Chapter I

Introudction

Nonlinear system:-

In mathematics and science, a nonlinear system is a system in which the change of the output is
not proportional to the change of the input. Nonlinear problems are of interest to engineers,
biologists,physicists,mathematicians, and many other scientists since most systems are inherently nonlinear in
nature.Nonlinear dynamical systems, describing changes in variables over time, may appear chaotic,
unpredictable, or counterintuitive, contrasting with much simpler linear systems.

Typically, the behavior of a nonlinear system is described in mathematics by a nonlinear system

of equations, which is a set of simultaneous equations in which the unknowns (or the unknown functions in the
case of differential equations) appear as variables of a polynomial of degree higher than one or in the argument
of a function which is not a polynomial of degree one. In other words, in a nonlinear system of equations, the
equation(s) to be solved cannot be written as a linear combination of the unknown variables or functions that
appear in them. Systems can be defined as nonlinear, regardless of whether known linear functions appear in the
equations. In particular, a differential equation is linear if it is linear in terms of the unknown function and its
derivatives, even if nonlinear in terms of the other variables appearing in it.

As nonlinear dynamical equations are difficult to solve, nonlinear systems are commonly
approximated by linear equations (linearization). This works well up to some accuracy and some range for the
input values, but some interesting phenomena such as solitons, chaos,and singularities are hidden by
linearization. It follows that some aspects of the dynamic behavior of a nonlinear system can appear to be
counterintuitive, unpredictable or even chaotic. Although such chaotic behavior may resemble random
behavior, it is in fact not random. For example, some aspects of the weather are seen to be chaotic, where
simple changes in one part of the system produce complex effects throughout. This nonlinearity is one of the
reasons why accurate long-term forecasts are impossible with current technology.

Chaos theory:-

Chaos theory is an interdisciplinary area of scientific study and branch of mathematics focused on
underlying patterns and deterministic laws of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions,
and were once thought to have completely random states of disorder and irregularities. Chaos theory states that
within the apparent randomness of chaotic complex systems, there are underlying patterns, interconnection,
constant feedback loops, repetition, self-similarity, fractals, and self-organization.The butterfly effect, an
underlying principle of chaos, describes how a small change in one state of a deterministic nonlinear system can
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result in large differences in a later state (meaning that there is sensitive dependence on initial conditions). A
metaphor for this behavior is that a butterfly flapping its wings in Brazil can cause a tornado in Texas.

Small differences in initial conditions, such as those due to errors in measurements or due to
rounding errors in numerical computation, can yield widely diverging outcomes for such dynamical systems,
rendering long-term prediction of their behavior impossible in general.This can happen even though these
systems are deterministic, meaning that their future behavior follows a unique evolution and is fully determined
by their initial conditions, with no random elements involved. In other words, the deterministic nature of these
systems does not make them predictable. This behavior is known as deterministic chaos, or simply chaos. The
theory was summarized by Edward Lorenz as:

Chaos: When the present determines the future, but the approximate present does not approximately determine
the future.

Chaotic behavior exists in many natural systems, including fluid flow, heartbeat irregularities,
weather, and climate.It also occurs spontaneously in some systems with artificial components, such as the road
traffic.This behavior can be studied through the analysis of a chaotic mathematical model, or through analytical
techniques such as recurrence plots and Poincaré maps. Chaos theory has applications in a variety of disciplines,
including meteorology,anthropology,sociology, environmental science, computer science, engineering,
economics, ecology, and pandemic crisis management.The theory formed the basis for such fields of study as
complex dynamical systems, edge of chaos theory, and self-assembly processes.

Chaotic dynamics:-

Some dynamical systems, like the one-dimensional logistic map defined by x → 4 x (1 – x), are
chaotic everywhere, but in many cases chaotic behavior is found only in a subset of phase space. The cases of
most interest arise when the chaotic behavior takes place on an attractor, since then a large set of initial
conditions leads to orbits that converge to this chaotic region.

An easy way to visualize a chaotic attractor is to start with a point in the basin of attraction of the
attractor, and then simply plot its subsequent orbit. Because of the topological transitivity condition, this is
likely to produce a picture of the entire final attractor, and indeed both orbits shown in the figure on the right
give a picture of the general shape of the Lorenz attractor. This attractor results from a simple three-dimensional
model of the Lorenz weather system. The Lorenz attractor is perhaps one of the best-known chaotic system
diagrams, probably because it is not only one of the first, but it is also one of the most complex, and as such
gives rise to a very interesting pattern that, with a little imagination, looks like the wings of a butterfly.
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 Unlike fixed-point attractors and limit cycles, the attractors that arise from chaotic systems,
known as strange attractors, have great detail and complexity. Strange attractors occur in both continuous
dynamical systems (such as the Lorenz system) and in some discrete systems (such as the Hénon map). Other
discrete dynamical systems have a repelling structure called a Julia set, which forms at the boundary between
basins of attraction of fixed points. Julia sets can be thought of as strange repellers. Both strange attractors and
Julia sets typically have a fractal structure, and the fractal dimension can be calculated for them.
Coexisting attractors:-
In contrast to single type chaotic solutions, recent studies using Lorenz models have
emphasized the importance of considering various types of solutions. For example, coexisting chaotic and non-
chaotic may appear within the same model (e.g., the double pendulum system) using the same modeling
configurations but different initial conditions. The findings of attractor coexistence, obtained from classical and
generalized Lorenz models, suggested a revised view that “the entirety of weather possesses a dual nature of
chaos and order with distinct predictability”, in contrast to the conventional view of “weather is chaotic”.

Coexisting chaotic and non-chaotic attractors within the generalized Lorenz model.There are 128 orbits in
different colors, beginning with different initial conditions for dimensionless time between 0.625 and 5 and a
heating parameter r = 680. Chaotic orbits recurrently return close to the saddle point at the origin. Nonchaotic
orbits eventually approach one of two stable critical points, as shown with large blue dots. Chaotic and
nonchaotic orbits occupy different regions of attraction within the phase space.

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 Chapter II

Background of the Chua circuit

Introduction:-

It is known that some electrical circuits exhibit chaotic behaviour. Build a simple circuit with such a
property,and investigate its behaviour.

The key word in this problem formulation is "chaotic". The ordinary usage of the word implies complete
disorder a coin toss might seem like the perfect example as nobody can predict the outcome. However, from a
scientific-deductive perspective such a system is rather trivial as we can easily quantify the different outcomes
as equaprobable and there is no possibility to produce more sofisticated predictions. We call these systems
stochastic in contrast to predictable ones which are labeled determinstic.

However, in 1890 Henri Poincaré indicated that systems could go from determinstic to stochastic
as time progressed in the sense that prediction would start out very precise, but would end up no better than a
coin toss . Hence the concept of chaos is informally defined as the gradual loss of predicitability as time
progresses. In 1961 Edward Lorentz provided an example of such a system in the form of a set of coupled
differential equations describing an idealized model of the atmosphere

Some scientists questioned the physical nature of Lorentz’ result, by stating that the model
introduced was so crude andsimplified that no real experimental confirmation could be made. They claimed that
the phenomenon was so atypicalthat it could only be exhibited by abstract mathematical models with no
connection to reality. In order to investigatethe phenomenon, the research group of Takashi Matsumoto started
building an electrical circuit that would mimicthe equations . Given that the multiplications that appear in the
equations are rather complicated to implement electronically, the circuit itself became horrendously complex.

After several years of work, the circuit was finally completed in October of 1983 and was to be
demonstrated to Leon Chua, a visiting professor. However, the premiere was a spectacular disaster due to the
failure of one of the integrated circuits. Because of this nonsuccess, Chua wondered if one could not construct a
much simpler circuit that would not be governed by the Lorentz equations, but would still give rise to chaotic
behaviour. As the hallmark of a true genius, Chua realized exactly how he should remove all the unnecessary
components of the circuit while still preserving the chaos. This simple device behaved just as Chua had
predicted and showed that chaotic behaviour is in no way restricted to the abstract world of mathematics, but
can be easily constructed and observed. The Chua circuit was born.

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 The ease of construction and observability of the Chua circuit makes the circuit a very natural
candidate for the study of chaos. Although one of the main motivations behind the circuit was to provide a
physical realization of a set of differential equations giving rise to chaos - there have been several hundred
papers written on the topic- rather little attention has been given to experimentally verify the theoretical model
Chua proposed beyond a visual comparision between simulation and measurements . The first goal of this thesis
is therefore to try to rectify this by providing experimental vindication of the theory, building from the
component level up to the qualitative features where most research is carried out. Secondly, most works on the
Chua circuit relay heavily on the standard methods of chaos theory and differential equations. However as will
be seen in the equations that govern the circuit, there exists a piecewise linear structure that can be exploited to
speed up the computations significantly.

THE BIRTH OF “CHUA’S CIRCUIT”:-

Many years passed following Lorenz’ work before it was firmly established that chaos can be
observed in real-life physical systems. In fact, at first, few paid much attention to Lorenz’ work.

Leon Chua

Leon Chua was a faculty member in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer
Sciences at the Universi-ty of California at Berkeley in 1983. His area of specialization was nonlinear circuits.
That year, Chua was awarded a special research fellowship at Japan’s Waseda University.

Upon his arrival there, Chua was invited to witness what was supposed to be the world’s first
successful electronic circuit simulation of the Lorenz equations. The research group of a Professor Matsumoto
at Waseda University had worked on this project for over a year.

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The intended demonstration did not work for one simple reason. The analog multipliers available at the time
had neither the nearly-ideal characteristics required nor sufficient dynamic range. Without appropriate analog
multipliers, the simulation was not possible.

At that time, only the Lorenz equations and one other nonlinear set called the “Rössler equations”
(developed by the German biochemist Otto Rössler in 1976) were known to be chaotic. Compounding the
uncertainty that chaos was an actual phenomenon was the fact that chaotic responses had been seen only when
computer solutions of these equations were attempted.

Almost all researchers still thought that chaos was merely a phenomenon that could only be
observed in computer solutions of special sets of non-linear equations. Chua now hoped to dispel this notion.

WHAT IS A NEGATIVE NONLINEAR RESISTOR?

The i vs. v graph of an ordinary resistor is a straight line with a positive slope. In addition to their
other functions, these resistors receive electrical energy from the voltage or current sources in a circuit and
produce heat. A negative resistor, in contrast, supplies energy to circuit and its i vs. v graph has a negative
slope.

The nonlinearity is achieved by having the i vs. v graph consist of several connected straight line segments
rather than just one straight line. Negative nonlinear resistors are easily created using op amps (operational
amplifiers).

Derivation of the Chua circuit:-

"Chaotic" is often confused with the concept "complicated". A system of the latter type would
consist of a large number of components interacting in a very intricate way, and might very well be chaotic.
However, if the only goal is to obtain chaotic behaviour, there is no inherent rule that forces us to make the
circuit very complicated. Part of Chua’s genius was to realize that a simple circuit is enough to demonstrate
chaos. By sticking with this thinking, we will try to derive in what sense the Chua circuit can be considered "the
simplest chaotic circuit", as it is often called in the literature , since this makes it a natural candidate for an in-
depth investigation of chaotic behaviour. The first watershed between different circuits is whether the system is
autonomous or nonautonomous, meaning whenever the system is explicitly independent of time or not . Such
time dependence could arise from variation in the external power source or some system parameter. For
simplicity one often wants to keep the system independent of the surroundings as this simplifies the
mathematical treatment and also has the nice feature that the resulting dynamic become an emergent property,
not something externally created.

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 It was noted above that there is no need to make the circuit overly complicated to get chaos. On the
other hand it is also intuitively clear that one has to reach a certain minimal complexity. This is mathematically
captured by the PoincaréBendixson theorem according to which a system must have at least three degrees of
freedom to be able to exhibit chaotic behaviour . The number of degrees of freedom is determined by the
number of energy carrying components, as these describe how many different states the system can be in.To
understand this, note that the number of degrees of freedom describes how many scalar quantities (at each
moment in time) are needed to fully classify the state of the circuit, meaning that every voltage and current can
be computed from such information. If the system contained only resistive components all currents and voltages
could be computed directly, without any additional knowledge. Therefore, such system would have zero
degrees of freedom. What characterizes an energy carrying component is that the relation between voltage and
current depends on the previous history (such as a differential relation). With only access to information of the
current moment, both of them cannot be inferred, instead one of them must be known, adding one degree of
freedom per component. An easy way to look at the capacitor, for example is as a current source with the
current depending on the change in voltage. If the information about this current is provided, it can be treated
just like an ordinary current source and the resulting resistive equations can be solved. In the same manner, an
inductor can be treated as a voltage source that has a voltage depending on the change in current. To build a
minimal chaotic system, one should therefore use three components that can store energy. Linear systems
cannot exhibit chaotic behaviour . A simple way to understand this is to note that the behaviour of the linear
systems is independent of the scale, meaning that the dynamics happening for small values of the system
variables will still happen for larger values, there is simply speaking not any surprises that can ruin the
predictability. Therefore one must also include a non-linear component. The simplest possibility is to make this
component purely resistive, excluding components like iron core inductors with strong hysteresis or diodes with
parasitic capacitance, as these devices have a memory that drastically complicates the resulting equations. This
still leaves quite a lot of possibilities in the form of transistors, varistors, diodes and many more, with several of
these being used in actual chaotic circuits . Among the alternatives, one stands aside as maybe the simplest of
them all: the operational amplifier , denoted by the symbol . It is important to note that with simplicity we do
not mean that of inner design (which is rather complicated for the operational amplifier compared to many other
devices) but that of device characteristics. This (ideal) component is simply a linear amplifier between the input
voltage difference (between the plus and minus terminal) and the output node. The amplification is limited to
the maximum supplied voltage, after which the output voltage is constant. A practical feature of the device is
that it is locally active, meaning that it can supply the circuit with power due to its connection to a voltage
source.

The rather surprising fact first proven by Chua, known as the Global Unfolding Theorem, is
that a circuit satisfying these three criteria (autonomous, three energy storing components and the only
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nonlinear devices are operational amplifiers) either contains more operational amplifiers than minimally needed
for chaos or is conjugate to family of circuits of the Chua-Kennedy form the sense that for any other circuit
outside of this family there exists a linear transformation that transforms the equations back into the Chua-
Kennedy set for some values of the physical constants. Hence the Global Unfolding Theorem provides
mathematical rigor to the statement that the Chua circuit is "the simplest chaotic circuit" and motivate its use as
a model system for chaotic systems.

Review of previous research:-

The research on the Chua circuit has been both broad and extensive. Only 10 years after the conception
of the circuit, Chua himself estimated that more than 200 papers had been written . We will make no attempt to
fully review such a massive amount of research. However, it is possible to identify three rather loose themes in
the literature and we will use these to provide context for our own study, most prominently the need for
systematic investigation of the circuit’s anatom

The first theme focuses on the properties of the circuit itself. Besides the first papers
investigating the chaotic behaviour numerically and experimentally ,the most essential one contain a formal
proof by Chua to show that the system is truly chaotic, putting the chaos theory of the Chua circuit on solid
ground. Most of the research done on the circuit has focused on qualitative properties such as the bifurcation
diagram, which depends on some control parameter , the different form of the attractors that can appear or
construction of discrete maps to explain different features of the solutions. As all of these results presuppose
that the underlying set of differential equations is correct, a position often taken for granted without any test of
validity, preparing the ground for this thesis.

The second theme focuses on alternative designs of the Chua circuit.

In many early studies, such as the original papers from 1984-86, the resistance in series with the
inductor is left out . Even if no such component is added physically to the circuit, in practice one can never get
rid of the parasitic resistance in the inductor itself, a fact pointed out by. As it is not needed to obtain chaos,
attempts have been made to minimize its size in order to simplify the circuit, but it has also been explicitly
included in the theoretical model. Several studies also argue for replacing the physical coil with a simulated
inductor built with resistors, capacitors and operational amplifiers, known as a gyrator. The arguments for this
change include obtaining lower frequency signals (se such issues below) , higher component quality, smaller

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non-linear effects and smaller size. However, direct experimental comparison between a physical inductor and a
simulated inductor is scarce in the literature; motivating such an investigation.

Additionally, quite a few alternative designs aim at changing the operational amplifiers. There
are mainly two reasons for doing this: Either to increase the performance of the circuit under high frequency
oscillations or to be able to investigate the behaviour of the circuit with a smoother non-linearity. While the
first point was experimentally circumvented, in the second case there is a strong argument for restricting to the
piecewise-linear case as previous research show that no new qualitative phenomena appear .

The third theme, that includes a vast majority of the current research in the field, features the
use of the Chua circuit in different applications. This accounts for everything from the synchronization of
multiple circuits applied to secret communication to the control of chaos by including an extra voltage input
source .

The utility of the Chua circuit also exceedes that of its physical realization in the sense that it is
seen as a model system for chaos . Many algorithms aimed at investigating different features of chaotic systems,
such as distinguishing chaos from random noise or general attractor reconstruction use data generated from a
Chua circuit. It is crucial for such studies that the physical realization is accurately described by the theoretical
model as this might otherwise cause a discrepancy, not due to a faulty algorithm, but instead due to the
inadequacy of the original model. One goal of this work has therefore also been to try to identify possible
pitfalls that might cause such deviations.

WHY STUDY CHAOTIC ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS?

GOAL:-
The primary goal of this project is to provide an introduction to the topic of chaos through computer
simulation of some electronic circuits that exhibit chaotic responses. There are numerous simple electronic
circuits that demonstrate the important features of chaos.

These circuits are easy to simulate on the computer or build from actual electronic components. The
simulation software used will allow the observation of the chaotic responses without the need of an oscilloscope
or any other electronic test equipment.

In addition to computer simulations, the actual physical building of these circuits using commonly
available, inexpensive electronic components will be discussed. The only test equipment needed when working
with these “real” circuits will be a power supply and an oscilloscope.

The choice of how best to learn about chaos and chaotic circuits is yours. You can do computer
simulation, construct physical circuits, or both.A secondary goal of this project is to show that one does not

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need an extensive background in math, engineering or physics to learn many important things about chaos.
The main requirement is an interest in learning.

WHY IS IT CALLED “CHOAS”?

It is very unfortunate that the term “chaos” was chosen for the name of the topic we are going to
discuss. To most people, the word “chaos” means confusion, disorder, or randomness. However, the term
“chaos” (more precisely “mathematical chaos”) has an entirely different meaning to scientists, engineers and
mathematicians.

We will discuss the essential features of mathematical chaos in greater detail later but, in the meantime,
you need to understand that mathematical chaos involves neither disorder nor randomness. It is completely
deterministic. This means that the behavior of any chaotic system is governed by mathematical equations and
not by randomness or chance.

Let me explain what I mean through an experiment which we all can readily visualize. If I throw a ball,
its motion is deterministic in that Newton’s Laws of Motion will determine where that ball will land once I
release it.

If I throw the ball repeatedly and try my best to throw it in exactly the same way each time, the ball will
land in approximately the same location. The slight variations in where the ball lands will be due to the fact that
there were slight differences in the angle of my arm and the velocity of the ball when I released it. The velocity
and the angle at which I release the ball are called the “initial conditions” for this event.

However, it turns out that there are numerous things in nature that, no matter how carefully I try to
repeat the experiment exactly, the final results each time will be vastly different from what they were
previously. This is due to the fact that I cannot repeat the initial conditions with infinite precision.

This phenomenon is called “extreme sensitivity to initial conditions” and is characteristic of

all examples of mathematical chaos. We will talk more about this “extreme sensitivity” in our
subsequent discussions.From now on, whenever I use the word “chaos,” please know that I mean
“mathematical chaos.”

DOES CHAOS OCCUR FREQUENTLY?

Investigations have shown that chaos can be observed in virtually all aspects of life including
biology, geology, chemistry, finance, psychology, medicine, all branches of engineering and physics,
economics, and countless other areas.

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 The list is endless and the examples are fascinating. The frequent occurrence of chaos is due to
the fact that our world is fundamentally nonlinear. Many nonlinear systems give rise to chaos.

For just one example of the current widespread interest in chaos, do an internet search on the
topic “chaos in biology” and you will find many thousands of websites with information on that subject.
The study of chaos is helping us to understand many things that previously were unknown or
were inexplicable.

DON’T FEAR THE MATH:-

The term “mathematical chaos” most accurately describes the topic we will discuss.
However, the strict mathematical rigor that usually accompanies discussions of chaos will be avoided in
favor of an approach that is more readily understandable to those whose mathematics background
includes no more than ordinary differential equations. Even if your math background does not go that
far, you will be able to learn a lot about chaos and have fun doing it. Trust me

Chepter III

Linear Resistors:-

The resistors whose value changes with the applied temperature and voltage, are called linear
resistors. Most types of resistors are linear devices that produce a voltage drop across themselves when a current
flows through them There are two basic types of resistors with linear properties namely fixed resistors and
variable resistors.

I-V characteristics of Linear resistor

Non-Linear Resistor:-

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 Non-linear resistors are those types of resistors where the electric current flowing through it
changes with the exchange in applied voltage or temperature and does not change according to Ohm’s law.
There are several types of non-linear resistors, but the most commonly used are mentioned below.

I-V characteristics of Nonlinear resistor

The Effects of Nonlinear Resistance:-

The inverse of nonlinear resistance (a.k.a., nonlinear conductance) of a component is actually

called the transconductance. The second graph above shows the inverse of the transconductance (in DC circuits)
or transadmittance (in AC circuits). This value is important in small-signal analysis, where the behavior of a
circuit is simulated around a specific operating point.

The nonlinear resistance of a circuit is responsible for a number of effects that are particular to
AC circuits and switching digital circuits. Because the current in the circuit and voltage in a nonlinear
component are related by a nonlinear function, the component will produce additional harmonic content when
an oscillating or switching signal propagates in the component. This leads to distortion of the signal, i.e., the
output from the component no longer matches the input. As an example, this is a particular aspect of nonlinear
circuits limits the useful input signal level in power amplifiers. Similar effects are seen in other components.

In reality, no component has truly linear resistance up to an infinite voltage and current. The three
fundamental components (resistors, capacitors, and inductors) will exhibit nonlinear resistance once the input
voltage or input frequency are large enough. This occurs for a number of reasons, such as the skin effect and
roughness in electrical leads and manufacturing imperfections in components. In particular, roughness in
electrical leads and in copper traces on the surface of a PCB is known to be responsible for passive
intermodulation.

Nonlinear circuits:-

A circuits to be a nonlinear if it contains at least one nonlinear circuit element like a nonlinear
resistor,a nonlinear capacitor or a nonlinear inductor. Another basic inventory in nonlinear circuit analysis is the

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use of piece-linear circuit element designed ingeniously for specific needs,whose chaeacteristic curves are
piecewise-linear.these include piecewise-linear resistor,capacitor and inductors.

Of all the possible nonlinear circuit elements nonlinear resistors are easy to build and model. In
this connection, Chua's diode is a simple nonlinear resistor with piecewise-linear characteristic and is widely
used by circuit theorists and electronic engineers. In the follow- ing we shall discuss some simple circuits which
contain this nonlinear resistor along with additional linear circuit elements and investigate the underlying
dynamics.

Chua’s diode:-

In electronics and chaos theory, Chua's diode is a type of two-terminal, nonlinear active resistor
which can be described with piecewise-linear equations. It is an essential part of Chua's circuit, a simple
electronic oscillator circuit which exhibits chaotic oscillations and is widely used as an example for a chaotic
system. It is implemented as a voltage-controlled, nonlinear negative resistor.

The diode is not sold commercially, and is usually built from standard circuit components such as
diodes, capacitors, resistors and op-amps. There are multiple ways to simulate Chua's diode using such
components. One standard design is realized by connecting two negative impedance converters in parallel. A
negative impedance converter (NIC) is a simple op amp circuit that has negative resistance. Another
implementation uses one negative impedance converter to create the negative resistance characteristic, and a
diode-resistor network to create the nonlinear characteristic. Chua's diode was invented by Leon Chua, who is
also the inventor of Chua's circuit.

Figure:1.Current-voltage characteristic of Chua's diode

Historical Background:-
The Chua Circuit was invented in the fall of 1983 (Chua, 1992) in response to two unfulfilled
quests among many researchers on chaos concerning two wanting aspects of the Lorenz Equations (Lorenz,
1963). The first quest was to devise a laboratory system which can be realistically modeled by the Lorenz

13
Equations in order to demonstrate chaos is a robust physical phenomenon, and not merely an artifact of
computer round-off errors. The second quest was to prove that the Lorenz attractor, which was obtained by
computer simulation, is indeed chaotic in a rigorous mathematical sense. The existence of chaotic attractors
from the Chua circuit had been confirmed numerically by Matsumoto (1984), observed experimentally by
Zhong and Ayrom (1985), and proved rigorously in (Chua, et al, 1986). The basic approach of the proof is
illustrated in a guided exercise on Chua’s circuit in the well-known textbook by Hirsch, Smale and Devaney
(2003).

‘Circuit Diagram and Realization:-

The simplest circuit that could give rise to oscillatory or chaotic waveforms must include at
least one locally active (Chua, 1998), (Chua, 2005) nonlinear element, powered by a battery, such as the Chua
diode shown in Figure A, characterized by a current vs. voltage nonlinear function iR=g(vR), whose slope must
be negative somewhere on the curve. Such an element is called a locally active resistor. Although the function
g(∙) may assume many shapes,the original Chua circuit specifies the 3-segment piecewise-linear odd-symmetric
characteristic shown in the right hand side of Figure A, where m0 denotes the slope of the middle segment and
m1 denotes the slope of the two outer segments ; namely,

m1vR+m1−m0 , ifvR≤−1
g(vR)=m0vR, if−1≤vR≤1
m1vR+m0−m1 , if1≤vR

Figure A: The Chua Circuit.

Chua’s diode circuit :-

Chua's circuit (also known as a Chua circuit) is a simple electronic circuit that exhibits classic
chaotic behavior. This means roughly that it is a "nonperiodic oscillator"; it produces an oscillating waveform
that, unlike an ordinary electronic oscillator, never "repeats". It was invented in 1983 by Leon O. Chua, who
was a visitor at Waseda University in Japan at that time. The ease of construction of the circuit has made it a
ubiquitous real-world example of a chaotic system, leading some to declare it "a paradigm for chaos".

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 The Chua diode is not an off-the-shelf component. However, there are many ways to
synthesize such an element using off-the-shelf components and a power supply, such as batteries. The circuit for
realizing the Chua diode need not concern us since the dynamical behavior of the Chua Circuit depends only on
the 4 parameter values L, R, C1, C2 and the nonlinear characteristic function g(∙).

Any locally active device requires a power supply for the same reason a mobile phone can not
function without batteries (Chua, 1969). A physical circuit for realizing the Chua Circuit in Figure Ais shown in
Figure B.

Observe the one-to-one correspondence between each linear circuit element in Figure 1 and
its corresponding physical component in Figure B (Gandhi et al, 2007). The Chua diode in corresponds to the
small black box with two external wires soldered across capacitance C1. Two batteries are used to supply power
for the Chua diode. The parameter values for L, R, C1, and C2, as well as instructions for building the Chua
diode in Figure A are given in (Kennedy, 1992).

Figure C shows the complete Chua Circuit, including the circuit schematic diagram (enclosed
inside the box NR) for realizing the Chua diode, using 2 standard Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps) and 6
linear resistors (Gandhi et al. 2007).The two vertical terminals emanating from each Op Amp (labeled V+ and
V−, respectively) in Figure D must be connected to the plus and minus terminals of a 9 volt battery,
respectively.

Figure B: Physical realization of the Chua Circuit.

Figure C: Realization of Chua’s Circuit using two Op Amps and six linear resistors to implement the Chua
diode NR.
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 Figure D: A Chua Circuit where the Chua diode is implemented by a specially designed IC chip.

There are many other circuits for realizing the Chua diode. The most compact albeit expensive

way is to design an integrated electronic circuit, such as the physical circuit shown in Figure 4, where the black

box in Figure 2 had been replaced by a single IC chip (Cruz and Chua, 1993), and powered by only one battery.

Chaotic criteria:-

An autonomous circuit made from standard components (resistors, capacitors, inductors) must
satisfy three criteria before it can display chaotic behaviour. It must contain:

1.one or more nonlinear elements,

2.one or more locally active resistors,

3.three or more energy-storage elements.

Chua's circuit is the simplest electronic circuit meeting these criteria. As shown in the top
figure, the energy storage elements are two capacitors (labeled C1 and C2) and an inductor (labeled L; L1 in
lower figure).A "locally active resistor" is a device that has negative resistance and is active (it can amplify),
providing the power to generate the oscillating current. The locally active resistor and nonlinearity are
combined in the device NR, which is called "Chua's diode". This device is not sold commercially but is
implemented in various ways by active circuits. The circuit diagram shows one common implementation. The
nonlinear resistor is implemented by two linear resistors and two diodes. At the far right is a negative
impedance converter made from three linear resistors and an operational amplifier, which implements the
locally active resistance (negative resistance).

16
Figure:2.Chua's circuit. The component NR is a nonlinear negative resistance called a Chua's diode. It is usually
made of a circuit containing an amplifier with positive feedback.

Dynamics:-

Analyzing the circuit using Kirchhoff's circuit laws, the dynamics of Chua's circuit can be
accurately modeled by means of a system of three nonlinear ordinary differential equations in the variables x(t),
y(t), and z(t), which represent the voltages across the capacitors C1 and C2 and the electric current in the
inductor L1 respectively. These equations are:

dx
=α [ y −x−f ( x ) ]
dt

dy
RC 2 =x − y−R z
dt

dz
=−βy
dt

The function f(x) describes the electrical response of the nonlinear resistor, and its shape
depends on the particular configuration of its components. The parameters α and β are determined by the
particular values of the circuit components.

P(x)=△x+g(x)=m1x+12(m0−m1)[|x+1|−|x−1|]

where m0 and m1 denote the slope of the inner and outer segments of the piecewise-linear
function . Although simpler smooth scalar functions, such as polynomials, could be chosen for ϕ(x) without
affecting the qualitative behaviors of the Chua Equations, a continuous (but not differentiable) piecewise-linear
function was chosen strategically from the outset in (Chua et al, 1986) in order to devise a rigorous proof
showing the experimentally and numerically derived double scroll attractor is indeed chaotic. Unlike the Lorenz
attractor (Lorenz, 1963), which had not been proven to be chaotic until 36 years later (Stewart, 2000) by Tucker
(1999), it was possible to prove the double scroll attractor from the Chua Circuit is chaotic by virtue of the fact
that certain Poincare return maps associated with the attractor can be derived explicitly in analytical form via
compositions of eigenvectors within each linear region of the 3-dimensional state space (Chua et al, 1986),
(Shilnikov, 1994).

A computer-assisted proof of chaotic behavior (more precisely, of positive topological

entropy) in Chua's circuit was published in 1997.A self-excited chaotic attractor, known as "the double scroll"
because of its shape in the (x, y, z) space, was first observed in a circuit containing a nonlinear element such that
f(x) was a 3-segment piecewise-linear function.

17
 The easy experimental implementation of the circuit, combined with the existence of a
simple and accurate theoretical model, makes Chua's circuit a useful system to study many fundamental and
applied issues of chaos theory. Because of this, it has been object of much study and appears widely referenced
in the literature.Further, Chua' s circuit can be easily realized by using a multilayer CNN (cellular nonlinear
network). CNNs were invented by Leon Chua in 1988. The Chua diode can also be replaced by a memristor; an
experimental setup that implemented Chua's chaotic circuit with a memristor was demonstrated by
Muthuswamy in 2009; the memristor was actually implemented with active components in this experiment.

Figure:3.Computer simulation of Chua's circuit after 100 seconds, showing chaotic "double scroll" attractor
pattern

Self-excited and hidden Chua attractors:-

The classical implementation of Chua circuit is switched on at the zero initial data, thus a
conjecture was that the chaotic behavior is possible only in the case of unstable zero equilibrium.In this case a
chaotic attractor in mathematical model can be obtained numerically, with relative ease, by standard
computational procedure where after transient process a trajectory, started from a point of unstable manifold in
a small neighborhood of unstable zero equilibrium, reaches and computes a self-excited attractor. To date, a
large number of various types of self-excited chaotic attractors in Chua's system have been discovered.
However, in 2009, N. Kuznetsov discovered hidden Chua's attractors coexisting with stable zero equilibrium,
and since then various scenarios of the birth of hidden attractors have been described.

Fractal Geometry of the Double Scroll Attractor

18
 Based on an in-depth analysis of the phase portrait located in each of the 3 linear regions of
the x-y-z state space, as well as from a detailed numerical analysis of the double scroll attractor shown in Figure
4(a), the geometrical structure of the double scroll attractor is found to consist of a juxtaposition of infinitely
many thin, concentric, oppositely-directed fractal-like layers. The local geometry of each cross section appears
to be a fractal at all cross sections and scales. This fractal geometry is depicted in the caricature shown in Figure
4(b). A 3-dimensional model of the double scroll attractor, accurate to millimeter scales, has been carefully
sculpted using red and blue fiber glass, and displayed in Figure 4(c).

Figure:4(a). The double scroll attractor derived by computer simulations of the Chua Equations.

Figure:4(b). A caricature of the double spiral fractal geometry of the double scroll attractor.

Figure:4(c). Three-dimensional fiber glass model of the double scroll attractor.

19
Period-Doubling Route to Chaos:-
By fixing the parameters of the Chua Equations at α = 15.6, m0 = -8/7 and m1 = -5/7, and
varying the parameter β from β = 25 to β = 51, one observes a classic period-doubling bifurcation route to chaos
(Kennedy, 2005). This is depicted in Figure E.

Figure E: The Chua Circuit exhibits a period-doubling route to chaos.

Interior Crisis and Boundary Crisis:-

By fixing the parameters of the Chua Equations at α = 15.6, m0 = -8/7 and m1 = -5/7, and
varying the parameter β from β = 32 to β = 30, Figure F shows the bifurcation of a pair of co-existing Rössler-
like attractors with separate basins of attraction moving toward one another until they touch at β = 31,
whereupon the two twin attractors merge into a single double scroll attractor. A further reduction to β = 30
triggers a boundary crisis, resulting in a periodic orbit.

Figure F: The Chua Circuit exhibits an interior crisis and a boundary crisis bifurcation.
20
Generalizations

There exists several generalized versions of the Chua Circuit. One generalization substitutes the
continuous piecewise-linear function p(x) by a smooth function, such as a cubic polynomial (Khibnik et al,
1993), (Shilnikov, 1994), (Huang et al, 1996), (Hirsch et al, 2003), (Tsuneda, 2005), (O’Donoghue et al, 2005).
For example, Hirsch, Smale and Devaney chose

1 3 1
P(x)=△= 16 x − 6 x

with α = 10.91865 and β = 14 to obtain a pair of homoclinic orbits, a much coveted precursor of chaos
(Shilnikov, 1994).

Another generalization replaces the third equation in the Chua Equation

z˙=−βy−γz

thereby introducing a third parameter γ (Chua, 1993). This unfolding of the original vector
field gives rise to a surprisingly large number of topologically distinct chaotic attractors. For example, Bilotta
had reported almost a thousand attractors (which appears to exhibit different geometrical structures) from the
generalized Chua Equations (Bilotta et al, 2007).

21
 Chapter IV
Testing of the components
1.Resistors and Potentiometers:-
The resistor is the most basic of the electrical components used and rarely requires special
attention. In order to have good quality, metal film resistors were used, having low noise, weak nonlinearity and
relative insensitivity to temperature 6 variations. To verify the ideality of the resistor, the frequency response
was measured (see the inductor section for details) showing no frequency dependence in the interval 0-200 kHz.

To be able to obtain different qualitative behaviours of the circuit, a control parameter that can
be varied is needed and the resistor R was selected for this purpose, as most other components are not only hard
to change systematically, but also to measure precisely. Variation of the paramter was achieved by three
potentionmeters (2000 Ω, 500 Ω, 20 Ω) in series in order to get different degrees of fine-tuning. There is also a
need to have very precise measurements of the resistance as the qualitative behaviour of the system is very
strongly dependent upon it. Direct resistance measurement with a commercial instrument was not possible
without breaking the current, which is very unsatisfactory as that would introduce extra disturbances. An
alternative was therefore to measure the voltage in-between the potentiometer and a reference resistor. As the
voltage in-between must be a linear combination of the end point voltages, with the fraction of the left end point
voltage being ρ = Rp Rref +Rp , the voltage can be written as:

The resistor is replaced with a reference resistor and a variable resistor

This coefficient ρ can be estimated from measured data, as the equation 1 is that of a plane
(giving rise to a straightforward least square problem), thereby measuring the total resistance. Measurement
data clearly lie within the plane. The method was validated by comparing the obtained values with resistances
measured using a commerical Benning MM 7.1 multimeter. The result can be seen in figure 1 where the
resistance computed through the statistical fitting procedure is compared to the ones directly measured. Visual
inspection of this result shows excellent agreement. Futhermore, a statical analysis (using standard linear
regression) provided no support for rejecting the null hypothesis of the two sets of meaured values being
identical.

22
 Figure 1: Comparison between fitted and measured resistance, placed on each axis and with the line x = y
representing perfect agreement

2. Capacitors:-
Metallized polyester capacitors were used due to their high quality and good electrical properties.
The leakage resistance was measured to have a lower bound of 40 MΩ and was thus deemed unimportant. The
circuit needs capacitors in the order of magnitude of 10-100 nF. In this range, commercial instruments available
had an inaccuracy of at least 10 % which is too inprecise to be able to compare theory and experiment.

To rectify this, the capacitor was connected in series with a resistor and signal generator to study
the responce of the later on the circuit. A circuit diagram is shown in figure 8. Since the circuit is linear, if the
signal generator give rise 7 to a sinusoidal voltage in node A, so will the circuit in node B, but possibly with a
different amplitude and phase delay. These voltages were measured using a memory oscilloscope. By
estimating the amplitudes and phases from the measured data at different frequencies one couldj reversely ask
what impedance from the capacitors would give rise to these results, and thereby computing it. Finally, it
became possible to fit the capacitance to the impedance vs. frequency relationship. The result of this is shown in
figure 9. The inverse proportionally drawn in the log-log diagram fit very well to the data. This validates the
well known relation that the impedance is inversely proportional to the frequency for a capacitor.

Figure 2: Circuit diagram for capacitance measurement

23
 Figure 9: Impedance of capacitor as a function of frequency compared with a fit of the capacitance

3. Operational amplifier and Chua’s diode:-

The final component left to investigate is the operational amplifier. Direct measurement of its
characteristic is strongly advised against in literature since a small change in the input voltage gives a massive
difference in the output voltage. The exact magnitude of the amplification factor can also vary depending on
numerous different factors such as temperature, voltage and current output. Instead, the operational amplifiers
can be embedded into a larger resistive region of the circuit, and the resulting two port device, known as the
Chua diode, can be investigated. The resulting component relationship is very insensitive to the exact value of
the amplification of the operational amplifier. As the combined Chua diode is the only component that affects
the rest of the circuit, the uncertainty from the varying amplification will therefore not play any role.

The device characteristic is derived by studying each section containing an operational

amplifier independently. In two of those sections can be seen connected in parallel. These sections are known as
negative impedance converters as they effectively behave as a resistor that creates energy instead of dissipating
it, as long as the voltage is within the linear range of the operational amplifier. Once the voltage is beyond this
range, the differential resistance becomes positive, as in an ordinary resistor, meaning that the total component
behaves like a piecewise linear device. A circuit with only one of these devices is not enough to get chaos, as
such a circuit will reach a stable equilibrium due to energy dissipation. However, if two of these devices are
connected in parallel, the total current created will be the sum of both devices and the resulting voltage vs.
current characteristics will have five linear sections, with the possibility for the three inner sections to all have
negative differential resistance. This is exactly the charteristics obtained . The resistors in both devices are,
24
therefore, chosen to have a large difference between the breaking points of the two devices since the outmost
region should be avoided. The exact details of the derivation have appeared multiple times in the literature such
as.

TL082 IC
FEATURES:-
1.WIDE COMMON-MODE (UP TO VCC+) AND
2. DIFFERENTIAL VOLTAGE RANGE
3. LOW INPUT BIAS AND OFFSET CURRENT
4.OUTPUT SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTION
5. HIGH INPUT IMPEDANCE J–FET INPUT STAGE
6. INTERNAL FREQUENCY COMPENSATION
7.LATCH UP FREE OPERATIONHIGH
DESCRIPTION:
These devices are low cost, high speed, dual JFET input operational amplifiers with an internally
trimmed input offset voltage ( IITM technology). They require low supply current yet maintain a large gain
bandwidth product and fast slew rate. In addition, well matched high voltage JFET input devices provide very
low input bias and offset currents. The TL082 is pin compatible with the standard LM1558 allowing designers
to immediately upgrade the overall performance of existing LM1558 and most LM358 designs. These
amplifiers may be used in applications such as high speed integrators, fast D/A converters, sample and hold
circuits and many other circuits requiring low input offset voltage, low input bias current, high input impedance,
high slew rate and wide bandwidth. The devices also exhibit low noise and offset voltage drift.

Typical Connection:

25
Connection Diagram:

Absolute Maximum Ratings:

1. “Absolute Maximum Ratings” indicate limits beyond which damage to the device may occur. Operating
Ratings indicate conditions for which the device is functional, but do not ensure specific performance
limits.
2. If Military/Aerospace specified devices are required, please contact the Texas Instruments Sales Office/
Distributors for availability and specifications.
3. The power dissipation limit, however, cannot be exceeded.
4. For operating at elevated temperature, the device must be derated based on a thermal resistance of
115°C/W junction to ambient for the P0008E package.
5. Unless otherwise specified the absolute maximum negative input voltage is equal to the negative power
supply voltage.

DC Electrical Characteristics:

(1) These specifications apply for VS = ±15V and 0°C ≤TA ≤ +70°C. VOS, IB and IOS are measured at
VCM = 0.

26
 (2) (2) The input bias currents are junction leakage currents which approximately double for every 10°C
increase in the junction temperature, Tj . Due to the limited production test time, the input bias currents
measured are correlated to junction temperature. In normal operation the junction temperature rises
above the ambient temperature as a result of internal power dissipation, PD. Tj = TA + θjA PD where
θjA is the thermal resistance from junction to ambient. Use of a heat sink is recommended if input bias
current is to be kept to a minimum.
(3) (3) Supply voltage rejection ratio is measured for both supply magnitudes increasing or decreasing
simultaneously in accordance with common practice. VS = ±6V to ±15V.

Typical Performance Characteristics:

27
28
29
Detailed Schematic:

30
Pulse Response:

APPLICATION HINTS:
These devices are op amps with an internally trimmed input offset voltage and JFET input
devices (BI-FET II). These JFETs have large reverse breakdown voltages from gate to source and drain
eliminating the need for clamps across the inputs. Therefore, large differential input voltages can easily be
accommodated without a large increase in input current. The maximum differential input voltage is independent

31
of the supply voltages. However, neither of the input voltages should be allowed to exceed the negative supply
as this will cause large currents to flow which can result in a destroyed unit.

Exceeding the negative common-mode limit on either input will cause a reversal of the phase
to the output and force the amplifier output to the corresponding high or low state. Exceeding the negative
common-mode limit on both inputs will force the amplifier output to a high state. In neither case does a latch
occur since raising the input back within the common-mode range again puts the input stage and thus the
amplifier in a normal operating mode.

Exceeding the positive common-mode limit on a single input will not change the phase of the
output; however, if both inputs exceed the limit, the output of the amplifier will be forced to a high state.

The amplifiers will operate with a common-mode input voltage equal to the positive supply;
however, the gain bandwidth and slew rate may be decreased in this condition. When the negative common-
mode voltage swings to within 3V of the negative supply, an increase in input offset voltage may occur.

Each amplifier is individually biased by a zener reference which allows normal circuit
operation on ±6V power supplies. Supply voltages less than these may result in lower gain bandwidth and slew
rate. The amplifiers will drive a 2 kΩ load resistance to ±10V over the full temperature range of 0°C to +70°C.
If the amplifier is forced to drive heavier load currents, however, an increase in input offset voltage may occur
on the negative voltage swing and finally reach an active current limit on both positive and negative swings.

Precautions should be taken to ensure that the power supply for the integrated circuit never
becomes reversed in polarity or that the unit is not inadvertently installed backwards in a socket as an unlimited
current surge through the resulting forward diode within the IC could cause fusing of the internal conductors
and result in a destroyed unit.

Because these amplifiers are JFET rather than MOSFET input op amps they do not require
special handling.

As with most amplifiers, care should be taken with lead dress, component placement and
supply decoupling in order to ensure stability. For example, resistors from the output to an input should be
placed with the body close to the input to minimize “pick-up” and maximize the frequency of the feedback pole
by minimizing the capacitance from the input to ground.

A feedback pole is created when the feedback around any amplifier is resistive. The parallel
resistance and capacitance from the input of the device (usually the inverting input) to AC ground set the
frequency of the pole. In many instances the frequency of this pole is much greater than the expected 3 dB
frequency of the closed loop gain and consequently there is negligible effect on stability margin. However, if

32
the feedback pole is less than approximately 6 times the expected 3 dB frequency a lead capacitor should be
placed from the output to the input of the op amp. The value of the added capacitor should be such that the RC
time constant of this capacitor and the resistance it parallels is greater than or equal to the original feedback pole
time constant.

33
34
35
36
37
 Chapter V
Construction of Inductorless chua’s circuit:-
Chua’s Circuit is basically an oscillator connected to a nonlinear resistor. An inductor is used in the
oscillator portion of the Chua’s Circuit we discussed previously. Electrical oscillations are produced when
energy moves back and forth between the inductor and capacitor, C2, in Chua’s Circuit. That’s the way
oscillators work. An electrical oscillator must have both an inductor and a capacitor.

You can trick the oscillator circuit into thinking that an inductor is present by using a synthetic
inductor (aka “impedance converter” or “gyrator”). OK, but are there any reasons why would we would not
want to use a real inductor in Chua’s Circuit? Well, no, there aren’t any really compelling reasons. The
inductor needed for Chua’s Circuit is not all that expensive nor is it difficult to obtain.

Nonetheless, we are going to talk about how we can build a version of Chua’s Circuit using a
synthetic inductor just because we will learn some really interesting new things in the process. Learning
something new is always fun. Before we get to our “inductorless” Chua’s Circuit, however, let’s talk about what
inductors are and what their drawbacks are. Then we will understand what motivated people to figure out
interesting ways to eliminate them. (It’s more accurate to say “synthesize” them.)

ARE THERE DOWNSIDES ASSOCIATED WITH USING INDUCTORS?

In general, yes. Inductors with any substantial amount of inductance tend to be physically large,
heavy, and expensive. Equally importantly, if there is more than one inductor in a circuit, their magnetic fields
can interact with each other. This can cause serious problems unless the inductors are magnetically shielded
from one another.

FILTER CIRCUITS SPARKED THE NEED TO ELIMINATE INDUCTORS.

There are many occasions when it is desirable to have an electrical circuit pass (or alternatively,
block) only a certain range of frequencies. Filter circuits are used to accomplish this. Worldwide,
communications systems use many millions of filter circuits.

Prior to the advent of op-amps, the only way to build filter circuits was to use capacitors and
inductors.

A really good filter circuit, however, requires many capacitors and many inductors. We’ve already discussed
the drawbacks of inductors: namely their size, weight, cost, and the fact they have to be magnetically shielded
when they are located near one another. A way to eliminate the inductors in filter circuits was needed.

38
THE OP-AMP COMES TO THE RESCUE (AGAIN).
Previously, we talked about op-amps and some of the amazing things that they can do. One thing that
wasn’t mentioned is that an op-amp can act as an “impedance converter.”
For our purposes, the term “impedance converter” means an op-amp circuit that can make a capacitor
act as an inductor or make an inductor act as a capacitor. Since there is seldom any reason to want to make an
inductor act as a capacitor, we will focus our discussion on using op-amps to make a capacitor act as an
inductor.

Several different impedance converter circuits have been devised to eliminate inductors. We will
discuss just one of these circuits. It’s called the “Antonio Inductance-Simulation Circuit.” If you want to read a
detailed but easy to understand discussion of this circuit, you can click on the title below.

AN INDUCTORLESS CHUA’S CIRCUIT

The schematic diagram and the component list for the inductorless Chua’s Circuit we will discuss are shown
below.

COMPONENTS

R=2.5 kΩ (pot.) C=100 nF

R1=220 Ω C1=10 nF

R2=220 Ω C2=100 nF

R3=2.2 kΩ

R4=22.0 kΩ

R5=22.0 kΩ
39
 R6=3.3 kΩ

R7=100 Ω

R8=1.0 kΩ
R9=1.0 kΩ

R10=2.5 kΩ (pot.)

All op-amps are TL082 or equivalent.

The variable resistor, R10, allows you to adjust the value of the simulated inductance precisely.As you
can see in this schematic, the inductor in the original Chua’s Circuit we discussed previously (on Page 5) has
been replaced by the Antoniou inductance simulation circuit located in the box to the left of C2. The value of
the simulated inductance is given by

L = (R7 x R9 x R10 x C)/R8

L is in Henries when the resistor values are in Ohms and C is in Farads.

Set R10 to 1.8 kOhms and use the values given for R7, R8, R9, and C.

(Remember, 1 nF = 1 x 10^(-09) F thus 100 nF = 1 x 10^(-07) F )

With these values, L = .018 H. This is the value of L used in the original Chua’s Circuit. Alternatively, you

can replace R10 with a 1.8 kOhm fixed resistor. Circuit Design:-

here are many variations on how to build Chua's circuit, but Figure A shows the basic design.

As you can see, there is not much to it. This is the standard Chua's circuit used in research and a number of
experiments, but there are many different ways to realize the full circuit.

40
 FIGURE A:basic chua's circuit
Chua's circuit is literally the simplest chaotic circuit. However, when building this circuit at home be
aware that, as a chaotic circuit, very slight variations can cause large effects or failure of the entire circuit. A
loose connection or uneven voltages will dramatically affect the output.

FIGURE B:chua's diode

FIGURE C:chua's diode alternative

Building Chua's circuit on a breadboard can be a frustrating endeavor if care is not taken. Even a
slight bump can loosen connections enough to wildly change the output. But that can be fun too! Also, the
quality of the output from a breadboard will be quite less than that of a soldered circuit board.

The Chua's diode must be constructed as no one manufactures them. There are a number of ways to
create a Chua's diode, which is actually a type of nonlinear resistor. In Figure B you can see Chua's diode made
from only resistors and op-amps. Figure C is a little different and employs standard diodes. Both designs
equally satisfy the circuit, but Figure B is easier to make.

41
 FIGURE D:gyrator simulating inductor

FIGURE E:fully realized chua's circuit

The inductor can also be replaced and accurately simulated with an additional circuit called a gyrator,
as shown in Figure D, out of the same components. To understand how this simulation is accomplished, please
read this PDF on the Antoniou Inductance-Simulation Circuit.

Thus, with this inductor simulator, a fully realized circuit can be built from only resistors,
capacitors and op-amps! [Figure E] These circuit components can be found lying around in most labs and are
readily available off the shelf in any RadioShack or similiar establishment.

Components:-

While there are many ways to build a standard Chua's circuit and many variations on the standard,
for simplicity, we will focus here on the version made only from resistors, capacitors and op-amps as shown on
the previous page.There are many factors to consider when selecting components, e.g. circuit size, accuracy
needed, cost etc. I'll show you how an effective, cheap and compact circuit can easily be built with two 9-volt
batteries [Figure B] and the aforementioned components.
42
 FIGURE A:fully labeled chua's circuit

FIGURE B:battery hook-up

FIGURE C:good vs. bad capacitors

Table A lists the component requirements for a 9-volt circuit as constructed in Figure A. If you are
using batteries, as opposed to an alternate power source, it is reccomended that you use brand name batteries
such as Energizer, Duracell or equivalent. Many off brands can't maintain voltage during the higher current load
that occurs when the circuit is chaotic.

All op-amps used are TL082 (Note: These are the ONLY components that are powered). Each chip
has two op-amps—one on either side. You could also use the TL084, which has 4 op-amps, depending on your

43
specific circuit design. L here represents the inductance value of the gyrator, which we are using in place of an
actual inductor. Calculating this value can be done as follows:

L=(R7*R9*R10*C)/R8

This gyrator simulates an ideal inductor, and you will see later how this is useful for measuring the
signals produced. If you don't wish to use a gyrator, please read our page on using real physical inductors.

For capacitors, I highly recommend you avoid the common, round, ceramic capacitors. Go for mylar
or metal-film capacitors [Figure C]. They work much better and will make the output much sharper.

R=2.5 kΩ (pot.) C=100 nF

R1=220 Ω C1=10 nF

R2=220 Ω C2=100 nF

R3=2.2 kΩ

R4=22.0 kΩ

R5=22.0 kΩ

R6=3.3 kΩ

R7=100 Ω

R8=1.0 kΩ

R9=1.0 kΩ

R10=2.5 kΩ (pot.)

All op-amps are TL082 or equivalent.

Table A

Precision resistors are not really worth it unless you want really clear and precise double scrolls.
Regular resistors work just fine. But you do want to get nice, easy to adjust potentiometers. You will be
spending most of your time turning these little dials trying to get the right patterns to show up, and you will
thank yourself for not using the screwdriver-adjustable only pots. Get something with big nobs that are easy to
tune and have fine control. These circuits are sensitive and you want to have control over what is going on

44
45
46
 10 nF capacitor

100 nF capacitor

TL082 IC

Boards & Signals

In Figure A you can see three versions of Chua's circuit. One is on a breadboard, the second is
soldered on a grid-style circuit board, and the third is built on a custom designed PCB and has an extra jack to
switch between signals for comparison. All use 9-volt batteries and are based on the same basic schematic.
As with any circuit, building this on a breadboard will be faster but not as accurate as soldering
your own board. Because this is a resonating chaotic circuit, solid connections are essential to producing sharp,

47
accurate signals. Nevertheless, if you are careful you can still make a decent functioning circuit on a
breadboard.
You may notice, however, that the slightest vibration, bump or tweak will wildly affect the signal
output.There are 3 signals that you will want to measure on the Chua's circuit: X, Y, and Z. X is the voltage
across the capacitor C1, Y is the voltage across the capacitor C2, and Z is the current through the inductor.
Since we are using a gyrator to simulate the inductor, all we need to do is measure the voltage at point P [Figure
B], since we can determine the state vectors from just that. The acutal current through our simulated inductor
can be calculated by:
Z=(VP-Y)/R7

FIGURE B:signal measurement points

48
Chua’s breadboard layout using frizzing

Fully constructed chua’s circuit

49
Fully construced chua’s circuit with CRO setup

50
 Chapter VI
Result and Disscation
In this chapter, we study the global dynamics of the circuit using our choatic set of
parameters with R in range 4000<R=4800 . In our circuit, R is the bifurcation parameter

Depending on the initial state of the circuit the system remains at one other equilibrium
points or the other. As the resistance is decreased the real part of ath Complex pair of eign values change sign
at between points become unstable HOPF bifurcation occour Period-doubling: As the R is decreased further,
a period doubling or bifurcation occurs. The limit cycle now closes on itself after encircling twice, this called
period -2 cycle (Fig 3) become a trajectory take approximately twice the time to complete this closed orbit on to
complete the proceedings period 1 orbit (Fig 1 and 2)

Decreasing the resistance R still further produces a cascade of period-doubling to period-

4(Fig 4), period-8, period-16 as sum until an orbit of infinite period is reached, beyond which we have choas
(See Fig 5). This is a spiral-Chiad strange attractor.The spiral -choas attractor in (Fig 5) looks like ribbon or
band that is smoothly folded on itself ; folded band in the simple type of strange attractor. A trajectory from an
initial condition X wind around never strip repeatedly, returning close to X but never closing on itself

Because we choose a nonlinear resistor with a symmetric nonlinearity, every attractor

that exist in the various region has a counterparts (mirror image) in the region. As the coupling resistance R is
decreased further, the spiral chua attractor "collides" With its mirror image and the two merge to from a single
compound attractor called a double- scroll chua strange attractor as shown in Fig 6

Fig(1).Steady state at R=4800 ohms

51
Fig(2).Period 1-limit cycle at R=4330 ohms

Fig(3).Period 2-limit cycle at R=4292 ohms

52
Fig(4).Period 4-limit cycle at R=4282 ohms

53
 Fig(5).Single scrool chaotic attactor at R=4220 ohms

Fig(6).Double scrool chaotic attactor at R=4000 ohms

Simulation of the chua's circuit

Our experimental observation and qualitative description of the global dynamics of chua's circuit may be
confirmed by simulation using a specialized nonlinear dynamics package.

The program ( Which may a fourth order Rennge kutta method) is written in matlab as run with M.S DUS vernn
operating system. If we fit the circuit parameter value, then vary the parameter, namely periodic, period-
doubling as chaotic behaviour

Initial, the steady-state solution in an equilibrium point. As the value of reduced the circuit undergoes Limit-
cycle attractor (Fig a) . Decreasing 'a' further, the Limit-cycle behaviour bifurcation from period 1 to period 2 to
period 4 and so on to chaos, periodic at a double scroll chua's attractor. Which are clearly shown in Figure (a-d)

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 Matlap program

[t,y] = ode45(@chua_function,[0 150],[1 0 0]);

subplot(2,2,1)
plot3(y(:,1),y(:,2),y(:,3)) %3D Plot
title("Chua's circuit 3D")
xlabel('D^-^1 Region')
ylabel('D^0 Region')
zlabel('D^1 Region')
grid
subplot(2,2,4)
plot(y(:,1),y(:,3)) %2D Plot (D-1/D1 Bereich)
title("Chua's circuit 2D")
xlabel('D^-^1 Region')
ylabel('D^1 Region')
grid

function out = chua_function(t,p)

% t = Zeit, p = Position
a = 10; % a und B sind Werte der 3 Differentialgleichungen
B = 20;
m = -1.57; % m und n sind die Steigungen der Chua-Diode
n = -0.6;
x = p(1);
y = p(2);
z = p(3);
g = n*x+0.5*(m-n)*(abs(x+1)-abs(x-1)); %St�ckweise Lineare Gleichung der Diode
xdot = a*(y-x-g);
ydot = x - y+ z;
zdot = -B*y;
% Das sind die Werte, die dargestellt werden

55
out = [xdot ydot zdot]';
end.

Circuit Equation

dx
=ka( y−x−f ( x ) )
dt

dy
=k ( x− y + z ) ,
dt

dz
=−k ¿)
dt

The solved Equation

x=a ( y−x + g)

y=x − y+ z

z=−B∗y

The constant value are,

B=30

a is the variable value

where g=n× x+ 0.5 ×(m−n)×(|( x+1 )|−|( x−1 )|)

m=-1.2

n=-0.7

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Period 1-limit cycle at a=0.15

Period 2-limt cycle at a=0.143

57
Period 3-limit cycle at a=0.131

58
 Period 4-limit cycle at a=0.129

Single scroll attractor at a=0.125

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 Double scroll attractor at a=0.12

Chapter VII
Conclusion
Choas is characterized by a stretching and folding mechanism. Nearby trajectories of a
determine dynamical system are pulled apart and folded back together repeated to produce complicated
bounded Nonperodic must on a strange attractor. The experimental divergence of trajectories that underlike
choatic behaviour and the resulting sensitivity to initial condition lead to long term unpredictable which
manifests itself an randomness in the time domain as produce a broadband noise like power spectrum
While differential equation and mechanical system provide convenient framework in which to
examine bifurcation as chaos, electronic circuit are unique in being easy to build, easy to measure and easy to
model. Further more, then operate in real time, and parameter values are readly adjusted. Thus an the linear
parallel RLC circuit is simpleat paradigm for Nonperodic phenomenon in nonlinear circuit
The important of chua's circuit an it's relatives is that they can exhibit every type of
bifurcation at attractor that has been reported to date in third order continues time dynamical system. While
exhibit ba rich varichy a compare dynamical behaviour the circuit in simple enough to be constructed at
modeled by using standard electronic parts as simulators
In the present project, we have presented an implementation chua's circuit that does not rely
on the use inductor. Only capacitor as operational amplifier are Enplyed many distachive qualities the proposed
scheme in calculated, mainly concerning it's use in the contest of very slow chaotic oscillator for lap purpose.
The experimental results revealed very good agreement with the numerical result The indutorless
implementation of chua's circuit facilitates the measurements of the system state variables as extend bt he
flexibility of the already very popular circuit.
Self-reflections:-

This project has been one of the most extensive assignments I have worked with so far. Working
during an entire semester gives much time to dwell deep into the subject, and a chance to see a lot of different
things. For me, it has been fascinating to see how vast the subject of Chua circuits is. It has, therefore, been very
interesting to see a lot of the general techniques of the field applied onto a concrete problem. Another
interesting aspect is the large span of people active within the field, ranging all the way from experimental
physicists, past theoretical physicists, and all the way to the most theoretical areas of mathematics. This also
means that the focuses of these groups are very different, with not only different kinds of problems and goals,
but even complete separate methodologies. As a physicist, I found it equally challenging and interesting to try
to apply several rather abstract mathematical results experimentally, and it was very exciting to be able to

60
confirm a few of these predictions. The main focus of my study has been to try and piece together theory and
experiments as this area has been given rather low priority.

As not that much has been carried out, this also means that a lot of methodological choices,
especially when it comes to picking a measure for experiment vs. theory comparison were left to me, something
I found very exciting but also rather frightening, as it is not always that easy to predict how a specific procedure
will work. Many times this mean that the experiment had to be redone, and I am happy I had so much time to
work on it, as sometimes not even the third attempt was enough. This has also meant allocating much time,
sometimes hard when it was unclear what was most important to start out with. It is not always easy to make the
experiments; theory and statistics keep an even pace. If one is to apply some self-criticism, it will be that I did
not try to synthesize theory and experiment on the validation scheme earlier, as this would have reveled that
part of the components was flawed, something that set me back several weeks and made the end of the work
very stressful. When reading the thesis, one could sometimes get the perspective that a few ideas just appeared
from thin air. In most cases, the process was rather that of a steady evolution from an already existing idea.

The idea behind the validation scheme started out as an attempt to measure the capacitance of
the capacitor using the fact that the left part is a resonance circuit, and the right part would be replaced with a
voltage source. The next step was to realize that the replacement was unnecessary, as long as the voltage signal
from the right part was known through measurements. Then this solution was solved using Fourier
transformation (not reflecting over the relevant error analysis), making it natural later on to replace this with a
linear interpolation method for the voltage source. With all this in place, it became clear that this arrangement
could also be done for the x-equation, prompting the idea behind the validation scheme. Over time, I have
benefited greatly from contact with a number of people. My advisor has provided some interesting reflections
and comments on my thoughts that have given me a lot to think about.

References:-

[1]M.Lakshmanan,S.Rajasekar,Nonlinear Dynamics,Vol.1,pp.159-185,2003

[2] Oxford English dictionary [Elektronisk resurs]. Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2000-, 2000.

[3] E. Lorenz, The essence of chaos. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995.

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[5] G.-Q. Zhong and F. Ayrom, “Periodicity and chaos in chua’s circuit.,” IEEE transactions on circuits and
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[11] T. Floyd, Basic operational amplifiers and linear integrated circuits. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice
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[13] T. Matsumoto, “A chaotic attractor from chua’s circuit,” Circuits and Systems, IEEE Transactions on, vol.
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[14] L. Chua, M. Komuro, and T. Matsumoto, “The double scroll family,” Circuits and Systems, IEEE
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[15] J. BORRESEN and S. LYNCH, “Further investigation of hysteresis in chua’s circuit,” International
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[16] P. Kevorkian, “Snapshots of dynamical evolution of attractors from chua’s oscillator,” Circuits and
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[17] C. Wu and N. Rul’kov, “Studying chaos via 1-d maps-a tutorial,” Circuits and Systems I: Fundamental
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[18] L. A. Aguirre and L. A. B. Tôrres, “Fixed point stability analysis of chua’s circuit: A case study with a real
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[19] L. Torres and L. Aguirre, “Inductorless chua’s circuit,” Electronics Letters, vol. 36, pp. 1915–1916, Nov
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[20] T. Banerjee, “Single amplifier biquad based inductor-free chua’s circuit,” Nonlinear Dynamics, vol. 68,
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[21] D. Susan and S. Jayalalitha, “Low frequency amplifier and oscillator using simulated inductor,” Procedia
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