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(By Group 06)
INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS, BAHAUDDIN ZAKARIYA UNIVERSITY MULTAN

Types of Errors
Systematic Errors
● Systematic errors are consistent and reproducible deviations from the true value
of a measurement.
● They result from flaws in equipment, experimental setup, or calibration
procedures.
● Systematic errors can lead to a bias in measurements, making them consistently
too high or too low.
● Examples include zero offset errors in instruments, instrumental drift, and
environmental factors like temperature fluctuations.
Random Errors
● Random errors are unpredictable variations in measurement
outcomes that occur due to inherent fluctuations and statistical
noise.
● They are typically caused by uncontrollable factors, such as
variations in the material being measured, fluctuations in ambient
conditions, or limitations of the measurement instrument.
● Random errors follow a probability distribution, often
approximated by the
Gaussian distribution (normal distribution).
● Taking repeated measurements and calculating statistics like
standard deviation can help quantify random errors.
Systematic Errors Random Errors
1. Random errors are unpredictable

1. Systematic errors are consistent fluctuations in physics measurements.
deviations from true value in physics 2. They can result from instrument limitations,
measurements. environmental conditions, or human error.
2. They can introduce bias and lead to 3. Multiple measurements and averaging can
overestimated or underestimated results. minimize random errors.
3. Examples: zero errors, parallax errors, 4. They affect the precision of measurements,
incorrect alignment. leading to a spread of values around the true
4. Minimize through calibration, reliable value.
techniques, and proper setup. 5. Understanding and accounting for random
5. Crucial for accurate measurements and errors is essential for accurate and reliable
valid conclusions in physics experiments. measurement outcomes in physics
experiments.
Gross Errors (Blunders):
● Gross errors, also known as blunders, are major mistakes or mishaps that can
significantly distort the accuracy of measurements.
● They are typically caused by human errors, such as misreading instruments,
improper recording, or incorrect calculations.
● Gross errors are easily detectable and should be eliminated from the dataset
to
prevent skewed results. Human Errors:
● Human errors encompass a broad range of mistakes and inconsistencies made
by
individuals conducting experiments.
● They can include transcription errors, data entry mistakes, or imprecise
observations.
● Careful training, thorough review, and double-checking can help minimize human
errors. Instrumental Errors:
● Instrumental errors stem from inaccuracies in the measuring instruments
themselves.
● These errors can result from calibration issues, sensor drift, or manufacturing
imperfections.
● Regular calibration and maintenance are essential to reduce instrumental errors.
Environmental Errors:
● Environmental errors arise from variations in the surrounding conditions during
an
experiment.
● Factors like temperature, humidity, and atmospheric pressure can affect
measurements.
● Using controlled environments or correcting for these factors is necessary to
minimize environmental errors.
Parallax Errors:
● Parallax errors occur when the observer's line of sight is not perpendicular to the
scale being read.
● These errors can lead to misread values, especially in measurements involving
graduated scales or meters.
● Parallax errors are mitigated by aligning the eye with the scale to avoid viewing it
from an angle.
Zero Errors:
● Zero errors occur when measuring instruments do not read zero when they
should.
● For example, in an analog weighing scale, if the needle does not point to zero
when there is no load, it introduces a zero error.
● Zero errors need to be taken into account and corrected during measurements.
Resolution Errors:
● Resolution errors arise from limitations in the precision of the measuring
instrument.
● They occur when the instrument cannot distinguish between values that are very
close.
● Understanding the instrument's resolution is crucial when making
measurements.
Calibration Errors:
● Calibration errors result from inaccuracies in the calibration procedure,
reference
standards, or calibration equipment.
● A well-calibrated instrument is crucial for accurate measurements, and errors in
the calibration process can propagate throughout the experiment.
Controlling of
Calibration and Regular Maintenance:
Errors
● Regularly calibrate all measurement instruments to a known standard to correct
instrumental errors.
● Maintain instruments and equipment according to manufacturer guidelines to
prevent drift and degradation.
Standardization and Reference Materials:

● Use certified reference materials or known standards when possible to validate and
standardize experimental procedures.
● Comparison with a known standard can help identify and correct systematic errors.
Precision Instrumentation:
● Use instruments with high precision and appropriate resolution for the specific
measurements being made.
● High-quality instrumentation can minimize the impact of instrumental errors.
Controlled Environment:
● Conduct experiments in a controlled environment with stable
temperature,
humidity, and pressure to reduce environmental errors.
● Isolate experiments from external factors that could affect measurements.
Proper Technique and Training:
● Ensure researchers are well-trained and use correct techniques when making
measurements to reduce human errors.
● Encourage adherence to standardized procedures and data recording
practices.
Replication and Averaging:
● Take multiple measurements and calculate averages to mitigate the effects of
random errors.
● Replication helps identify outliers and increases the reliability of the data.
Cross-Checking:
● Cross-check measurements with alternative methods or instruments to
verify
results.
● Consistency between multiple measurement techniques can enhance data
reliability.
Blind Testing:
● Implement blind testing, where the experimenter is unaware of which samples
are
being measured, to minimize experimenter bias.
Error Propagation Analysis:
● Understand how errors propagate through calculations and data analysis,
especially in multi-step experiments.
● Utilize error propagation formulas to estimate the overall uncertainty in the
final
results.
Data Review and Validation:
● Carefully review data for outliers, inconsistencies, or signs of gross
errors.
● Validate the accuracy of recorded data and correct any obvious mistakes.
Control Charts:
● Implement control charts to monitor the stability and performance of
measurement
systems over time.
● Detect shifts or trends in measurements that may indicate errors.
Documentation and Traceability:
● Maintain thorough documentation of all experimental procedures, including
calibration records, measurement conditions, and data analysis.
● Establish traceability of measurements to ensure their accuracy and reliability.
Statistical Analysis:
● Employ statistical techniques to identify and quantify errors.
● Calculate standard deviations, confidence intervals, and perform hypothesis
tests
to assess the significance of results.
Quality Control Procedures:
● Implement quality control procedures and adherence to quality standards,
especially in industrial and manufacturing settings.
● Quality control ensures that products meet specified requirements and
tolerances.
Peer Review:
● Seek peer review and feedback on experimental procedures and data analysis
to
identify potential errors overlooked by the primary researcher.
Experimental Statistics
Statistical Errors:
Statistical errors refer to the difference between the collected data and the
actual value of facts.
The error may arise due to the following reasons:
• Selection of wrong samples
• Incorrect information given by the respondents
• Collection of data by estimates
Measurement of Statistical errors:
1. Absolute Errors:
Absolute error is the difference between the true value and its estimated value.
True value = 50
Estimate value = 40
Absolute error = True value – Estimated value
Absolute error = 50-40
Absolute error = 10
2. Relative Errors:
Relative error is the ratio of the absolute error to the actual value.
Relative error = Absolute error / Actual Value
Relative error = 10/50 = 1:5
Statistical Analysis of random errors
1. Arithmetic mean
2. Deviation from mean
3. Average deviation
4. Standard deviation
5. Variance
1. Arithmetic Mean:
It is the sum of all the readings divided by the number of readings. It is
represented by x.
𝑥1
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ … … . +
𝑛
2. Deviation from Mean:

It means how much the given reading is a deviation from the arithmetic
mean. It is denoted by 𝑑𝑖 that may be positive or negative¬
𝑑𝑖 = (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥)
Average Deviation:
It is the sum of all the values di deviation divided by the number of readings.
It is denoted by D.
𝑙
𝐷 = Ʃ Ɩ 𝑑𝑖 −
𝑛
Standard Deviation:
It is the square root of the sum of the square of the individual deviations divided by
the number of readings. This is also called root mean square deviation. It is
represented by σ.
σ(𝑋−𝜇)2 σ(𝑋−𝑥)2
𝜎= s=
𝑁 𝑛−1
Variance:
It is defined as the square of standard deviation. It is represented by V.
Example:
A set of Independent currents measurement

were taken by six observers and were recorded
as 12.8 A, 12.2 A, 12.5 A, 13.1 A, 12.9 A, 12.4 A.
Now we taking values of x as
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟖 𝑨
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐 𝑨
𝒙𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝑨
𝒙𝟒 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟏 𝑨
𝒙𝟓 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟗 𝑨
𝒙𝟔 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟒 𝑨
Arithmetic Mean:
𝑥𝑖 12.8 + 12.2 + 12.5 + 13.1 + 12.9 + 12.4 75.9
𝑥=෍ = = = 12.65
𝑛 6 6
Deviation from mean:
𝑑1 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥 = 12.8 − 12.65 = 0.15
𝑑2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 = 12.2 − 12.65 = −0.45
𝑑3 = 𝑥3 − 𝑥 = 12.5 − 12.65 = −0.15
𝑑4 = 𝑥4 − 𝑥 = 13.1 − 12.65 = 0.45
𝑑5 = 𝑥5 − 𝑥 = 12.9 − 12.65 = 0.25
𝑑6 = 𝑥6 − 𝑥 = 12.4 − 12.65 = −0.25
Average Deviation:
• Sum of all deviations divided by total number of values
𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3 + 𝑑4 + 𝑑5 + 𝑑6 0.15 + 0.45 + 0.15 + 0.45 + 0.25 + 0.25
𝐷= =
𝑛 6
𝐷 = 0.283
Standard Deviation:
σ 𝑑𝑖2
𝜎=
𝑛−1
2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3+ 𝑑4
+ 𝑑5 + 𝑑6
𝜎=
6−1
(0.15)2 +(0.45)2 +(0.15)2 + (0.45)2 +(0.25)2 +(0.25)2

𝜎=
5
0.575
𝜎= = 0.115 = 0.339
5
Probable error of reading:
𝜎1 = 0.6745 𝜎
𝜎1 = (0.6745) (0.339)
𝜎1 = 0.22
Thank You to All !
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(By Group 06)

INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS, BAHAUDDIN ZAKARIYA UNIVERSITY MULTAN

1. Random errors are unpredictable

Standardization and Reference Materials:

2. Deviation from Mean:

A set of Independent currents measurement

(0.15)2 +(0.45)2 +(0.15)2 + (0.45)2 +(0.25)2 +(0.25)2

Thank You to All !

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