0, 1 the
machine changes its state to q1, which is the final state. The possible input
strings that can be generated are 10, 11, 110, 101, 111......., that means all
string starts with 1.

Example 2:
NFA with ∑ = {0, 1} accepts all strings starting with 1.

Solution:
The NFA can be represented using a transition graph. In the above diagram,
the machine initially is in start state q0 then on receiving input 1 the machine
changes its state to q1. From q1 on receiving input 0, 1 the machine changes
its state to q1. The possible input string that can be generated is 10, 11, 110,
101, 111......, that means all string starts with 1.
 UNIT 3
SYNTAX ANALYSIS :-
Syntax Analysis or Parsing is the second phase, i.e. after lexical analysis.
It checks the syntactical structure of the given input, i.e. whether the
given input is in the correct syntax (of the language in which the input
has been written) or not. It does so by building a data structure, called a
Parse tree or Syntax tree. The parse tree is constructed by using the
pre-defined Grammar of the language and the input string. If the given
input string can be produced with the help of the syntax tree (in the
derivation process), the input string is found to be in the correct syntax.
if not, the error is reported by the syntax analyzer.

Syntax analysis, also known as parsing, is a process in compiler design

where the compiler checks if the source code follows the grammatical
rules of the programming language. This is typically the second stage of
the compilation process, following lexical analysis.
The main goal of syntax analysis is to create a parse tree or abstract
syntax tree (AST) of the source code, which is a hierarchical
representation of the source code that reflects the grammatical structure
of the program.
NOTE :-We have seen that a lexical analyzer can identify tokens with
the help of regular expressions and pattern rules. But a lexical analyzer
cannot check the syntax of a given sentence due to the limitations of the
regular expressions. Regular expressions cannot check balancing tokens,
such as parenthesis. Therefore, this phase uses context-free grammar
(CFG), which is recognized by push-down automata.
Features of syntax analysis:
Syntax Trees: Syntax analysis creates a syntax tree, which is a
hierarchical representation of the code’s structure. The tree shows the
relationship between the various parts of the code, including statements,
expressions, and operators.
Context-Free Grammar: Syntax analysis uses context-free grammar to
define the syntax of the programming language. Context-free grammar
is a formal language used to describe the structure of programming
languages.
Top-Down and Bottom-Up Parsing: Syntax analysis can be performed
using two main approaches: top-down parsing and bottom-up parsing.
Top-down parsing starts from the highest level of the syntax tree and
works its way down, while bottom-up parsing starts from the lowest
level and works its way up.
Error Detection: Syntax analysis is responsible for detecting syntax
errors in the code. If the code does not conform to the rules of the
programming language, the parser will report an error and halt the
compilation process.
Intermediate Code Generation: Syntax analysis generates an
intermediate representation of the code, which is used by the subsequent
phases of the compiler. The intermediate representation is usually a
more abstract form of the code, which is easier to work with than the
original source code.
Optimization: Syntax analysis can perform basic optimizations on the
code, such as removing redundant code and simplifying expressions.
The pushdown automata (PDA) is used to design the syntax analysis
phase.
The Grammar for a Language consists of Production rules.
Example: Suppose Production rules for the Grammar of a language are:
S -> cAd
A -> bc|a
And the input string is “cad”.
Now the parser attempts to construct a syntax tree from this grammar for
the given input string. It uses the given production rules and applies
those as needed to generate the string. To generate string “cad” it uses
the rules as shown in the given
diagram:

In step (iii) above, the production rule A->bc was not a suitable one to
apply (because the string produced is “cbcd” not “cad”), here the parser
needs to backtrack, and apply the next production rule available with A
which is shown in step (iv), and the string “cad” is produced.
Thus, the given input can be produced by the given grammar, therefore
the input is correct in syntax. But backtrack was needed to get the
correct syntax tree, which is really a complex process to implement.
There can be an easier way to solve this, which we shall see in the next
article “Concepts of FIRST and FOLLOW sets in Compiler Design”.

Advantages :
 Advantages of using syntax analysis in compiler design include:
 Structural validation: Syntax analysis allows the compiler to check
if the source code follows the grammatical rules of the
programming language, which helps to detect and report errors in
the source code.
  Improved code generation: Syntax analysis can generate a parse
tree or abstract syntax tree (AST) of the source code, which can be
used in the code generation phase of the compiler design to
generate more efficient and optimized code.
 Easier semantic analysis: Once the parse tree or AST is
constructed, the compiler can perform semantic analysis more
easily, as it can rely on the structural information provided by the
parse tree or AST.
Disadvantages:
 Disadvantages of using syntax analysis in compiler design include:
 Complexity: Parsing is a complex process, and the quality of the
parser can greatly impact the performance of the resulting code.
Implementing a parser for a complex programming language can
be a challenging task, especially for languages with ambiguous
grammars.
 Reduced performance: Syntax analysis can add overhead to the
compilation process, which can reduce the performance of the
compiler.
 Limited error recovery: Syntax analysis algorithms may not be
able to recover from errors in the source code, which can lead to
incomplete or incorrect parse trees and make it difficult for the
compiler to continue the compilation process.
 Inability to handle all languages: Not all languages have formal
grammars, and some languages may not be easily parseable.
 Overall, syntax analysis is an important stage in the compiler
design process, but it should be balanced against the goals and
THE ROLE OF PARSER

WHAT IS PARSER :-
In compiler design, a parser is a key component responsible for
performing the parsing or syntax analysis phase of the compilation
process. It takes the stream of tokens generated by the lexer (lexical
analyzer) as input and checks whether the sequence of tokens conforms
to the grammar rules of the programming language.
The parser or syntactic analyzer obtains a string of tokens from the
lexical analyzer and verifies that the string can be generated by the
grammar for the source language. It reports any syntax errors in the
program. It also recovers from commonly occurring errors so that it can
continue processing its input.
Functions of the parser :

1. It verifies the structure generated by the tokens based on the grammar.

2. It constructs the parse tree.
3. It reports the errors.
4. It performs error recovery.

. Define Parsing? (NOV 2015)

A parser for grammar G is a
program that takes as input a
string 8w9 and produces as
output either a parse
tree for 9w9, if 8w9 is a
sentence of G, or an error
message indicating that w is
not a sentence of G. It obtains
a
string of tokens from the
lexical analyzer, verifies that
the string generated by the
grammar for the source
language

In compiler design, a parser plays a crucial role in the syntax analysis

phase, also known as parsing. The primary objective of the parser is to
analyze the input source code and determine if it conforms to the
specified grammar of the programming language. It breaks down the
source code into a structure that can be further processed by the
compiler.

Let's delve into the details of the parser's role in the compiler
design process:
1. Syntax Analysis: The parser performs syntax analysis by
examining the stream of tokens generated by the lexer (lexical
analyzer) during the tokenization phase. It ensures that the tokens
are arranged in a valid manner according to the language's
grammar rules. The parser achieves this by applying a set of
production rules defined by the language's grammar.
2. Grammar Rules: A parser utilizes a formal grammar, such as a
context-free grammar (CFG), which defines the syntax rules of the
 programming language. The grammar consists of a set of
production rules that specify how different language constructs can
be formed. These rules are typically expressed using a notation like
Backus-Naur Form (BNF) or Extended Backus-Naur Form
(EBNF).
3. Parsing Techniques: There are different parsing techniques
employed by parsers, including:
a. Top-Down Parsing: Top-down parsing starts from the root of the
grammar and attempts to build the parse tree by applying production
rules in a top-down manner. It begins with the start symbol of the
grammar and recursively expands it until the input tokens are matched.
Common top-down parsing algorithms include Recursive Descent and
LL(k) parsing.
b. Bottom-Up Parsing: Bottom-up parsing starts from the input tokens
and works its way up to the start symbol of the grammar. It identifies
valid grammar productions by performing reductions and building the
parse tree from the bottom up. Common bottom-up parsing algorithms
include LR(0), SLR(1), LALR(1), and LR(1) parsing.
4. Parse Tree Construction: A parse tree is a hierarchical
representation of the syntactic structure of the source code. The
parser constructs a parse tree by applying the production rules
based on the recognized tokens. The leaf nodes of the parse tree
correspond to the input tokens, while the internal nodes represent
non-terminal symbols or language constructs. The parse tree
captures the precise structure of the source code.
5. Error Handling: The parser also handles syntax errors in the source
code. When encountering an invalid token or an unexpected
structure, the parser generates error messages or diagnostic
 information to assist the programmer in identifying and correcting
the errors. It may employ techniques like error recovery to
continue parsing after encountering an error, attempting to find
subsequent valid constructs.
6. Intermediate Representation: After successful parsing, the parser
typically produces an intermediate representation (IR) of the
source code. The IR serves as an intermediary between the parsing
and subsequent compilation phases. It may be in the form of an
abstract syntax tree (AST), which simplifies and abstracts away
some of the low-level details while still preserving the essential
structure and semantics of the code.
In summary, the parser is a vital component of a compiler as it performs
the syntax analysis of the source code, enforces the language's grammar
rules, constructs the parse tree or abstract syntax tree, and handles error
detection and reporting. It acts as the bridge between the lexer and the
subsequent phases of the compiler, facilitating the transformation of
human-readable source code into a more structured representation
suitable for further processing and code generation.
Issues in Parser :

Parser cannot detect errors such as:

1. Variable re-declaration
2. Variable initialization before use
3. Data type mismatch for an operation.
The above issues are handled by Semantic Analysis phase
.
SYNTAX ERROR HANDLING :-

1)Syntax Error
Syntax or Syntactic errors are the errors that arise during syntax
analysis. These errors can be the incorrect usage of semicolons, extra
braces, or missing braces.

In C or Java, syntactic errors could be a case statement without

enclosing the switch.
2) syntax error handling :-
Syntax error handling in compiler design refers to the process of
detecting and recovering from syntax errors in the input source code
during the parsing phase. When the parser encounters an invalid token or
an unexpected structure that violates the language's grammar rules, it
generates error messages or diagnostic information to inform the
programmer about the syntax issues. Additionally, the parser may
employ strategies to recover from syntax errors and continue parsing to
identify subsequent valid constructs.

3)Programs can contain errors at many different levels.

For example :
1. Lexical, such as misspelling an identifier, keyword or operator.
2. Syntactic, such as an arithmetic expression with unbalanced
parentheses.
3. Semantic, such as an operator applied to an incompatible operand.
4. Logical, such as an infinitely recursive call.

4)Here are some aspects of syntax error handling in compiler

design:
1. Error Detection: The parser scans the input token stream and
identifies syntax errors by comparing the tokens against the
expected grammar rules. If a token does not match the expected
grammar production or if there is a missing or extra token, the
parser detects a syntax error.
2. Error Messages: When a syntax error is detected, the parser
generates error messages that provide information about the
location and nature of the error. These error messages help the
programmer understand the issue and facilitate debugging and
code correction.
3. Error Recovery: After detecting a syntax error, the parser can
employ error recovery techniques to continue parsing and identify
subsequent valid constructs in the code. Error recovery strategies
aim to minimize the impact of syntax errors and allow the compiler
to process and analyze as much of the input code as possible.
a. Panic Mode Recovery: In panic mode recovery, the parser skips
tokens until it finds a synchronizing token that indicates a potential
recovery point. This strategy aims to resynchronize the parser with the
correct structure in the code.
b. Error Productions: Error productions are added to the grammar to
explicitly handle common syntax errors. These error productions allow
the parser to recover from certain types of errors and continue parsing.
c. Local Corrections: The parser can attempt to make local corrections to
the input code to rectify minor syntax errors. For example, if a missing
semicolon is detected, the parser may insert the semicolon in the
appropriate position and continue parsing.
4. Multiple Error Handling: In some cases, the parser may detect
multiple syntax errors in the input code. In such situations, it can
employ strategies to handle multiple errors, such as continuing
parsing after each error and generating error messages for each
detected issue.

5)Functions of error handler :

1. It should report the presence of errors clearly and accurately.
2. It should recover from each error quickly enough to be able to detect
subsequent errors.
3. It should not significantly slow down the processing of correct
programs.

6) a simple example of syntax error handling in compiler design:

Consider the following grammar rule for a simple assignment statement:
phpCopy code
<assignment> ::= <variable> "=" <expression> ";"
<variable> ::= [a-zA-Z]+
<expression> ::= <term> "+" <expression> | <term>
<term> ::= <factor> "*" <term> | <factor>
<factor> ::= <variable> | <number>
<number> ::= [0-9]+
And let's say we have the following input code with a syntax error:
x = 10 +
During the parsing phase, the parser encounters the + operator without a
valid expression following it, resulting in a syntax error. The parser can
handle this error as follows:
1. Error Detection: The parser detects the syntax error when it
encounters the + operator without a valid expression after it.
2. Error Message: The parser generates an error message to inform
the programmer about the error. It might output something like:
"Syntax error: Unexpected end of expression after '+' operator.
Expecting an expression."
3. Error Recovery: The parser employs an error recovery strategy to
continue parsing and identify subsequent valid constructs in the
code.
In this example, the parser can employ panic mode recovery. It skips
tokens until it finds a synchronizing token or a recovery point. In this
case, a possible recovery point could be a semicolon ; because it
indicates the end of a statement.
So, the parser would skip tokens until it finds a semicolon, discarding
the erroneous portion of the code. This allows the parser to synchronize
with the correct structure in the code and resume parsing from a known
state.
After error recovery, the parser continues parsing the remaining code, if
any, to identify and report any subsequent errors.
In this example, the parser detects the syntax error, generates an error
message, and employs panic mode recovery by skipping tokens until a
recovery point. This strategy allows the parser to handle the error and
continue parsing the input code, providing meaningful error messages to
the programmer.

7) error recovery strategies

In compiler design, error recovery strategies are employed during the
syntax analysis phase to handle syntax errors and enable the parser to
continue parsing the input code after encountering an error. These
strategies aim to recover from errors and identify subsequent valid
constructs to provide meaningful error messages and facilitate further
processing of the code. Here are some common error recovery strategies:
1. Panic mode
2. Phrase level
3. Error productions
4. Global correction
Panic mode recovery:
Panic mode recovery is a widely used strategy where the parser enters
a recovery mode after detecting a syntax error. It continues parsing by
skipping tokens until it finds a synchronizing token or a recovery point.
The recovery point is typically a token that indicates a potential restart
point for the parser, such as a statement terminator or a block
delimiter.
For example, if a semicolon ; is the recovery point, the parser would
skip tokens until it finds a semicolon, discarding the erroneous portion
of the code. This allows the parser to synchronize with the correct
structure in the code and resume parsing from a known state.
On discovering an error, the parser discards input symbols one at a time
until a synchronizing token is found. The synchronizing tokens are
usually delimiters, such as semicolon or end. It has the advantage of
simplicity and does not go into an infinite loop. When multiple errors in
the same statement are rare, this method is quite useful.

Phrase level recovery:

Phrase-level correction focuses on identifying and recovering from
errors within a specific phrase or construct in the code. When a syntax
error is encountered, the parser attempts to correct the error locally
within the affected phrase and continue parsing from there.

On discovering an error, the parser performs local correction on the

remaining input that allows it to continue. Example: Insert a missing
semicolon or delete an extraneous semicolon etc.
Error productions:
Error productions are additional grammar productions specifically
added to handle common syntax errors. These productions are
designed to capture and recover from specific error patterns. The error
productions allow the parser to continue parsing even when the input
deviates from the expected grammar rules.
For instance, consider an error production <expression> ::= error. This
production tells the parser that when it encounters an error while parsing
an expression, it can treat it as a valid expression and continue parsing
from there. This strategy helps in recovering from errors and prevents
the parser from getting stuck at a single error.

The parser is constructed using augmented grammar with error

productions. If an error production is used by the parser, appropriate
error diagnostics can be generated to indicate the erroneous constructs
recognized by the input.

Global correction:
Global correction involves identifying and recovering from errors that
impact a broader scope of the code beyond a specific phrase or
construct. Instead of attempting to correct the error within the affected
construct, the parser looks for a higher-level recovery point, such as a
statement boundary or a block boundary, to synchronize the parsing
process.
Given an incorrect input string x and grammar G, certain algorithms can
be used to find a parse tree for a string y, such that the number of
insertions, deletions and changes of tokens is as small as possible.
However, these methods are in general too costly in terms of time and
space.

CONTEXT-FREE GRAMMARS

In compiler design, a context-free grammar (CFG) is a formal notation used to

describe the syntax or structure of a programming language. It is a set of
production rules that define how valid sequences of symbols (or tokens) can be
combined to form valid language constructs.
A context-free grammar consists of four main components:
1. Terminals: Terminals represent the basic building blocks or tokens of the
language. These are the individual symbols that appear in the input code.
Examples of terminals include keywords, identifiers, operators,
punctuation marks, and literals.
2. Non-terminals: Non-terminals represent language constructs or syntactic
categories. These are placeholders for sequences of terminals and/or other
non-terminals. Non-terminals are used to define the hierarchical structure
of the language. Examples of non-terminals include statements,
expressions, functions, and declarations.

2. Non-terminal symbols: These are variables or placeholders that

represent groups of terminal symbols. Non-terminal symbols are used
to define the structure of valid sentences or expressions in the
language. They are usually represented by uppercase letters.
Examples include program, statement, expression, and identifier.
 3. Production rules: These rules specify how non-terminal symbols
can be expanded or replaced by sequences of terminal and non-
terminal symbols. A production rule consists of a non-terminal
symbol (on the left-hand side) and a sequence of terminal and non-
terminal symbols (on the right-hand side). It describes how a non-
terminal can be rewritten or expanded. For example, a production rule
might state that an expression can be expanded into an identifier or an
expression can be expanded into an expression followed by an
operator and another expression.
4. Start symbol: This is the initial non-terminal symbol from which
the derivation of valid sentences or expressions begins. It represents
the overall structure of the language.

A Context-Free Grammar is a quadruple that consists

of terminals(T),non-terminals(V), start symbol(S)
and productions(P).
Context free grammar G can be defined by four tuples as:
G= (V, T, P, S)

Terminals: These are the basic symbols from which strings are formed.

Non-Terminals: These are the syntactic variables that denote a set of

strings.
These help to define the language generated by the grammar.
Start Symbol: One non-terminal of strings it denotes is the language
defined by the grammar.in the grammar is denoted as the “Start-
symbol” and the set

Productions : to form strings. Each production consists of a non-

terminal, followed by an arrow, followed by a string of non-terminals
and terminals.It specifies the manner in which terminals and non-
terminals can be combined

Example of context-free grammar:

The following grammar defines simple arithmetic expressions:-

expr → expr op expr
expr → (expr)
expr → - expr
expr → id
op → +
op → -
op → *
op → /
op → ↑

In this grammar,
Id + - * / ↑ ( ) are terminals.

expr , op are non-terminals.

expr is the start symbol.
Each line is a production.

By defining a context-free grammar, the compiler can analyze the

structure of the input code and determine whether it conforms to the
specified grammar rules. The parsing phase of the compiler uses the
CFG to transform the input code into a parse tree or an abstract syntax
tree, which represents the hierarchical structure of the code for further
processing and analysis.
Context-free grammars are widely used in compiler design, parsing
algorithms (such as LL(1), LR(0), SLR(1), LALR(1), etc.), and formal
language theory to describe the syntax of programming languages and
other formal languages.

PARSE TREE:-

Here we will study the concept and uses of Parse Tree in Compiler Design.
First, let us check out two terms :
 Parse : It means to resolve (a sentence) into its component parts and
describe their syntactic roles or simply it is an act of parsing a string or a
text.
 Tree: A tree may be a widely used abstract data type that simulates a
hierarchical tree structure, with a root value and sub-trees of youngsters with
a parent node, represented as a group of linked nodes.

Parse Tree:

 Parse tree is the hierarchical representation of terminals or non-terminals.

 These symbols (terminals or non-terminals) represent the derivation of the
grammar to yield input strings.
 In parsing, the string springs using the beginning symbol.
 The starting symbol of the grammar must be used as the root of the Parse
Tree.
 Leaves of parse tree represent terminals.
 Each interior node represents productions of a grammar.
 In compiler design, a parse tree, also known as a derivation tree or
syntax tree, is a hierarchical representation of the syntactic structure of a
source code program. It demonstrates how the input program can be
parsed according to the rules of a given grammar or language
specification.

A parse tree visually represents the process of applying the production rules of
a context-free grammar (CFG) to derive the input program. It illustrates the
syntactic relationships between the different components of the program,
such as statements, expressions, operators, and identifiers. The parse tree
shows the hierarchical structure of the input program and the order in which
the production rules are applied during parsing. It provides a detailed
representation of how the input program is structured according to the
grammar.

Parse trees are essential in various stages of the compilation process, including
lexical analysis, parsing, semantic analysis, and code generation. They facilitate
error detection, semantic analysis, and the generation of intermediate
representations or machine code.
  The parse tree shows the hierarchical structure of the input program and
the order in which the production rules are applied during parsing. It
provides a detailed representation of how the input program is
structured according to the grammar.
 Parse trees are essential in various stages of the compilation process,
including lexical analysis, parsing, semantic analysis, and code
generation. They facilitate error detection, semantic analysis, and the
generation of intermediate representations or machine code.


 Parse tree is the graphical representation of symbol. The symbol can be

terminal or non-terminal.
 In parsing, the string is derived using the start symbol. The root of the
parse tree is that start symbol.
 It is the graphical representation of symbol that can be terminals or
non-terminals.
 Parse tree follows the precedence of operators. The deepest sub-tree
traversed first. So, the operator in the parent node has less precedence
over the operator in the sub-tree.

 A parse tree is a graphical depiction of a derivation. It is convenient to see
how strings are derived from the start symbol. The start symbol of the
derivation becomes the root of the parse tree.

Rules to Draw a Parse Tree:

1. All leaf nodes need to be terminals.
2. All interior nodes need to be non-terminals.
3. In-order traversal gives the original input string.

Example 1: Let us take an example of Grammar (Production Rules).

S -> sAB
A -> a
B -> b
The input string is “sab”, then the Parse Tree is:

Example-2: Let us take another example of Grammar (Production Rules).

S -> AB
A -> c/aA
B -> d/bB

The input string is “acbd”, then the Parse Tree is as follows:

Uses of Parse Tree:

 It helps in making syntax analysis by reflecting the syntax of the input
language.
 It uses an in-memory representation of the input with a structure that
conforms to the grammar.
 The advantages of using parse trees rather than semantic actions: you’ll
make multiple passes over the info without having to re-parse the input.

DERIVATION :-

Derivations:
Two basic requirements for a grammar are :
1. To generate a valid string.
2. To recognize a valid string.

Derivation is a process that generates a valid string with the help of grammar
by replacing the non-terminals on the left with the string on the right side of the
production.

A derivation is basically a sequence of production rules, in order to get the input

string. During parsing, we take two decisions for some sentential form of input:
 Deciding the non-terminal which is to be replaced.
 Deciding the production rule, by which, the non-terminal will be replaced.

n compiler design, derivation refers to the process of applying production rules of a

context-free grammar (CFG) to transform a start symbol into a sequence of
terminal symbols. It represents the step-by-step expansion of non-terminal symbols
to generate valid sentences or expressions in the target language.
The derivation process begins with the start symbol of the grammar and continues
by successively replacing non-terminal symbols with their corresponding right-
hand side expansions, according to the production rules. This process continues
until only terminal symbols remain, resulting in a valid sentence or expression in
the target language.

Example : Consider the following grammar for arithmetic expressions :

E→E+E|E*E|(E)|-E| id

To generate a valid string - ( id+id ) from the grammar the steps are
1. E → - E
2. E → - ( E )
3. E → - ( E+E )
4. E → - ( id+E )
5. E → - ( id+id )

In the above derivation,

E is the start symbol
-(id+id) is the required sentence(only terminals).
Strings such as E, -E, -(E), . . . are called sentinel forms.

Types of derivations:
To decide which non-terminal to be replaced with production rule, we can
have two options.
The two types of derivation are:
1. Left most derivation
2. Right most derivation.

In leftmost derivations, the leftmost non-terminal in each sentinel is always chosen

first for replacement.
If the sentential form of an input is scanned and replaced from left to right, it is
called left-most derivation. The sentential form derived by the left-most
derivation is called the left-sentential form.
In rightmost derivations, the rightmost non-terminal in each sentinel is always
chosen first for replacement.
If we scan and replace the input with production rules, from right to left, it is
known as right-most derivation. The sentential form derived from the right-
most derivation is called the right-sentential form.

Example
Production rules:
E→E+E
E→E*E
E → id
Input string: id + id * id
The left-most derivation is:
E→E*E
E→E+E*E
E → id + E * E
E → id + id * E
E → id + id * id
Notice that the left-most side non-terminal is always processed first.
The right-most derivation is:
E→E+E
E→E+E*E
E → E + E * id
E → E + id * id
E → id + id * id

String that appear in leftmost derivation are called left sentinel forms.
String that appear in rightmost derivation are called right sentinel forms.

Sentinels:
 Given a grammar G with start symbol S, if S → α , where α may contain
non-terminals or terminals, then α is called the sentinel form of G.

Yield or frontier of tree:

Each interior node of a parse tree is a non-terminal. The children of node can
be a terminal or non-terminal of the sentinel forms that are read from left to right.
The sentinel form in the parse tree is called yield or frontier of the tree.

Ambiguity
A grammar is said to be ambiguous if there exists more than one
leftmost derivation or more than one rightmost derivative or more than
one parse tree for the given input string. If the grammar is not
ambiguous then it is called unambiguous.
Example:
1. S = aSb | SS
2. S = ∈
For the string aabb, the above grammar generates two parse trees:
If the grammar has ambiguity then it is not good for a compiler
construction. No method can automatically detect and remove the
ambiguity but you can remove ambiguity by re-writing the whole
grammar without ambiguity.

In compiler design, ambiguity refers to a situation where a given

grammar can produce more than one valid parse tree for a particular
input string. It occurs when the grammar rules are not specific enough to
determine a unique interpretation of the input.
Ambiguity can arise in different stages of the compilation process,
particularly during parsing. There are two types of ambiguity:
1. Syntactic Ambiguity: Syntactic ambiguity occurs when a grammar
allows multiple parse trees for a given input string. It means that
the input string can be derived in different ways according to the
grammar rules. This can lead to different interpretations or
meanings of the input, which can cause problems during the
compilation process.
For example, consider the following grammar:
expression -> expression + expression
expression -> expression * expression
expression -> identifier
If we try to parse the expression "a + b * c", it can be interpreted as
either "a + (b * c)" or "(a + b) * c", resulting in two different parse trees
and thus two different interpretations of the expression.
2. Semantic Ambiguity: Semantic ambiguity refers to a situation
where a grammar is capable of generating parse trees that have
multiple interpretations or meanings in terms of the semantics of
the language. This means that even if the syntax is unambiguous,
the resulting parse trees may have different semantic
interpretations.
For example, consider the grammar:
statement -> if (expression) statement
statement -> if (expression) statement else statement
If we have the following code snippet:
if (x > 5) if (y > 10) print "A"; else print "B";
The code is syntactically unambiguous because each if statement has a
corresponding else statement. However, the semantic interpretation can
vary depending on whether the "else" clause belongs to the first "if" or
the second "if" statement. This ambiguity can result in different program
behaviors.
Ambiguity in grammar can pose challenges for compiler designers as it
makes it difficult to determine the correct interpretation of a given input
string. It can lead to issues such as incorrect parsing, incorrect semantic
analysis, and difficulty in generating the appropriate output. Therefore, it
is generally desirable to avoid or resolve ambiguity in grammars to
ensure predictable and unambiguous behavior during the compilation
process.

Ambiguity in compiler design can have several negative effects and

challenges. Here are some ways ambiguity can impact the compilation
process:
1. Parsing Issues: Ambiguity can make parsing the input program
difficult or even impossible. Ambiguous grammars can result in
multiple valid parse trees for the same input string, which makes it
challenging to determine the correct syntactic structure of the
program. It can lead to conflicts and ambiguities in parsing
algorithms, making it harder to construct a parse tree or perform
efficient parsing.
2. Increased Complexity: Ambiguity introduces complexity in the
design and implementation of the compiler. Handling multiple
possible interpretations of the input requires additional checks and
considerations, resulting in more complex parsing algorithms and
grammar specifications. This complexity can make the compiler
design harder to understand, maintain, and optimize.
3. Semantic Conflicts: Ambiguity can extend beyond syntax and
affect semantic analysis. Even if the syntax is unambiguous,
different interpretations of the parse tree can lead to conflicting or
inconsistent semantic analysis results. This can result in incorrect
type checking, symbol resolution, or other semantic operations,
 leading to runtime errors or unexpected behaviors in the compiled
program.
4. Difficulty in Error Handling: Ambiguity can complicate error
detection and reporting during the compilation process. When an
ambiguous input is encountered, it becomes challenging to provide
meaningful error messages that accurately identify the source of
the issue. Ambiguity can lead to misleading or unclear error
messages, making it harder for programmers to identify and fix the
problems in their code.
5. Code Optimization Challenges: Ambiguity can also impact code
optimization techniques. Optimizations like dead code elimination,
loop unrolling, or constant folding rely on a clear understanding of
the program's structure and semantics. Ambiguity can introduce
uncertainty, making it more difficult to perform effective
optimizations, resulting in suboptimal or inefficient generated
code.
6. Language Usability and Understandability: Ambiguity in the
language design can impact the usability and understandability of
the programming language. Ambiguous language constructs can
lead to confusion and differences in interpretation among
programmers, resulting in inconsistent and error-prone code. It can
also hinder the learning and adoption of the language, as
programmers may struggle to understand and predict the behavior
of ambiguous language constructs.
To mitigate these issues, it is essential to strive for unambiguous
grammar specifications and clear language design principles. Resolving
or eliminating ambiguity through techniques such as disambiguation
rules, precedence, associativity, or introducing more specific grammar
rules can help ensure predictable and correct compilation outcomes.

Regular Expression Vs Context Free

Grammar

Regular Expressions are capable of describing the syntax of Tokens.

Any syntactic construct that can be described by Regular Expression can
also be described by the Context free grammar.
Regular Expression:
(a|b)(a|b|01)
Context-free grammar:
S --> aA|bA
A --> aA|bA|0A|1A|e
*e denotes epsilon.
here both regular expression and CFG is denoting to same language.

The Context-free grammar form NFA for the Regular Expression using
the following construction rules:
1. For each state there is a Non-Terminal symbol.
2. If state A has a transition to state B on a symbol a

3. IF state A goes to state B, input symbol is e

4. If A is accepting state.
 5. Make the start symbol of the NFA with the start symbol of the
grammar.
Every Regular set can be described the Context-free grammar that’s why
we are using Regular Expression. There are several reasons and they are:

Regular Expressions Context-free grammar

Lexical rules are quite simple in case Lexical rules are difficult in case of
of Regular Expressions. Context free grammar.

Notations in regular expressions are Notations in Context free grammar are

easy to understand. quite complex.

A set of string is defined in case of In Context free grammar the language is

Regular Expressions. defined by the collection of productions.

It is easy to construct efficient

By using the context free grammar, it is
recognizer from Regular
very difficult to construct the recognizer.
Expressions.

There is proper procedure for lexical There is no specific guideline for lexical
and syntactical analysis in case of and syntactic analysis in case of Context
Regular Expressions. free grammar.

Regular Expressions are most useful Context free grammars are most useful in
for describing the structure of lexical describing the nested chain structure or
Regular Expressions Context-free grammar

syntactic structure such as balanced

construct such as identifiers, constant parenthesis, if else etc.
etc. and these can’t be define by Regular
Expression.

Context-Free Grammar (CFG) and Regular Expressions (Regex) are

both important concepts in compiler design, but they serve different
purposes and have different expressive power. Here's a comparison
between the two:
1. Expressive Power: Context-Free Grammars are more powerful and
expressive than Regular Expressions. CFGs can describe more
complex languages, including nested structures, recursive
definitions, and languages with arbitrary levels of nesting. Regular
Expressions, on the other hand, are limited to describing regular
languages, which have simpler patterns and cannot handle nested
structures or recursion.
2. Language Description: Context-Free Grammars are used to
describe the syntax of programming languages or formal languages
in a more structured and hierarchical manner. CFGs define the
rules for constructing valid sentences or expressions in the
language. Regular Expressions, on the other hand, are primarily
used for pattern matching and text processing tasks. They are used
to describe simple patterns within strings and are often employed
for tasks like lexical analysis or string manipulation.
 3. Parsing vs. Pattern Matching: Context-Free Grammars are
primarily used for parsing, which involves analyzing the syntactic
structure of a program and constructing a parse tree or an abstract
syntax tree. CFGs provide the rules and mechanisms to derive and
recognize valid sentences in a language. Regular Expressions, on
the other hand, are used for pattern matching and searching for
specific patterns or sequences of characters within a string. They
can be applied to tasks like tokenization, lexical analysis, or string
manipulation.
4. Tooling and Implementation: Context-Free Grammars are typically
processed by parser generators or hand-coded parsers. These tools
generate parsers that analyze the input program based on the
grammar rules and construct a parse tree or an abstract syntax tree.
Regular Expressions, on the other hand, have built-in support in
many programming languages and can be directly used for pattern
matching tasks using library functions or regular expression
engines.
5. Complexity: Context-Free Grammars can be more complex to
define and understand compared to Regular Expressions. CFGs
involve non-terminals, terminals, and production rules, and
understanding the structure and behavior of the grammar can
require more formal reasoning. Regular Expressions, on the other
hand, have a more compact and concise syntax, making them
easier to write and comprehend for simple pattern matching tasks.
In summary, Context-Free Grammars and Regular Expressions have
different purposes in compiler design. CFGs are used for describing the
syntax and structure of programming languages, enabling parsing and
construction of parse trees. Regular Expressions, on the other hand, are
used for pattern matching and text processing tasks within strings. CFGs
are more expressive but also more complex, while Regular Expressions
are simpler and more suitable for basic pattern matching requirements.
WRITING A GRAMMAR

A grammar consists of a number of productions. Each production has an

abstract symbol called a nonterminal as its left-hand side, and a
sequence of one or more nonterminal and terminal symbols as its right-
hand side. For each grammar, the terminal symbols are drawn from a
specified alphabet.

Starting from a sentence consisting of a single distinguished

nonterminal, called the goal symbol, a given context-free grammar
specifies a language, namely, the set of possible sequences of terminal
symbols that can result from repeatedly replacing any nonterminal in the
sequence with a right-hand side of a production for which the
nonterminal is the left-hand side.

REGULAR EXPRESSION
It is used to describe the tokens of programming languages.
It is used to check whether the given input is valid or not using transition
diagram
The transition diagram has set of states and edges.
It has no start symbol.
It is useful for describing the structure of lexical constructs such
asidentifiers, constants, keywords, and so forth.

CONTEXT-FREE GRAMMAR
It consists of a quadruple where
S → start symbol,
P → production,
T → terminal,
V → variable or non- terminal.
It is used to check whether the given input is valid or not using
derivation.
The context-free grammar has set of productions.
It has start symbol.
parentheses, matching begin- end’s and so on.
There are four categories in writing a grammar :
1. Regular Expression Vs Context Free Grammar
2. Eliminating ambiguous grammar.
3. Eliminating left-recursion
4. Left-factoring.
Each parsing method can handle grammars only of a certain form hence,
the initial grammar may have to be rewritten to make it parsable.

Reasons for using the regular expression to define the lexical syntax
of a language

tokens than grammars.Regular expressions provide a more concise and

easier to understand notation forThe lexical rules of a language are
simple and RE is used to describe them.

Ø Efficient lexical analyzers can be constructed automatically from RE

than from grammars.

Ø Separating the syntactic structure of a language into lexical and

nonlexical parts provides a convenient way of modularizing the front
end into two manageable-sized components.

Eliminating ambiguity:

Ambiguity of the grammar that produces more than one parse tree for
leftmost or rightmost derivation can be eliminated by re-writing the
grammar.
Consider this example, G: stmt→ifexprthenstmt|ifexprthenstmtelstmte|
other This grammar is ambiguous since the string if E1 then if E2 then
S1 else S2 has the following two parse trees for leftmost derivation (Fig.
2.3)

To eliminate ambiguity, the following grammar may be

used: stmt→matched|unmatchedstmt_stmt

matched→ifexprstmtthenmatchedelsematchedtmt_stmt|other unmatche
d→ifexprsthenmtstmt|ifexprthenmatchedelseunmatchedtmt_stmt
Eliminating Left Recursion:
A grammar is said to be left recursiveifithasanon-terminal Asuch that
there is a derivation A=>Aα for some string α. Top-down parsing
methods cannot
handle left-recursive grammars. Hence, left recursion can be eliminated
as follows:

If there is→ aαA produc|βitioncan Abe replaced with a s A→βA’

A’→αA’ | ε
without changing the set of strings derivable from A.
Algorithm to eliminate left recursion: Arrange the non-terminals in
some order A1, A2 . . . An.
1. fori:= 1 tondo begin
forj:= 1 toi-1 do begin replace each

production of the form Ai → Aj γ by the

productions Ai → δ1
γ | δ2γ | . . . | δk γ
where Aj → δ1 | δ2 | . . . | δk are all the current Aj-productions;
end
eliminate the immediate left recursion among the Ai-productions
end
Fig. 2.3 Two parse trees for an ambiguous sentence

Left factoring:

Left factoring is a grammar transformation that is useful for producing a

grammar suitable for predictive parsing. When it is not clear which of
two alternative productions to use to expand a non-terminal A, we can
rewrite the A-productions to defer the decision until we have seen
enough of the input to make the right choice.
If there is any→αβ1|production2αβ,itcan beA rewritten as
A→αA’

A’→β1|2 β

Consider the grammar , G : S → iEtS | iEtSeS | a

E→b

Left factored, this grammar becomes

S → iEtSS’ | a

S’ → eS |ε E → b
LEFT FACTORING : -

If more than one grammar production rules has a common prefix string,
then the top-down parser cannot make a choice as to which of the
production it should take to parse the string in hand.
Example
If a top-down parser encounters a production like
A ⟹ αβ | α𝜸 | …
Then it cannot determine which production to follow to parse the string
as both productions are starting from the same terminal (or non-
terminal). To remove this confusion, we use a technique called left
factoring.
Left factoring transforms the grammar to make it useful for top-down
parsers. In this technique, we make one production for each common
prefixes and the rest of the derivation is added by new productions.
Example
The above productions can be written as
A => αA'
A'=> β | 𝜸 | …
Now the parser has only one production per prefix which makes it easier
to take decisions.
 TOP DOWN PARSING

Parser is a compiler that is used to break the data into smaller elements
coming from lexical analysis phase.

A parser takes input in the form of sequence of tokens and produces output in
the form of parse tree.

Parsing is of two types: top down parsing and bottom up parsing.

Top-down parsing is a technique used in computer science and

programming language theory to analyze the structure of a given input
string based on a specified grammar.
It starts from the top-level symbol of the grammar and works its way
down to the input string, trying to construct a parse tree or a leftmost
derivation.
This process involves applying production rules in a recursive manner
to match the input string with the grammar.
Top-down parsing means parsing the input and constructing the parse
tree, starting from the root and going down to the leaf.
 It uses left most derivation to build a parse tree. On the contrary,
bottom-up parsing is based on reverse rightmost derivation
The function of top-down parsers is to construct from the grammar (free
from left recursion and ambiguity). Top-down parsing allows the
grammar free from left factoring.
It does not allow Grammar With Common Prefixes.

example :-
Parse Tree representation of input string "acdb" is as follows:

Here's a step-by-step explanation of the top-down parsing process:

1. Grammar: Top-down parsing requires a grammar in the form of a
set of production rules. A production rule consists of a non-
terminal symbol (also known as a variable) and a sequence of
 symbols, which can be either terminal or non-terminal. The non-
terminal symbols represent syntactic categories, while the terminal
symbols represent actual tokens in the input string.
2. Start Symbol: The top-down parsing begins with a start symbol,
which is typically the highest-level non-terminal in the grammar.
The goal is to derive the start symbol to the input string, thereby
constructing a parse tree.
3. Expansion: The parsing process starts by expanding the start
symbol using one of its production rules. The rule chosen depends
on the input string's current token or lookahead symbol. If the
current token matches the right-hand side of a production rule, the
non-terminal on the left-hand side of that rule is replaced by the
corresponding symbols in the right-hand side.
4. Recursive Descent: Once the non-terminal is replaced with its
expansion, the process is applied recursively to each symbol in the
expanded sequence. This step involves selecting the appropriate
production rule for each non-terminal encountered and expanding
it further until the entire input string is derived or a mismatch
occurs.
5. Backtracking: During the recursive descent, if a mismatch between
the expected symbol and the input token occurs, the parser
backtracks to the previous choice point. It tries alternative
production rules until a successful match is found or until all
options are exhausted.
6. Parse Tree Construction: As the top-down parser proceeds, it
constructs a parse tree, representing the syntactic structure of the
input string. Each non-terminal in the parse tree corresponds to a
 production rule applied during the parsing process. The terminals
are the actual tokens or leaf nodes in the tree.
7. Leftmost Derivation: The top-down parsing process aims to
generate a leftmost derivation, which means it selects the leftmost
non-terminal at each step to expand. This choice ensures that the
parse tree created is a leftmost derivation tree.
8. Acceptance or Rejection: If the top-down parser successfully
derives the start symbol to the input string, it accepts the input as
syntactically valid. Otherwise, if the parser reaches a point where
no further expansions are possible and the input string is not fully
derived, it rejects the input as syntactically invalid.
Top-down parsing techniques include Recursive Descent Parsing, LL(1)
Parsing, and LL(k) Parsing. These methods differ in their specific
approaches to selecting production rules and handling lookahead
symbols, but they all follow the general top-down parsing principles
outlined above.
Overall, top-down parsing provides a systematic approach to analyze the
structure of a string based on a grammar, working from the highest-level
constructs down to the input tokens, ultimately constructing a parse tree
or identifying syntax errors.
Classification of Top-Down Parsing –
1. With Backtracking: Brute Force Technique
2. Without Backtracking:
1. Recursive Descent Parsing
2. Predictive Parsing or Non-Recursive Parsing or LL(1) Parsing or
Table Driver Parsing
Recursive Descent Parsing –
1. Whenever a Non-terminal spend the first time then go with the first
alternative and compare it with the given I/P String
2. If matching doesn’t occur then go with the second alternative and
compare with the given I/P String.
3. If matching is not found again then go with the alternative and so
on.
4. Moreover, If matching occurs for at least one alternative, then the
I/P string is parsed successfully.
LL(1) or Table Driver or Predictive Parser –
1. In LL1, first L stands for Left to Right and second L stands for
Left-most Derivation. 1 stands for a number of Look Ahead tokens
used by parser while parsing a sentence.
2. LL(1) parsing is constructed from the grammar which is free from
left recursion, common prefix, and ambiguity.
3. LL(1) parser depends on 1 look ahead symbol to predict the
production to expand the parse tree.
4. This parser is Non-Recursive.

Features :
Predictive parsing: Top-down parsers often use predictive parsing
techniques, in which the parser predicts the following symbol inside the
enter based on the present day country of the parse stack and the
manufacturing rules of the grammar. This permits the parser to speedy
determine if a particular enter string is valid beneath the grammar.
LL parsing: LL parsing is a selected type of pinnacle-down parsing that
uses a left-to-right scan of the enter and leftmost derivation of the
grammar. This form of parsing is generally utilized in programming
language compilers.
Recursive descent parsing: Recursive descent parsing is another type
of top-down parsing that uses a hard and fast of recursive approaches to
suit nonterminals inside the grammar. Each nonterminal has a
corresponding manner this is answerable for parsing that nonterminal.
Backtracking: Top-down parsers may also use backtracking to discover
multiple parsing paths whilst the grammar is ambiguous or when a
parsing mistakes occurs. This can be steeply-priced in terms of
computation time and memory utilization, such a lot of pinnacle-down
parsers use strategies to reduce the need for backtracking.
Memoization: Memoization is a method used to cache intermediate
parsing effects and keep away from repeated computation. Some
pinnacle-down parsers use memoization to reduce the amount of
backtracking required.
Lookahead: Top-down parsers might also use lookahead to expect the
next symbol in the enter based totally on a hard and fast range of input
symbols. This can enhance parsing velocity and decrease the amount of
backtracking required.
Error healing: Top-down parsers may use blunders recuperation
techniques to deal with syntax errors within the input. These techniques
may additionally consist of inserting or deleting symbols to healthy the
grammar or skipping over misguided symbols to maintain parsing the
input.

Advantages:
Easy to Understand: Top-down parsers are easy to understand and
implement, making them a good choice for small to medium-sized
grammars.
Efficient: Some types of top-down parsers, such as LL(1) and predictive
parsers, are efficient and can handle larger grammars.
Flexible: Top-down parsers can be easily modified to handle different
types of grammars and programming languages.
Disadvantages:
Limited Power: Top-down parsers have limited power and may not be
able to handle all types of grammars, particularly those with complex
structures or ambiguous rules.
Left-Recursion: Top-down parsers can suffer from left-recursion,
which can make the parsing process more complex and less efficient.
Look-Ahead Restrictions: Some top-down parsers, such as LL(1)
parsers, have restrictions on the number of look-ahead symbols they can
use, which can limit their ability to handle certain types of grammars.

LL(1) GRAMMER

LL(1) grammar refers to a specific type of context-free grammar that has

certain properties, making it suitable for predictive parsing using a top-
down approach. The term "LL" stands for "Left-to-right, Leftmost
derivation," which signifies the parsing process, where the input is read
from left to right, and the leftmost non-terminal is always selected for
expansion.
The number "1" in LL(1) refers to the fact that the parser uses one token
of lookahead to make parsing decisions. This means that at any given
point during parsing, the parser examines the next token in the input
stream to choose the appropriate production rule to apply.
For a grammar to be LL(1), it must satisfy the following conditions:
 1. No two productions for the same non-terminal can have the same
starting terminal symbol (i.e., no two productions can have the
same first set).
2. The first set of a production should not intersect with the follow set
of the corresponding non-terminal. The follow set of a non-
terminal contains terminals that can appear immediately after the
non-terminal in the derivation.
LL(1) grammars are commonly used in the construction of predictive
parsers, which can efficiently parse the input stream and build a parse
tree without backtracking. These parsers are often easier to implement
and understand compared to other parsing techniques like LR parsers,
which require more complex machinery to handle ambiguity and
lookaheads. However, not all context-free grammars can be LL(1) due to
the restrictions imposed by the one-token lookahead.
NOTE :_- To check whether the grammer is LL(1) or not in parsing
table of LL(1) no two prodiction rule should be in same cell . Each cell
should contain an individual production rule.
see notes for example

What is Recursive Descent Parser?

Recursive Descent Parser uses the technique of Top-Down Parsing

without backtracking. It can be defined as a Parser that uses the various
recursive procedure to process the input string with no backtracking. It
can be simply performed using a Recursive language. The first symbol
of the string of R.H.S of production will uniquely determine the correct
alternative to choose.
The major approach of recursive-descent parsing is to relate each non-
terminal with a procedure. The objective of each procedure is to read a
sequence of input characters that can be produced by the corresponding
non-terminal, and return a pointer to the root of the parse tree for the
non-terminal. The structure of the procedure is prescribed by the
productions for the equivalent non-terminal.
The recursive procedures can be simply to write and adequately
effective if written in a language that executes the procedure call
effectively. There is a procedure for each non-terminal in the grammar.
It can consider a global variable lookahead, holding the current input
token and a procedure match (Expected Token) is the action of
recognizing the next token in the parsing process and advancing the
input stream pointer, such that lookahead points to the next token to be
parsed. Match () is effectively a call to the lexical analyzer to get the
next token.
For example, input stream is a + b$.
lookahead == a
match()
lookahead == +
match ()
lookahead == b
……………………….
……………………….
In this manner, parsing can be done.
Example − In the following Grammar, first symbol, i.e., if, while &
begin uniquely determine, which of the alternative to choose.
As Statement starting with if will be a conditional statement & statement
starting with while will be an Iterative Statement.
Stmt → If condition then Stmt else Stmt
| While condition do Stmt
| begin Stmt end.
Example − Write down the algorithm using Recursive procedures to
implement the following Grammar.
E → TE′
E′ → +TE′
T → FT′
T′ →∗ FT′|ε
F → (E)|id
One of major drawback or recursive-descent parsing is that it can be
implemented only for those languages which support recursive
procedure calls and it suffers from the problem of left-recursion.
A recursive descent parser is a type of top-down parsing technique used
in computer science and compiler construction to analyze the syntax of a
programming language or formal grammar. It starts from the top (the
highest-level non-terminal symbol) and recursively applies production
rules to construct a parse tree for the input text.
The key idea behind a recursive descent parser is that each non-terminal
in the grammar is associated with a parsing function, and these functions
are called recursively to break down the input into smaller and smaller
parts until a complete parse tree is constructed. During this process, the
parser also checks for syntactic correctness and detects any syntax
errors.
The steps involved in constructing a recursive descent parser are as
follows:
1. Each non-terminal in the grammar is represented by a parsing
function.
2. The parser begins with the starting non-terminal and calls the
corresponding parsing function to handle it.
3. The parsing function for a non-terminal selects the appropriate
production rule based on the current input token and calls the
parsing functions for the symbols on the right-hand side of the
chosen production rule.
4. This process continues recursively until the parser reaches terminal
symbols (tokens) or encounters an error.
Recursive descent parsers are relatively easy to understand and
implement, especially for LL(1) grammars (grammars that can be parsed
using one token lookahead, as mentioned in the previous answer).
However, handling left-recursive grammars and common left-factoring
can be challenging in pure recursive descent parsing, requiring
additional techniques to address these issues.
Despite some limitations, recursive descent parsers are still widely used
in practice due to their simplicity, readability, and ease of maintenance.
They are commonly found in hand-written parsers, scripting languages,
and small-to-medium-sized compiler projects. For more complex
grammars and larger-scale compilers, other parsing techniques like LR
parsing are often preferred.
Recursive descent parsers have both advantages and disadvantages,
which are outlined below:
Advantages of Recursive Descent Parsers:
1. Simplicity: Recursive descent parsers are relatively easy to
understand and implement. The parsing logic directly mirrors the
grammar rules, making the code intuitive and readable.
2. Top-Down Parsing: Recursive descent parsing is a top-down
parsing technique, which means it starts from the top-level non-
terminal and works its way down to the terminal symbols. This
corresponds closely to the structure of most high-level
programming languages, making it a natural fit for language
processing.
3. Predictive Parsing: When the grammar is LL(1) (i.e., can be parsed
using one-token lookahead), recursive descent parsers can use
predictive parsing, which eliminates the need for backtracking.
This results in efficient parsing without the overhead of
maintaining parsing states.
4. Error Reporting: Recursive descent parsers can provide good error
messages since they detect syntax errors as soon as they occur
 during the parsing process. The simple structure makes it easier to
pinpoint the source of errors in the input.
Disadvantages of Recursive Descent Parsers:
1. Left Recursion and Left Factoring: Recursive descent parsers
struggle with left-recursive grammars and common left-factoring,
leading to potential infinite loops or inability to correctly parse
such grammars. Special techniques like backtracking or manual
restructuring of the grammar are required to address these issues.
2. Limited Lookahead: Recursive descent parsers are limited to one-
token lookahead in predictive parsing. This restricts their ability to
handle grammars with more complex lookahead requirements,
which may necessitate more sophisticated parsing techniques like
LR parsers.
3. Efficiency: Recursive descent parsers can suffer from
inefficiencies in certain situations, especially when parsing
ambiguous or highly nested expressions. The repeated function
calls and stack management during recursive parsing can lead to a
performance overhead.
4. Context Sensitivity: Recursive descent parsers are not well-suited
for handling grammars with context-sensitive rules. They rely on a
single-token lookahead, which might not be sufficient to make
decisions based on broader contexts.
5. Manual Implementation: Unlike parser generators (e.g.,
Yacc/Bison, ANTLR), recursive descent parsers require manual
implementation, which can be more time-consuming and prone to
human error, particularly for larger and more complex grammars.
In summary, recursive descent parsers are simple and straightforward to
understand and implement, making them suitable for smaller projects
and simple grammars. However, they have limitations in handling
certain grammar constructs efficiently and might require additional
techniques or alternative parsing methods for more complex language
specifications.

 LL(1) and predictive parser in notes handwritten and

book
 some points:-
LL(1) parsing and predictive parsing are related concepts in the context
of top-down parsing, but they are not exactly the same thing. Let me
clarify the differences between the two:
1. Predictive Parsing:
 Predictive parsing is a parsing technique that involves
predicting the next production rule to apply based on the
current non-terminal symbol on the stack and the current
input symbol.
 It uses a predictive parsing table or predictive parsing
functions to make these predictions.
 The goal of predictive parsing is to construct a predictive
parsing table that provides the necessary information to guide
the parsing process.
 Predictive parsing is a broader term that encompasses various
LL(k) and LL(1) parsing techniques.
 2. LL(1) Parsing:
 LL(1) parsing is a specific variant of predictive parsing
where the parser has a Lookahead of 1.
 The term "LL" stands for "left-to-right, leftmost derivation,"
indicating the order in which the parser explores the input
string and the derivation it constructs.
 The number 1 in LL(1) denotes that the parser examines only
one symbol of lookahead at each step to make its parsing
decisions.
 LL(1) parsing is the simplest form of predictive parsing and
is widely used in practice due to its simplicity and efficiency.
 To construct an LL(1) parser, the grammar must satisfy
certain restrictions, such as being unambiguous and having
no left recursion.
 The LL(1) parsing table, also known as a predictive parsing
table, is used by the LL(1) parser to determine the next
production rule based on the current non-terminal symbol
and the next input symbol.
In summary, predictive parsing is a general technique that involves
predicting the next production rule based on certain criteria, while LL(1)
parsing is a specific variant of predictive parsing that limits the
lookahead to one symbol. LL(1) parsing is a common form of predictive
parsing due to its simplicity and is often used in practice.
NON – RECURSIVE PREDICTTIVE PARSER :-

Non-recursive predictive parsing and predictive parsing refer to the same

parsing technique. The term "non-recursive predictive parsing" is
sometimes used to emphasize that the parsing process does not involve
recursion, which is a characteristic of predictive parsing.
Predictive parsing is a top-down parsing method that uses a predictive
parsing table or predictive parsing functions to determine the production
rules to apply at each step of parsing. It is called "predictive" because,
based on the current non-terminal symbol on the stack and the current
input symbol, it can predict the production rule to apply without any
backtracking or ambiguity.
The primary goal of predictive parsing is to construct a predictive
parsing table (also known as a parsing LL(1) table) that stores the
necessary information to guide the parsing process. This table provides a
mapping between the non-terminal symbols and the terminal symbols,
along with the corresponding production rules to apply. By consulting
this table, the parser can predict the next production rule without any
guesswork.
In summary, non-recursive predictive parsing and predictive parsing are
essentially the same technique. Non-recursive predictive parsing
emphasizes the absence of recursion, while predictive parsing focuses on
the use of a predictive parsing table or functions to predict the
production rules. Both terms are commonly used interchangeably in the
context of top-down parsing.
Non-recursive predictive parsing is a parsing technique used in computer
science to analyze the structure of a string of symbols based on a given
grammar. It is a top-down parsing method that employs a predictive
parsing table or predictive parsing functions to determine the production
rules that should be applied at each step of parsing.
In non-recursive predictive parsing, the parser uses a stack and an input
buffer to keep track of its progress. It starts with the input buffer
containing the string to be parsed, and the stack initially contains the
start symbol of the grammar. The parser then repeatedly performs the
following steps:
1. Look at the current symbol at the top of the stack.
2. If the current symbol is a terminal symbol, it is compared with the
current symbol in the input buffer. If they match, the symbol is
popped from the stack, and the input buffer is advanced to the next
symbol.
3. If the current symbol is a non-terminal symbol, a predictive
parsing table or predictive parsing functions are consulted to
determine which production rule to apply based on the current
symbol in the input buffer. The corresponding production rule is
then pushed onto the stack.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 until the stack is empty or an error occurs.
The key feature of non-recursive predictive parsing is that it avoids
recursion in the parsing process, which simplifies the implementation
and improves the parsing efficiency. To achieve this, the grammar used
for non-recursive predictive parsing must satisfy certain criteria, such as
being unambiguous and having no left recursion.
Non-recursive predictive parsing is often implemented using a parsing
table, called a predictive parsing table or parsing LL(1) table. This table
provides a direct mapping between the current non-terminal symbol on
the stack and the current symbol in the input buffer, along with the
corresponding production rule to apply. By precomputing this table, the
parsing process becomes deterministic and efficient.
Overall, non-recursive predictive parsing is a practical parsing technique
that is widely used in compiler design and other areas where parsing is
required.

BOTTOM UP PARSING

Bottom-up parsing is a technique used in compiler design to analyze and

construct the parse tree or syntax tree of a source code from the bottom
(leaves) to the top (root). It starts with the input tokens and uses a stack
to store grammar symbols, reducing them to non-terminals according to
the production rules of a grammar until the start symbol is reached.
Bottom-up parsing can be defined as an attempt to reduce the input
string w to the start symbol of grammar by tracing out the rightmost
derivations of w in reverse. Eg.
  Shift reduce is the general style of bottom up syntax analysis
 Easy to implement form of shift reduce parsing is operator
precedence parsing
 Much more general method of shift reduce parsing is LR parsing ,
which is used in a number of automatic parser generator.

Bottom-up parsing is a technique used in compiler design to analyze and

parse the input source code based on the grammar rules of the
programming language. It starts from the input symbols and gradually
builds up the parse tree until it reaches the root symbol.
Here's an overview of the bottom-up parsing process:
1. Shift-Reduce Parsing:
 Bottom-up parsing uses a shift-reduce strategy to construct
the parse tree. It maintains a stack to keep track of the
 symbols encountered during parsing and a buffer to hold the
remaining input symbols.
 Initially, the stack is empty, and the buffer contains the input
symbols.
 The parsing algorithm repeatedly performs two operations:
shift and reduce.
2. Shift Operation:
 In the shift operation, the next input symbol is shifted from
the buffer to the top of the stack.
 The parser consumes an input symbol and moves it from the
buffer to the stack.
3. Reduce Operation:
 The reduce operation applies a production rule of the
grammar to a portion of the symbols on the stack.
 It replaces a group of symbols on the top of the stack with a
non-terminal symbol, according to a production rule.
 The selection of the production rule is based on the current
configuration of the stack.
4. Parser Actions:
 The parser examines the current state of the stack and the
input symbol at the top of the buffer to decide whether to
perform a shift or reduce operation.
 It uses a parsing table, typically generated from the grammar,
to determine the appropriate action based on the current state
and input symbol.
  The parsing table contains entries specifying the actions to be
taken for each combination of state and input symbol, such as
shift, reduce, or error.
5. Construction of Parse Tree:
 As the parsing progresses, the stack and buffer are modified
through a series of shift and reduce operations.
 If a reduce operation is performed and a production rule is
applied, the corresponding symbols are replaced on the stack
with a non-terminal symbol.
 This process continues until the parsing is complete, and the
stack contains only the start symbol of the grammar.
6. Error Handling:
 During bottom-up parsing, if the parser encounters an error,
such as an unexpected input symbol or an invalid
configuration, it can take appropriate error-handling actions.
 Error recovery techniques, such as error production rules or
error synchronization, may be employed to handle and report
errors gracefully.
Bottom-up parsing is commonly implemented using parsing algorithms
like LR (Lookahead Left-to-right Rightmost derivation) and LALR
(Lookahead LR). These algorithms provide efficient and powerful
parsing capabilities for a wide range of programming languages.
 REDUCTIONS

In bottom-up parsing, a reduction is an operation that replaces a group of

symbols on the top of the stack with a non-terminal symbol, according to
a production rule. It is a crucial step in the construction of the parse tree
during the parsing process. Let's explore reductions in bottom-up parsing
in more detail:
1. Production Rules and Grammar:
 Production rules define the syntax of a programming
language. They specify how non-terminal symbols can be
expanded into sequences of terminal and/or non-terminal
symbols.
 Each production rule consists of a left-hand side (LHS) and a
right-hand side (RHS), separated by an arrow symbol (→).
The LHS is a non-terminal symbol, and the RHS is a
sequence of terminals and/or non-terminals.
 The grammar for the language is defined by a set of
production rules.
2. Parsing Stack:
 In bottom-up parsing, a stack is maintained to keep track of
symbols encountered during parsing.
 Initially, the stack is empty, and the input symbols are stored
in a buffer.
 The stack is used to store both terminal and non-terminal
symbols.
3. Parsing Action:
 The parsing algorithm examines the current state of the stack
and the input symbol at the top of the buffer to decide
whether to perform a shift or reduce operation.
 The parsing table, typically generated from the grammar, is
consulted to determine the appropriate action for the current
state and input symbol.
 If the parsing table entry specifies a reduction action, it
indicates the production rule number to be used for the
reduction.
4. Reduction Operation:
 When the symbols on the top of the stack match the RHS of a
production rule, a reduction operation can be performed.
 The reduction operation replaces the group of symbols on the
top of the stack with the corresponding non-terminal symbol
from the LHS of the production rule.
 This reduction step corresponds to applying the production
rule in reverse.
5. Reduction Example:
 Let's consider a simple example using the following
production rule: E → E + E
 Suppose the symbols on the top of the stack are E + E, and
the parsing table entry for the current state and input symbol
specifies a reduction action using the production rule E → E
+ E.
  In this case, the reduction operation will replace the symbols
E + E on the top of the stack with the non-terminal symbol E.
6. Parse Tree Construction:
 Reductions contribute to the construction of the parse tree by
replacing a group of symbols with a non-terminal symbol.
 As reductions are performed during the parsing process, the
stack is modified, and the parse tree gradually takes shape.
 The parse tree represents the syntactic structure of the input
source code, with non-terminal symbols as interior nodes and
terminal symbols as leaf nodes.
7. Handle:
 The group of symbols on the top of the stack that matches the
RHS of a production rule is called a handle.
 A handle is a substring of the stack that can be reduced using
a production rule.
8. Multiple Reductions:
 In some cases, there can be multiple possible reductions
available at a particular parsing step, depending on the
grammar and the symbols on the stack.
 To resolve such conflicts, the parsing table may contain
additional information, such as lookaheads or precedence
rules, to determine the correct reduction to apply.
Overall, reductions play a vital role in bottom-up parsing by replacing
groups of symbols with non-terminal symbols according to the
grammar's production rules. They contribute to the construction of the
parse tree, which represents the syntactic structure of the input source
code.

Shift reduce parsing

o Shift reduce parsing is a bottom up parsing process of reducing a
string to the start symbol of a grammar.
o Shift-reduce parsing is a technique used in compiler design to
analyze the structure of a programming language and generate a
parse tree or abstract syntax tree. It is commonly used in bottom-up
parsing algorithms, such as LR parsing, to recognize and process
the input based on a given grammar.
o Shift reduce parsing uses two data structure : a stack to hold the
grammar and an input tape/input buffer to hold the string.

o Sift reduce parsing performs the two actions: shift and reduce.
That's why it is known as shift reduces parsing.
o it also perform actions :accept and error (see notes)
o At the shift action, the current symbol in the input string is pushed
to a stack.
o At each reduction, the symbols will replaced by the non-terminals.
The symbol is the right side of the production and non-terminal is
the left side of the production.
o Shift: This involves moving symbols from the input buffer onto the stack.
 o Reduce: If the handle appears on top of the stack then, its reduction by using
appropriate production rule is done i.e. RHS of a production rule is popped out of a
stack and LHS of a production rule is pushed onto the stack.
o Accept: If only the start symbol is present in the stack and the input buffer is empty
then, the parsing action is called accept. When accepted action is obtained, it is
means successful parsing is done.
o Error: This is the situation in which the parser can neither perform shift action nor
reduce action and not even accept action.

The shift-reduce parsing process typically involves a parsing table that

guides the parser's actions. This table is constructed based on the
grammar of the language being parsed and the chosen parsing algorithm.
Here is a step-by-step overview of the shift-reduce parsing process:
1. Initialization:
 The parsing table is constructed based on the grammar. It
contains entries that specify whether to shift or reduce in a
given state and input symbol combination.
2. Input and stack:
 The parser maintains an input buffer and a stack. The input
buffer holds the remaining symbols to be parsed, and the
stack holds symbols processed so far.
3. Parsing loop:
 The parser starts with an initial state and an empty stack.
 It reads the next input symbol and checks the current state
and input symbol combination in the parsing table.
4. Shift operation:
 If the table entry specifies a shift action for the current state
and input symbol, the parser performs a shift operation.
  The input symbol is pushed onto the stack, and the input
pointer advances to the next symbol.
5. Reduce operation:
 If the table entry specifies a reduce action for the current state
and input symbol, the parser performs a reduce operation.
 It identifies the production rule corresponding to the reduce
action and pops the corresponding symbols from the stack.
 The parser then pushes the nonterminal symbol resulting
from the reduction back onto the stack.
6. Error handling:
 If the table entry for the current state and input symbol
combination specifies an error action, the parser encounters a
syntax error.
 Error recovery strategies can be employed to handle syntax
errors, such as panic mode recovery or error productions.
7. Acceptance:
 If the parser reaches the final state with the start symbol on
top of the stack and no remaining input symbols, it indicates
successful parsing.
 The parse tree or abstract syntax tree can be constructed from
the stack's contents.
example:-

Consider the grammar

S –> S + S
S –> S * S
S –> id
Perform Shift Reduce parsing for input string “id + id + id”.

Example 3 – Consider the grammar

S –> ( L ) | a
L –> L , S | S
Perform Shift Reduce parsing for input string “( a, ( a, a ) ) “.

Stack Input Buffer Parsing Action

$ (a,(a,a))$ Shift
 Stack Input Buffer Parsing Action

$( a,(a,a))$ Shift

$(a ,(a,a))$ Reduce S → a

$(S ,(a,a))$ Reduce L → S

$(L ,(a,a))$ Shift

$(L, (a,a))$ Shift

$(L,( a,a))$ Shift

$(L,(a ,a))$ Reduce S → a

$(L,(S ,a))$ Reduce L → S

$(L,(L ,a))$ Shift

$(L,(L, a))$ Shift

$(L,(L,a ))$ Reduce S → a

$ ( L, ( L, S ))$ Reduce L →L, S

 Stack Input Buffer Parsing Action

$ ( L, ( L ))$ Shift

$ ( L, ( L ) )$ Reduce S → (L)

$ ( L, S )$ Reduce L → L, S

$(L )$ Shift

$(L) $ Reduce S → (L)

$S $ Accept

Advantages:
 Shift-reduce parsing is efficient and can handle a wide range of
context-free grammars.

 It can parse a large variety of programming languages and is

widely used in practice.
  It is capable of handling both left- and right-recursive grammars,
which can be important in parsing certain programming languages.

 The parse table generated for shift-reduce parsing is typically

small, which makes the parser efficient in terms of memory usage.

Disadvantages:
 Shift-reduce parsing has a limited lookahead, which means that it
may miss some syntax errors that require a larger lookahead.

 It may also generate false-positive shift-reduce conflicts, which

can require additional manual intervention to resolve.

 Shift-reduce parsers may have difficulty in parsing ambiguous

grammars, where there are multiple possible parse trees for a given
input sequence.

 In some cases, the parse tree generated by shift-reduce parsing may

be more complex than other parsing techniques.
It's important to note that shift-reduce parsing can lead to multiple valid
parses or conflicts, such as shift-reduce conflicts and reduce-reduce
conflicts. These conflicts arise when the parsing table contains entries
that are ambiguous or overlapping. Resolving these conflicts requires
additional techniques, such as associativity and precedence rules or
using more advanced parsing algorithms like LALR or SLR.
CONFLICT DURING SHIFT REDUCE PARSING
see book page no 213
During shift-reduce parsing, conflicts can arise in the parsing table,
leading to ambiguity or uncertainty in the parser's actions. These
conflicts occur when the table entry for a given state and input symbol
combination contains multiple possible actions, making it challenging
for the parser to decide which action to take. The two common types of
conflicts that can occur are shift-reduce conflicts and reduce-reduce
conflicts. Let's explore each of them in detail:

1. Shift-reduce conflicts:
 Shift-reduce conflicts occur when a parsing table entry
allows both a shift and a reduce action for a particular state
and input symbol combination.
 This conflict arises when a prefix of the right-hand side of a
production rule can be either shifted or reduced, causing
ambiguity.
 The parser faces a choice between shifting the next input
symbol onto the stack or reducing a group of symbols to
match a production rule.
 Resolving shift-reduce conflicts involves determining the
correct action based on the grammar and the desired parsing
behavior.
Example of a shift-reduce conflict: Consider the following production
rule in a grammar:
A -> B C
And the parsing table entry for state S and input symbol 'C' allows both a
shift and a reduce action:
S, C: Shift S1
S, C: Reduce A -> B C
Here, when the parser is in state S and sees the input symbol 'C', it faces
a shift-reduce conflict. It can either shift 'C' onto the stack (S1) or reduce
the symbols 'B C' to match the production rule A -> B C. Resolving this
conflict requires additional information, such as associativity and
precedence rules, or using more advanced parsing algorithms.

To identify a shift-reduce conflict during shift-reduce parsing, you need

to analyze the parsing table and examine the entries for each state and
input symbol combination. Here's a step-by-step process to identify
shift-reduce conflicts:
1. Construct the parsing table:
 Begin by constructing the parsing table based on the
grammar of the language being parsed and the chosen parsing
algorithm (such as LR(0), SLR, LALR, or LR(1)).
 The parsing table contains entries that specify the parser's
actions (shift, reduce, or error) for each state and input
symbol combination.
2. Look for conflicting entries:
  Examine the entries in the parsing table and identify states
where there are conflicting actions for the same input
symbol.
 Specifically, focus on states where both shift and reduce
actions are possible for a particular input symbol.
3. Check for shift-reduce conflict conditions:
 To determine if there is a shift-reduce conflict, the following
conditions must be met:
 a. There should be a state with both a shift and a reduce
action for the same input symbol.
 b. The reduce action should correspond to a production rule
in the grammar.
4. Analyze the grammar and conflicting actions:
 Once you have identified a potential shift-reduce conflict,
analyze the conflicting actions and the corresponding
grammar rules.
 Determine if the grammar allows multiple interpretations at
that particular state and input symbol combination, leading to
ambiguity.
5. Consider the implications:
 Understand the implications of the shift-reduce conflict on
the parsing process and the resulting parse tree.
 Recognize that unresolved shift-reduce conflicts can lead to
incorrect interpretations or ambiguities in the language's
syntax.
It's important to note that identifying shift-reduce conflicts requires a
deep understanding of the grammar and the parsing algorithm being
used. It also requires careful examination of the parsing table entries and
their implications. Parser generator tools often provide reports or
warnings that highlight shift-reduce conflicts automatically, making the
identification process easier.
Once you have identified a shift-reduce conflict, you can proceed to
resolve it using techniques such as precedence and associativity rules,
lookahead symbols, grammar modifications, or utilizing advanced
parsing algorithms. Resolving these conflicts ensures a deterministic and
unambiguous parsing process.

Shift-reduce conflicts can have significant implications for the parser's

behavior and can lead to ambiguity in the parsing process. Resolving
shift-reduce conflicts is essential to ensure the parser produces a correct
and unambiguous parse. Here's an explanation of how to handle shift-
reduce conflicts:
1. Precedence and associativity rules:
 One way to resolve shift-reduce conflicts is by defining
precedence and associativity rules for operators in the
grammar.
 Precedence rules determine the relative priority of operators,
while associativity rules specify how to resolve conflicts
when operators of the same precedence appear consecutively.
 By assigning precedence and associativity to operators, the
parser can determine whether to shift or reduce based on the
precedence and associativity of the conflicting symbols.
2. Lookahead symbols:
 Another approach to resolve shift-reduce conflicts is by
considering lookahead symbols, i.e., the next input symbols
that follow the conflicting symbol.
 By examining the lookahead symbols, the parser can make a
more informed decision about whether to shift or reduce.
 If the lookahead symbol suggests that a reduction is
appropriate, the parser can choose the reduce action.
Otherwise, it can select the shift action.
3. Grammar modification:
 In some cases, modifying the grammar can help eliminate
shift-reduce conflicts.
 This can involve restructuring the grammar to remove
ambiguity or rewriting rules to make them more specific,
reducing the potential for conflicts.
 However, modifying the grammar should be done carefully,
as it can impact the expressiveness of the language and the
resulting parse trees.
4. Parser generator tools:
 Parser generator tools, such as YACC or Bison, can
automatically handle shift-reduce conflicts based on
predefined rules and algorithms.
 These tools often provide constructs for defining operator
precedence and associativity, as well as mechanisms for
specifying conflict resolutions.
  Parser generator tools typically use advanced parsing
algorithms, such as LALR or SLR, that can handle conflicts
more effectively.
It's important to note that resolving shift-reduce conflicts may introduce
some trade-offs. For example:
 Ambiguity resolution: Resolving conflicts using precedence and
associativity rules or grammar modifications may eliminate
conflicts but can potentially introduce new ambiguities in the
grammar.
 Parsing efficiency: The conflict resolution technique used can
impact the efficiency of the parsing process. Some conflict
resolution methods may require more complex parsing algorithms
or additional lookahead, which can increase parsing time.

2. Reduce-reduce conflicts:
 Reduce-reduce conflicts occur when a parsing table entry
allows multiple reduce actions for a specific state and input
symbol combination.
 This conflict arises when different production rules can be
applied at the same state and input symbol, causing
ambiguity.
 The parser faces a choice between two or more possible
reductions.
 Resolving reduce-reduce conflicts requires determining the
correct reduction based on the grammar and the desired
parsing behavior.
Example of a reduce-reduce conflict: Consider the following production
rules in a grammar:
A -> B C
A -> D E
And the parsing table entry for state S and input symbol 'E' allows both
reduce actions:
S, E: Reduce A -> B C
S, E: Reduce A -> D E
Here, when the parser is in state S and encounters the input symbol 'E', it
faces a reduce-reduce conflict. It can reduce either A -> B C or A -> D
E. Resolving this conflict requires additional information, such as
precedence rules or more advanced parsing algorithms.
A reduce-reduce conflict is a type of parsing conflict that occurs during
shift-reduce parsing when the parsing table contains an entry that allows
multiple reduce actions for a specific state and input symbol
combination. This conflict arises when different production rules can be
applied at the same state and input symbol, causing ambiguity in the
parsing process.
Reduce-reduce conflicts can have significant implications for the
parser's behavior and can lead to ambiguity in the parsing process.
Resolving reduce-reduce conflicts is crucial to ensure the parser
produces a correct and unambiguous parse. Here's an explanation of how
to handle reduce-reduce conflicts:
1. Grammar modification:
 One approach to resolving reduce-reduce conflicts is by
modifying the grammar itself.
  Analyze the conflicting production rules and the context in
which they are applied.
 Restructure the grammar by introducing additional
nonterminal symbols or rules to make the grammar less
ambiguous and eliminate the reduce-reduce conflicts.
2. Precedence and associativity rules:
 Similar to resolving shift-reduce conflicts, assigning
precedence and associativity rules to operators can help
resolve reduce-reduce conflicts.
 By specifying the precedence and associativity of conflicting
operators, the parser can determine which reduction to
choose based on the operator's priority.
3. Parser generator tools:
 Parser generator tools, such as YACC or Bison, often provide
mechanisms to handle reduce-reduce conflicts automatically.
 These tools may include conflict resolution directives that
allow you to specify the preferred reduction in case of a
conflict.
 The parser generator tools utilize advanced parsing
algorithms, such as LALR or SLR, to handle reduce-reduce
conflicts effectively.
4. Ambiguity resolution:
 In some cases, a reduce-reduce conflict may indicate genuine
ambiguity in the grammar.
  Ambiguity resolution techniques, such as operator
precedence or disambiguation rules, can be employed to
make the grammar unambiguous and resolve the conflict.
 Care should be taken to ensure that the chosen resolution
technique aligns with the desired parsing behavior and the
semantics of the language.
Handling reduce-reduce conflicts appropriately is crucial to ensure a
correct and unambiguous parsing process. The chosen conflict resolution
technique should align with the desired parsing behavior and the
requirements of the specific language being parsed. It's important to
carefully analyze the grammar, consider the implications of the reduce-
reduce conflict, and ensure that the resolution technique does not
introduce new ambiguities or conflicts.
Reduce-reduce conflicts can impact the parser's behavior in various
ways:
 Ambiguity: The presence of reduce-reduce conflicts indicates that
the grammar allows multiple interpretations for a particular state
and input symbol.
 Determinism: Resolving reduce-reduce conflicts ensures a
deterministic parsing process, where the parser can uniquely
determine the correct reduction based on the input.
Overall, resolving reduce-reduce conflicts is necessary to achieve an
unambiguous and accurate parsing process, leading to correct
interpretations of the language's syntax.
Identifying reduce-reduce conflicts during parsing involves analyzing
the parsing table and examining the entries for each state and input
symbol combination. Here's a step-by-step process to identify reduce-
reduce conflicts:
1. Construct the parsing table:
 Begin by constructing the parsing table based on the
grammar of the language being parsed and the chosen parsing
algorithm (such as LR(0), SLR, LALR, or LR(1)).
 The parsing table contains entries that specify the parser's
actions (shift, reduce, or error) for each state and input
symbol combination.
2. Look for conflicting entries:
 Examine the entries in the parsing table and identify states
where there are conflicting reduce actions for the same input
symbol.
 Specifically, focus on states where multiple reduce actions
are possible for a particular input symbol.
3. Check for reduce-reduce conflict conditions:
 To determine if there is a reduce-reduce conflict, the
following conditions must be met: a. There should be a state
with multiple reduce actions for the same input symbol. b.
The reduce actions should correspond to different production
rules in the grammar.
4. Analyze the grammar and conflicting actions:
  Once you have identified a potential reduce-reduce conflict,
analyze the conflicting actions and the corresponding
grammar rules.
 Determine if the grammar allows multiple interpretations at
that particular state and input symbol combination, leading to
ambiguity.
5. Consider the implications:
 Understand the implications of the reduce-reduce conflict on
the parsing process and the resulting parse tree.
 Recognize that unresolved reduce-reduce conflicts can lead
to incorrect interpretations or ambiguities in the language's
syntax.
It's important to note that identifying reduce-reduce conflicts requires a
deep understanding of the grammar and the parsing algorithm being
used. It also requires careful examination of the parsing table entries and
their implications. Parser generator tools often provide reports or
warnings that highlight reduce-reduce conflicts automatically, making
the identification process easier.
Once you have identified a reduce-reduce conflict, you can proceed to
resolve it using techniques such as grammar modification, precedence
and associativity rules, or utilizing advanced parsing algorithms.
Resolving these conflicts ensures a deterministic and unambiguous
parsing process.

LR parser : page no 227

LR parser is a bottom-up parser for context-free grammar that is very
generally used by computer programming language compiler and other
associated tools. LR parser reads their input from left to right and
produces a right-most derivation. It is called a Bottom-up parser because
it attempts to reduce the top-level grammar productions by building up
from the leaves. LR parsers are the most powerful parser of all
deterministic parsers in practice.
An LR parser works by constructing a parse tree from the bottom up,
starting from the input symbols and gradually reducing them to the
nonterminal symbols of the grammar until the start symbol is reached.
The LR parsing process involves building a state machine called the LR
parser's parsing table, which determines the parser's actions (shift,
reduce, or accept) based on the current state and input symbol.
Description of LR parser :
The term parser LR(k) parser, here the L refers to the left-to-right
scanning, R refers to the rightmost derivation in reverse and k refers to
the number of unconsumed “look ahead” input symbols that are used in
making parser decisions. Typically, k is 1 and is often omitted. A
context-free grammar is called LR (k) if the LR (k) parser exists for it.
This first reduces the sequence of tokens to the left. But when we read
from above, the derivation order first extends to non-terminal.
1. The stack is empty, and we are looking to reduce the rule by
S’→S$.
2. Using a “.” in the rule represents how many of the rules are already
on the stack.
3. A dotted item or simply, the item is a production rule with a dot
indicating how much RHS has so far been recognized. Closing an
item is used to see what production rules can be used to expand the
current structure. It is calculated as follows:
Rules for LR parser :
The rules of LR parser as follows.
 1. The first item from the given grammar rules adds itself as the first
closed set.
2. If an object is present in the closure -of the form A→ α. β. γ, where
the next symbol after the symbol is non-terminal, add the symbol’s
production rules where the dot precedes the first item.
3. Repeat steps (B) and (C) for new items added under (B).
LR parser algorithm :
LR Parsing algorithm is the same for all the parser, but the parsing table
is different for each parser. It consists following components as follows.
1. Input Buffer –
It contains the given string, and it ends with a $ symbol.

2. Stack –
The combination of state symbol and current input symbol is used
to refer to the parsing table in order to take the parsing decisions.
Parsing Table :
Parsing table is divided into two parts- Action table and Go-To table.
The action table gives a grammar rule to implement the given current
state and current terminal in the input stream. There are four cases used
in action table as follows.
1. Shift Action- In shift action the present terminal is removed from
the input stream and the state n is pushed onto the stack, and it
becomes the new present state.
2. Reduce Action- The number m is written to the output stream.
3. The symbol m mentioned in the left-hand side of rule m says that
state is removed from the stack.
 4. The symbol m mentioned in the left-hand side of rule m says that a
new state is looked up in the goto table and made the new current
state by pushing it onto the stack.
An accept - the string is accepted
No action - a syntax error is reported
Note –
The go-to table indicates which state should proceed.

Let's understand the LR parsing process step by step:

1. Grammar and item sets:
 Begin with a context-free grammar, typically in the form of
production rules.
 For each production rule, create an item by augmenting it
with a dot (•) to indicate the current position within the rule.
 Generate a set of item sets, also known as LR(0) items, by
applying closure and goto operations.
2. Closure operation:
 Start with the initial item set that contains the augmented
production rule for the start symbol.
  Apply the closure operation to each item in the set to include
additional items that can be derived from the grammar rules.
 The closure operation expands the nonterminal symbols that
immediately follow the dot in each item and adds
corresponding items to the set.
3. Goto operation:
 Given an item set, apply the goto operation to create new
item sets by shifting the dot one position to the right.
 Perform the goto operation for each nonterminal symbol in
the item sets to determine the transitions between states.
4. Construction of the parsing table:
 Build the LR parsing table by associating each state with the
appropriate actions and transitions based on the item sets and
grammar rules.
 The parsing table contains entries for each state and input
symbol combination and specifies the actions to be taken
(shift, reduce, or accept) based on the current state and input
symbol.
5. Parsing process:
 Initialize the LR parser with an empty stack, the parsing
table, and the initial state.
 Read the input symbols from left to right.
 Based on the current state and input symbol, consult the
parsing table to determine the action to be taken.
  If the action is a shift, push the input symbol onto the stack,
move to the next input symbol, and update the state.
 If the action is a reduce, pop the appropriate number of
symbols from the stack based on the production rule, perform
the reduction, and update the state based on the goto
operation.
 If the action is accept, the parsing process is successful, and
the input is syntactically correct according to the grammar.
LR parsers are powerful and can handle a wide range of context-free
grammars. The LR(1) variant uses one lookahead symbol for parsing
decisions, providing more flexibility in resolving parsing conflicts.
Additionally, LR parsers can efficiently generate a parse tree or an
abstract syntax tree, which can be further used for semantic analysis and
code generation in the compilation process.
It's worth noting that constructing LR parsers manually can be a
complex and error-prone task. Parser generator tools like YACC and
Bison automate the generation of LR parsers by providing high-level
specifications of grammars and handling the construction of the parsing
table.
Advantages of LR parsing :
 It recognizes virtually all programming language constructs for
which CFG can be written
 It is able to detect syntactic errors
 It is an efficient non-backtracking shift reducing parsing method.

PRECEDENCE & ASSOCIATIVITY RULE :-

Precedence and associativity rules are used in compiler design to resolve
parsing conflicts, particularly shift-reduce conflicts, that arise during
bottom-up parsing. These rules help determine the correct order of
applying operators with different priorities and associativity.
Precedence rules define the relative priority of operators, indicating
which operator should be evaluated first when multiple operators appear
together. Associativity rules, on the other hand, determine how to handle
consecutive operators of the same priority.
Here's an explanation of how precedence and associativity rules can be
used to resolve parsing conflicts:
1. Precedence rules:
 Precedence rules assign a numerical value or rank to each
operator based on its priority.
 Higher precedence values indicate higher priority.
 When a shift-reduce conflict occurs between two operators
with different precedence, the parser resolves the conflict by
favoring the operator with higher precedence.
 The higher precedence operator is either shifted or reduced
depending on the context.
 Precedence rules can be defined explicitly using grammar
annotations or implicitly through the grammar structure.
2. Associativity rules:
 Associativity rules define how to handle consecutive
operators with the same precedence.
  Operators can have left associativity, right associativity, or
non-associativity.
 Left associativity means that operators of the same
precedence are evaluated from left to right.
 Right associativity means that operators of the same
precedence are evaluated from right to left.
 Non-associativity indicates that consecutive operators of the
same precedence are not allowed.
 When a shift-reduce conflict occurs between two operators
with the same precedence, the parser resolves the conflict
based on the associativity rule.
 For left-associative operators, the parser reduces the
operator on the right.
 For right-associative operators, the parser reduces the
operator on the left.
 For non-associative operators, the parser reports an
error.
3. Grammar modifications:
 In some cases, modifying the grammar can help resolve
conflicts by explicitly incorporating precedence and
associativity rules.
 This can involve introducing additional nonterminal symbols
or rules that reflect the desired evaluation order.
  By restructuring the grammar, conflicts can be eliminated,
and the parser can apply reductions and shifts according to
the desired precedence and associativity.
4. Parentheses:
 Parentheses can be used to explicitly specify the evaluation
order of expressions and override the default precedence and
associativity rules.
 Expressions enclosed in parentheses are evaluated first,
regardless of the precedence and associativity of operators
within them.
It's important to define precedence and associativity rules carefully to
achieve the desired parsing behavior. Conflicts can still occur if the rules
are not properly defined or if there are inconsistencies in the grammar.
Careful analysis and testing are necessary to ensure that the precedence
and associativity rules resolve conflicts correctly and produce the
expected parsing behavior.
Automated parser generator tools, such as YACC or Bison, provide
mechanisms for specifying precedence and associativity rules explicitly
and handling conflicts automatically based on these rules. These tools
simplify the process of incorporating precedence and associativity into
the parsing process.

Dangling else ambiguity is a specific type of ambiguity

that can occur in the parsing of programming language grammars,
particularly those that include an if-else statement. It arises when there is
an ambiguity in associating an else clause with its corresponding if
clause.
Consider the following example:
scssCopy code
if (condition1) if (condition2) statement1; else statement2;
In this case, there are two possible interpretations of the code due to the
ambiguity in the placement of the else clause. Let's analyze each
interpretation:
1. Dangling else attached to the inner if clause:
 According to this interpretation, the else clause is associated
with the inner if clause. It results in the following parse tree:
scssCopy code
if (condition1) if (condition2) statement1; else statement2;
 In this scenario, if condition1 evaluates to true and
condition2 evaluates to false, statement2 will be executed.
This interpretation follows the rule that an else clause is
associated with the closest preceding if clause that does not
already have an else clause.
2. Dangling else attached to the outer if clause:
 According to this interpretation, the else clause is associated
with the outer if clause. It results in the following parse tree:
scssCopy code
if (condition1) if (condition2) statement1; else statement2;
  In this scenario, if condition1 evaluates to true and
condition2 evaluates to false, neither statement1 nor
statement2 will be executed. This interpretation follows the
rule that an else clause is associated with the nearest
preceding if clause without an else clause.
The dangling else ambiguity arises because the grammar itself does not
explicitly specify how to associate the else clause with the if clause. As a
result, there is a potential ambiguity in the interpretation of the code.
To resolve the dangling else ambiguity, programming languages
typically define a rule to associate the else clause with the nearest
preceding if clause without an else clause. This resolves the ambiguity
and ensures that the code is parsed consistently. Language specifications
or compiler design rules provide explicit rules to resolve the ambiguity,
thereby avoiding the possibility of different interpretations and ensuring
predictable behavior.

To resolve the dangling else ambiguity in compiler design, programming

languages typically adopt a specific rule that determines how the else
clause should be associated with its corresponding if clause. The most
commonly used resolution rule is known as the "nearest-enclosing" or
"matching-pair" rule. According to this rule:
1. The else clause is associated with the nearest preceding if clause
that does not already have an else clause.
Using the nearest-enclosing rule, the dangling else ambiguity is
resolved, and the code is parsed consistently. Let's consider an example
to illustrate the resolution:
Consider the following code snippet:
if (condition1)
if (condition2)
statement1;
else
statement2;
Using the nearest-enclosing rule, the code is parsed as follows:
if (condition1)
if (condition2)
statement1;
else
statement2;
With this resolution, the else clause is associated with the nearest
preceding if clause that does not already have an else clause. In this case,
the else clause is matched with the inner if clause.
By defining this rule in the language's grammar or compiler design
specifications, the ambiguity is eliminated, and the compiler can
consistently parse if-else constructs. The nearest-enclosing rule provides
a clear and unambiguous way to determine the association of the else
clause, ensuring predictable behavior and avoiding potential pitfalls in
code interpretation.
It's worth noting that programming languages may have variations or
additional rules to handle more complex cases, such as multiple nested
if-else statements or the presence of nested statements within the if or
else blocks. The language specification or compiler design rules should
provide explicit guidance on how to handle these scenarios, ensuring
unambiguous parsing and consistent behavior.

In compiler design, an op-code table, also known as an operation code

table or opcode table, is a data structure that maps mnemonic operation
codes (opcodes) to their corresponding binary machine instructions. The
op-code table is an essential component of the compiler's code
generation phase, as it facilitates the translation of high-level language
instructions into machine code.
Here's an explanation of the op-code table with an example:
1. Definition and Structure:
 An op-code table is typically implemented as a lookup table
or a data structure that associates mnemonic opcodes with
their corresponding binary representations.
 Each entry in the op-code table consists of two parts: the
mnemonic opcode and the corresponding binary machine
instruction.
 The table can be organized as an array, a hash table, or a
combination of data structures, depending on the specific
requirements of the compiler.
2. Mapping Mnemonic Opcodes to Machine Instructions:
 The op-code table provides a mapping between human-
readable mnemonic opcodes and the machine instructions
understood by the target hardware.
 For example, consider the mnemonic opcode "ADD" in a
high-level language. The op-code table would provide the
corresponding binary machine instruction, such as "1001
0100," which represents the addition operation in the target
architecture.
3. Handling Different Instructions and Addressing Modes:
 The op-code table accommodates various instructions and
addressing modes supported by the target hardware
architecture.
 Instructions can include arithmetic operations, logical
operations, control flow instructions, memory access
instructions, and more.
  The op-code table associates each mnemonic opcode with the
corresponding binary representation, considering the specific
instruction format and addressing modes required by the
target architecture.
4. Example of an Op-code Table:
 Here's a simplified example of an op-code table mapping
mnemonic opcodes to binary machine instructions for a
hypothetical instruction set architecture:

Mnemonic Opcode Binary Machine Instruction

ADD 1001 0100

SUB 1001 0101

LOAD 1100 0010

STORE 1100 0011

JUMP 1110 0001

... ...

 In this example, the op-code table maps mnemonic opcodes

like "ADD," "SUB," "LOAD," "STORE," and "JUMP" to
their respective binary machine instructions.
 During the code generation phase of the compiler, when
encountering these opcodes in the high-level language code,
the compiler refers to the op-code table to translate them into
their binary machine representations.
By utilizing an op-code table, compilers can efficiently generate
machine code instructions based on mnemonic opcodes provided in the
high-level language. The op-code table acts as a crucial reference to
ensure accurate and consistent translation of instructions, enabling the
compiler to produce executable programs that are compatible with the
target hardware architecture.