PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ALGERIA

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

MENTOURI UNIVERSITY OF CONSTANTINE

FACULTY OF LETTERS AND FOREIGN LANGUAGES

DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES (ENGLISH)

THE EFFECTS OF ANTICIPATION

REWARDS ON STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION
IN LEARNING GRAMMAR

Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Degree of MAGISTER in Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching

Option: Language Teaching and Methodology

Presented by: Supervised by:

Meryem GUENDOUZE Pr. Farida ABDERRAHIM

Board of Examiners

Chairman: Pr. Ahmed MOUMENE University of Constantine

Supervisor: Pr. Farida ABDERRAHIM University of Constantine

Member: Dr. Mohamed OUSKOURT University Emir Abdelkader, Constantine

Year 2011-2012
“People do not die when they are buried but they die when they are forgotten.”

To the soul of my brother Moussa,

Rest in Peace.
 Dedication

To my dear parents without whom I would not be who I am. I hope they are now

proud of me.

To my husband for all the help and encouragement he provided me with. He is the best

person I have ever met.

To my daughter Malak Errahmane, the source of happiness in my life, for being the

main motivation for accomplishing this work in the last months.

To my sisters: Nadjette, Karima, Sara, Nassima, Fatima, Razika and Zhaira.

To my nieces and nephews, especially Lina, Rayen, kawthar and Mohamed.

To my friends: Lamia, Hasna and Naziha.

To my family.

To everyone I love in my life, I dedicate this work

I
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Pr. Farida ABDERRAHIM, for

her support, guidance and patience. I thank her for devoting me her knowledge and time;

without her precious advice and understanding, this work would not have been done.

I am also grateful to Pr. Ahmed MOUMENE and Dr. Mohamed OUSKOURT who

have accepted to examine this dissertation.

I would like to thank all the teachers of the Department of English in Mentouri

University, Constantine.

I would, also, like to thank the students of Second Year LMD, University Mentouri,

Constantine, who took part in the main study of this work.

Finally, my thanks go to my dear friend and colleague Naziha Benghomrani for her

supportive assistance.

II
 Abstract

Teaching grammar, as teaching other modules in English, has become a difficult work

since many teachers of English complain about motivating their students in the class. It has

been noticed that most students are not motivated to learn because they consider the grammar

class as uninteresting it fails to attract their attention. Thus, the question rises here as to what

extent the teacher is able to lower students‟ anxiety in grammar classes and to increase

students‟ motivation in return.

In order to answer the question above, we have assumed that lack of motivation is due

to the lack of rewards in the class. For this reason, the reward system was introduced in

grammar teaching to see to what extent the learning process can be more effective, and thus

students‟ outcomes can be better. This research work aims at explaining how motivation can

be increased through the anticipation of rewards in grammar classes. It studies the effects of

rewards on learners‟ results in Second Year Grammar classes at Mentouri University,

Constantine. In this research, 123 students participated in the main study; they have been

randomly chosen to take part in the experiment. One group was designed as the Control

Group and the two other groups as two experimental groups. Students in the Control Group

have been taught within the usual grammar instruction, while students in the two experimental

groups have been subject to the new reward strategy introduced by the researcher. The fact

that we have selected two experimental groups aims at validating the assumed results of the

experiment.

The researcher has observed the behaviour of the participants in the three groups

during the training period, and after the administration of the post-test, a comparison of the

pre-test results and the post-test results was made in the three groups. In fact, the participants

in the two experimental groups were noticeably different from those in the Control Group. In

III
other words, they have become more enthusiastic, more active, and they participate more in

the class. However, in the Control Group, students showed no special development in their

behaviour. In addition to this, the improvement means in the three groups showed that the

marks of the students in the two experimental groups in the post test are much better than

those obtained in the pre-test. However, in the control group; the development of the students‟

marks in the post-test was so tiny and of a little importance. The analysis of the results and the

interpretation of the researcher‟s observations showed how rewards can be very effective in

raising students‟ motivation in grammar classes and in increasing their potential to learn new

grammatical items.

IV
 List of Abbreviations

Adj.: Adjective

Adv.: Adverb

Arti.: Article

B: Behaviour

CG: Control Group

Conj.: Conjunction

D: Determiner

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

E.g.: Example

EXP. G1: The First Experimental Group

EXP. G2: The Second Experimental Group

FL: Foreign Language

F S: Future Simple

LMD: Licence Master Doctorate

N: Noun

N°: Number Note: you have used this abbreviation.

P Condi.: Past Conditional S

P Perf. : Past Perfect

V
Pr. Condi. S: Present Conditional Simple

Pr. S: Present Simple

P S: Past Simple

Prep.: Preposition

Pron.: Pronoun

R: Reinforcement

R+: Positive Reinforcement

R-: Negative reinforcement

S: Stimulus / Situation

S-B-R: Stimulus /Behaviour /Reinforcement

V: Verb

%: Percentage

VI
 List of Tables

Page

Table 01: Brown‟s Three Definitions of Motivation………………………...………………...9

Table 02: Teacher‟s Positive versus Negative Behaviour…………………………….....……49

Table 03: Students‟ Age………………………………………………………………...….....63

Table 04: Gender Distribution…………………..………………………………………...….64

Table 05: Frequency of the Grammatical Items……………………………............................65

Table 06: Context and Grammatical Nature of the Deleted Words…………………………..69

Table 07: The Pre-test General Observations ……………………….………………….…....82

Table 08: Achievement in the Pre-test (CG)…………...…………….................................….84

Table 09: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 1)………………………………………………….......85

Table 10: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 2)…………………..…………………………...…..…85

Table 11: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 3)……………………………..….............................…85

Table 12: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 4)………………………..………………………….…86

Table 13: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 5)………………………...………………….……...…86

Table 14: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 6)………………………..……………………….……86

Table 15: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 7)………………………………..….…………………87

Table 16: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 8)…………………………………………………...…87

Table 17: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 9)……………...………………………………………87

Table 18: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 10)……………………..……….……………………..88

Table 19: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 11)………………………………….…………………88

Table 20: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 12)…………………….………………………………88

Table 21: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 13)…………………….………………………………89

VII
Table 22: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 14)……………………….……………………………89

Table 23: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 15)……………………….……………………………89

Table 24: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 16)…………….………………………………………26

Table 25: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 17)…………….………………………………………26

Table 26: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 18)…………………….………………………………26

Table 27: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 19)……………….……………………………………91

Table 28: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 20)…………………….………………………………91

Table 29: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 21)…………………….…...…….……………………91

Table 30: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 22)……………………………….……………………92

Table 31: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 23)………………………………….…………………92

Table 32: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 24)…………………………….………………………92

Table 33: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 25)…………………………….………………………93

Table 34: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 26)…..…………….………..…………………………93

Table 35: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 27)………………….…………………………………93

Table 36: Achievement in the Pre-test (EXP. Groups)……………………………………. ...95

Table 37: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 1)...……………...………………....95

Table 38: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 2)……………….……………….....95

Table 39: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 3)……….………..………………...96

Table 40: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 4)………………...………………...96

Table 41: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 5)………………...………………...97

Table 42: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 6)……………..….………………...97

Table 43: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 7)………………………………......98

Table 44: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 8)………..……….………………...98

VIII
Table 45: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 9)………..……….………………...99

Table 46: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 10)…………..……………….....….99

Table 47: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP G2 (Blank 11)………………………………...100

Table 48: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 12)……………………….……….100

Table 49: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 13)…………………………...…...101

Table 50: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 14)…………....……………….….101

Table 51: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 15)……………………….....…….102

Table 52: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 16)……………..…........................102

Table 53: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 17)…………..…..………………..103

Table 54: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 18)……..……..…………………..103

Table 55: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 19)………………………………..104

Table 56: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 20)…………....…………………..104

Table 57: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 21)……..…..……………………..105

Table 58: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 22)………………………………..105

Table 59: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 23)………..……………………....106

Table 60: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 24)………..…………………...….106

Table 61: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 25).……..……………….…..……107

Table 62: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 26)……..……………….…...……107

Table 63: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 27)…..………………….……...…108

Table 64: The Post-test General Observations …………………..……..………………...…136

Table 65: Achievement in the Post-test (CG)……………………………….………………138

Table 66: Post-test Results CG (Blank 1)…………………………………………………...138

Table 67: Post-test Results CG (Blank 2)………………………………………………...…138

IX
Table 68: Post-test Results CG (Blank 3)……………………………………………….…..139

Table 69: Post-test Results CG (Blank 4)……………………………………….…………..139

Table 70: Post-test Results CG (Blank 5)…………………………………….……………..139

Table 71: Post-test Results CG (Blank 6)………………………………………….………..140

Table 72: Post-test Results CG (Blank 7)………………………………………….………..140

Table 73: Post-test Results CG (Blank 8)…………………………………………………...141

Table 74: Post-test Results CG (Blank 9)……………………………………….…………..141

Table 75: Post-test Results CG (Blank 10)………………………………………….………141

Table 76: Post-test Results CG (Blank 11)………………………………………………….142

Table 77: Post-test Results CG (Blank 12)……………………………………………….…142

Table 78: Post-test Results CG (Blank 13)……………………………………………….…143

Table 79: Post-test Results CG (Blank 14)……………………………………………….…143

Table 80: Post-test Results CG (Blank 15)……………………………………………….…143

Table 81: Post-test Results CG (Blank 16)…………………………………………….……144

Table 82: Post-test Results CG (Blank 17)…………………………………………….……144

Table 83: Post-test Results CG (Blank 18)……………………………………………….…145

Table 84: Post-test Results CG (Blank 19)……………………………………………….…145

Table 85: Post-test Results CG (Blank 20)……………………………………………….…146

Table 86: Post-test Results CG (Blank 21)……………………………………………….…146

Table 87: Post-test Results CG (Blank 22)………………………………………….………147

Table 88: Post-test Results CG (Blank 23)…………………………………………….……147

Table 89: Post-test Results CG (Blank 24)………………………………………….………147

Table 90: Post-test Results CG (Blank 25)……………………….…………………………148

X
Table 91: Post-test Results CG (Blank 26)……………………………………………….…148

Table 92: Post-test Results CG (Blank 27)………………………………………………….148

Table 93: Achievement in the Post-test (EXP. Groups)………………………………….....150

Table 94: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 1)…………………………..….....150

Table 95: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 2)……………..……………….....151

Table 96: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 3)…………..…………………….151

Table 97: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 4)………………………………...152

Table 98: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 5)………………...........................152

Table 99: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 6)……..……………………….....153

Table 100: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 7)……..…………………..…….153

Table 101: Post-test Results EXP G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 8)……...…………………..…….154

Table 102: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 9)……………………………….154

Table 103: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 10)……………………..…..…...155

Table 104: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 11)……………………..…….....155

Table 105: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 12)……………………………...156

Table 106: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 13)……………………………...156

Table 107: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 14)………………………..….....157

Table 108: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 15)……………………………...157

Table 109: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 16)……………………………...158

Table 110: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 17)……………………………...158

Table 111: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 18)……………………………...159

Table 112: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 19)………………………….......159

Table 113: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 20)……………………………...160

XI
Table 114: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 21)………..………………..…...160

Table 115: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 22)……..…………………….....161

Table 116: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 23)………..………………….....161

Table 117: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 24)…………………....………...162

Table 118: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 25)………………………....…...162

Table 119: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 26)………………………..….....163

Table 120: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 27)…………..………………....163

Table 121: The Improvement Means…………………………………..…............................194

Table 122: Pre-test Achievement (CG)……………………………………………………...195

Table 123: Post-test Achievement (CG)……………………...……………………………..196

Table 124: Pre-test Achievement (EXP. G1& EXP. G2)……………...…………………....197

Table 125: Post-test Achievement (EXP. G1& EXP. G2)……...…………...........................198

Table 126: The Pre-test and the Post-test Scores and Improvement Scores………………...202

XII
 List of Diagrams and Graphs

Page

Diagram 01: The Three- Stage Model of Motivation……………………....………………...10

Diagram 02: Skinner's S-B-R Model of Learning………………………….…………...……36

Diagram 03: Ongoing Achievement Process…………………………………………......…..58

Diagram 04: Reward-Motivation Relationship……………………………………………...206

Graph 01: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 1)……………………….……...109

Graph 02: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 2)……………........................…110

Graph 03: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 3)………..…………………..…111

Graph 04: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 4)……………...……………….112

Graph 05: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 5)…………..….……………….113

Graph 06: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 6)………………………...….…114

Graph 07: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 7)………………….………...…115

Graph 08: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 8)……….…………………...…116

Graph 09: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 9)……….…………………...…117

Graph 10: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 10)……….………………...…..118

Graph 11: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 11)……….………………….....119

Graph 12: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 12)……….…..………………...120

Graph 13: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 13)……….……………….…....121

Graph 14: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 14)……….………………...…..122

Graph 15: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 15)………………………….….123

Graph 16: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 16)……………….…………….124

Graph 17: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 17)……………………….…….125

XIII
Graph 18: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 18)………………………….….126

Graph 19: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 19)……………………….…….127

Graph 20: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 20)……………………………..128

Graph 21: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 21)……………………….…….129

Graph 22: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 22)……………………….…….130

Graph 23: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 23)………....……………….….131

Graph 24: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 24)………....……………….….132

Graph 25: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 25)…..……..……………….….133

Graph 26: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 26)…………....………………..134

Graph 27: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test Blank 27)………..………………...….135

Graph 28: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 1)…………………………..….164

Graph 29: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 2)…………………………..….165

Graph 30: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 3)………..………………....….166

Graph 31: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 4)…………………………..….167

Graph 32: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 5)………………………..…….168

Graph 33: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 6)………………………..…….169

Graph 34: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 7)……………………………...170

Graph 35: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 8)………………………..…….171

Graph 36: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 9)……………………….……..172

Graph 37: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 10)……………………...…..…173

Graph 38: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 11)…..…….………………..…174

Graph 39: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 12)…..……….………………..175

Graph 40: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 13)……….……………………176

XIV
Graph 41: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 14)……..….………………..…177

Graph 42: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 15)……….……………………178

Graph 43: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 16)…………………..….……..179

Graph 44: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 17)…………………….....……180

Graph 45: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 18)…………………….....……181

Graph 46: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 19)……..….………………..…182

Graph 47: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 20)………...………………..…183

Graph 48: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 21)………………………....…184

Graph 49: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 22)………………………....….185

Graph 50: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 23)…………………..………...186

Graph 51: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 24)…………………..……..….187

Graph 52: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 25)………………………..…...188

Graph 53: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 26)……………………....…….189

Graph 54: Percentage of Correct Answers (Post-test Blank 27)…..…………………..…….190

Graph 55: The Control Group Improvement Scores ……..…………………………..……..196

Graph 56: Experimental Group 1 Improvement Scores………………………………..……198

Graph 57: Experimental Group 2 Improvement Scores…………..………………………....199

XV
 CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………..………......2

Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………….……….2

Aims of the Study………………………………………………………………………......3

Hypothesis………………………………………………………..…………………….…..4

Means of Research………………………………………………………………….……...4

……………………………………………...………………...5

CHAPTER ONE: MOTIVATION IN LEARNING GRAMMAR

Introduction………………………….……….…………………………………………….....7

1.1 Definition of Motivation………………………………………………………………..…7

1.2 Types of Motivation……………………….………………………………..…………….11

1.2.1 Intrinsic Motivation versus Extrinsic Motivation………………....................................11

1.2.1.1 Intrinsic Motivation ……………………………………………………………..……11

1.2.1.2 Extrinsic Motivation ………………..……………………………………….……….13

1.2.2 Instrumental versus Integrative Motivation………….……………………………....…16

1.2.2.1 Instrumental Motivation ……………………………………………………………...16

1.2.2.2 Integrative Motivation ……………………………………………………………..…17

1.3 Learning Grammar………………………………………………………..........................19

XVI
1.3.1 Motivation to Learn Grammar ……………..…………………………………………..19

1.3.2 Attitudes towards Language and Language Learning and Motivation…………………23

1.3.3 Ways of Achieving Motivation ………….……………………………………..………26

1.3.3.1 Strategies to Increase Motivation ………….………………………………..……..…26

1.3.3.2 Guidelines for the development of Motivation ………………………………………29

Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................31

CHAPTER TWO: REWARD IN EDUCATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN THE

CLASSROOM

Introduction ............................................................................................................................33

2.1 Definition of Reward………………………………………………………….………….33

2.2 Types of Reward……………….…………………………………………………….…...38

2.2.1 Short-term Reward………..…………………………….................................................39

2.2.2 Long-term Reward ………………….………………………………………………….41

2.2.3 Short-term Rewards and Long-term Rewards…….. ……………..................................42

2.3 Reward Application in Grammar Classes ……..…………………………………..……..43

2.3.1 The Learner's Role ………………………………….…..………………….…………..43

2.3.2 The Teacher's Role ………………………………..……………………………………46

2.3.3 Guidelines for Responding to Learners' Performance ………………….……..……….51

2.3.3.1 Evaluation and Assessment ………………………………………………………..…51

XVII
2.3.3.2 Teachers‟ Feedback ………………………….……………..………………………...53

2.3.3.3 Correcting Students' Errors ……………………….……………….………………....55

2.4 The Effects of Rewards on Learners' Motivation ……...………………………….……..57

Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................59

CHAPTER THREE: DATA COLLECTION AND EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE

Introduction …………………………………………………………….........................…...62

3.1 The Sample ………………………………………………………...…….........................62

3.2 Means of Research……………………………...………………..…...………………..…64

3.2.1 The Test ……………………………………………………………..……………….....64

3.2.1.1 Characteristics of the Test………………………..……………………………..……64

3.2.1.2 Correction Procedure……………………………………………………………..…..67

3.3 Instruction ………………………………………………………………………………..69

3.3.1 The Control Group……………………………………………………………………...69

3.3.2 The Experimental Groups ………………………………..………………………….....73

3.3.2.1 Long-term Rewards: The Point System and Rewarding Attendance…………………73

3.3.2.2 Short-term Rewards: Positive Comments and Praise ……………………………......74

Conclusion ………………………………………….………………………………………..79

CHAPTER FOUR: ANTICIPATION REWARDS AND MOTIVATION DATA

ANALYSYS AND RESULTS INTERPRETATION

XVIII
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………....82

4.1 Analysis of the Results of the Test………………………………………………………..82

4.1.1 The Pre-test……………………………………………………………..........................82

4.1.1.1 The Control Group……………………………………………………………………83

4.1.1.2 The Experimental Groups…………………………………………………...………..94

4.1.1.3 A Graphic Comparison of the Results in the Control Group and in the Experimental

Groups……………………………………………………………………………………….108

4.1.2 The Post-test……………………………………………………………………..…….136

4.1.2.1 The Control Group……………………………………………………………..……137

4.1.2.2 The Experimental Groups……………………….……………………………….….149

4.1.2.3 A Graphic Comparison of the Results in the Control Group and in the Experimental

Groups………………………………….………………………………………………..…..164

4.2 Observation of Students‟ Behaviour………………………...……………………..……191

4.3 Overall Analysis of the Results……………..……………………………………..…….194

4.3.1 The Control Group…………………………………………………………………….194

4.3.2 The Experimental Groups……………………………………………………………..197

Conclusion……………………………………………………………….........................….203

CHAPTER FIVE: PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………..…205

XIX
5.1 Rewards and Motivation………………………………………………………….……..205

5.2 Rewards and Punishment……………………………………………………………..…207

5.3 Rewards at the University Level………………………………………………………...209

5.3.1 The Grammar Module……………………..…………………………………………..209

5.3.2 Other Modules………….……………………………………………………….…….209

5.3.3 Other Languages………………………………………………………………………210

5.4. Types of Rewards (A New Theory)…………………………………..………………...211

Conclusion..............................................................................................................................212

CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………...……………………..213

APPENDICES …………………………………………………..……..…………………..215

Appendix I …………………………………………………………..…………………..…..216

Appendix II ……………………………………………………………..………………..…218

BIBLIOGRAPHY …………………………………………………………..………..…....221

XX
 INTRODUCTION

Statement of the Problem

2 Aims of the Study

Hypothesis

4 Means of Research

5 Structure of the Dissertation

1
 INTRODUCTION

1 Statement of the Problem

Learning a language mainly refers to the mastery of its grammar. Whatever the

meaning assigned to the word, grammar remains one of the most important elements in the

teaching/ learning process. Al-Muttawa and Kailani (1989: 69) emphasize the role of

grammar which they consider as the internal organization of the language. According to them,

a language cannot be learned without learning its grammar since grammar is responsible for

making meaning in language use. Grammar has always been part of language teaching

syllabuses as it represents an important element of any language. The goal of most language

teachers is to make learners of a foreign language achieve proficiency through the mastery of

the grammatical system of that language.

At the university level, teaching English as a foreign language includes the teaching of

language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) and language elements (grammar

and vocabulary). The question is not whether to teach grammar in language classrooms or not,

because grammar is considered as very important. The issue with grammar lies in the method

of teaching and the attitudes of both students and teachers towards it. That is why, teachers of

English often wonder about the reasons that make grammar lessons less lively and

consequently the students less motivated to learn it. The major questions here are: How do we

make learners more motivated to take grammar lessons and what is the proper motivation

which may raise learners‟ enthusiasm for learning grammar?

Having no clear reason and no obvious purpose to learn another grammatical system

(that of the foreign language), students become less motivated, and therefore they are likely to

fail in the acquisition of a second grammar. Such students are unlikely to make what is

expected from them in terms of effort. For this reason, teachers and researchers should focus

2
on students‟ interests, social background, individual characteristics, and of course their

motivation. So, major work should be done to discover the different elements which are

involved in learners‟ motivation. However, researches on language learning motivation have

revealed that there is no single model that accounts for all cases of language learning;

consequently, there is no universal prescription for improving student and teacher attitudes or

increasing student motivation. (Oxford and Shearin 1994).

Yet, one should believe that there exists a possible way to increase learners‟

motivation to learn grammar; and perhaps the best of all these ways is the immediate

administration of rewards by the teacher in grammar sessions. In fact, the anticipation of

reward is one of the most powerful factors in human behaviour in relation to second language

acquisition. It is not only a means of increasing motivation, but it is also considered as being

one aspect of motivation.

At the university level, because of time constraints and other administrative obstacles,

most students do not benefit from any kind of rewards in grammar classes. That is why; we

have assumed that students‟ outcomes in grammar would be strongly increased if the reward

strategy is introduced into the grammar syllabus.

Aims of the Study

This research aims at identifying the effects of rewards anticipation on the

performance of learners in grammar classes. First, it clarifies the teacher‟s role in increasing

learners‟ motivation and how the teacher can administer rewards in grammar sessions without

influencing the teaching/ learning process (in terms of content, time and students‟ behaviour).

This work also highlights the usefulness of the anticipation rewards for learners and their

mastery of grammar and demonstrates to what extent the anticipation reward is related to

motivation.

3
 The research also aims at comparing three groups which share approximately the same

characteristics and who receive the same teaching method and the same content under the

same conditions, with a difference in the organization of the anticipation rewards.

3 Hypothesis

On the basis of the observations mentioned before, we hypothesise that if we

administer rewards for students and encourage them to participate in class and if we respond

positively to their answers, learners‟ motivation to learn grammar will increase and their

results will be better. In the process of confirming or rejecting this hypothesis, we set to find

out whether the anticipation reward has a direct impact on learners‟ proficiency in the foreign

language through increasing motivation and how can the teacher encourage the students using

specific words or some prizes to increase their desire to learn grammar, and therefore to raise

their motivation and improve their marks.

4- Means of Research

In order to find out about whether the reward system has an effect on learners‟ results

in grammar, the research will be conducted under an experimental method at the University

Mentouri, Constantine. In this study, we have three groups of 123 students: 37 students in the

control group; 47 students and 39 students represented in the first experimental group and the

second experimental group respectively. The three groups are given the same pre-test at the

beginning of the year and the same post-test at the end of the year. The focal point of this

study is to administer direct rewards in grammar classes for participants in the two

experimental groups and to see the effects of these rewards on learners‟ motivation in

grammar sessions and on their results. By reward here, we mean verbal reward (praise) in

case of correct answers and concrete rewards that are represented by a good mark (the point

system) for students who perform well in the class and therefore deserve these rewards. At the

4
end, we compare the three groups in order to see the efficiency of this strategy in the learning

process.

5- Structure of the Dissertation

This dissertation consists of five chapters. Chapter one defines motivation in different

linguistic and psychological schools and identifies various types of motivation. It highlights

the importance of motivation in learning grammar and provides teachers with different

strategies of raising students‟ motivation in the class.

Chapter two focuses on the definition of reward and provides us with the different

types of rewards in pedagogical settings. It discusses reward application in grammar classes

and its effects on learners‟ motivation.

Chapter three is devoted to the collection of data used in this research, and clarifies the

different steps followed by the researcher to confirm or reject the hypothesis. It presents a

detailed description of the pre-test and the post-test and the instruction used by the teacher

during the training period.

In chapter four, the researcher presents the analysis of the results obtained from the

experiment and the interpretation of these results. In this chapter, we have general

observations about students‟ behaviour with a comparison between the participants in the two

experimental groups and the control group.

Chapter five provides some suggestions and pedagogical implications of this study on

the teaching of grammar in order to raise students‟ motivation and to improve their results.

5
 CHAPTER ONE

MOTIVATION IN LEARNING GRAMMAR

Introduction

1.1 Definition of Motivation

1.2 Types of Motivation

1.2.1 Intrinsic Motivation versus Extrinsic Motivation

1.2.1.1 Intrinsic Motivation

1.2.1.2 Extrinsic Motivation

1.2.2 Instrumental versus Integrative Motivation

1.2.2.1 Instrumental Motivation

1.2.2.2 Integrative Motivation

1.3 Learning Grammar

1.3.1 Motivation to Learn Grammar

1.3.2 Attitudes towards Language and Language Learning and Motivation

1.3.3 Ways of Achieving Motivation

1.3.3.1 Strategies to Increase Motivation

1.3.3.2 Guidelines for the Development of Motivation

Conclusion

6
Introduction

It has been noticed that on the whole, students tend to be somehow 'bored' with

grammar courses. Our debate at this level is: How can grammar lessons be interesting and

enjoyable and how can students be enthusiastic to attend their classes to have good results at

the end of the year? Answering these questions does not lie in one specific area of research,

since many recent language studies have resulted in a diversity of techniques and terms

explaining to teachers how to motivate the students and how to involve them in the process of

learning and how to make them aware of its different steps and objectives so that they become

interested and more motivated to learn new grammatical rules. All the researches carried out

in the last decades aimed at making learning in the class an enjoyable activity and at

increasing students' willingness to study and to achieve their goals. In order to get rid of

„uninteresting‟ grammar classes and to have successful learners willing to study, to participate

and to learn new grammatical items, focus of teachers and researchers should be on increasing

students' motivation in grammar classes.

1.1 Definition of Motivation

In the late 60‟s and early 70‟s, the world witnessed a development in the field of

psychology and education. Psychology has become a separate science. Besides, education has

developed, and it has been established as a separate discipline. One of the most frequent

issues raised in these two related fields is the effectiveness of learning through motivating

students. Classroom practices have investigated the question of how increasing motivation

and reducing anxiety which is "viewed by researchers as an intermediate stage between

motivation and personality" (Bouras 2007: 120).

Motivation is a general term used in different fields, but in education, it is virtually

related to the psychology of learners in terms of personal, affective and cognitive factors.

7
Generally speaking, motivation is said to be an internal process which takes place in the mind

and which helps to satisfy our needs. Many psychologists have been interested in language

attitudes and language learning and have carried out several studies in the field. Gardner

(1985) was one of the most influential psychologists who have continued this line of inquiry.

He has provided us with significant definitions. He argues that “motivation refers to the

combination of desire and effort made to achieve a goal; it links the individual's rationale for

any activity such as language learning with a range of behaviors and degree of effort

employed in achieving goals”. (Gardner 1985; in Mc Groarty 1996: 5). Johnson and Johnson

(2003: 137) state that "Motivation is the driving force, the energy that moves people towards

their desired outcomes”. According to them, motivation is mainly linked to the achievement

of goals.

Motivation is inherently aimed at achieving goals. Motivation

and goals are two sides of the same coin. Committing oneself to
achieve a goal creates motivation and motivation is aimed at
achieving goals…When a goal is formed, a tension system is
created in the person that motivates the person's actions until the
goal is achieved or abandoned. If there are no goals, there can be
no motivation. Johnson and Johnson (ibid.: 137,138).

Furthermore motivation is perceived as an internal process that maintains human

behaviour and advocates it. It is the reason which stimulates someone to do something and

gets him/her involved in it. In his book entitled “Psychology and the Teacher”, Child (2004)

states that motivation consists of internal processes and external incentives which work

together to satisfy some need. In the same context, he adds that the importance of motivating

students does not only aim at engaging them in academic activities but at determining how

much students will learn from the different tasks they perform and from the information

provided to them. According to Child, motivated students use higher cognitive processes in

8
learning a given topic and they remember it more than those who are not motivated.

Motivation can also be defined as a feeling of curiosity within learners, which becomes a need

or desire to engage in a given task in order to achieve a goal. It may be the result of positive

competition between students in the classroom (since students are never satisfied with their

results), that is how motivation is created.

Brown (2000:160, 161) tackled the issue of motivation in language teaching classes and

proposed three definitions of motivation according to the various historical schools of

thought: behaviorism, cognitive psychology and constructivism. The following table explains

these definitions.

The Behavioristic School The Cognitive School The Constructivist School

Motivation is seen as the Motivation is related to the Motivation is linked to social

anticipation of reward. The individual's decisions and context in order to satisfy

more we have positive underlying needs to reach a fundamental physical

reinforcement; motivation is given goal. necessities and also to fulfill

more likely to be increased. community needs, security,

identity and self-esteem.

Table 01: Brown's Three Definitions of Motivation (2000: 160, 161)

Despite the fact that motivation has various definitions, and regardless of the

differences between those definitions, we shall agree in our current research that motivation

refers to ' pedagogical motivation' (Al-Mutawa and Kailani, 1989). In foreign language (FL)

settings, pedagogical motivation implies that learners have a strong feeling (of curiosity,

9
 interest and desire) to reach an aim. This means that the learner wants to learn a particular

item in the FL. Al-Mutawa and Kailani provide us with the following definition:

This [pedagogical motivation] refers to the ability to arouse in

the pupils a desire to learn the language and a feeling that the
language they are learning is useful. Failure to do this will
impose a severe limitation on the process. (1989: 156).

Taking into account the definition which considers motivation as an internal process,

teachers should focus on the psychological side of learners in order to work with language

researchers to know how learners' anxiety can be reduced and how interest and motivation can

be increased in return. Moreover, motivation is not only a psychological factor that influences

the language teaching; it is probably the most important element in the whole process of

learning a FL. Yet, many teachers and professionals in the field of teaching English do not

pay much attention to it. Teachers often teach without having received special training to

motivate students.

The next three- stage model of motivation may be very beneficial to teachers in order to

understand this internal process and consequently to help learners achieve their goals and

learn effectively through increasing motivation in the classroom.

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

- Emotional or cognitive - A conscious decision to - To give rise to sustaining

act. the effort or persisting
reasons for doing a given
task - deciding to engage in the
task

sk Diagram 01: The Three- Stage Model of Motivation

11
The three stages are interrelated; each stage does not take place until the previous one is

completed. Besides, the third stage gives rise to a period of sustained intellectual and /or

physical efforts in order to attain a previously set of objectives.

1.2 Types of Motivation

Gardner did not only provide us with precise definitions of motivation, he also

contributed with his colleague Lambert (1972) to several studies concerning motivation and

its types which he called orientations. Such studies have resulted in the development of

Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation and Integrative versus Instrumental Motivation.

1.2.1 Intrinsic Motivation versus Extrinsic Motivation

Success in a FL class is due to internal factors as well as external ones. The former

include students' abilities, individual differences and students' attitudes toward the language.

External factors however refer to elements which are not related to the learner himself like

teachers' behaviours and the different strategies they opt for in the teaching process.

1.2.1.1 Intrinsic Motivation

Teachers of English as a FL now try to focus their efforts on the psychological factors

influencing the process of learning. Intrinsic motivation is one of these factors. "…teachers

learned more and more about…how to capitalize on learners' intrinsic motives to learn."

Brown (1991:334). In some English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes, there is no problem

of motivation; students are naturally motivated and their interest is high. For instance, in

private schools and some special institutions where English is taught for specific purposes,

motivation comes from the learners themselves because they have chosen to study English; it

was not imposed on them. In such situations, learners want to study the language for their

own pleasure because it is their choice. This type of motivation which comes from within is

11
known as intrinsic motivation. So, teachers do not worry about motivating learners because

the students take the pleasure to study and they enjoy their studying. As mentioned by Deci

(1975, in Brown 2000: 164):

Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no

apparent reward except the activity itself. People seem to engage
in the activity for their own sake and not because they lead to an
extrinsic reward… Intrinsically motivated behaviors are aimed
at bringing about certain internally rewarding consequences,
namely, feelings of competence and self- determination.

The role of the teacher here is to put learners' individual intrinsic motives at the center

of teaching pedagogy to ensure that they are learning the FL effectively. The teacher should

be interested in students' homework, exam papers and any other written or oral performance

on the part of the learners. This would certainly increase their self-esteem and it would

encourage them. It would also motivate them by raising attention and a contagious interest in

learning. The more the teacher is interested in the language and its teaching, the more students

are interested in the different items presented to them, and the more they feel confident in

their study. In some language classroom contexts where students' intrinsic motives are not

strong, it is more appropriate for teachers of grammar to present it following an inductive

approach. Learners tend to benefit from this approach more than any other approach.

Introducing grammatical items inductively is very helpful in grammar teaching because it is

challenging for students to give them several examples and let them try to discover and guess

the hidden rules. First, learners will never forget the rules they have found themselves.

Second, they will feel that they have achieved something when they induce grammatical

structures on their own. This challenging feeling arouses students' interest and motivates

them. Brown (ibid.: 365) argues that: "it [inductive approach] builds more intrinsic motivation

by allowing students to discover rules rather than being told them."

12
 Some psychologists believe that this type of motivation, 'intrinsic motivation', also

includes an internal desire for achievement and risk-taking. In this perspective, Ames and

Archer (1988) suggested that an intrinsically motivated learner is internally reinforced by a

feeling or desire to hold up a given experience, to take part in classroom activities and to

participate in the whole process of learning. The desire to do all this is basically oriented by a

desire to experience success which depends on the learner himself. This feeling or desire is

also called 'achievement motivation' because it motivates the learner to achieve a particular

goal. In the same context, Al-Mutawa and Kailani (1989: 6) state that:

Empirical evidence has shown that there is a significant link

between achievement or success in EFL learning and the pupil's
willingness to learn. That is satisfactory results are produced by
motivated pupils irrespective of their sex and age.

1.2.1.2 Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation is based within the individual; it is related to internal factors

whereas extrinsic motivation is based on an individual's perception of external rewards that

will accrue from some action; it is related to external factors. Brown (2000: 162) explains the

difference between both types:

Motivation is also typically examined in terms of intrinsic and

extrinsic motives of the learner. Those who learn for their own
self- perceived needs and goals are intrinsically motivated, and
those who pursue a goal only to receive an external reward from
someone else are extrinsically motivated.

While intrinsic motivation is based within the learner, extrinsic motivation comes

from external factors. When we talk about extrinsic motivation, we mainly refer to external

incentives which are very essential for the teacher in order to help students and to engage

them in the learning process with a high self-esteem. Al-Mutawa and kailani (1989: 147)

13
argue that: "since not all pupils are motivated to learn the foreign language, the teacher must

devise incentives to arouse interest."

Unlike in private schools, students at the university are not always motivated, and they

are often complaining about their conditions because it was not their own choice to study

English or because they attend classes where there is lack of motivation. When students are

not interested in the language and in the learning process, teachers may face difficulties in

creating a highly motivating atmosphere for learning. Teachers also find it difficult to

convince learners of the usefulness of the whole instruction in general and grammar in

particular. In such circumstances, teachers should try to arouse students' interest and therefore

to increase their extrinsic motivation because teachers often interfere to provide students with

incentives aiming at inducing them to learn more effectively. (Al-Mutawa and Kailani, 1989).

If the teacher of grammar notices that the students are not motivated, s/he should use various

motivational strategies to arouse their curiosity and to get them motivated by having 'grammar

celebrations' from time to time where students can read a composition or a story they wrote on

their own to the whole class for applause and comments.(Slavin, 2003).

Many teachers may wonder about what type of incentives is more appropriate in EFL

classes and particularly in grammar classes. For young learners, if the teacher asks one pupil

to read his /her assignment to the whole class may be considered as a good incentive. The

teacher's appreciation of pupils' answers is also an incentive. Symbolic presents also have a

strong impact on learners' motivation. For adult learners, incentives have a more reinforcing

value considering the great influence they have on students' motivation. Al-Mutawa and

Kailani say in this context:

… the problem of motivation turns into the problem of creating

the desire among pupils to learn English. Lack of motivation

14
 (i.e. external motives) might turn into a hostile attitude towards
the foreign language and the FL teacher. (ibid.: 29).

When the material presented to students interests them intrinsically, it provides them with a

motivating power that enables them to learn in the best way under the best conditions.

However, if the material lacks interest, it will influence the students' motivation for learning

and will have bad effects on their results. In this case, the teacher may find it problematic to

create motivation since most students do not find grammar tasks interesting in themselves.

The role of the teacher then is to link the material with other external elements in the language

teaching which has always represented the underlying principle of extrinsic motivation. In

agreement with this, Wilkins (1972: 183) says that:

In much teaching, not only of languages, we anticipate that

pupils' personal motivation is unlikely to be strong, so we set out
to motivate them through the learning process itself. Teaching is
planned so that learning becomes an interesting, even at times an
entertaining process.

The importance of using incentives in the classroom lies in the fact that they make the

learners feel that they can achieve something. The idea of achievement helps in the

development of extrinsic motivation in the learners through the use of incentives or rewards.

This type of motivation also includes the social motivation for collaborative learning.

Students who work in collaboration with other students are more likely to see the grammar

classes as a desirable learning environment and to enjoy the learning experience. Rewards are

very important to maintain motivation and to create a positive feeling (for learners) about

learning a FL. Unlike intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation is directly related to the

anticipation of reward. Rewards come from outside and beyond the self, and they take

different forms. Brown says in this context:" Typical extrinsic rewards are money, prizes,

grades; and even certain types of positive feedback." (2000: 164).

15
1.2.2 Instrumental versus Integrative Motivation

One of the major problems that teachers often encounter in second language classrooms

is the issue of motivation. Some students are highly motivated, others are poorly motivated,

and some others are not motivated at all and may consider the whole instruction as being

useless. This difference in students' level of motivation is mainly due to the reasons for which

the students are learning the FL. The same reasons have led us to distinguish between two

types of motivation: integrative versus instrumental motivation. Integrative motivation is the

desire to be like and interact with speakers of the target language. Instrumental motivation

refers to the desire to learn a language in order to achieve some other goal such as academic

or occupational success. Mc Groarty (1996: 7).

Gardner and Lambert (1972) carried out significant research in second language

learning about students' motivation, after several years of intensive experimentation in the

field; they distinguished two separate types of motivation: instrumentality and integrativeness.

Brown (2000: 162) explains that:

Motivation was examined as a factor of a number of different

kinds of attitudes. Two different clusters of attitudes divided two
basic types of what Gardner and Lambert at that time identified
as "instrumental" and "integrative" motivation.

1.2.2.1 Instrumental Motivation

Considering the different purposes behind students' engagement in learning a FL,

motivation, as we have seen before, may be integrative or instrumental. Instrumental

motivation refers to the fact that learners want to learn the FL not because of the language

itself or its culture, but because of other reasons mainly because the learner wants to achieve a

particular aim. At the university, learners choose to study English for different reasons. For

instance, one student may say that s/he is studying it because s/he had no other choice to opt
16
for. Another student may say that English was his/her choice which s/he will use in his /her

future occupation. Another one says that English would help him/her in studying another

subject. In other words, the English language in all these cases has been studied just because it

is a means to help in reaching a given aim.

1.2.2.2 Integrative Motivation

We talk about this type of motivation when students really desire to learn the language.

This desire may even be reinforced by an admiration of the language and its culture. Some

learners for example study English because they want to immigrate to a foreign country

(speaking English of course) in order to work or to live there. Some others may have a

positive feeling towards the language and they admire its people and culture and therefore

they want to integrate into this culture. Wilkins summarized these differences saying: " the

person may be studying a language 'because he wants to', another 'because he has to." (1972:

183). Moreover, "The instrumentally motivated learner requires the language as a means to

some other end, whereas for the integrative learner the language and all that it brings by way

of culture is an end itself."(ibid.: 162). In the same perspective, Brown (2000: 162) claims

that:

The instrumental side of the dichotomy referred to acquiring a

language as a means for attaining instrumental goals: furthering
a career, reading technical material, translation, and so forth.
The integrative side described learners who wished to integrate
themselves into the culture of the second language group and
become involved in social interchange in that group.

It is necessary to mention that instrumental motivation and integrative motivation were

first introduced as two different types of motivation. However, Gardner and Mac Intyre

(1991) pointed out that this dichotomy was a merely case of orientation. Brown clarifies this

17
point: "…dependency on whether a learner's context or orientation was (a) academic or

career-related (instrumental), or (b) socially or culturally oriented (integrative), different

needs might be fulfilled in learning a foreign language." (ibid.: 163). These orientations left

the door open for psychologists to decide which type is more appropriate in EFL settings.

First, integrative motivation was said to be more effective in learning a FL and it resulted in

high scores on proficiency tests. "The conclusion from these studies was that integrativeness

was indeed an important requirement for successful language learning." Brown (ibid.: 163).

Later studies carried out by Yasmeen Lukmani (1972) and Braj Kachru (1977, 1992) showed

that instrumentally motivated learners perform better in tests of English proficiency.

Moreover, the language is well acquired and success in its learning can be a result of only

instrumental reasons. Brown discussed the issue and found that regardless of the differences

between instrumentality and integrativeness, both orientations are of a primarily importance

in the learning process, and they are not necessarily contradictory. He goes further to link

between the two types of motivation in the same learning situation.

Such variable findings in empirical investigations do not

necessarily invalidate the integrative-instrumental construct.
They point out once again that there is no single means of
learning a second language: some learners in some contexts are
more successful in learning a language if they are integratively
oriented and others in different contexts benefit from an
instrumental orientation. The findings also suggest that the two
orientations are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Second
language learning is rarely taken up in contexts that are
exclusively instrumental or exclusively integrative. Most
situations involve a mixture of each orientation. (ibid.: 163).

18
Al-Mutawa and Kailani also tackled this issue and summarized all the points discussed above

in one single statement saying: "Both integrative and instrumental motivation are of primary

importance in learning." (1989:30).

1.3 Learning Grammar

1.3.1 Motivation to Learn Grammar

Mc Groarty states the importance of all types of motivation in the learning process.

Studies in the educational field proved that in some situations, integrative motivation is the

main reason for classroom success. However, other researchers found that all types of

motivation are important for achievement. "For adults interested in job success, instrumental

motivation could be just as or even more powerful than integrative motivation."(Gardner and

Mac Intyre in McGroarty 1996: 8).

In learning a FL like any other task, learners need to satisfy some psychological needs

to help them maximize achievement in the class. Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, and Ryan (1991)

identify three basic psychological needs that should be fulfilled: competence, relatedness and

autonomy. According to them, the importance of motivation lies in the fact that only

motivated people can satisfy these needs. "Opportunities to satisfy any of these three needs

contribute to people being motivated (as opposed to amotivated)." (1991: 327-328).

Motivation is considered as the most important factor in learning any subject because

motivated students have clear views about what they learn and they already know the

previously set of objectives designed to them and so they work hard to realize them.

Moreover, motivated students can see the results of the learning process in general, and they

can also understand the benefits of spending much time in studying grammar and grammatical

rules of a foreign language.

19
 “ For example, Vallerand (1989) found that students who had
greater intrinsic motivation and identified regulation showed
more positive emotions in the classroom, more enjoyment of
academic work, and more satisfaction with school than did
students whose motivational profiles were less autonomous."
Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, and Ryan (ibid.: 332).

In the same perspective, Al-Mutawa and Kailani also claim that:

Motivation is a basic element in foreign language teaching and

learning. Empirical studies indicate that highly motivated pupils
learn faster and better than the ones who find the study of the
language distasteful. (1989: 156).

Some specialists in the educational field and language teaching emphasize the importance of

motivation to the extent that they link it with any achievement realized by learners in EFL

classes. In this regard, Brown (2000: 160) explains that:

Motivation is probably the most frequently used catch-all terms

for explaining the success or failure of virtually any complex
task. It is easy to assume that success in any task is due simply
to the fact that someone is "motivated". It is easy in second
language learning to claim that a learner will be successful with
the proper motivation.

Learning any language involves the mastery of its grammar, vocabulary and the four

skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing). In spite of the great importance given to all

language components, focus on grammar has become one of the most crucial elements in

foreign language instruction. Thornbury (1999) dealt with the issue and referred to it as

grammar revival. He says that:

There is a widespread belief that the introduction of

Communicative Language Teaching, attention to grammar was
eclipsed by an emphasis on experimental learning and purely

21
 communicative goals. This is only partly true: syllabuses did
appear in the 1970s that appeared to marginalize grammar in
favour of functions. But … a closer look at these syllabuses
shows that they often had a strong grammar basis. (1999: 23).

Thornbury suggests three main conditions that contribute to the success of the grammar

teaching/learning process: attention, understanding and memory. More importantly, grammar

has always been linked with motivation as Thornbury (ibid.: 26) argues that:

None of these conditions [attention, understanding and

memory], however, will be sufficient [in learning grammar] if
there is a lack of motivation and, in the absence of some external
motivational factor (for example, an examination, or the
anticipation of opportunities to use the language), it is the
teacher's job to choose tasks and material that engage the
learners. Tasks and materials that are involving, that are relevant
to their needs, that have an achievable outcome, and that have an
element of challenge while providing the necessary support, are
more likely to be motivating than those that do not have these
qualities.

Motivating students theoretically seems easy; but in practice, diversity in learners' level,

personality and their way of learning usually leads to differences in their cognitive potential.

Moreover, thinking that increasing motivation is the duty of the teacher alone seems to be

inappropriate because of learners' individual differences mentioned above. What is interesting

and highly motivating for a student may not be so for another one. In some extreme cases, a

course which is interesting for a learner may be so boring and distasteful for another. That is

why, learners themselves should acquire new tasks (in addition to what they learn in the

classroom) training them to arouse their own self-esteem. Furthermore, learners should be

aware of their intellectual and affective capacities to use them. In addition, they should know

what is expected from them. As a result of these conditions, students would understand how

21
they should study different subjects and learn more effectively. So, they become more likely

to work hard and to achieve their goals. When students' awareness is increased, motivation

becomes an issue which concerns the learner as well as the teacher, and then it becomes

challenging for both of them. In this perspective, Khelef (2007: 77) says that:

The lack of motivation to learn and the unsuitable materials used

by the teacher in addition to the style of presentation, if they do
not attract learners, will lead to committing errors. The absence
of the motive on the part of the learner and the teacher means
automatic failure.

Learners have always been considered as receivers in the class, they have never

participated in what took place there, except some few reactions (verbal answers or short

written activities). However, in recent EFL methodology, learners have gained more

importance in terms of their role in the teaching/learning process. Now, teaching grammar is

seen as a two-sided process since students are more likely to understand a lesson in which

they are involved and so, they are likely to remember it. If the teacher and the learners share

responsibility in the class, and they divide the work between them, learners will be more

enthusiastic and their motivation will certainly increase. For example, in a grammar class, the

teacher may ask the students to give examples explaining some grammatical structures. S/he

may also ask them to write something on the board, to read a story they have written or to

discuss a given topic. In such settings, the possibility of having good marks in exams is high,

and students would certainly benefit. Success in these cases is not only a result of motivating

strategies but it becomes an essential element that contributes to the development of

motivation in the class. In this regard, Willis (1996: 14) states that:

Success and satisfaction are key factors in sustaining motivation.

If students feel they have achieved something worthwhile,

22
 through their own individual effort, they are more likely to
participate the next time.

Empirical studies have shown that motivated students learn better since they have great

capacities and effort for concentration. Motivation plays an important role in establishing a

good classroom atmosphere that helps students to concentrate and to achieve the desired

goals. For this reason, many recent researches aim at studying motivation and the different

strategies to maintain it in EFL classes in order to facilitate the process of acquisition. In this

framework, Pinheiro (1996) points out the importance of motivation in learning grammar and

writing, and she also explains to teachers how to increase it in learners in order to learn how

to write well and to do class activities (including grammar tasks). She says: "It is extremely

important that your students feel motivated when doing the activities." (1996: 128, 129). That

is why in designing the material to be taught in EFL classrooms, she took into consideration

students' motivation as a central question. Furthermore, she identifies three important criteria

to be followed by teachers in planning their lessons.

Teachers should know the nature of students, and so the topics should be interesting to

them.

Students should feel that each activity has a purpose and should always be given positive

feedback.

The activities should be challenging and bring new information; students should

understand that their success depends on their working together. Pinheiro (ibid.: 149).

1.3.2 Attitudes towards Language and Language learning and Motivation

Students who get high scores in tests or good grades in schools are more enthusiastic to

attend their classes and to learn new matters in the FL. That is why it is very common to see

students in the bus or in the street discussing what they have just learned in the class. For FL

23
learners, any new information they learn in the target language is considered as a fulfillment.

The idea of fulfilling a given task provides them with a feeling of pride and joy, and therefore

they deserve to show off in front of all the other people. Achievement here reveals students'

positive conceptions which affect their attitudes towards the process of learning.

Students' attitudes are linked to their motivation. Thus, teachers should know that

attitudes of learners towards the learning process highly influence their potential for learning

the language, and so it helps in increasing their motivation. Dubin and Olshtain (1986: 14)

argue that:

Positive attitudes towards the language will reflect a high regard

and appreciation of both the language and the culture it
represents. Positive attitudes towards the acquisition process
will reflect high personal motivation for learning the language, a
feeling of self fulfillment and success and an overall enthusiasm
about the language course. A combination of positive group
attitudes towards the language with positive individual attitudes
towards the process is believed to bring about the best results in
terms of language acquisition.

In fact, positive attitudes towards the FL help students to engage more in classroom

activities and to face difficult situations in the whole instruction. For this reason, language

teachers and educators draw attention to co-operative learning since it is one of the most

important language practices that enhance positive students' opinions about the language and

language learning. Littlewood (1981: 30) states that:

The experience of cooperating through the new language ... can

help to produce more positive relationships between learners
and more positive attitudes toward the foreign language as a
means of resolving difficulties.

24
Teachers should help learners to cope with the learning environment, and to communicate

with each other, and to develop positive attitudes towards second language classroom

methodology in order to increase their motivation. According to Wilkins, "Motivation has to

do with the reasons for learning and with attitudes – attitudes towards the language, towards

the group that speaks the language as a mother tongue, and towards bilingualism itself."

(1972: 183). More precisely, students of English should understand that the language they

learn is an important means for furthering their education and for offering them a high

position in their society. Dubin and Olshtain claim that: "The main objective in learning an

additional language is to allow for personal growth and enrichment." (1986: 24). In fact, once

the role of the English language is clear for learners, their positive attitudes towards the

learning process would emerge and thereby students' achievement would increase. "Positive

attitudes about language and language learning may be as such the result of success as the

cause". McGroarty (1996: 4).

If positive attitudes towards the language affect the learning process, negative attitudes

would also have a bad influence on learners' motivation. Dubin and Olshtain deal with the

topic and explain this bad influence in the following terms:

Negative individual attitudes may have their initial roots in

negative group attitudes, but these can become intensified by
negative experience with the acquisition process such as
classroom anxiety, feelings of discrimination, and the like. The
combination of negative group attitudes with negative personal
feelings will result in the lowest level of acquisition. Negative
attitudes, whatever their roots, create psychological distance
between the learner and the subject matter and are, therefore, of
vital significance in the learning – teaching process… Learners'
negative attitudes can be detrimental to the success of the
language program. (1986: 14).

25
1.3.3 Ways of Achieving Motivation

In EFL classes, motivation like other personal factors needs to be developed in the

students in order to arouse their self-esteem and their interest, and so to improve their level in

the language. Increasing motivation is not an easy task for the teacher because of the diversity

in learners' personalities and abilities, and the differences between their ways of learning.

Students need first to have confidence in their own capacities; and second to know why they

are learning the FL. Students who do not know the main objectives of their study cannot see

the results of their efforts and they cannot either understand the aim of doing so much work.

Moreover, this type of learners can even be hopeless because they do not see any usefulness

in studying and wasting so much time in doing exercises, homework and assignments without

getting benefit from. Thus, trying to increase motivation and to establish a desirable learning

environment becomes more than a necessity. Language teachers and specialists in the field

usually wonder if it exists an appropriate way to increase motivation in the learners.

1.3.3.1 Strategies to Increase Motivation

Because of the remarkable growth in the field of education, many researches resulted in

the investigation of such educational problems like how to increase motivation of learners in

the classroom. In practice, no method and no technique is applicable and useful for all types

of learners and in all teaching situations. In this context, Nunan (1991: 228) says that:

It has been realized that there never was and probably never
will be a method for all, and the focus in recent years has been
on the development of classroom tasks and activities which are
consonant with what we know about second language
acquisition, and which also in keeping with the dynamics of the
classroom itself.

26
 So, there is no unique way to motivate the students. As it has been mentioned, diversity

in students' levels, personal characteristics and their ways to perceive the second language

instruction leads us to think about various learning strategies and techniques to increase

motivation.

Co-operative Learning

As opposed to individual work, co-operative learning gives students the opportunities to

exchange immediate feedback. Working in groups encourages students to participate in and

share the activities designed to them. It is also very useful because it lowers anxiety in the

class, maintains motivation and enhances learners' motives to do a given task since they can

see at the end of the task the desired outcomes. In this perspective, Johnson and Johnson

argue (2003: 149) that:

Motivation increases when one's goals are interdependent with

those of significant others. When a person joins a co-operative
effort in which people they admire and respect and wish to be
with are participating, the significance of the goal increases…
Motivation [also] increases in co-operative efforts because they
allow for the simultaneous accomplishment of multiple goals.

From her own experience in language teaching, Fujiwara (1996: 164) explains the

importance of group work and its influence on learners' motivation in a co-operative learning

situation:

One interesting thing that came out in the feedback from my

final course evaluation… was how much the students learned
from each other, not only from the group projects but just from
the stimulation of being with a motivated and active group of
learners. Judging from their essays and our first two classes, this
year's group seems even more motivated and sophisticated, and I

27
 think they will act as "worthy rivals" for one another, as one
student put in her essay.

Communicative Activities

Communicative strategies provide learners with whole task practice through several

kinds of communicative activities and tasks. Students do not like grammatical drills because

all what is expected from them is mechanical answers. Littlewood (1981: 17) states that:

"Drill tasks where students are asked to put in practice the different grammatical rules they

have just learned in the class are not so interesting for them."

Unlike this type of drills, communicative tasks are of great importance in order to

maintain motivation. They evoke students' interest and satisfy their needs to use the language

for immediate communicative purposes and thus, they promote the feeling of achievement.

Littlewood argues that:

The learners' ultimate objective is to take part in communication

with others. Their motivation to learn is more likely to be
sustained if they can see how their classroom learning is related
to this objective and helps them to achieve it with increasing
success. (ibid.: 17).

In the same context, Dubin and Olshtain (1986) focus on the role of communicative

activities in learning a foreign language; they suggest a specific type of classroom activities

which they called 'workouts'. According to them, workouts

enhance the learner's overall acquisition process, providing

planners and teachers with a variety of ways through which to
make this process engaging and rewarding… warm ups
/Relaxers are motivational workouts which add an element of
enjoyment and personal involvement. They can be used at

28
 various points during the session, especially when a relief of
tension or a change of pace is called for. (1986: 22).

1.3.3.2 Guidelines for the Development of Motivation

Motivating students has always been of great importance in second language

classroom methodology. In this perspective, Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, Ryan (1991: 325-326)

argue that:

Ideal school systems are ones that succeed in promoting in

students a genuine enthusiasm for learning and accomplishment
and a sense of volitional involvement in the educational
enterprise. It is this interest and volition, we suggest, that lead
students to display greater flexibility in problem solving, more
efficient knowledge acquisition, and a strong sense of personal
worth and social responsibility.

Teachers may opt for a specific method in order to maintain motivation in their classes,

and some others teach following their usual methods of teaching but they take individual

decisions about motivating students. According to the specific teaching situation the teacher

finds himself in, s/he may choose to apply particular rules about learning factors like interest,

enthusiasm and motivation. These are some guidelines for teachers to follow in order to

increase learners' motivation.

(a) When we talk about achieving motivation, we should first acknowledge the importance

of teachers' motivation in settling a good motivating atmosphere in grammar classes. The

teacher must be motivated to teach in order to present the lesson in the best way s/he could.

Teachers' motivation is as important as learners' motivation. Teachers' motivation is

contagious and unfortunately, teachers' low self-esteem is also contagious. A dull lifeless

bored teacher would easily transmit this negative energy to the students.

29
 (b) One of the main points in motivation is the fact that learners should be given the

objectives of the lessons and those of the whole course (both short-term objectives and long-

term objectives). Learners who know what is expected from them and why they are going to

do it are the ones who will desire to fulfill it. In a grammar class for example, the more the

objectives are selected clearly right from the beginning, the more students understand what is

to be done, why and which result they would get in the end. Thus, they will be more

motivated to take part in the different grammatical tasks designed to them in the class and at

home.

(c) Meaningful learning is one of the most important cognitive principles in grammar

learning. It lies in the association of the different items which are studied in the classroom

with concrete purposes in their real life. In order to develop learners' motivation and make

them enjoy the learning experience, students need to see the usefulness of the learning process

in the development of their social and intellectual skills.

(d) When the teacher finds that a task or a part of the lesson is boring and lifeless, s/he can

include other interesting items. If an activity seems to increase learners' boredom, it may be

omitted and replaced by a more lively activity. Moreover, the teacher may also vary the

learning activities that take place in the class without following a particular pattern during the

whole year. Varying the activities arouses students' attention and interest. "He [the teacher]

also varies his techniques and teaching strategies to motivate pupils and facilitate the learning

process." (Al-Mutawa and Kailani 1989: 148).

(e) Positive reactions on the part of the teacher towards students' performances are very

useful. The teacher who praises the students' answers and shows approval of their correct

responses would certainly encourage them to participate more in the classroom interaction. In

recent empirical studies, reward ─ in its different forms ─ has been proved to be very

31
effective in increasing students' motivation and their self-esteem about English grammar.

Students, who attend classes where the teacher uses rewards, are more likely to have good

results.

Conclusion

Motivation has been discussed in the educational field for several decades, and it has

always been a complicated issue because of the different factors that contribute to its

development. In EFL classes, a variety of strategies and techniques has been provided for

teachers of grammar in order to help them raise students' motivation and engage them

effectively in the learning process. However not all strategies are good for all learners, it is

necessary to point out that it is the duty of the teacher to opt for the appropriate strategies and

to take the right decisions according to the specific characteristics of the learning situation in

order to create well motivated students.

31
 CHAPTER TWO

REWARD IN EDUCATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN THE CLASSROOM

Introduction

2.1 Definition of Reward

2.2 Types of Reward

2.2.1 Short-term Reward

2.2.2 Long-term Reward

2.2.3 Short-term Rewards and Long-term Rewards

2.3 Reward Application in Grammar Classes

2.3.1 The Learner's Role

2.3.2 The Teacher's Role

2.3.3 Guidelines for Responding to Learners' Performance

2.3.3.1 Evaluation and Assessment

2.3.3.2 Teachers’ Feedback

2.3.3.3 Correcting Students' Errors

2.4 The Effects of Rewards on Learners' Motivation

Conclusion

32
Introduction

Recent researches in FL teaching have always aimed at studying the learner in order to

provide him/her with the appropriate devices and steps to be followed in his/her career. Many

studies carried out in the last decades have also focused on effective mastery of the FL and

learners' success, and the elements which contribute to it.

Learners' individual characteristics and personality factors have proved to be of a vital

importance in the learning process because teachers alone, however proficient they are,

cannot solve all the problems evoked in the class and create a good environment for learning.

Thus, success is not always guaranteed especially if learners are not well involved in the

process. For this reason, language experts emphasize the role of both teachers and learners in

addition to the appropriate strategies used to manage the class in the best way learners can

possibly have in their studies. What is important now is not only what to teach and how to

present it (for teachers) but also what to learn and how to learn it (for learners).

It is worth mentioning that the different procedures that take place in EFL settings are

no more considered as a teaching process, but they are often referred to as a teaching-learning

process. In fact, a variety of strategies and classroom practices have been provided for

teachers to explain ways of presenting data and to learners to receive them effectively.

2.1 Definition of Reward

Studying human behaviour has resulted in a variety of strategies which aim at

increasing students' achievement in FL learning settings. Slavin (2003) claims that experts in

language teaching and learners' behaviour were asked to provide teachers with ideas about the

nature of the learning process and how the influence of motivation on this process. Behaviour

learning theories proved that there is a strong link between reward and goal achievement in

learning. According to him, behaviour is internally established in the learner if it receives

33
some kind of positive reward; otherwise it would be eliminated. Some students have

considerable academic abilities, but because they are shy, quiet, or isolated in the class, they

are often uninterested and withdrawn and their capacities are hidden. Such type of learners

cannot engage in the different learning-teaching procedures, and their participation is

therefore inhibited by lack of motivation. In these cases, reward may be of a vital significance

for teachers in order to induce learners in the learning process.

Reward is an essential strategy used by teachers in order to prompt students' motivation

in the learning process and to increase its effectiveness and efficiency. Originally, the idea

came from when a child did something good and received some kind of compensation. In

education, the concept of reward has basically the same principles. Lepper, Greene and

Nisbett (1973) conducted many experiments to study the effects of rewarding learners for

doing a given task. Rewards proved to be an effective element in increasing motivation and

achievement in the class since most students try to avoid negative judgment and seek to gain

positive judgment from the teacher for their abilities and efforts.

The application of reward systems in the educational endeavour has its roots in

Skinner's theories. In fact, the American psychologist Skinner (1904-1990) was one of the

first psychologists who investigated the process of language acquisition in terms of language

behaviour. His theory remains one of the most controversial theories which still have their

impact on the language teaching methodology. Among the various theories of language

acquisition and language learning, the theory of operant conditioning remains one of the most

influential principles in language teaching methodology. Skinner and other behaviourists

carried out several investigations concerning learning. In his theory, Skinner distinguishes

three main stages that are involved in the learning process: the stimulus or situation (S), the

behaviour (B), and the reinforcement (R). Stimulus is the situation in which the learner's

performance will take place. Behaviour is the performance itself. An utterance may be

34
considered as behaviour since a language response may be produced in a single utterance. In

this context, Wilkins (1972: 162) argues that:

Every utterance and every part of an utterance is produced as the

result of the presence of some kind of 'stimulus'. The stimulus,
to which the utterance forms a 'response', may be physically
present in the situation; it may be verbal, since language can be
produced as a response to other language.

Rreinforcement refers to any reaction from the part of the teacher towards the learner's

behaviour. Fontana (1995: 144) explains this stage saying that:

Such reinforcement can best be thought of by the teacher as the

results that follow on from B. Obviously these results can either
be favourable to the learner (in which case they are known as
positive reinforcement or R+), or they can be unfavourable (in
which case they are known as R-). R+ increases the likelihood
of the learner producing the same piece of behaviour again in
the future, while R- decreases the likelihood.

Like a child, the learner who performs different activities in the class needs to be

reinforced; otherwise, the possibility of having further performances decreases. Wilkins

(1972: 162) deals with this topic and emphasizes the importance of reinforcement in a

learning situation: "If such reinforcement does not take place…the piece of language, the

response, is not learned." He also emphasizes the importance of the sequence of the three

stages in Skinner's theory.

Only if a response is repeated can it be fully learned. Indeed

strength of learning is measured in terms of the number of times
that a response has been made and reinforced. A word that has
been uttered thirty times is better learned than one which has
been said twenty times. The notion of repetition is therefore
extremely important. More important still is the fact that a

35
 response that is not made cannot be repeated and reinforced and
therefore cannot be learned. It is the making of the response that
is the learning process. If there is no reinforcement, the learning
is then extinguished. (ibid.).

The main principles underlying Skinner's operant conditioning or S-B-R theory are

illustrated in the following diagram.

Good (R+) (B), (B), (B),…

(B)
Stimulus/ or Behaviour The behaviour is
repeated
Situation (S) (B)

Bad X the behaviour is

(R-)
(B) removed

Diagram 02: Skinner's S-B-R Model of Learning (Wilkins, 1972: 162)

Obviously, the learner who gives correct answers and performs different tasks and then

receives positive reinforcement (R+) is more likely to answer correctly and perform other

tasks. In this sense, the learner who gives answers which are incorrect and his performance is

low should receive (R-) in order to remove his wrong responses. For more explanation,

Fontana (1995: 144) provides us with this straightforward example:

A boy is asked by the teacher to give the present participle of the French verb

"avoir". (S).

The boy answers: "ayant". (B).

The teacher says: correct. (R) Which is in this case (R+).

36
According to Fontana, the likelihood of giving the same correct answer increases because the

learner has received (R+), whereas, the learner who would receive (R-) would not offer the

same answer again.

In spite of its crucial importance in language teaching methodology, Skinner's operant

conditioning was criticized by Bruner (1973) who

sees learning not merely as a passive unit of behaviour elicited

by a stimulus and strengthened or weakened by reinforcement,
but an active process in which the learner infers principles and
rules and testes them out. Fontana (ibid.: 145).

Bruner holds that Skinner's S-B-R model gives little importance to the learner's behaviour

which is considered as a complex activity involving the major processes of: acquisition of

information, manipulation of information into an appropriate language situation or task, and

testing the adequacy of this information. (Bruner and Anglin, 1973; in Fontana 1995: 145). In

fact, Bruner does not totally ignore the influence of reinforcement in second language

classroom methodology but he emphasizes the point that a stimulus may construct internal

hypotheses and models which help the learner in future predictions in the learning operation,

moving away from a basic concentration on immediate forms of reinforcement (in Skinner's

S-B-R theory) to less direct forms of rewards (in Bruner's model). In this context, Fontana

summarizes this important point: "the learner can become increasingly independent of

reinforcement (R) and work towards long term goals since such goals are essentially the

anticipatory categories which he or she predicts will give the greatest satisfaction." (ibid.:

146).

Whether the emphasis is put on direct reinforcement of Skinner's model or on

anticipatory categories of Bruner's description of learning, Skinner remains one of the first

psychologists who introduced the concept of reward in language learning through his S-B-R

37
model, and "both [Skinner and Bruner] have their place in helping the teacher to plan learning

experiences at different levels." Fontana (ibid.: 147).

2.2 Types of Reward

Differences between learners lead to differences in their ways of learning. These

differences can be explained in terms of many factors such as: intellectual abilities,

personality factors and social and cultural background. Thus, they may differ in their ways of

perceiving rewards. Learners who differ in how they learn a new material, also differ in what

they enjoy doing and what motivates them more to take part in a given task and so to learn

effectively. For instance, some students like to be praised by the teacher and they like to see

the results of their efforts right in the classroom without paying attention to what comes later.

Generally, these students are extrovert students who like to gain the attention of their teacher

and their classmates alike in order to fulfill some internal needs. Brown (2000: 155) describes

these students in the following terms:

Extroversion is the extent to which a person has a deep-seated

need to receive ego enhancement, self-esteem and a sense of
wholeness from other people as opposed to receiving that
affirmation within oneself. Extroverts actually need other people
in order to feel "good". But extroverts are not necessarily loud-
mouthed or talkative. They may be relatively shy but still need
the affirmation of others.

In fact, this affirmation should be provided for them by the teacher who may use some

short- term rewards in order to encourage them and arouse their self-esteem. However, some

other students do not like to be in the centre of the class, and they would probably like to

benefit from less direct forms of reward mainly represented in a good score in a given test or

an additional point in the exam. These students, unlike extroverts, are almost silent, quiet and

reserved. "Introversion, on the other hand, is the extent to which a person derives a sense of

38
wholeness and fulfillment apart from a reflection of this self from other people." Brown (

ibid.).

2.2.1 Short-term Rewards

It is very important to provide the student with a feeling of pride in the classroom. This

feeling is almost enhanced by a sense of achievement. Nothing can create such a sense of

achievement like a word of praise from the teacher in the classroom. The student who

receives appreciation from the teacher towards his/ her performance in front of the other

students who represent a kind of 'competitor' for each other is more likely to perform well in

next sessions. In a class, where students are non-native speakers of English, any correct use of

the target language is considered by the student as an achievement. Thus, an achievement

needs to be compensated. Positive comments from the part of the teacher may be of great

importance for learners. Ferris (1997) dealt with the issue of rewarding the students in the

class through positive comments. She provided us with important steps to be followed in

order to make teachers' commentary more effective and more rewarding. Ferris found that

when teachers (a) requested specific information and (b) made summary comments on

grammar, more substantive student revisions ensued than when teachers (a) posed questions

and (b) and did not make comments. H.D.Brown (1992: 340).

Short-term rewards are any form of positive reinforcement the learners would receive

directly after a correct answer or a good performance in the FL. Honorary certificates and

recognition badges when provided to the learner after a good performance can be very useful.

Short-term rewards are important because they allow students to see the results of their efforts

and abilities instantly and make them understand how their contribution in the class makes a

difference. Adult learners usually prefer social rewards in favour of material presents because

they affirm their worth as independent useful individuals. Verbal praise in the class, students'

39
attention, and teachers' thanks are all necessary for learners to internalize positive behaviour

and to maintain self-motivation which will induce them to learn and to perform well in the

classroom.

When the form of rewards occurs directly after the activity done by the learner, it will

gain a more reinforcing value and so, it becomes more efficient. In this framework, Wilkins

(1972: 166) argues that:

Reinforcement, to be effective, should follow the response as

quickly as possible. In the classroom it might take the form of
approval from the teacher or satisfaction by the pupil that he has
got his response right… One sometimes meets the argument that
homework should not be set, since the teacher cannot see it until
long after it was done and by the time it is returned to the learner
any reinforcement is lost.

When we talk about this type of rewards, we should know that it is not only the teacher's

responsibility to introduce some form of rewards in the class. Thus, the learners may organize

rewards for themselves to make their learning more interesting and more effective, the older

they have grown the more responsible they should be in the learning experience.

At the university, students are adult enough to be capable of developing their own

"study habits" to improve their learning either in the class or at home. Fontana points out the

fact that rewards are one of the most important study habits students have as they take more

responsibility for the learning process. According to him, "the student can build small

rewards, as reinforcers; into a work schedule, like a cup of coffee and a five minute break

after every hour of solid work. He or she should be strong enough to withhold the reward if it

fails to be earned." Fontana (1995: 155).

41
2.2.2 Long- term Rewards

Although short-term rewards and long term rewards share several common points in

terms of their usefulness in motivating the learners, they have one basic difference which

distinguishes them. Unlike short- term rewards, long- term rewards do not necessarily occur

directly after the learner's performance. In language learning-teaching situations, it is very

beneficial for learners to organize some semester parties where excellent students are offered

some presents and gifts. In school, parents can even be invited to witness the teachers

commending their children's performances. Pupils can also receive some achievement

certificate in recognition of their efforts during the whole semester. At the university, the

same certificate is also encouraging for learners. The teacher can also indicate the students'

accomplishment in the day of the correction of the exam. A note from the part of the teacher

towards the students praising his/ her work is very rewarding.

The point system remains one of the most effective rewarding systems that makes

learning a challenging experience and so very enjoyable and motivating. Students earn points

during a given period of time where students try to do their best in order to accumulate them

to win a more interesting prize. The point system is also used to help students win some extra

marks as we will see in this research.

One of the most traditional systems of rewarding students for their positive results is the

college scholarships that are organized in some universities and institutions for the students

with the best academic outcomes. Margaret Raymond (2008) conducted a recent

experimentation to examine the effects of the use of incentives and rewards on students'

behaviour. According to her, a promise or probability of future scholarships is very effective

to maintain motivation and to pursue longer term education goals.

41
2.2.3 Short-term Rewards and Long-term Rewards

Students' expectations for reward differ from one student to another, and these

differences determine the motivational value of any reward. It is therefore only the teacher

who can judge which type of reward is more appropriate for a particular student since it is not

impossible for the teacher to understand the nature of the student and his/her major personal

characteristics from his/her behaviour in the classroom.

What is important here is the fact that the teacher should be careful in choosing the

rewards anticipated in the classroom and in deciding whether to anticipate short-term rewards

or long-term rewards. The teacher should also be careful in distinguishing between the

students in terms of their individual differences. Brown claims that:

We need to be sensitive to cultural norms, to a student's

willingness to speak out in class, and to optimal points between
extreme extroversion and introversion that may vary from
student to student. (ibid.: 156).

EFL teachers usually note differences between learners in terms of their aptitudes and

needs. What is useful for one student is not necessarily useful for another one. What some

learners consider as highly motivating, others may not consider it so. For instance, when a

teacher asks a student to go to the board to read an assignment to the whole class and asks the

other students to applaud him/her, this might be very rewarding for a student who is striving

toward positive judgment or competitive grading. However, it might be even punishing for a

student who is shy and does not like to gain the class's attention. Because of the individual

differences that exist between learners in terms of their learning styles, it is more appropriate

to administer both types of reward in the classroom in order to ensure that every learner

benefits. As we have seen above, a wide variety of rewards can be used by the teacher to

provide learners with positive reinforcers for their academic performance. It is the role of the

42
teacher to anticipate appropriate rewards according to students' characteristics. The teacher

therefore should know what are the alternative rewards provided for the students and then to

choose what is more appropriate for a particular student.

2.3 Reward Application in Grammar Classes

Rewarding students in the classroom for a positive behaviour does not only imply the

administration of direct rewards, it also involves some significant ideas concerning the role of

the learner and the teacher in order to reinforce important study habits in the learner. These

ideas are directly related to: the learner himself and his/ her role in the learning process, and

to teachers implying the different strategies and techniques the use in the classroom.

2.3.1 The Learner's Role

Recent research in second language learning has always worked out various methods

and strategies in order to get the students involved in the process of learning English

grammar, and to make them emotionally engaged. In order to increase motivation and to

make the learning experience rewarding in itself, some strategies should be taken into

consideration so that learners are more involved in the learning operation.

First, learners should take part in the learning process for meaningful reasons since

grammar educational context demands meaningful learning (as opposed to learning for

display). Many teachers ask students to write a paragraph or to fulfill a given task but not to

write an email or a letter to a friend speaking English. What most teachers know but often

neglect is learners' need to understand the benefits from learning a whole foreign grammatical

"block". When the learner sees that s/he can write in English and can use the language for real

life purposes, s/he would certainly appreciate the English language.

43
 Second, learners should go back from time to time to check the objectives designed to

them right in the beginning to compare them with what they have actually learned in order to

see to what extent the objectives have been realized. It is very motivating for learners to check

the objectives and to understand the reasons behind any failure to learn some elements

because they will try to avoid them in future situations.

Third, learners should fight the "position of inferiority" which they usually occupy in a

language classroom. They have to integrate the language learning and to know that they are

co-participants in all the tasks presented to them. If learners think so, they will feel more

secure.

Fourth, students should understand that co-operation between learners is one of the

most useful educational practices. It allows students to interact and to help each other. Co-

operation between the teacher and learners is also necessary because it encourages the role of

the teacher being a facilitator in the classroom.

Fifth, students have to opt for new choices to create their own individuality and to

develop communicative skills. However, only motivated students can realize this. In this

context, Littlewood (1981: 93) argues that:

The development of communicative skills can only take place if

learners have motivation and opportunity to express their own
identity and to relate with the people around them. It therefore
requires a learning atmosphere which gives them a sense of
security and value as individuals.

Learners should contribute to the learning process through their independent strategies and

communicative interaction in the class which provides them with positive attitudes towards

other learners. Thus, the learners can develop an independent personality in their education.

So, they can be responsible for their learning and take appropriate decisions and express their

44
ideas and opinions freely. In such circumstances, "learning becomes to a large extent the

learner's responsibility." Dubin and Olshtain (1986: 76). Dubin and Olshtain discuss the

importance given to the learner in recent language approaches in order to engage him/her into

the learning process and to increase motivation in the class. They suggest a new role for

learners as "players" to ensure their participation in all the pedagogical practices that take

place in the classroom. According to them, the role of player provides the learners with more

opportunities to demonstrate their capacities and potential.

As a player, one must participate actively. At the same time, one

must concentrate by observing what others do. Players take part
in all of the interactional configurations which are important in a
communicative language course: as individuals, in pairs, in
small groups, and in whole group displays. (ibid.: 81).

Johnson and Paulson (1976) deal with the same issue of learners' role in creating a good

atmosphere for learning, and they summarize all the elements discussed above in the

following five points:

1 Learners plan their own learning program and thus ultimately assume responsibility for

what they do in the classroom.

2 Learners monitor and evaluate their own progress.

3 Learners are members of a group and learn by interacting with others.

4 Learners tutor other learners.

5 Learners learn from the teacher, from other students, and from other teaching sources.

(Johnson and Paulson 1976; in Richards and Rodgers 1986: 23).

45
2.3.2 The Teacher's Role

We often hear students talking to each other using the term "good teacher" to describe

one of their teachers. People including students, parents and some teachers themselves tend to

judge other teachers who are (they believe) good and helpful. According to them, a good

teacher is tolerant with the students, is very generous in giving them good marks regardless of

their real level.

In the educational field, a good teacher is the one who:

is ingenious, gifted and skilled.

has the ability to motivate students and make them more interested to learn and to attend

his/her classes.

is talented enough to make the lessons enjoyable, fun and interesting.

has the ability to manage the lesson in a clever way in which students can master the new

information provided for them.

These are not the only criteria that should be required in any language teacher. It depends on

the teacher's personality, the approach s/he follows and the methods and strategies underlying

his/her work. Whatever are the qualities of a good teacher, a successful EFL teacher should at

least ensure that the students acquire the different items of the whole program. Moreover, a

great number of the students should get high grades and succeed at the end of the year.

The following practices can encourage learners to get involved in the learning process

with confidence and high self-esteem. First, the teacher should pay much attention to students'

oral answers and praising the student in case where s/he answers correctly and performs well

in interactional tasks.

46
 Written papers and homework should be given a great importance. A student who

makes effort to do a given assignment hopes to get the teacher's attention and to be at the

center of the whole class's attention. Attention may be very rewarding for the student in this

case and ignoring this positive behaviour would deprive him/her of such kind of reward.

The teacher should take into consideration that rewarding attendance may influence

students‟ outcomes in the class. It may even increase learners' motivation; a teacher can offer

a prize to the student who has been present during the whole semester for example or at least

to the student with the best attendance. The teacher counts students' absences for every month,

and at the end of every month, the student with no or less absences may benefit from a prize.

In the same context, Slavin (2003) claims that "Another [teacher] may reward the student

whose attendance is most improved, on the theory that it is poor attenders who most need

incentives to come to class."

Most language studies and learning researches have emphasized the role of the teacher in

the class in order to increase students' motivation and engage them in the learning process.

They have specified that the more teachers are flexible and tolerant with students, the better

their results are. In this perspective, Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier and Ryan (1991: 337) claim

that:

Of course, teachers' orientations influence the general classroom

climate, and the results revealed that students in classrooms with
autonomy-supportive teachers displayed more intrinsic
motivation, perceived competence, and self-esteem than did
students in classrooms with controlling teachers.

The teacher's role has become of a great importance in language classroom practices.

The teacher is sometimes asked to focus on learners' characteristics to motivate them, and in

some cases, his/ her role requires a good deal with teaching strategies to ensure good

47
presentation. Teachers therefore should be talented enough to understand the diversity of roles

provided for them.

The teacher should also emphasise students‟ psychological factors that influence the

learning process would help him to understand them and their motives to learn. It is good to

remind the learners from time to time of their own interest in learning and their benefits. This

would give them confidence in their own capacities to master English grammar. They should

help students to understand the learning process and to become aware of their potential in

order to create their own set of strategies for the acquisition of new difficult grammatical

structures. They should also encourage learners to participate in the different activities that

take place in the classroom, and so to help them to get involved in the teaching- learning

operation. Teachers should lower students‟ anxiety about ambiguous or difficult elements in

the FL. In this respect, "over correction" of students' speech errors is not advised. It is more

appropriate to consider errors as a part of the whole process of learning even if it seems to be

contradictory to teachers' pedagogical role.

Finally, Students should be given the opportunities to use the FL in real life settings

(through writing letters to their friends for example) and showing them the importance of

learning this language in their real life. That is why; recent textbooks avoid controlled written

grammar exercises since they do not allow much creativity on the part of the learner.

The grammar teacher has to remember that his/her role is no longer that of an

authoritative leader; it must be facilitative in the sense that students have the opportunity to

develop their own ideas and so their self-esteem. For this reason, some of teachers' behaviour

is considered as positive and another as negative in relation of how students perceive it as it is

illustrated in the following table.

48
 Positive Behaviour Negative Behaviour

Create competition between Pay little or no attention to students

classmates. written papers and home work

Give students more responsibility in Judge students' ideas without giving

the class them time to explain what they mean.

Approve what learner write Focus on every mistake in

pronunciation, spelling and grammar

make positive comments
especially in oral performance

Table 02: Teacher's Positive versus Negative Behaviour

Littlewood (1981) summarized the role of the teacher in communicative activities in the

following points which are applicable to most recent EFL situations including competency-

based teaching situations.

If there is a creative activity, the teacher should avoid unnecessary interventions. The

latter may prevent students' creativity and engagement in the activity. It may also hinder the

development of their skills and their self-esteem.

The teacher may offer advice and provide language item if necessary or when students

need help.

In some situations, the teacher can monitor students' strengths and weaknesses and s/he

can take appropriate decisions accordingly. Littlewood (1981: 19).

Following these points, the teacher is more likely to maintain a "moderate" role without

becoming dominant. This role enables him/her to give guidance and stimuli from inside the
49
activity. Thus, the teacher's role is recognized as less dominant in order to allow group work

activities in which learners can interact independently of the teacher. This independence is

very helpful to increase motivation and self-esteem. In addition, the teacher's place as a "co-

communicator" is more favourable to break down tension and pressure between teacher and

learners and therefore to lower anxiety. (Littelwood, 1981).

Because of the various classroom procedures and the different teaching principles

underlying them, the teacher occupies more than one position in the class depending on the

language approach and the methods to be followed in the classroom and the set objectives to

be attained in a given course. The needs of the learner are also an important factor that

determines which role the teacher should play in a specific teaching situation. Dubin and

Olshtain claim that the teacher's role has changed, and according to them, this change is

mainly due to the recent attitudes of both teachers and educators towards the learning process.

Affective /humanistic attitudes towards language learning have

expanded the role of the teacher/facilitator in many directions.
The teacher plays additional roles; as a resource person who
provides students with materials beyond the textbook and as an
evaluator, matching learners' needs with those set out in the
program or curriculum in order to bring the two closer together.
(Dubin and Olshtain 1986: 48).

The teacher's contributions remain very important in classroom interaction in order to

create a good atmosphere for learning regardless of the various roles assigned for him.

Providing students with appropriate device to learn more effectively is very crucial, and

motivating them is as important as teaching them the different items of the program. Al-

Mutawa and Kailani (1989) pointed out some characteristics of the successful teacher.

According to them, the ideal teacher should be a motivator, an evaluator and s/he should have

a friendly attitude towards the language, the pupils and the colleagues.

51
2.3.3 Guidelines for Responding to Learners' Performance

2.3.3.1 Evaluation and Assessment

Teachers should use the appropriate strategies of evaluation that are aligned with

learners' characteristics and the lessons' objectives. They should also respond to learners'

different performances appropriately. Any reaction from the part of the teacher is significant

and students' attitudes develop accordingly.

Since writing differs from speaking, students' written errors are different from oral

errors too. Teachers therefore should put in mind that error treatment is not the same in all

teaching situations. When students write, they have the time to think and to organize their

ideas. They can revise and rewrite what they have written. Unlike writing, speaking does not

include such an extensive planning and revising stages. Moreover, when they speak in the

classroom, students feel themselves under pressure because their audience does not only

include the teacher (as in writing) but they talk to a large number of listeners.

Teachers' responses to students' oral interaction should be tolerant, teachers should be

very careful because their comments may evoke a kind of "shame" for sensitive students. That

is why teachers should opt for more flexible forms of evaluation as it is illustrated in the

following points.

Ideal oral responses are often short and precise.

It is sometimes more appropriate to ignore minor grammatical mistakes unless if they

become systematic in the learner's speech.

Major mistakes can be corrected either directly or indirectly (by repeating the sentence

including the mistake).

51
 In writing, students are free to write their ideas even if we do not agree with them; since

they are relevant to the topic.

In written papers, teachers feel more "free" to indicate students' mistakes; to comment

on sentence structures and to show irrelevant ideas. They can even cross some inadequate

terms and expressions and replace them by more appropriate ones. Learners should know the

mistakes they have done in writing in order to avoid them not only because of the time

available to them in writing a given paper, but also because the learner is the only person who

will read his/ her own paper after the correction. The student will get feedback which will

provide him/her with useful comments and corrections that are very necessary in the learning

process. In this perspective, Brown (1992: 358) states: "In your evaluation of students writing

the most instructive evaluative feedback you can provide is your comments."

When the teacher assigns homework to the students, it is important that the teacher sees

the homework, corrects it and includes its mark to the final grade. In other word, students'

activities should be given importance just like any exam paper so that students feel

enthusiastic and motivated to do their best on any paper assigned to them. Teachers may even

provide them with additional marks for extra work. In this context, (Graves 1996) states that

in a classroom setting, not only official examinations are important for learners' acquisition;

informal tests and homework are also of a vital significance. She identifies two types of

evaluation: formal tests and exams, and informal assessments. "Teachers build in some form

of student evaluation when developing a course, ranging from formal tests to informal

assessments." (1996: 30). Slavin deals with the same point of assessment and he emphasizes

its importance in EFL classes. He says: "A teacher must be able to use formal and informal

assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social and physical

development of the students." (2003: 23).

52
 Students need to know that any homework, any task and any paper assigned to them is

an essential part in the whole instruction, and therefore, they would not wonder every time

about the effectiveness of doing such "extra" work. The importance of homework and

informal testing does not only lie in motivating the learners, but they also serve as a reference

to their errors from which they can learn a lot. Therefore, the mark obtained in a given exam

is less important than the analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the students' answers.

(Slavin, 2003). Research on homework finds that it generally does increase achievement,

particularly if teachers check it and give comments to students. Cooper, Keith, Reimers,

Fehrman, Pottebaum and Aubey in (Slavin: 2003).

After a given period of instruction, the teacher needs to evaluate students' achievement

and to see to what extent the course objectives have been realized. Hughes (1989) emphasizes

the importance of evaluation in a teaching situation and states four main purposes for testing:

measure proficiency,

diagnose specific strengths and weaknesses,

place students in a course or program,

assess their achievement in a course or a program. (Hughes 1989 in Graves, 1996: 30).

2.3.3.2 Teachers’ Feedback

In classroom settings, teacher‟s feedback is as important for learners as any other

element in EFL methodology. Feedback has a reinforcing value because it gives the learners

the impression that they can write something which is read and corrected by the teacher.

Students who receive feedback on their academic performance and use it are said to learn

more effectively and benefit from more motivational value since it provides them with a

positive feeling tor achievement.

53
 The teacher who opts for discussion groups, co-operative learning, projects and

assignments has more opportunities to provide students with immediate feedback about their

ideas, skills and capacities. Feedback in group work is more significant for learners because

of the competition that exists between them in the class. In fact, feedback is essential for the

learner to see to what degree s/he was successful in a given activity. In agreement with this,

Littlewood claims that: "Feedback provides learners with knowledge of how successful their

performance has been." (1981: 90). Learners need to feel that their ideas are corrected with

'respect' by the teacher. Positive feedback provides them with confidence in their work and

with high self-esteem. Wentzel argues that:

… teachers who are well liked by students model social motivation,

as they rated as willing to treat children's ideas with respect,
give their time and resources unstintingly, and providing
positive encouragement and feedback. (Wentzel in Johnson and
Johnson; 2003: 151).

Talking about the importance of positive feedback should not lead us to think that

teachers must not indicate learners' miss-performances. This is not true since negative

feedback in appropriate situations may also act as an essential element in the learning

process since it helps students to correct their errors and avoid them in future situations. In

this framework, Thornbury claims that:

Negative feedback is simply indicating No, you can't say that

when a learner makes an error. Positive feedback, on the other
hand, is when learners are told they are right. If the only
messages learners get are positive, it may be the case that there
is no incentive to restructure their mental grammar. (1999: 117).

It is necessary sometimes, not to ignore students' mistakes. Some mistakes if they are not

corrected become systematic errors. Some teachers usually wonder how can learners master

54
correct grammatical structures if feedback is not provided for them. "Correction can provide

the feedback the learner needs to help confirm or reject a hypothesis, or to tighten the

application of a rule that is being applied fairly loosely." Thornbury (ibid.: 115).

Teachers‟ Feedback is related to errors of the learners; Thornbury summarizes this point

saying that:

… learners' errors offer the teacher a rich source of data with

which to monitor language. At the same time, learners need
feedback on their production. This suggests that teachers should
deal with at least some of errors that arise. To do this, they have
a wide range of feedback options available. (ibid.: 119).

2.3.3.3 Correcting Students' Errors

In second language classroom methodology, responding to students' errors has always

been a thorny issue. Many teachers believe that errors must be corrected otherwise the

learning process would be fossilized. Moreover, students cannot learn if they do not know

what their mistakes are. If a student commits an error which is not corrected by the teacher,

the error is more likely to be repeated by the same student or by other students. However,

other EFL teachers strongly believe that errors should not be corrected since their correction

would inhibit learners for further participation in the classroom. Thornbury dealt with the

topic and selected different statements expressing the following differences in teachers '

attitudes towards errors.

"The student should be trained to learn by making as few mistakes as possible… He must

be trained to adopt correct learning right from the start." (from First Things Fast by

L.Alexander).

55
 "Getting things wrong is only good practice in getting thing wrong." (from Success with

English, Teacher's Handbook 1 by Barnett et al).

"Provided students communicate effectively, they should not be given a sense of failure

because they make mistakes." (from The Cambridge English Course, 1, Teacher's Book by

Swan and Walter.)

"Don‟t expect learners to go straight fro; ignorance to knowledge. Learning takes time and

is not achieved in one go. Be prepared to accept partial learning as in important stage on the

way to full learning." (from Project English 2, Teacher's Book by Hutchinson).

"Making mistakes is an important and positive part of learning a language. Only by

experimenting with the language and receiving feedback can students begin to work out how

the language works." (from Blueprint Intermediate, Teacher's Book by Abbs and Freebairn).

In recent EFL methodology, teachers' attitudes towards the mistakes made by the

learners have changed. Errors are no longer considered as being problematic in the learning

process; students can never learn a FL without making errors. In this context, Dubin and

Olshtain say that:

Another important shift in current thinking about language

learning theory is the attitude towards learner' errors. If in the
1960s errors had to be avoided at all costs, today errors are
viewed as an integral part of the language- learning process from
which we can gain very significant insights. (1986: 74).

For some kind of students, correcting errors every time may be seen as an obstacle to

the learning experience and it may also hinder their participation and decreases their

motivation. Willis (1996: 7) explains to teachers why focusing on students' errors is often

disagreeable. He claims that:

56
 If you actually tried to correct every error, including those of
stress and pronunciation, the lesson would become demotivated.
Many students say they won't risk speaking in or out of class
because they are afraid of making mistakes or being corrected in
public.

In agreement with this, Al- Mutawa and Kailani also claim that: "The teacher should not

correct mistakes in English made during the activity. Correcting errors may discourage or

inhibit pupils in their attempts to use the language freely." (1989: 147). In addition, it is very

disapproving for learners if they talk and then they are interrupted by the teacher to receive

correction of some mistakes they have done because it would disturb their ideas and influence

their concentration. According to Al-Mutawa and Kailani; "Nothing is less encouraging than

constant correction of mistakes when the pupil is concentrating on his ideas." (ibid.)

2.4 The Effects of Rewards on Learners' Motivation

In the classroom, when the student benefits from one of the previous forms of rewards

(verbal praise, teacher‟s approval, rewarding attendance and the point system), s/he will

certainly gain a strong feeling of confidence. Thus, s/he will be more motivated to engage in

the learning experience, s/he is more likely to answer a new question or to take part in a given

activity. Classroom rewards have proved to be an effective way to encourage learners'

positive behaviour and to maintain motivation in the class. In this regard, Deci, Vallerand,

Pelletier and Ryan (1991: 335) say that:

Rewards such as prizes and money are often used in homes and
schools as a means of motivating desired behaviours… The use
of promised rewards or threatened punishment is a ubiquitous
motivational strategy.

57
 According to behaviour learning theories, motivation is directly linked to reward and

reinforcement. In a learning situation, behaviour that has been reinforced by the teacher is

more likely to be repeated than a behaviour that has not been reinforced or that has been

punished. For instance, if the teacher says 'well done' for a student who has just finished an

activity; the same student will be more motivated to do the next tasks. In this regard, Brown

claims that: "If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes habitual, or conditioned.

Thus, children produce linguistic responses that are reinforced." (2000: 22). The following

diagram illustrates this ongoing process of motivation-achievement- reward.

Students' Motivation to make efforts and to

achieve a particular goal

Goal achievement Achievement (2)

Positive Motivation (2)

Reinforcement

Reward
Diagram 03: Ongoing Achievement Process

58
 The teacher's praise may act as an effective reinforcer particularly for a student who

has made efforts in answering a question or completing a difficult assignment. In the 1970s,

Maslow carried out several studies which dealt with the issue of motivation in terms of needs.

The maintenance of positive self-esteem is one of these basic needs learners must satisfy in

order to attain their goals. In a learning situation, positive self-esteem indeed is enhanced by

some form of reward. When students do well in an activity, they want to be compensated for

their efforts and they feel that they deserve a reward especially if they believe that success is a

result of their own efforts and abilities.

In some particular cases, rewards become very necessary. For instance, shy and

introvert students keep silent in the class and they always wait for encouragement and

reinforcement by the teacher. The teacher here may repeat some urging expressions that have

reinforcing value. In this regard, Al-Mutawa and Kailani (1989: 146) say that:

Some pupils are evasive, or afraid to ask or speak for fear of

making errors. The teacher's duty is to encourage such pupils to
talk in English and to praise their performance and progress, no
matter how limited it maybe. This encouraging attitude will
create a pleasant atmosphere and make English classes lively
and enjoyable.

Conclusion

In the two last decades, a significant number of studies have been conducted in the

educational endeavour to study the different factors that contribute to the development of

students' motivation. Reward has proved to be one of the most important strategies used in the

teaching of foreign languages in order to increase students' motivation and self-esteem. The

59
teacher should take into account the individual difference variables between learners in the

application of rewards to get all the students engaged in the learning process.

61
 CHAPTER THREE

DATA COLLECTION AND EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE

Introduction

3.1 The Sample

3.2 Means of Research

3.2.1 The Test

3.2.1.1 Characteristics of the Test

3.2.1.2 Correction Procedure

3.3 Instruction

3.3.1 The Control Group

3.3.2 The Experimental Groups

3.3.2.1 Long-term Rewards: The Point System and the Rewarding Attendance

3.3.2.2 Short-term Rewards: Positive Comments and Praise

Conclusion

61
Introduction

This work is intended to study the different effects of reward anticipation on learners‟

outcomes in grammar classes. For this reason, a full account of the instruction identifying the

different steps and strategies designed to the participated in the experimental groups and the

control group during the whole period of training is provided in this chapter.

3.1 The Sample

Our sample is derived from a population of 1200 Second Year LMD students at the

department of English at Mentouri University, Constantine. These students are inscribed in

twenty groups of about 45 students each. Students at the English Department represent

Algerian adult learners of the English language since the department receives students from

different parts of the country, mainly the East and the South East: Constantine, Guelma, El

Oued, Mila, Jijel, Skikda, Oum El Bouaghi, Tebessa, Khanchla.

Among the number of second year LMD students (about 1200 students), the three

groups we were teaching during the year (2009-2010) were chosen to participate in the study

with an average of 40-50 students in each group. Because of the problem of repetitive

students who are third year but they attend some second year classes, we have been careful to

make sure that only second year students who attend the grammar class during the whole

academic year (which is the same period of training) took part in the study. In other words,

the main study of this work involves the students who took both the pre-test and the post-test.

The number of students in the three groups (123) represents one fifth of the whole

population mentioned above taking into consideration that repetitive students were not

counted. Students in all groups are not selected but they are taken at random with no specific

criteria, and the choice of these three groups was also random since the administration selects

which groups a given teacher would teach. One group has been randomly planned to be the
62
 control group CG and the other two groups as being the first experimental group EXP. G1,

and the second experimental group EXP. G2.

The age of the students who participated in the study varies between 27 and 33 years

old as it is shown in the following table.

Age

Number 19 20 21 22 23 24 27 29 30 31 33 Total

CG
12 06 05 03 04 02 01 00 02 01 01 37

EXP. G1
08 13 08 03 05 04 01 02 00 02 01 47

EXP. G2
11 03 07 06 02 04 00 02 01 03 00 39

Table 03: Students' Age

The number of female participants in the sample is 109 which represent 88.62 % of the

total number. Male participants‟ number is 14 which represent 11.38 % of the sample. This

majority of female participation in the study is completely normal since it is almost a standard

phenomenon in the whole population. Comparing the participants in the study to students in

the whole population, the sample of the study seems to be homogeneous and representative of

second year students of English in Constantine University. The following table shows gender

distribution in the sample in the CG, EXP. G1 and in EXP. G2 separately.

63
 Total Number of Precentage Number of Precentage
Number of Female Male
Students Students Students

CG 37 32 86.49 % 05 13.51 %

EXP. G1 47 43 91.49 % 04 08.51 %

EXP. G2 39 34 87.18% 05 12.82 %

Total 123 109 88.62 % 14 11.38 %

Table 04 : Gender Distribution

3.2 Means of Research

3.2.1 The Test

3.2.1.1 Characteristics of the Test

The test consists of a text which is composed of 343 words (a medium size text).

Because the test involves only one activity, the chosen text was of a considerable length with

three paragraphs and 27 blanks. It is a cloze test (cloze procedure) in which we have deleted

27 words and the deleted words were replaced by a standard blank. The participants, in the

two experimental groups and in the CG, were asked to fill in the blanks by putting the

appropriate words in the spaces provided for them.

The cloze test was chosen as a test because of the following reasons:

Validity: This test is valid since it measures the appropriate items in terms of

objectives, i.e., it measures adequately the overall achievements in grammar in general

involving different grammatical aspects.

64
 Reliability: It is highly reliable. The researcher makes a table in which all the

correct answers and all the other accepted answers are written, so, the correcting process

results in the same results if the test is scored by a different teacher. It is also reliable because

the text involves different grammatical items (nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs,

prepositions, conjunctions, determiners and verbs in different tenses).

The Grammatical Item Frequency

1 Arti. 03

2 Prep. 04

3 Adj. 02

4 Conj. 04

5 V 05

6 Adv. 02

7 Pron. 03
8 N 03

9 Det. 01

Total 27

Total 05: Frequency of the Grammatical Items

Practicality: On the one hand, it is very practical and easy to administer this type of

tests within the possible time and capacities of the teacher. On the other hand, the participants

have been familiar with this type of tests (cloze procedure) because their exams in grammar

are of the same nature.

65
 The text is a narrative text of a suitable level of difficulty. We have avoided any

difficult words or ambiguous expressions to make sure that all students understand the text

and they would not feel hindered by a vocabulary difficulty.

The same text was used for the pre-test and the post-test. We kept the same test for the

following reasons:

● to ensure the objectivity of the results obtained in the two tests,

● to make sure that the students‟ results in the post-test would not be influenced by external

factors related to the test itself like the level of difficulty of the text,

● to see to what extent the participant can remember and retain the information they read in

the pre-test,

● to see whether the participants were interested enough to check the answers and learn from

their mistakes.

The test was administered in a whole session of one and half an hour. The students

were asked to read the text and to fill in the blanks by finding the appropriate words. The

teacher read the text and gave the following instructions to the students in the three groups.

● Fill in your name and your group.

● Read the text carefully before filling in the blanks.

●The blanks take either: V, Adv., Adj., Prep., Arti., Conj., Pron., N or Det.

●Do not copy on the exam paper until you have finished everything on the rough

paper.

66
The fifth instruction was written on the blackboard so that students would check their

answers.

3.2.1.2 Correction Procedure

From my short experience as a teacher of grammar in the department, and since we

used to have the same type of test in the grammar examination, we have noticed that students

may find some answers which are not the same as those in the original text( model answers)

but these answers are still correct and grammatically accepted. So, for the sake of objectivity

of the test, we have copied down all the possible answers. These answers have been carefully

studied according to the context in which they are used and according to their grammatical

nature. After these steps of careful study, we have selected every correct answer even if it was

not mentioned in the original text and for which the participant would gain a full mark.

For the scoring activity, the participant would gain one point for each correct answer

when the missing word is to be a content word (adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and nouns). When

the missing word is to be a function word (articles, prepositions, conjunctions and pronouns),

the participant would have half a point for each correct answer with the exception of one case

in which the participant would gain a full point for a function word (determiner) for the sake

of the organization of the correcting process (in order to have a total number of marks 20/20).

In the following table, we have a detailed description of the deleted words, the context in

which they occur, their grammatical nature, and their scoring.

Deleted Context Grammatical Mark

Words Nature
1 the I learnt that the plane from Cairo Arti. 0.50

2 at had been delayed at Paris….. Prep. 0.50

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3 late was expected to be an hour late Adj. 01

4 quite I can pass the time quite happily Adv. 01

5 but but that evening I had a headache Conj. 0.50

6 of the noise of the engines Prep. 0.50

7 decided I decided therefore, to walk around V 01

8 quickly To make the time pass quickly Adv. 01

9 I First of all, I went back to the place Pron. 0.50

10 car I left my car to make sure N 01

11 in The walk in the fresh air Prep. 0.50

12 entered as I entered the main airport building V 01

13 way I made my way to the restaurant N 01

14 a I ordered a cup of blank coffee Arti. 0.50

15 at at the counter Prep. 0.50

16 some Some passengers were obviously Det. 01

anxious
17 and and kept looking at their watches Conj. 0.50

18 had to see that they had tickets V 01

19 easy it was easy to tell Adj. 01

20 who a woman who burst in to tears Pron. 0.50

21 had come friends who had come to see her off V 01

22 when When I had finished my coffee Conj. 0.50

23 Would make which would make the time pass V 01

24 myself and made myself confortable Pron. 0.50

25 magazines to open one of my magazines N 01

68
 26 an It was an old friend Arti. 0.50

27 until until the arrival of my brother's plane Conj. 0.50

Table 06: Context and Grammatical Nature of the Deleted Words

3.3 Instruction

At the beginning of the academic year (2009-2010), all the students in the three groups

were given the same test which is a proficiency test in order to evaluate the students on the

basis of the level of their performance. In fact, the test was a part of the usual instruction

designed to all second year students in grammar syllabus.

After the correction of the students‟ papers in the pre-test, we have found that the

answers of the participants in the three groups were so similar, and the comparison of those

results has shown that it was a close test in the sense that differences in students‟ results in the

three groups was not significant. The distinction of degrees of proficiency of the participants

has also proved that the learners in the three groups are at the same level. Thus, the CG was

randomly identified and the two remaining groups were designated as EXP. G1 and EXP. G2.

3.3.1 The Control Group

Students in the CG did not benefit from any special treatment or organization of

reward in grammar sessions. They received no specific strategies of teaching in grammar

class. However, students in the two EXP. groups benefited from different types of rewards

during the whole academic year. While the teacher used a new method in grammar in the two

EXP. groups applying various motivational factors, the same teacher used to explain the

lesson in the traditional way in the CG. In this context, traditional does not refer to any school

69
of grammar; but we mean by traditional the same usual method of teaching used with the

other second year LMD students without any innovations in the techniques and strategies of

presenting grammar lessons during the whole year. At the beginning of the year, all the

students were given the same pre-test and after the training period they were given the post-

test to see whether there is any difference in the results of the students in the CG and those in

the two EXP. groups.

A Model Lesson (in the CG)

The Title of the Lesson: Conditional Sentences

This lesson was done in three hours (two sessions).

Session One

The title of the lesson is written on the blackboard.

The teacher asks the students about the conditional.

Some students raise their hands to answer and the most common answer is something like:

“a conditional sentence is a sentence which the word if”.

The teacher defines the conditional sentence and identifies its two parts:

1st part → condition (if) → reason

2nd part → consequence → result

The teacher explains the following point with examples:

● We have generally the condition then the result. Eg. If you come, I will tell you.

● We can have the result then the condition.eg: I will tell you if you come.

71
 The teacher asks the students to give examples illustrating the definition and the two

previous cases.

The teacher identifies the four (4) situations according to which the tense used in the

conditional sentence is determined.

The teacher explains the situations and the students are asked to give an example for each

situation.

Situation One:

●The condition expresses a general fact, a rule. The tense used in the two parts is the Pr.S

Eg: If you heat ice, it melts. Ice melts if you heat ice.

Situation Two:

●The consequence of the condition is in the future.

The tense used in the condition is the Pr.S

The tense used in the consequence is the FS

Eg: If it rains, I will use my umbrella. I will use my umbrella if it rains.

Situation Three:

●The consequence of the condition is hypothetical (probable) in the future.

The tense used in the condition is the PS

The tense used in the consequence is the Pr. Condi. S

Eg: If I saw a lion, I would run. I would run if I saw a lion.

Situation Four:
71
●The reason of an action in the past was not fulfilled.

The tense used in the condition is the P Perf. S

The tense used in the consequence is the P Condi. S

Eg: If I had woken up early, I would not have missed the train.

I would not have missed the train if I had woken up early.

The teacher summarizes the four points and asks the students about any ambiguous point.

The teacher dedicates two exercises and asks the students to accomplish them at home.

Session Two

The teacher recapitulates the major points studied in the previous session.

The teacher and the students together answer the first exercise using the appropriate tense in

sentences one by one.

If the student‟s answer is wrong the teacher moves to another student until they find the

appropriate tense.

The students are asked to justify their answers to make sure that they have understood the

lesson.

The teacher asks the students to answer the second exercise.

The students give their answers and the teacher corrects the mistakes in case of wrong

answers.

The teacher gives them the model answers and makes a recapitulation of the different parts

covered in the whole lesson.

72
3.3.2 The Experimental Groups

It is necessary to mention that the fact that we have assigned two EXP. groups does

not mean that these two groups have received different strategies and techniques of teaching.

Both groups indeed received exactly the same treatment during the period of the experiment.

After the administration of the pre-test, students in the EXP. groups were exposed to several

types of rewards and incentives. Reward schemes were incorporated into grammar program

for learners in the EXP. groups in order to see to what extent they would help to improve

students‟ academic achievement. Reward schemes refer to the administration of many

incentives in grammar classes. The different steps the researcher has followed in the training

period are illustrated according to the type of rewards designed to the participants in the EXP.

groups as summarized in the following points.

3.3.2.1 Long-term Rewards: The Point System and the Rewarding Attendance

The point system is the main idea in this experiment. The students‟ names were listed

in a table and in front of each name there is a space where the teacher puts a small dash or

mark (-) in case of correct answer which represents ⅕ of a point. In other words, five (05)

dashes represent a full point gained by a given student for any positive behaviour. In fact, the

student is rewarded for each of the following achievements in grammar class.

● When the student does his/her homework or exercise regardless of the correctness of the

answers.

● When s/he answers correctly any written assignment given by the teacher in the class.

● When s/he answers correctly some difficult oral questions asked by the teacher.

73
 Rewarding Attendance

The teacher counts the number of each student‟s absences during the whole semester.

The students in the two EXP. groups were told right from the beginning of the year that the

students with absolutely no absence would gain two (02) points. Students with only one

absence during the whole semester would gain one (1) point and students with two absences

would gain half a point (½).

3.3.2.2 Short-term Rewards: Positive Comments and Praise

If the teacher would reward the students for any correct answer with a dash or a point,

the point system will become a kind of obstacle to the teaching operation. Because of time

constraints, we cannot imagine a teaching situation where the teacher gives a point to the

student after any good performance in the class. Yet, the students who participate in a

consistent way and they perform well in the different tasks that take place in the classroom

should be encouraged by the teacher. That is why, it is the teacher‟s genius to distinguish

between difficult answers and tasks which deserve long-term rewards and easy answers for

which the teacher should only make positive comments, verbal praise and appreciation.

As we have seen in Chapter Two, these positive comments and praise (recognition)

represent short-term rewards. Renchler (1992: 11) emphasizes the importance of recognition

in classroom environment. He says that:

There should be extensive use of recognition and rewards in the

school setting. Goals should be established that will provide
opportunities for all students to be recognized, recognize
progress in goal attainment, and emphasize a broad array of
learning activities. Strategies include “personal best” awards and
recognition of a wide range of school-related achievements.

74
In this experiment, students in the two EXP. groups benefited from a combination of the two

types of rewards according to different situations. The researcher decides which assignment

receives long-term rewards and which answer receives short-term rewards as it is illustrated in

the following cases.

● When the student raises his/her hand to be a volunteer in any assignment to be done in the

class, the teacher praises this student which provides him/her with a sense of achievement and

encourages him/her to take part in further assignments.

● When the student answers correctly any oral question, the teacher shows appreciation

towards his/her answers.

● When students miss use the language or perform wrong answers in grammar, the teacher

does not punish or insult them. The teacher just identifies the mistakes and corrects the

answers considering the mistakes or the miss performances as a part of the learning operation.

A Model Lesson (in the EXP. Groups)

The Title of the Lesson: Conditional Sentences

This lesson was done in three hours (two sessions).

Session One

The title of the lesson is written on the blackboard.

The teacher asks the students about the conditional.

Some students raise their hands to answer.

The teacher listens to all the students who raised their hands and she replies to their answers

as follows:

75
“Yes, good”

“Very good!”

“It is not exactly the answer, try again.”

“Good, this is an interesting answer!”

“It is almost an ideal answer, have you read it somewhere?”

The teacher gives a clear definition of the conditional and asks the students to give

examples.

The teacher chooses the best examples given by the students and writes them on the

blackboard.

The teacher identifies the two parts of the conditional sentence:

1st part → condition (if) → reason

2nd part → consequence → result

The teacher explains the following point with examples:

● We have generally the condition then the result. Eg: If you come, I will tell you.

● We can have the result then the condition. Eg: I will tell you if you come.

The teacher asks the students to give examples illustrating the definition and the two cases.

The teacher appreciates the good answers and praises the students with good performances.

The teacher selects one example and writes it on the board .

If she succeeds, I will give her a good present.

76
I will give her a present if she succeeds.

The teacher identifies the four (4) situations according to which the tense used in the

conditional sentence is determined.

The teacher explains the situations and the students are asked to give an example for each

situation

Situation One:

● The condition expresses a general fact, a rule. The tense used in the two parts is the Pr.S

Eg: If you heat ice, it melts. Ice melts if you heat ice.

In addition to the examples given by the teacher, the students write some other examples

selected by the teacher from their own answers. After each answer, students benefit from

some positive comments especially if the answer is correct.

Situation Two:

● The consequence of the condition is in the future.

The tense used in the condition is the Pr.S

The tense used in the consequence is the FS

Eg: If it rains, I will use my umbrella. I will use my umbrella if it rains.

Again, the teacher asks the students to give their own examples and chooses the best ones to

write them on the board.

Situation Three:

●The consequence of the condition is hypothetical (probable) in the future.

77
 The tense used in the condition is the PS

The tense used in the consequence is the Pr. Condi. S

Eg: If I saw a lion, I would run. I would run if I saw a lion.

Student now are very motivated and the do their best to have their answers written on the

board.

Situation Four:

●The reason of an action in the past was not fulfilled.

The tense used in the condition is the P Perf.S

The tense used in the consequence is the P Condi. S

Eg: If I had woken up early, I would not have missed the train.

I would not have missed the train if I had woken up early.

Before the teacher asks them to give examples, the students raise their hands to answer. The

teacher chooses some examples and explains to them that all the answers are good.

The teacher summarizes this part of the lesson and asks the students about any ambiguous

point.

The teacher dictates two exercises and asks the students to do them at home.

Session Two

The teacher controls the students and checks that they have all done both exercises. Every

student who does the two exercises benefits from a dash (-) in the point system.

The teacher recapitulates the major points studied in the previous session.

78
 The students are asked to answer the first exercise using the appropriate tense in the

sentences one by one.

Every student who raises his /her hand and answers correctly benefits from a dash.

If the student‟s answer is wrong the teacher moves to another student until they find the

appropriate tense.

Any student answers wrong does not benefit from a dash but receives no punishment.

The students are asked to justify their answers to make sure that they have understood the

lesson.

The teacher asks the students to answer the second exercise.

The students give their answers and the teacher corrects the mistakes in case of wrong

answers.

The teacher gives them the model answers and makes a recapitulation of the different parts

covered in the whole lesson.

Conclusion

In this chapter, we have given a detailed report of the data collection procedure and the

conditions under which the main study has been made. A model lesson is provided in order to

demonstrate the teaching method used in the control group and the new strategy used in the

experimental groups. Thus, the analysis and the interpretation of the results got from the

experiment are presented in detail in the next chapter.

79
 CHAPTER FOUR

ANTICIPATION REWARDS AND MOTIVATION

DATA ANALYSYS AND RESULTS INTERPRETATION

Introduction

4.1 Analysis of the Results of the Test

4.1.1 The Pre-test

4.1.1.1 The Control Group

4.1.1.2 The Experimental Groups

4.1.1.3 A Graphic Comparison of the Results of the Control Group and of the

Experimental Groups

4.1.2 The Post-test

4.1.2.1 The Control Group

4.1.2.2 The Experimental Groups

4.1.2.3 A Graphic Comparison of the Results of the Control Group and of the

Experimental Groups

4.2 Observation of Students’ Behaviour

4.3 Overall Analysis of the Results

4.3.1 The Control Group

81
4.3.2 The Experimental Groups

Conclusion

81
Introduction

Since the corpus analysis aims mainly at identifying any improvement in the students‟

behaviour and in their results, the data analysis is presented in two ways: a concrete analysis

and interpretation of the results is provided to enable the researcher to validate the hypothesis

or not, and general observations of students‟ behaviour in the class to determine to what

extent the reward strategy is effective in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2.

4.1. Analysis of the Results of the Test

4.1.1 The Pre-test

Central Tendency Dispersion

Group Mean Mode Low Fr High Fr

C 07.85 10.5 02.5 01 13.5 01

EXP. 1 08.24 08.5 02.5 01 13 01

EXP. 2 08.73 07.5 02 01 16.5 01

Table 07: The Pre-test General Observations

Table 07 demonstrates the performance of the participants in the CG and in the two

EXP. groups. Both EXP. groups have shown approximately similar behaviours with slight

differences. Taking into account the Central Tendency and its calculations, the mean of EXP.

G1 is lower than that of EXP. G2 (8.24 <8.73) and the mode displayed by EXP. G1(08.5

occurring 06 times) is higher than that of EXP. G2 (07.5 occurring 05 times). The mean of the

82
CG (07.85) is lower than those of EXP. G1 and EXP. G2; however the mode displayed by the

CG (10.5 occurring 05 times) is higher than those displayed by EXP. G1 and EXP. G2.

In the second part of the table, the dispersion indicators show that the lowest mark

scored in EXP. G1 is 02.5 obtained by only one participant which exactly the same case in the

CG. The lowest score in EXP. G2 is nearly the same; 02 obtained also by one participant. The

highest score in EXP. G1 is 13 obtained by one participant, and the highest score in EXP. G2

is 16.5 obtained by one participant. For the CG, the higher score is 13.5 obtained by one

participant. From these results, we notice that the two EXP. groups displayed similar

performances which are better than the performances of the CG in terms of the mean

indicator. However, the CG seems to perform better than EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 in terms of

the mode indicator. We can say that the three groups displayed similar performances as it is

shown in the global analysis in table 07 with slight differences that can be explained in terms

of individual differences between the participants and their intellectual capacities.

4.1.1.1 The Control Group

Group CG

N° Deleted words Correct %

Answers

1 the 32 86.49
2 at / /
3 late 03 08.11
4 quite 27 72.97
5 but 08 21.62
6 of 27 72.97
7 decided 09 24.32

83
 8 quickly 34 91.89
9 I 34 91.89
10 car 09 24.32
11 in 15 40.54
12 entered 06 16.22
13 way 04 10.81
14 a 17 45.95
15 at 06 16.22
16 some 26 70.27
17 and 19 51.35
18 had 16 43.24
19 easy 02 05.41
20 who 13 35.14
21 had come 15 40.54
22 when 23 62.16
23 Would make 01 02.70
24 myself 14 37.84
25 magazine 18 48.65
26 an 19 51.35
27 until 05 13.51

Table 08: Achievement in the Pre-test (CG)

Table 08 represents the scores displayed by the participants in the CG under the pre-test

conditions. For the sake of organization, the analysis of the results obtained by the

participants in the pre-test is done through the analysis of the deleted words (the blanks) one

by one. For each blank, a table is provided to illustrate the detailed results in the control

group.

84
BLANK 1

CG

Number of Correct %
Blank 1
Answers
the 32 86.49

Table 09: Pre-test Results CG (Blank1)

Table 09 shows that 32 students in the CG found the right word in the blank. The remaining

students answered wrongly putting the indefinite Arti. “a” or leaving the blank empty.

BLANK 2

CG
Blank 2 Number of Correct %
Answers
at / /

Table 10: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 2)

In the CG, no students could find the appropriate word. This could be due to the fact that they

are not familiar with the V “to delay” in this context.

BLANK 3

CG

Blank 3 Number of Correct %

Answers
late 03 08.11

Table 11: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 3)

85
Table 11 reveals that only 03 students found the right word in the blank. The others answered

wrongly; they even put a verb instead of the Adj. “late”.

BLANK 4

CG
Blank 4 Number of Correct %
Answers
quite 27 72.97

Table 12: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 4)

The majority of students (27/37) found the right word or put another accepted answer like

“very”.

BLANK 5

CG
Blank 5 Number of Correct %
Answers
But 08 21.62

Table 13: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 5)

Only 21.62% of the students answered correctly in this blank, even if the word in this context,

but, is not very difficult.

BLANK 6

CG
Blank 6 Number of Correct %
Answers
of 27 72.97

Table 14: Pre-test Results CG (Blank6)

86
Like blank 4, 27 students in the CG found the right word. The other students answered

wrongly; they put other Prep.s or Vs.

BLANK 7

CG
Blank 7 Number of Correct %
Answers
decided 09 24.32

Table 15: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 7)

Only 9 students in this group found the right tense. The other students could neither find the V

nor the appropriate tense.

BLANK 8

CG
Blank 8 Number of Correct %
Answers
quickly 34 91.89

Table 16: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 8)

Because of the grammatical nature of the deleted word, an Adv., and the context in which it

occurs; the majority of students answered correctly.

BLANK 9

CG
Blank Number of Correct %
Answers
I 34 91.89

Table 17: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 9)

87
Table 17 reveals exactly the same results as for the previous blank.

BLANK 10

CG
Blank 10 Number of Correct %
Answers
car 09 24.32

Table 18: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 10)

A large number of students could not provide the right word here. A plausible explanation is

that this mistake is due to lack of concentration.

BLANK 11

CG
Blank 11 Number of Correct %
Answers
in 15 40.54

Table 19: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 11)

In this blank, less than half of the students answered correctly.

BLANK 12

CG
Blank 12 Number of Correct %
Answers
entered 06 16.22

Table 20: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 12)

88
Table 20 shows that only 06 students found the right word. However the remaining students

could neither find the V nor the appropriate tense.

BLANK 13

CG
Blank 13 Number of Correct %
Answers
way 04 10.81

Table 21: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 13)

Again in this blank, only 04 students in the whole group found the appropriate answer.

BLANK 14

CG
Blank 14 Number of Correct %
Answers
a 17 45.95

Table 22: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 14)

Table 22 reveals that less than half of the students answered correctly and found the

appropriate Arti.

BLANK 15

CG
Blank 15 Number of Correct %
Answers
at 06 16.22

Table 23: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 15)

89
Table 23 shows that only 06 students found the right word. However, the remaining students

could not find the Prep. “at”.

BLANK 16

CG
Blank 16 Number of Correct %
Answers
some 26 70.27

Table 24: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 16)

In this blank, a considerable number of students (26) found the right word.

BLANK 17

CG
Blank 17 Number of Correct %
Answers
and 19 51.35

Table 25: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 17)

According to table25, approximately half of the students (19) answered correctly.

BLANK18

CG

Blank 18 Number of Correct %

Answers
had 16 43.24

Table 26: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 18)

Less than half of the students in this group (43.24%) answered correctly in this blank.

91
BLANK 19

CG
Number of Correct %
Blank 19
Answers
easy 02 05.41

Table 27: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 19)

Table 27 reveals that only 02 /37 students in the CG could find the appropriate Adj. “easy”.

BLANK 20

CG
Number of Correct %
Blank 20
Answers
who 13 35.14

Table 28: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 20)

Again, less than half of the students in this group (35.14%) answered correctly in this blank.

BLANK 21

CG
Blank 21 Number of Correct %
Answers
had come 15 40.54

Table 29: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 21)

Table 29 reveals that the majority of students in the CG did not find the appropriate verb and

the appropriate tense, which could be due to the fact that most students complain about tenses

and find them problematic.

91
BLANK 22

CG
Blank 22 Number of Correct %
Answers
when 23 62.16

Table 30: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 22)

In this blank, the majority of students (23) answered correctly.

BLANK 23

CG
Blank 23 Number of Correct %
Answers
Would make 01 02.70

Table 31: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 23)

Table 31 reveals a striking information; only one student out of 37 found the appropriate verb

and the right tense. This could also be due to the fact that most students complain about tenses

and find them problematic.

BLANK 24

CG
Blank 24 Number of Correct %
Answers
myself 14 37.84

Table 32: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 24)

In this blank, 37.84% of the students answered correctly.

92
BLANK 25

CG
Blank 25 Number of Correct %
Answers
magazines 18 48.65

Table 33: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 25)

Table 33 shows that less than half of the students found the correct answer.

BLANK 26

CG
Blank 26 Number of Correct %
Answers
an 19 51.35

Table 34: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 27)

In this blank, 19 students in the CG found the appropriate word, which is the Arti. “an”.

BLANK 27

CG
Blank 27 Number of Correct %
Answers
until 05 13.51

Table 35: Pre-test Results CG (Blank 27)

Only 13, 51% of the students in CG found the right word in this blank.

93
4.1.1.2 The Experimental Groups

Group EXP. G1 EXP. G2

N° Deleted Correct % Correct %

Words Answers Answers

1 the 45 95.74 36 92.31

2 at / / 01 02.56
3 late 09 19.15 12 30.77
4 quite 25 53.19 27 69.23
5 but 08 17.02 08 20.51
6 of 38 80.85 29 74.36
7 decided 11 23.40 07 17.95
8 quickly 41 87.23 37 94.87
9 I 45 95.74 36 92.31
10 car 18 38.30 09 23.08
11 in 23 48.94 22 56.41
12 entered 07 14.90 04 10.26
13 way 07 14.90 07 17.95
14 a 33 70.21 21 53.85
15 at 02 04.26 01 02.56
16 some 36 76.60 33 84.62
17 and 28 59.60 28 71.79
18 had 25 53.19 20 51.28
19 easy 03 06.38 10 25.64
20 who 27 57.45 27 69.23
21 had come 23 48.94 16 41.03
22 when 34 72.34 26 66.67
23 would / / / /
24 myself 17 36.17 11 28.21
25 magazines 18 38.30 19 48.72
26 an 21 44.68 27 69.23

94
 27 until 06 12.77 08 20.51

Table 36: Achievement in the Pre-test (EXP. Groups)

Table 36 above represents the scores displayed by the participants in the experimental

groups under the pre-test conditions.

BLANK 1

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank 1 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

the 45 95.74 36 92.31

Table 37: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 1)

In EXP. G1; 95.74% of the students answered correctly. Similarly in EXP. G2, 92.31% of the

students found the right word.

BLANK 2

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank 2 Correct % %
Correct Answers
Answers

at / / 01 02.56

Table 38: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 2)

95
Among the whole number of the students in the two EXP. groups, only one student in EXP.

G2 found the right word which is the Arti. “at”.

BLANK 3

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank 3 Correct % %
Correct Answers
Answers

late 09 19.15 12 30.77

Table 39: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 3)

In this blank, 09 and 12 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively answered correctly.

BLANK 4

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank 4 Correct % %
Correct Answers
Answers

quite 25 53.19 27 69.23

Table 40: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 4)

Table 40 reveals that 25 and 27 students in EXP. G1and EXP. G2 respectively found the

adequate answer.

96
BLANK 5

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank 5 Correct % %
Correct Answers
Answers

but 08 17.02 08 20.51

Table 41: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 5)

The same number of students (08) in each of the two EXP. groups answered correctly.

BLANK 6

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank 6 Correct % %
Correct Answers
Answers

of 38 80.85 29 74.36

Table 42: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 6)

According to table 42, 38 and 29 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively found the

appropriate Prep. , which is “of”.

97
BLANK 7

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank 7 Correct % %
Correct Answers
Answers

decided 11 23.40 07 17.95

Table 43: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 7)

According to table 43, only 11 and 07 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively found

the right verb in the right tense.

BLANK 8

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank 8 Correct % %
Correct Answers
Answers

quickly 41 87.23 37 94.87

Table 44: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 8)

Table 44 reveals that the two EXP. groups displayed similar percentages of correct answers

(87.23% and 94.87% in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively).

98
BLANK 9

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank 9 Correct % %
Correct Answers
Answers

I 45 95.74 36 92.31

Table 45: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 9)

Again in this blank, the two EXP. groups displayed similar percentages of correct answers

(95.74% and 92.31% in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively).

BLANK 10

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank 10 Correct % %
Correct Answers
Answers

Car 18 32.30 09 23.08

Table 46: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 10)

Table 46 shows that only 18 and 09 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively answered

correctly.

99
BLANK 11

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank 11 Correct % %
Correct Answers
Answers

in 23 48.94 22 56.41

Table 47: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 11)

The two EXP. groups displayed similar percentages of correct answers (48.94% and 56.41%

in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively).

BLANK 12

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank 12 Correct % %
Correct Answers
Answers

entered 07 14.90 04 10.26

Table 48: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 12)

Table 48 shows that only 07 and 04 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively answered

correctly.

111
BLANK 13

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank 13 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

way 07 14.90 07 17.95

Table 49: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 13)

The same number of students in both groups (07) found the appropriate word in this blank.

BLANK 14

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank 14 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

a 33 70.21 21 53.85

Table 50: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 14)

Table 50 reveals different scores; 70.21% of the students in EXP. G1 answered correct;

however, only 53.85% of the students in EXP. G2 could find the appropriate Arti.

111
BLANK 15

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank 15 Correct % %
Correct Answers
Answers

at 02 04.26 01 02.56

Table 51: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 15)

Table 51 shows that 02 students in EXP. G1 and only 01 student in EXP. G2 answered

correctly.

BLANK 16

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank16 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

some 36 76.60 33 84.62

Table 52: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 16)

According to table 52, 36 and 33 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively found the

appropriate word.

112
BLANK 17

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank17 % Correct %
Correct Answers
Answers

and 28 59.60 28 71.79

Table 53: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 17)

The same number of students in both groups (28) found the appropriate word in this blank.

BLANK 18

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank18 Correct % correct %
Answers Answers

had 25 53.19 20 51.28

Table 54: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 18)

The two EXP. groups displayed similar percentages of correct answers (48.94% and 56.41%

in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively).

113
BLANK 19

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank19 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

easy 03 06.38 10 25.64

Table 55: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 19)

In this blank, only 03 students in EXP. G1 and 10 students in EXP. G2 answered correctly.

BLANK 20

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank20 % Correct %
Correct Answers
Answers

who 27 57.45 27 69.23

Table 56: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 20)

In this blank also, we have the same number of students in both groups (27) who found the

appropriate word in this blank.

114
BLANK 21

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank21 % Correct %
Correct Answers
Answers

had come 23 48.94 16 41.03

Table 57: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 21)

According to this table, the two EXP. groups displayed similar percentages of correct answers

(48.94% and 41.03% in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively).

BLANK 22

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank22 % Correct %
Correct Answers
Answers

when 34 72.34 26 66.67

Table 58: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 22)

In this blank, a high number of students in each group (34 and 26 in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2

respectively) found the right word.

115
BLANK 23

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank23 % Correct %
Correct Answers
Answers

would
/ / / /
make

Table 59: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 23)

In this blank, no student in the two EXP. groups could find the right verb in the appropriate

tense.

BLANK 24

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank24 % Correct Percentage%
Correct Answers
Answers

myself 17 36.17 11 28.21

Table 60: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 24)

Table 60 shows that 17 students in EXP. G1 and only 11 students in EXP. G2 answered

correctly.

116
BLANK 25

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank25 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

magazines 18 38.30 19 48.72

Table 61: Pre-test Results EXP G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 25)

This table reveals that 18 students in EXP. G1 and 19 students in EXP G2 found the

appropriate word “magazines”.

BLANK 26

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank26 % Correct %
Correct Answers
Answers

an 21 44.68 27 69.23

Table 62: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 26)

Table 62 reveals different scores; 44.68% of the students in EXP. G1 answered correctly

however; 69.23% of the students in EXP. G2 could find the right word.

117
BLANK 27

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of
Number of
Blank27 % Correct %
Correct Answers
Answers

until 06 12.77 08 20.51

Table 63: Pre-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 27)

Table 63 shows that only 06 students in EXP. G1 and 08 students in EXP. G2 answered

correctly.

4.1.1.3 Graphic Comparative Analysis of the Results

In the following section, the analysis of the results obtained by the participants in the

CG and in the two EXP. groups under the pre-test conditions is done through comparison of

the results in the three groups CG, EXP. G1and EXP. G2. The data is shown graphically,

describing with details the main differences in performance between the participants. For each

blank, a graph is provided to illustrate the results in the three groups.

118
BLANK 1

In the two experimental groups the majority of students (95.74 % and 92.31%) found

the appropriate word which is the article “the”. Only two students in EXP. G1 and three

students in EXP. G2 put the indefinite article “a”. Similarly in the CG, 86.49 % of the

students answered correctly, which shows that the level of the students in the three groups is

approximately the same. The majority of the students did not have a problem to find the

appropriate article in the sentence “I learnt that the plane from Cairo…” For some reasons

(lack of concentration or lack of motivation), the few remaining students answered wrongly,

putting the article “a” instead of “the”.

100 95.74 92.31 86.49

percentage of correct answers

75

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 01: Percentage of Correct Answers (Pre-test /

Blank1)

119
BLANK 2

Among the123 students in the three groups, only one (01) student in EXP. G2

answered correctly. All the other students could not find the preposition “at”. The verb “to

delay” is less frequent used in the second year students‟ language, which may explain the fact

that students did not find the appropriate preposition.

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50

25
0% 02.56 0%
0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 02: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank2)

111
BLANK 3

The answers of this blank are somehow different from one group to another. While

19.15% of the students in EXP. G1 answered correctly, 30.77% of the students in EXP. G2

found the right answer. However, in the CG, only 08.11% of the participants found the right

answer.

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50
30.77
19.15
25
08.11

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 03: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank3)

111
BLANK 4

Unlike the three previous blanks, in this blank, the number of correct answers in the

CG is higher than that in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2. 72.97% of the students in the CG answered

correctly, while 53.19% and 69.23% of the students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively

answered correctly.

100
percentage of correct answers

69.23 72.97
75
53.19

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 04: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank4)

112
BLANK 5

The number of correct answers in the three groups is similar; 17.02% in EXP. G1,

20.51% in EXP. G2 and 21, 62% in the CG. Although the conjunction “but” in such a

sentence” but that evening, I had a headache …” seems obvious, a high number of students in

the three groups answered wrongly. Studying the wrong answers in this blank, we have found

that a significant number of students put a preposition in the blank (at, in, on) because of the

expression “that evening”.

100
correct answers

75

50
21.62
percentage of

17.02 20.51
25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 05: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank5)

(Pre-test / Blank5)

113
BLANK 6

The number of the correct answers is high in the three groups with slight differences.

Yet, a considerable number of students in each group did not find the adequate word “of”. In

this blank, answers like “was, in, and, with…” show to what extent students are not interested

to look for the appropriate word; they write any word in the blank just to provide an answer.

100
80.85
percentage of correct answers

74.36 72.97
75

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 06: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank6)

114
BLANK 7

Only 23.40%, 17.95% and 24.32% of the students in EXP. G1, EXP. G2 and the CG

respectively found the appropriate word in this blank. The other students either could not find

the exact verb or found the verb but they did not put it in the appropriate tense. Some students

did not find the verb and the tense; they used other words like “was, usually”.
percentage of correct answers

100

75

50
23.40 24.32
17.95
25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 07: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank7)

115
BLANK 8

In this blank, a high percentage of students in each group (87.23% in EXP. G1,

94.87% in EXP. G2 and 91.89% in the CG) answered correctly and found the appropriate

adverb “quickly”.

94.87 91.89
100 87.23
percentage of correct answers

75

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 08: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank8)

Groups

Graph 08: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank8)

116
BLANK 9

It is not surprising at all to have such high percentage of correct answers (95.74%,

92.31%, and 91.89% in EXP. G1, EXP. G2, and the CG respectively). In a sentence where the

subject is missing, students did not face any difficulty to find the appropriate subject which is

the pronoun “I”.

percentage of correct answers

95,74 92,31 91,89

100

75

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 09: Percentage of correct answers

(Pre-test / Blank9)

117
BLANK 10

In EXP. G1, 38.30% of the students found the exact word. However, in EXP. G2, only

23.08% of the students answered correctly. Similarly in the CG, 24.32% of the students

answered correctly. The students‟ answers in this blank show that the students do not

concentrate when they read the text. They do not read the whole sentence; they only read the

part that includes the gap. In this blank for example, if the students read the whole sentence:

“I went back to the place where I left my………..to make sure that all the doors were

locked.”, they would have certainly found that the missing word “car” not “brother, place,

head or luggage”.
percentage of correct answers

100

75

50
32,3
23,08 24,32
25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 10: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank10)

118
BLANK 11

In this blank, students‟ answers differ from one group to another. In EXP. G1, 48.94%

of the students answered correctly. In EXP. G2, 56.41% of the students found the correct

answer and in the CG, 40.54% of the students answered correctly.

100
percentage of correct answers

75
56.41
48.94
40.54
50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 11: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank11)

119
BLANK 12

Only 14.90%, 10.26% and 16.22% of the students in EXP. G1, EXP. G2 and the CG

respectively answered correctly. What is surprising is not the percentage of correct answers

but the nature of the wrong answers. In a sentence like “I felt slightly better as I

…………..the main airport building again”, we expect the verb “entered” or similar verbs like

“returned to”. However, some students put the following words: into, car, in, am, some…

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50

14.90 16.22
25 10.26

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 12: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank12)

121
BLANK 13

In this blank, we have low percentages of correct answers in the three groups. The

nature of the expression which includes the blank may explain the reason of such low results;

Second Year English students may not be familiar with the expression: “To make your way”;

that is why they could not find the word “way” in this context.

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50

14.90 17.95
25 10.81

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 13: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank13)

121
BLANK 14

In this blank, students‟ answers differ from one group to another. In EXP. G1, 70.21%

of the students answered correctly and in EXP. G2, 53.85% of the students found the correct

answer. The lowest percentage is scored in the CG (45.95%).

100
percentage of correct answers

70.21
75
53.85
45.95
50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 14: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank14)

122
BLANK 15

In the two EXP. groups, the percentage of correct answers is very low. Only 04.26%

of the students in EXP. G1 answered correctly and 02.56% of the students in EXP. G2

answered correctly. In comparison with these results, the percentage of correct answers in the

CG is somehow high (16.22%).

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50

25 16.22
04.26 02.56
0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 15: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank15)

123
BLANK 16

The percentage of correct answers in this blank is considerably high in the three

groups (76.60%, 84.62% and 70.27% in EXP. G1, EXP. G2 and the CG respectively). Yet,

some students had difficulties to find the appropriate determiner “some”, which has resulted

in answers like: “as, then, but, when, in….”.

100 84.64
76.60
percentage of correct answers

70.27
75

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 16: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank16)

124
BLANK 17

In this sentence, “and kept looking at their watches”, finding the appropriate

conjunction “and” is not very difficult. Yet, we have considerable percentages of wrong

answers in the three groups (40.40% in EXP. G1, 28.21% in EXP. G2 and 48.65% in the CG)

100
percentage of correct answers

71.79
75 59.60
51.35

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 17: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank17)

125
BLANK 18

In this blank, we have an average rate of correct answers in each group. In EXP. G1,

we have 53.19% of correct answers; in EXP. G2, 51.28% of correct answers, and 43.24% in

the CG.

100
percentage of correct answers

75
53.19
51.28
43.24
50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 18: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank18)

126
BLANK 19

In EXP. G1, only 06.38% of the students found the right adjective. The percentage of

correct answers in the CG is likewise low (05.41%). Unlike the results of EXP. G1 and the

CG, the percentage of correct answers in EXP. G2 is relatively high (25.64%).

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50
25.64
25 06.83 05.41

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 19: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank19)

127
BLANK 20

In EXP. G1, 57.45% of the students answered rightly. In EXP. G2, a higher number

of students answered rightly (69.23). Comparing these results with those of the CG, the latter

displays lower percentages (35.14%).

100
percentage of correct answers

69.23
75 57.45

50 35.14

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 20: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank20)

128
BLANK 21

In this blank, we have similar rates of correct answers in the three groups (48.94% in

EXP. G1, 41.03% in EXP. G2 and 40.54% in the C G).

100
Percentage of correct answers

75
48.94
50 41.03 40.54

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 21: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank21)

129
BLANK 22

In this blank, the highest percentage of correct answers is scored in EXP.

G1(72.34%).Then we have 66.67% of correct answers in EXP. G2 and 62.16% of correct

answers in the CG.

100
Percentage of correct answers

72.34
66.67
75 62.16

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 22: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank22)

131
BLANK 23

For the students in the three groups alike, it was difficult to find the missing word.

Among the total number of the participant (123), only one student in the CG found the correct

answer. The missing word in this blank is the verb “to make” in the conditional “would

make”. The results demonstrate that tenses, especially the conditional, are problematic.
Percentage of correct answers

100

75

50

25
0 0 02.70

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 23: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank23)

131
BLANK 24

In this blank, 36.17% of the students in EXP. G1 answered rightly. An approximate

percentage has been scored in the CG (37.84%), while 28.21% of the students answered

rightly in EXP. G2.

100
Percentage of correct answers

75

50 36.17 37.84
28.21

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 24: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank24)

132
BLANK 25

Despite the fact that the missing word in this blank is not difficult, only 38.30% of the

students in EXP. G1 found the correct answer. A higher percentage is scored in EXP. G2

(48.72%) and in the CG (48.65%).

100
Percentage of correct answers

75

48.72 48.65
50 38.30

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 25: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank25)

133
BLANK 26

In this blank, we have different percentages of correct answers. In EXP. G1, we have

the lowest percentage of the correct answers (44.68%). In EXP. G2, we have the highest

percentage (69.23%) however in the CG, 51.35% of the students answered correctly.

100
Percentage of correct answers

69.23
75
51.35
44.68
50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 26: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank26)

134
BLANK 27

In the last blank, the percentages of correct answers in the three groups were not high.

In EXP. G1, only 12.77% of the students found the appropriate word “until”, in EXP. G2,

20.51% answered rightly, and in the CG, 13.51% of the students answered rightly.
Percentage of correct answers

100

75

50
20.51
25 12.77 13.51

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 27: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Pre-test / Blank27)

135
4.1.2 The Post-test

Central Tendency Dispersion

Group Mean Mode Low Fr High Fr

C 07.93 06.5 03 01 14.5 01

EXP.1 09.60 07.5 04.5 02 15.5 01

EXP. 2 10.27 08. .50 05.5 02 15 01

Table 64: The Post-test General Observations

Table 64 presents the performances of the participants in the three groups in the post-

test. In terms of the central tendency, the second EXP. group is the best (mean=10.27 and

mode=0 8.5 & 11.5). The first EXP. group is in the second place (mean=09.6 and mode=

07.5). The CG is in the third place (mean = 07.93 and mode =06.5). The dispersion indicators

show that the lowest mark scored in the CG is 03 obtained by one student. In EXP. G1, the

lowest score is 04.5 obtained by two participants. In EXP. G2, the lowest score is 05.5

obtained also by two participants. Concerning the highest marks, EXP. G1 is the best; the

highest mark scored in this group is 15.5 obtained by one student. The highest score in EXP.

G2 is 15 obtained by one student and the highest score in the CG is 14.5 obtained also by one

student. Comparing these data with those displayed by the participants in the pre-test we find

that the three groups performed better in the post-test.

136
4.1.2.1 The Control Group

Group C

N° Deleted Words Correct Answers %

1 the 34 91.89
2 at / /
3 late 03 08.11
4 quite 25 67.57
5 but 07 18.92
6 of 24 64.86
7 decided 10 27.03
8 quickly 32 86.49
9 I 37 100
10 car 18 48.65
11 in 19 51.35
12 entered 04 10.81
13 way 08 21.62
14 a 20 54.05
15 at 04 10.81
16 some 26 70.27
17 and 26 70.27
18 had 18 48.65
19 easy 05 13.51
20 who 20 54.05
21 had come 21 56.76

22 when 23 62.16

23 would / /
24 myself 13 35.14
25 magazine 20 54.05
26 an 19 51.35

137
 27 until 10 27.03

Table 65: Achievement in the Post-test (CG)

Table 65 represents the scores displayed by the participants in the CG under the post-

test conditions. As we have done in the pre-test, the analysis of the results is done through the

analysis of the deleted words (the blanks) one by one.

BLANK 1

CG

Blank 1 Number of Correct %

Answers

the 34 91.89

Table 66: Post-test Results CG (Blank 1)

In this blank, a high number of the students (34) found the appropriate Arti. “the”.

BLANK 2

CG

Blank 2 Number of Correct %

Answers

at / /

Table 67: Post-test Results CG (Blank2)

In this blank, no students among 37 students in the CG could find the right word which is the

Prep. “at”

138
BlLANK 3

CG

Blank 3 Number of Correct %

Answers

late 03 08.11

Table 68: Post-test Results CG (Blank 3)

According to table 68, only 3 students answered correctly in this blank.

BLANK 4

CG

Blank 4 Number of Correct %

Answers

quite 25 67.57

Table 69: Post-test Results CG (Blank 4)

Table 69 shows that a high percentage of students (67.57%) answered correctly.

BLANK 5

CG

Blank 5 Number of Correct %

Answers

but 07 18.92

Table 70: Post-test Results CG (Blank 5)

139
According to table70, only 07 students among the whole number of students in the CG

answered correctly in this blank.

BLANK 6

CG

Blank 6 Number of Correct %

Answers

of 24 64.86

Table 71: Post-test Results CG (Blank 6)

Table 71 reveals that a considerable number of students (24) found the appropriate Prep.

BLANK 7

CG

Blank 7 Number of Correct %

Answers

decided 10 27.03

Table 72: Post-test Results CG (Blank 7)

According to table 72, only 10 students among the whole number of students in the CG

answered correctly in this blank.

141
BLANK 8

CG

Blank 8 Number of Correct %

Answers

quickly 32 86.49

Table 73: Post-test Results CG (Blank 8)

The majority of students in the CG (86.49%) answered correctly in this blank and found the

right Adv. “quickly”.

BLANK 9

CG

Blank 9 Number of Correct %

Answers
I 37 100

Table 74: Post-test Results CG (Blank 9)

In this blank, all the students in the CG found the missing word and answered correctly.

BLANK 10

CG

Blank 10 Number of Correct %

Answers

car 18 48.65

Table 75: Post-test Results CG (Blank 10)

141
Concerning this blank, less than half of the students (48.65%) answered correctly and found

the appropriate N “car”.

BLANK 11

CG

Blank 11 Number of Correct %

Answers
in 19 51.35

Table 76: Post-test Results CG (Blank 11)

In this blank, we have approximately the same results as those in the previous blank

(51.35%).

BLANK 12

CG

Blank 12 Number of Correct %

Answers
entered 04 10.81

Table 77: Post-test Results CG (Blank 12)

Table 77 shows that only 04 students in the CG found the right answer. The other students

could not find either the verb or the tense.

142
BLANK 13

CG

Blank 13 Number of Correct %

Answers
way 08 21.62

Table 78: Post-test Results CG (Blank 13)

Again in this blank, only 04 students, as table 78 shows, in the CG found the right answer.

BLANK 14

CG

Blank 14 Number of Correct %

Answers
a 20 54.05

Table 79: Post-test Results CG (Blank 14)

As shown in table 79, 20 students found the appropriate answer in this blank.

BLANK 15

CG

Blank 15 Number of Correct %

Answers
at 04 10.81

Table 80: Post-test Results CG (Blank 15)

143
Table 80 reveals that only 04 students in the CG found the right answer. The other students

could not find the appropriate Prep.

BLANK 16

CG

Blank 16 Number of Correct %

Answers
some 26 70.27

Table 81: Post-test Results CG (Blank 16)

In this blank, a high percentage of students (70.27%) answered correctly.

BLANK 17

CG

Blank 17 Number of Correct %

Answers

and 26 70.27

Table 82: Post-test Results CG (Blank 17)

Just like the previous blank, 70.27% of students answered correctly.

144
BLANK 18

CG

Blank 18 Number of Correct %

Answers
had 18 48.65

Table 83: Post-test Results CG (Blank 18)

Table 83 shows that less than half of the students (48.65%) answered correctly.

BLANK 19

CG

Blank 19 Number of Correct %

Answers

easy 05 13.51

Table 84: Post-test Results CG (Blank 19)

In this blank, only 05 students among the whole number of students in the CG found the

appropriate Adj. “easy”.

145
BLANK 20

CG

Blank 20 Number of Correct %

Answers

who 20 54.05

Table 85: Post-test Results CG (Blank 20)

As shown in table 85, 20 students found the appropriate answer in this blank.

BLANK 21

CG

Blank 21 Number of Correct %

Answers

had come 21 56.76

Table 86: Post-test Results CG (Blank 21)

More than half of the students in the CG found the right V “to come” and put it in the

appropriate tense.

146
BLANK 22

CG

Blank 22 Number of Correct Percentage %

Answers
when 23 62.16

Table 87: Post-test Results CG (Blank 22)

Table 87 reveals that 23 students in the CG answered correctly in this blank.

BLANK 23

CG

Blank 23 Number of Correct %

Answers

Would make / /

Table 88: Post-test Results CG (Blank 23)

As shown in table 88, no students in the CG found the right verb or the right tense.

BLANK 24

CG

Blank 24 Number of Correct %

Answers

myself 13 35.14

Table 89: Post-test Results CG (Blank 24)

147
As table 89 reveals, 13 students found the missing word and answered correctly in this blank.

BLANK 25

CG

Blank 25 Number of Correct %

Answers

magazines 20 54.05

Table 90: Post-test Results CG (Blank 25)

Table 90 shows that 20 students found the appropriate answer in this blank.

BLANK 26

CG

Blank 26 Number of Correct %

Answers

an 19 51.35

Table 91: Post-test Results CG (Blank 26)

In this blank, we approximately have half of the student answered correctly.

BLANK 27

CG

Blank 27 Number of Correct %

Answers
until 10 27.03

Table 92: Post-test Results CG (Blank 27)

148
As shown in table 92, only 10 students in the CG answered correctly in this blank.

4.1.2.2 The Experimental Groups

Groups
EXP. 1 EXP. 2

Correct Correct
N° Blank 27 % %
Answers Answers

1 the 46 97.87 37 94.87

2 at 01 02.13 02 05.13

3 late 14 29.79 23 58.97

4 quite 26 05.32 27 69.23

5 but 08 17.02 04 10.26

6 of 42 89.36 35 89.74

7 decided 13 27.66 10 25.64

8 quickly 45 95.74 39 100

9 I 47 100 39 100

10 car 18 38.30 20 51.28

11 in 27 57.45 20 51.28

12 entered 11 23.40 9 23.08

13 way 11 23.40 06 15.38

14 a 30 63.83 35 89.74

15 at 02 04.26 03 07.69

16 some 42 89.36 30 76.92

17 and 37 78.72 28 71.79

18 had 30 63.83 21 53.85

19 easy 04 08.51 12 30.77

149
 20 who 24 51.06 30 76.92

21 had come 33 70.21 23 58.97

22 when 40 85.11 33 84.62

23 would make / / 01 02.56

24 myself 23 48.94 22 56.41

25 magazines 21 44.68 20 51.28

26 an 26 55.32 28 71.79

until
27 15 31.91 11 28.21

Table 93: Achievement in the Post-test (EXP. Groups)

Table 93 represents the scores displayed by the participants in the two EXP. groups

under the post-test conditions. As we have done in the pre-test, the analysis of the results is

done through the analysis of the deleted words (the blanks) one by one.

BLA NK 1

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank 1 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

The 46 97.87 37 94.87

Table 94: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 1)

In this blank, the two EXP. groups displayed similar percentages of correct answers (97.87%

and 94.87% in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively).

151
BLANK 2

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank 2 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

at 01 02.13 02 05.13

Table 95: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 2)

Table 95 shows that only 01 student in EXP. G1 and 02 students in EXP. G2 found the right

Prep. “at”

BLANK 3

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank 3 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

late 14 29.79 23 58.97

Table 96: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 3)

In this blank, the two EXP. groups displayed different scores; 14 students in EXP. G1

answered correctly whereas 23 students in EXP. G2 found the right word.

151
BLANK 4

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank 4 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

quite 26 55.32 27 69.23

Table 97: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 4)

As table 97 reveals, 26 and27 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 found the appropriate word

in this blank.

BLANK 5

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank 5 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

but 08 17.02 04 10.26

Table 98: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 5)

Table 98 reveals that only 08 students in EXP. G1 and 04 students in EXP. G2 found the right

answer in this blank.

152
BLANK 6

EXP. G 1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank 6 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

of 42 89.36 35 89.74

Table 99: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 6)

In this blank, the two EXP. groups have approximately the same scores of correct answers

(97.87% and 94.87% in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively).

BLANK 7

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank7 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

decided 13 27.66 10 25.64

Table 100: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 7)

Table 100 shows that only 13 and 10 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively found

the right verb and the right tense.

153
BLANK 8

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank8 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

quickly 45 95.74 39 100

Table 101: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 8)

In this blank, both EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 displayed high percentages of correct answers;

95.74% and 100% respectively.

BLANK 9

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank9 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

I 47 100 39 100

Table 102: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 9)

As shown in table102, all the students in both EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 found the appropriate

Pron. “I”.

154
BLANK 10

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank01 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

car 18 38.30 20 51.28

Table 103: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 10)

Unlike the previous blank, only 18 and 20 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively

answered correctly.

BLANK 11

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank00 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

in 27 57.45 20 51.28

Table 104: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 11)

In this blank, the two EXP. groups displayed similar percentages of correct answers (57.45%

and 51.28% in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively).

155
BLANK 12

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank02 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

entered 11 23.40 09 23.08

Table105: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 12)

In this blank, the two EXP. groups have approximately the same scores of correct answers

(23.40% and 23.08% in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively).

BLANK 13

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank03 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

way 11 23.40 06 15.38

Table 106: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 13)

Table 106 shows that only 11 and 06 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively found

the right N “way”.

156
BLANK 14

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank04 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

a 30 63.83 35 89.74

Table 107: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 14)

Table 107 reveals that 30 and 35 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 found the appropriate

word in this blank which is the Arti. “a”.

BLANK 15

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank05 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

at 02 04.26 03 07.69

Table 108: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 15)

As shown in table 108, only 02 and 03 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively found

the right verb and the Prep. “at”.

157
BLANK 16

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank06 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

some 42 89.36 30 76.92

Table 109: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 16)

According to table 109, 42 and 30 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 found the appropriate

word in this blank.

BLANK 17

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank17 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

and 37 78.72 28 71.79

Table 110: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 17)

The two EXP. groups displayed similar percentages of correct answers (78.72% and 71.79%

in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively).

158
BLANK 18

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank08 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

had 30 63.83 21 53.85

Table 111: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 18)

As table 111 reveals, 30 and 21 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively found the

right verb and put it in the appropriate tense.

BLANK 19

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank19 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

easy 04 08.51 12 30.77

Table 112: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 19)

In this blank, only 04 and 12students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively found the right

Adj. “easy”.

159
BLANK 20

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank20 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

who 24 51.06 30 76.92

Table 113: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 20)

The two EXP. groups displayed here different scores; 24 students in EXP. G1 answered

correctly whereas 30 students in EXP. G2 found the right word.

BLANK 21

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank21 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

had come 33 70.21 23 58.97

Table 114: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 21)

Again in this blank, both EXP. groups displayed here different scores; 33 students in EXP. G1

answered correctly whereas 23students in EXP. G2 found the right verb and put it in the right

tense.

161
BLANK 22

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank22 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

when 40 85.11 33 84.62

Table 115: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 22)

In this blank, both EXP. groups have approximately the same scores of correct answers

(85.11% and 84.62% in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively).

BLANK 23

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank23 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

would
/ / 01 02.65
make

Table 116: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 23)

As table 116 reveals, no student in EXP. G1 found the right verb in the right tense whereas

only one student in EXP. G2 answered correctly.

161
BLANK 24

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank24 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

myself 23 48.94 22 56.41

Table 117: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 24)

Table 117 shows that 23 and 22 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively answered

correctly in this blank.

BLANK 25

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank25 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

magazines 21 44.68 20 51.28

Table 118: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 25)

In this blank, 21 and 20 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively answered correctly

and found the appropriate word.

162
BLANK 26

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank26 Correct % Correct %
Answers Answers

an 26 55.32 28 71.79

Table 119: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 26)

According to table 119, 26 and 28 students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively answered

correctly and found the appropriate Arti. “an”.

BLANK 27

EXP. G1 EXP. G2

Number of Number of
Blank27 correct % correct %
answers answers

until 15 31.91 11 28.21

Table 120: Post-test Results EXP. G1 & EXP. G2 (Blank 27)

In this blank, only 15 and 11students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively answered

correctly.

163
4.1.2.3 Graphic Comparative Analysis of the Results

In the following section, the analysis of the results obtained by the participants in the

CG and in the two EXP. groups under the post-test conditions is done through comparison of

the results in the three groups CG, EXP. G1and EXP. G2 taking into consideration the results

obtained in the pre-test. The data is shown graphically describing with details the main

differences in performance between the participants. For each blank, a graph is provided to

illustrate the results in the three groups.

BLANK 1

In terms of the highest score, EXP. G1 remains the first with the highest percentage of

correct answers (97.87%), EXP. G2 is in the second place (94.87%) and the CG is in the third

place (91.89%). In terms of difference improvement; the CG is the best (05.4), EXP. G2 is in

the second place (02.56) and EXP. G1 is in the third place (02.13).

97.87 94.87 91.89

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 28: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank1)
164
BLANK 2

The three groups displayed very low scores; the percentage of correct answers is

02.13%, 05.13% and 0% in EXP. G1, EXP. G2, and the CG respectively. In terms of

difference improvement; the two EXP. groups display approximate results (EXP. G1 /02.13

and EXP. G2 / 02.57) while the CG displays a null difference improvement (0).

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50

25
02.13 05.13
0
0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 29: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank2)

165
BLANK 3

In terms of the highest score, EXP. G2 is the best group with the highest score

(58.97%). EXP. G1 is in the second place (29.79%). However, the percentage of correct

answers in the CG is the same as in the pre-test. In terms of difference improvement; EXP.

G2 shows the highest difference improvement (28.2). EXP. G1 shows a lower score (10.64)

while the CG also displays a null difference improvement in this blank.

100
percentage of correct answers

75 58.97

50
29.79

25
08.11

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 30: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank3)

166
BLANK 4

In terms of the highest score, again EXP. G2 is the best group with the highest score

(69.23%). The CG is in the second place with the second percentage of correct answers

(67.57%) and EXP. G1 in the third place (55.32%). In terms of difference improvement; EXP.

G1 shows the highest difference improvement (02.13), EXP. G2 displays a null difference

improvement (0) while the CG displays the lowest difference improvement (-05.4).

100
percentage of correct answers

69.23 67.57
75
55.32

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph31: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank4)

167
BLANK 5

The results in this blank are unexpected; the percentage of correct answers in EXP. G1

is the same as in the pre-test which means that EXP. G1 displays a null difference

improvement. In EXP. G2, the percentage of the correct answers is lower than that in the pre-

test (D I = -10, 25). In the CG, the percentage of the correct answers is also lower than that

displayed in the pre-test (D I =- 2, 7).

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50

17.02 18.92
25 10.26

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 32: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank5)

168
BLANK 6

The percentage of correct answers in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 is approximately the

same (89.36% and 89.74% respectively). In the CG, the percentage of the correct answers is

64.86%. In terms of the difference improvement, EXP. G2 shows the highest score (15.38)

then EXP. G1 in the second place (08.51) and the CG in the third place with the lowest score

(-08.11).

89.36 89.74
100
percentage of correct answers

75 64.86

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 33: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank6)

169
BLANK 7

The percentage of correct answers in EXP. G1 and the CG is approximately the same

(27.66 % and 27.03% respectively). The percentage of the correct answers in EXP. G2 is also

similar (25.64%). In terms of the difference improvement, EXP. G2 shows the highest score

(07.69) then EXP. G1 in the second place (04.26) and the CG in the third place with the

lowest score (02.68).

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50
27.66 25.64 27.03
25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 34: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank7)

171
BLANK 8

The percentage of correct answers in the three groups is high (95.74%, 100% and

86.49% in EXP. G1, EXP. G2 and the CG respectively). In terms of the difference

improvement, EXP. G1 shows the highest score (08.51) then EXP. G2 (05.13) and the CG in

the third place with the lowest score (-05.4).

95.74 100
100 86.49
percentage of correct answers

75

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 35: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank8)

171
BLANK 9

In this blank, we have a whole percentage of correct answers in the three groups

(100% in EXP. G1, EXP. G2 and the CG). In terms of the difference improvement results, the

CG is the best with the highest difference improvement (08.11) then we have EXP. G2 in the

second place (07.69) and EXP. G1 in the third place with the lowest score (04.26).

100 100 100

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 36: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank9)

172
BLANK 10

The percentage of correct answers in this Blank differs from one group to another.

We have 38.30% in EXP. G1; 51.28% in EXP. G2 and 48.65% in the CG. EXP. G1 shows the

same percentage as in the pre-test that is why it displays a null difference improvement

(DI=0). EXP. G2 displays a high difference improvement (DI=17.8) and the CG displays the

highest score in this blank (DI=24.33).

100
percentage of correct answers

75
51.28 48.65
50 38.3

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 37: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank10)

173
BLANK 11

The percentage of correct answers in EXP. G2 and the CG is approximately the same

(51.28% and 51.35% respectively). In EXP. G1, the percentage of correct answers is 57.45%.

In this blank, the highest difference improvement is scored in the CG (10.81) then we have

EXP. G1 in the second place (08.51) and EXP. G2 in the third place with the lowest score (-

05.13).

100
percentage of correct answers

75 57.45
51.28 51.35
50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 38: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank11)

174
BLANK 12

The percentage of correct answers in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 is approximately the

same (23.40% and 23.08% respectively). The percentage of correct answers in the CG is

somehow lower (10.81%). In terms of the difference improvement, EXP. G2 shows the

highest score (12.82). EXP. G1 is in the second place (08. 5) and the CG in the third place

with the lowest score (-05.41).

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50
23.4 23.08
25 10.81

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 39: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank12)

175
BLANK 13

The percentage of correct answers in EXP. G1 is 23.40%; in EXP. G2, it is 15.38%

and in the CG, it is 21.62%. In terms of the difference improvement, the CG shows the

highest score (10.81). EXP. G1 is in the second place (08.5) and EXP. G2 in the third place

with the lowest score (-02.57).

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50
23.4 21.62
25 15.38

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 40: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank13)

176
BLANK 14

In this blank, the highest percentage of correct answers is scored in EXP. G2

(89.74%), then in EXP. G1 (63.83%) and the CG (54.05%). EXP. G2 also displays the highest

difference improvement (35.89), the CG displays a lower score (08.1) and EXP. G1 displays

the lowest difference improvement (-06.38).

89.74
100
percentage of correct answers

63.83
75
54.05

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 41: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank14)

177
BLANK 15

The results obtained in this blank are low; the highest percentage of correct answers is

scored in the CG (10.81%). Yet, the latter displays the lowest difference improvement (-

05.41). However, EXP. G2 displays the highest difference improvement (05.13). EXP. G1

shows the same percentage obtained in the pre-test (04.26%) and displays a null difference

improvement.

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50

25 10.81
04.26 07.69

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 42: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank15)

178
BLANK 16

In this blank, EXP. G1 displays the best scores; the highest percentage of correct

answers (89.36%) and the highest difference improvement (12.76). The percentage of correct

answers in EXP. G2 is 76.92% and the difference improvement is (-07.7). The CG shows the

same percentage obtained in the pre-test (70.27%) and displays a null difference

improvement.

89.36
100
correct answers

76.92
70.27
75

50
percentage of

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 43: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank16)

179
BLANK 17

The percentage of correct answers in EXP. G1, EXP. G2 and the CG is 78.72%,

71.79% and 70.27% respectively. In terms of the difference improvement, EXP. G1 shows the

highest score (19.12) then the CG in the second place (18.92) and EXP. G2 in the last place

with a null difference improvement.

100 87,72
percentage of correct answers

71,79 70,27
75

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 44: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank17)

181
BLANK 18

The percentage of correct answers in EXP. G1, EXP. G2 and the CG is 63.83%,

53.85%, 48.65% respectively. In terms of the difference improvement, EXP. G1 again shows

the highest score in this blank (10.64) then the CG in the second place (05.41) and EXP. G2 in

the third place with the lowest score (02.57).

100
percentage of correct answers

63.83
75
53.85
48.65
50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph 45: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank18)

181
BLANK 19

The percentage of correct answers in this Blank differs fro one group to another. We

have 08.51% in EXP. G1; 30.77% in EXP. G2 and 13.51% in the CG. The latter displays the

highest score in terms of the difference improvement (D I=8, 1). EXP. G2 displays the second

score (05.13) and EXP. G1 displays the lowest score (02.13).

100
correct answers

75

50
30.77
percentage of

25 08.51 13.51

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph46: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank19)

182
BLANK 20

The percentage of correct answers in EXP. G1, EXP. G2 and the CG is 51.06%,

76.92% and 54.05% respectively. In terms of the difference improvement, the CG displays the

highest score (18.91) then EXP. G2 in the second place (07.69) and EXP. G1 in the last place

with the lowest score (-06.39).

100
percentage of correct answers

76.92

75
51.06 54.05

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph47: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank20)

183
BLANK 21

The percentage of correct answers in this Blank differs from one group to another. We

have 70.21% in EXP. G1; 58.97% in EXP. G2 and 56.76% in the CG. The three groups

display high scores in terms of the difference improvement (21.27; 17.94 and 16.22 in EXP.

G1, EXP. G2 and the CG respectively).

100
percentage of correct answers

70.21
75 58.97 56.76

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph48: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank21)

184
BLANK 22

The percentage of correct answers in EXP. G1, EXP. G2 and the CG is 85.11%;

84.62% and 62.16% respectively. EXP. G2 displays the highest difference improvement

(17.95) then EXP. G1 in the second place (12.77). The CG displays a null difference

improvement (D I=0).
percentage of correct answers

100 85.11 84.62

75 62.16

50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph49: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank22)

185
BLANK 23

The percentage of correct answers in the three groups is very low; in EXP. G1 and the

CG, we have a null rate of correct answers. In EXP. G2, we also have a low percentage

(02.56%). Similarly, in terms of the difference improvement; the three groups alike display

low scores (0), (02.56) and (-02.7) in EXP. G1, EXP. G2 and the CG respectively.

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50

25
0 02.56 0
0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph50: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank23)

186
BLANK 24

The percentage of correct answers in this Blank differs fro one group to another. We

have 48.94% in EXP. G1; 56.41% in EXP. G2 and 35.14% in the CG. In terms of the

difference improvement, EXP. G2 displays the highest score (28.2) then EXP. G1 in the

second place (12.77) and the CG in the third place with the lowest score (-02.7).

100
percentage of correct answers

75
56.41
48.94
50 35.14

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph51: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank24)

187
BLANK 25

The percentage of correct answers in EXP. G1, EXP. G2 and the CG is 44.68%;

51.28% and 54.05% respectively. In terms of the difference improvement, EXP. G1 displays

the highest score (06.38) then the CG in the second place (05.4) and EXP. G2 in the third

place with the lowest score (02.56).

100
percentage of correct answers

75
51.28 54.05
44.68
50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph52: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank25)

188
BLANK 26

The percentage of correct answers in this Blank differs from one group to another. We

have 55.32% in EXP. G1; 71.79% in EXP. G2 and 51.35% in the CG. The highest difference

improvement is displayed by EXP. G1 (10.64), then we have EXP. G2 which displays the

second difference improvement (02.56) while the CG displays a null difference improvement

(D I=0).

100
percentage of correct answers

71.79
75
55.32
51.35
50

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph53: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank26)

189
BLANK 27

The percentage of correct answers in this Blank is approximately similar in the three

groups (31.91 %; 28.21% and 27.03% in EXP. G1; EXP. G2 and the CG respectively). In

terms of the difference improvement, EXP. G1 displays the highest score (19.14) then the CG

in the second place (13.52) and EXP. G2 in the third place with the lowest score (07.7).

100
percentage of correct answers

75

50
31.19
28.21 28.03

25

0
Exp1 Exp2 C

Groups

Graph54: Percentage of Correct Answers

(Post-test / Blank27)

191
4.2 Observation of Students’ Behaviour

At the beginning of the year and just after the administration of the pre-test in the three

groups, we started applying the new teaching strategies in the two EXP. groups. Three (3)

weeks after, we started the observation of students‟ behaviour in the CG and in the two EXP.

groups. During the whole period of training, we took notes, and at the end of the year, a

comparison of students‟ behaviour was made in terms attendance, participation and questions,

exercises and homework.

Attendance

Because students in the two EXP. groups were promised to be rewarded for attending

regularly the grammar class, the rate of student‟ absences in these two groups noticeably

reduced in comparison with that in the CG. In EXP. G1 for instance, we have 21 students out

of 47 who have attended the grammar class with absolutely no absence during the training

period. Similarly in EXP. G2, 19 students out of 39 attended all the sessions without absence.

However, in the CG; only 06 students out of 37 attended the grammar class with no absence.

Participation and Questions

While the teacher repeats the same question twice or three times until one student

answers the question in the CG, the students in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 answer the questions

and participate in a very active way. Even if the question is easy, students in the CG hesitate

to answer as if they are shy or lazy. In fact, they are not enthusiastic about participation and

answering oral questions. In EXP. G1 and EXP. G2, however, students raise their hands

waiting for the chance to answer since every student may gain a dash (-) in the point system

or at least receive some praise from the teacher and appreciation from classmates. In the CG,

students have trouble expressing themselves and their vocabulary is limited because they are

not used to speak in English for long discussions. In the two EXP. groups, even if they have
191
the same vocabulary problems, students do not hesitate to participate and to answer questions.

Moreover, the students in these two groups make mistakes and sometimes do not find the

appropriate word in English, but they talk, they have a discussion with the teacher, they take

part in classroom conversations, and they prove that they are capable of achieving a given

task in English.

Exercises

When the learners are given any exercise to do in the classroom, the students‟ response

to the assignment is different. In the CG, learners start talking to each other, then some of

them start doing the assignment. Despite the fact that the teacher goes around to check their

answers, most of them do not hesitate to answer only one part of the exercise. However, in the

EXP. groups; students hurry as soon as the exercise is given to them. They start answering

creating an atmosphere of competition that encourages them and raise their self-esteem.

Homework

In grammar, Second Year students do not have homework that requires much reading

and researching. Yet, from time to time, students are asked to finish an exercise or to do a

whole activity at home. In this case, students in the CG can be divided into three (03)

subgroups according to their response to the homework.

● The first subgroup is generally composed of about 8–16 students who answer all the

questions of the exercise in a well organized way, regardless of the correctness of the answers.

● The second subgroup includes about 12–20 students who either do just a part of the exercise

or do it in a way that demonstrates that it was done in a hurry (probably in the corridors or in

the classroom few minutes before).

192
● The third subgroup includes about 5–8 students who do not do their homework at all. When

they are asked why they did not do it, they do not hesitate to give such answers:

“I forgot to do it.”

“I did not know that we have an exercise to do.”

“I was ill.”

“I was absent.”

“I have not heard you.”

In the two EXP. groups, the situation is completely different: the majority of the

students accomplish their homework perfectly. We usually have the following subgroups

according to their response to the homework.

● The first subgroup is generally composed of about 44–46 students in EXP.G1 and about

35–38 students in EXP. G2who answer all the questions of the exercise in a well organized

way, regardless of the correctness of the answers.

● The second subgroup includes about 02–03 students in both groups who either do just a part

of the exercise or do it in a way that demonstrates that it was done in a hurry (probably in the

corridors or in the classroom few minutes before).

● Only one or two students in the two EXP. groups who do not do their homework at all.

When they are asked why they did not do it, they do not hesitate to give one of the answers

mentioned earlier.

193
4.3 Overall Analysis of the Results

The following table illustrates the results of students in the CG, EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 in

terms of pre-test mean, post-test mean and improvement mean.

Mean
Pre-test Mean Post-test Mean Improvement Mean
Group

C 07.85 07.93 + 0.08

EXP. 1 08.24 09.60 + 01.36

EXP. 2 08.73 10.27 + 01.54

Table 121 : The Improvement Means

The results shown in the table below indicate that the three groups performed better in

the post-test, which means that there is a development in students‟ performance. In other

words, the marks of the students in the three groups have increased in the post-test.

4.3.1 The Control Group

A comparison of the improvement mean in the three groups shows that the

improvement mean in the CG is the lowest mean scored in the experiment. The question

arises as whether or not the improvement mean of the CG is going to be considered or not and

if it is considered why it is the lowest mean with a tiny value? In fact, such a tiny value of the

improvement mean in the CG has not been accidentally scored; it indicates that the slight

improvement achieved in the students‟ marks under post-test conditions in the CG is due to

the difference between the teaching strategies used in the CG and those used in the two EXP.

194
groups. In other words, we scored a significant

improvement mean in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2because of the reward strategy used exclusively

in these two groups. The CG shares exactly the same characteristics of the participants with

the two EXP. groups (gender, age, level, social background…), the same teacher under the

same conditions. The only changing variable in this experiment is the reward system which

has been introduced within grammar instruction in the two EXP. groups.

Taking into account average indicators in the CG, it is quite surprising that the number

of the students who got the average in the CG has decreased in the post-test (12 in the pre-test

and 09 in the post-test).

Control Group

Number of Students
%
Getting the Average

12 32.43

Table 122: Pre-test Achievement (CG)

195
 Control Group

Number of Students
%
Getting the Average

09 24.32

Table 123: Post-test Achievement (CG)

Percentage of students getting the average

100

75

50
32.43
24.32
25

0
Pre-test Post-test

Control Group

Graph 55: The Control Group Improvement Scores

196
4.3.2. The Experimental Groups

A comparison of the improvement mean in the three groups shows that the group with

the best performance is EXP. G2 which displays the best improvement mean (01.54), then

EXP. G1 with the second improvement mean (01.36), and finally we have the CG with the

lowest improvement mean (00.08).

Taking into consideration average indicators in each group, we find that the number of

the students getting the average in EXP G1 has increased in the post-test; it is approximately

the double number (12 in the pre-test and 23 in the post-test). Similarly in EXP G2, the

number of the students who got the average has also increased (13 in the pre-test and 23 in the

post-test).

Experimental Group 1 Experimental Group 2

Number of Number of
Students Getting % Students Getting %
the Average the average

12 25.53 13 33.33

Table 124: Pre-test Achievement (EXP. G1 & EXP. G2)

197
 Experimental Group 1 Experimental Group 2

Number of Number of
Students Getting % Students Getting %
the Average the Average

23 48.94 23 58.97

Table 125: Post-test Achievement (EXP. G1 & EXP. G2)

percentage of students getting the average

100

75
48.94%

50
25.53%

25

0
Pre-test Post-test

Experimental Group 1

Graph 56: Experimental Group 1 Improvement Scores

198
Percentage of students getting the average

100

75 58.97

50
33.33

25

0
Pre-test Post-test

Graph 57: Experimental Group 2 Improvement Scores

199
 The question that rises here is why the number of the students who have got the

average has increased in the post-test in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 while it has decreased in the

CG? Studying the circumstances in which the main study has been made, we find that the

three groups share the same characteristics (the learners in the three groups have the same

background like all the other Second Year LMD students). Moreover, the same procedures

have been used by the same teacher to test their performance in grammar. The only changing

variable is the reward system which has been exclusively introduced to learners in the two

EXP. groups. So, any difference in students‟ achievement in the three groups is due to this

strategy.

Another striking observation is that the highest rate of students whose performance is

worse in the post-test is scored in the CG (40.54%) while in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 we have

scored lower rates (23.40% and 17.95% in EXP. G1 and EXP. G2 respectively). The table

below provides us with a detailed illustration of the results obtained in the pre-test and the

post-test in the three groups alike.

Sutdents Experimental Group 1 Experimental Group Control Group

Pre-test Post-test Improve Pre-test Post-test Improve Pre- Post-test Improveme

Scores Scores ment Scores Scores ment test Scores nt
Scores
Scores Scores Scores

01 08.50 10.50 02 05 07.50 02.50 06 08.50 02.50

02 05.50 10 04.50 09 10.50 01.50 10.50 06.50 -04

03 08 06.50 -01.50 06 09.50 03.50 06.50 08.50 02

04 05.50 09 03.50 02 06 04 10 10 /

05 07 09.50 02.50 08 08.50 0.50 06 06.50 0.50

06 08.50 11 02.50 10 11 01 04 07 03

211
07 08 07.50 -0.50 05.50 05.50 / 09.50 09 0.50

08 08.50 10.50 02 09.50 10.50 01 13 14.50 01.50

09 05 10 05 06.50 09 02.50 04.50 05.50 01

10 08.50 08.50 / 11.50 11.50 / 03.50 07.50 04

11 10 07.50 -02.50 07.50 12.50 05 07 07.50 0.50

12 07.50 06.50 -01 08.50 05.50 -03 10 09.50 -0.50

13 08.50 11.50 03 07.50 12 04.50 10.50 06.50 -04

14 10.50 11.50 01 05.50 08.50 03 09.50 09 -0.50

15 10.50 12 01.50 04 07 03 08 08 /

16 05 06 01 06 08 02 09.50 11 01.50

17 02.50 04.50 02 10 10 / 10.50 12.00 01.50

18 07 08.50 01.50 09.50 08.50 -01 02.50 08.50 06

19 09.50 11 01.50 11 12.50 01.50 13.50 13.50 /

20 10.50 13 02.50 16.50 15 -1.5 06 04 -02

021 09.50 11.50 02 15 13.50 -01.50 08.50 06.50 -02

22 06.50 08.50 02 07 07 / 10.50 12 01.50

23 07 12 05 07.50 09 01.50 10 10 /

24 07.50 07.50 / 10 11.50 01.50 05 09 04

25 03.50 11 07.50 13.50 14 0.50 05.50 08 02.50

26 09.50 12 02.50 06.50 12 05.50 06.50 08 01.50

27 11.50 10 -01.50 11 12.50 01.50 07.50 06.50 -01

28 07 08.50 01.50 09 11.50 02.50 08.50 05.50 -03

29 08 10.50 02.50 12 11 -01 11 10.50 -0.50

30 09.50 12 02.50 09.50 11 01.50 10.50 04 -06.50

31 09.50 08.50 -01 07.50 11.50 04 04.50 07.50 03

211
 32 12.50 13 0.50 11 14.50 03.50 05 05 /

33 13 11 -02 08.50 08 -0.50 13.50 10.50 -03

34 12 15.50 03.50 09.50 08.50 -01 04 03.50 -0.50

35 13 14 01 07.50 10 02.50 07 05.50 -01.50

36 07.50 07.50 / 10.50 11.50 01 09 03 -06

37 08 07.50 -0.50 08.50 12 03.50 03 05.50 02.50

38 10.50 13 02.50 10.50 14 03.50

39 11 09.50 -01.50 07 08.50 0.50

40 06 08 02

41 05 09 04

42 07.50 07.50 /

43 04.50 04.50 /

44 09 08 -01

45 10.50 11.50 01

46 05.50 05 -0.50

47 08.50 09.50 01

Mean 08.24 09.60 01.36 08.73 10,27 1,54 7,85 7,93 0,08

Table 126: The Pre-test and the Post-test Scores and Improvement Scores

212
Conclusion

The results obtained from this research work have demonstrated the effects of rewards

on learners‟ outcomes in grammar sessions. Reward has proved to be very effective in

increasing students‟ results in learning grammar. The reward strategy has transformed the

teaching/learning operation to an “easy” task and students‟ behaviour to an “ideal” behaviour.

It is a successful technique to create an agreeable atmosphere to learn, an atmosphere that

motivates the students and raises their aptitudes.

213
 CHAPTER FIVE

PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

Introduction

5.1 Rewards and Motivation

5.2 Rewards and Punishment

5.3 Rewards at the University Level

5.3.1 The Grammar Module

5.3.2 Other Modules

5.3.3 Other Languages

5.4. Types of Rewards (A New Theory)

Conclusion

214
Introduction

Teaching grammar is not an easy task regarding the different characteristics of learners

and their individual abilities. What is important is not only what to teach and how to present it

(for teachers), and what to learn and how to acquire it (for learners), but also how to motivate

students and to make them enthusiastic to learn the English grammatical system without

difficulties. In this research work, we try to give teachers some insights into the difficulties of

learning in order to motivate their students and involve them strongly in the learning situation.

This final chapter discusses the implications of the current research on English teaching in

different pedagogical situations and highlights some strategies to be used by course designers

of English Syllabi. It also provides some insights that may be helpful for further research.

5.1 Reward and Motivation

In some teaching situations, students seem unmotivated to participate in the classroom

to the point that they are not willing to answer, which hinders the teaching/learning operation.

That is why motivation has always been the aim of many teachers. This experimental study

demonstrates that it will be helpful for teachers to link the teaching of grammar with reward

anticipation in the class. The more we use rewards to encourage students, the more motivated

they become. Students need to see why they do a given task. That is why rewards can

reinforce important study habits in the learner and thereby increase students‟ achievement as

illustrated in the following diagram.

215
 Increasing
Teaching Reward Positive
Teacher motivation
results =good
grammar anticipation and enthusiam
marks
to learn

Diagram 04: Reward-Motivation Relationship

Nothing is new about the idea that learners‟ goal in grammar classes is to have good

marks in their examinations. Little matters to most of them if they do really acquire the

grammatical structure presented to them during the whole year or not. In this research work, it

has been proved that the point system is a good reinforcement in order to raise students‟

motivation.

Reward is a strategy used in education in order to motivate the learners. Originally, the

idea of “reward” came from situations when a child did something good and perceives some

kind of reward (words of approval and praise, and some candies and chocolate). In an

educational context, reward has the same principle. In this perspective, rewards can be applied

in different levels of the English teaching instruction. Young learners, at school, may learn

more effectively if rewards are anticipated in the program. For this reason, it is recommended

that teachers do not neglect any achievement or any good performance by the learners.

At school, pupils expect from the teacher to have a similar behaviour to that of the

parents, especially the mother. From my own experience when I was a pupil, I believe that

most pupils feel disappointed when they expect a positive behaviour from the teacher and do

not find it. For instance, a pupil who spends a whole week searching, reading and writing in

216
order to accomplish a given task or a homework expects at least a good word from the

teacher; otherwise, s/he feels that the teacher does not value the work, and so it is useless to

waste time and effort. Besides, concrete rewards may be very useful in situations involving

young learners (children). Children like colorful cards, toys, some expensive pens and even

sweets.

According to learners (children or adolescents), the teacher who praises them and

gives any kind of present is a teacher who does not underestimate their efforts. It is very

impressive for them to see the teacher praising someone in the class. Yet, the teacher should

understand the individual differences that exist between the pupils. What is enjoying for a

given pupil is not necessarily enjoying for the others. Teachers, therefore, should always be

aware of these differences when they apply rewards in the class. Various types of rewards

should be anticipated to ensure that all learners may gain some rewards in different

conditions.

5.2. Reward and Punishment

Research in a language teaching area has led to a diversity of learning strategies which

contribute to the success of learners. Reward has become one of the most important concepts

in language teaching terminology; it is considered as an essential element in the current

language classes since many teachers fail to maintain motivation in the classroom. In the

previous chapter, we have proved that rewards are very effective in creating a desirable

learning environment and in raising students‟ motivation.

If there is an agreement about the fact that students must be rewarded for positive

behaviour, can we say that students must also be punished for any negative behaviour? Most

students want to hear the teacher‟s praise after a particular task. They usually try to avoid

negative judgments and seek to gain positive judgments for their efforts and abilities. Reward

217
and punishment are indeed two related concepts; Kohn (1994: 1) says: “Research and logic

suggest that punishment and rewards are not really opposites, but two sides of the same coin.

Both strategies amount to ways of trying to manipulate someone‟s behaviour”. The

importance of reward and punishment lies in their effectiveness in the learning process and in

learners‟ conceptions about them. In this regard, Wilkins points out that “only if a response is

repeated can it be fully learned. Indeed strength of learning is measured in terms of the

number of times that a response has been made and reinforced. If there is no reinforcement,

the learning is then extinguished.” (1972: 162). So, a good behaviour must be reinforced in

order to make it habitual and in the same context, a bad behaviour must be punished in order

to be eliminated and removed.

For more practical reasons, punishment is an essential element which contributes to

establish order and organization in the class. For this reason, the teacher should use some

punishment strategies but in a reasonable way. The following points may be of importance to

teachers.

● The teacher should ignore some students‟ bad behaviour if s/he feels that it is not done

intentionally.

● The teacher should not use physical punishment (with children) as a teaching strategy; it is

indeed a kind of violence towards them.

● The punishment should be moderate and should fit the negative behaviour.

● All students should be punished equally, without differences.

● When the teacher punishes the students, his/her comments should not be offensive or

upsetting.

218
5.3 Rewards at the University Level

5.3.1 The Grammar Module

Some students have considerable academic abilities, but because they are shy, bored or

isolated, they become uninterested, quiet and withdrawn in the classroom. Thus, these

abilities are often hidden. Such type of learners cannot take part in classroom practices, and

their participation is almost inhibited by lack of motivation. Reward in these cases helps

teachers to establish a good classroom atmosphere and thereby to involve shy uninterested

students more in classroom activities. Theoretically, introducing the reward strategy into FL

classes sounds easy and effective at the same time. However, many teachers complain about

administrative obstacles and time constraints; they say that they are usually hindered by the

program and the time allocated for it. According to them, it is quite difficult to finish the

whole program within the time available during the academic year on the one hand and on the

other hand to apply new strategies and techniques in the teaching instruction.

Even if most teachers admit to the reinforcing value of rewards, they would consider

them as a waste of time if they have to achieve the set of objectives designed to the program.

In such a case, it is the role of course designers who have a vital interest in this strategy to see

how they can incorporate it into the syllabus without influencing the teaching situation. In

fact, students‟ motivation will increase more quickly and more effectively if new reward

strategies and technique are introduced in curriculum design.

5.3.2 Other Modules

Although this experimental study was carried out in grammar classes, there no

evidence that the results obtained from this experiment cannot be applicable in other classes.

The teacher‟s approval may act as a powerful reinforcement not only in grammar teaching

situations but also in teaching other modules. A learner who has just made a good
219
performance (oral or written) in a given module and s/he receives the appropriate response

from the teacher is more likely to take part in the following activities to be done in the class.

In this framework, Wilkins (1972: 165) argues that “the justification for making correct

responding easy is that the pupil does not learn by making mistakes but by having correct

responses properly reinforced.”

Specialists in language teaching often question the good methods adopted in EFL

classes in order to find the appropriate procedures to be used in English teaching instruction.

The aim of these procedures is to make sure that learners are well-motivated and they enjoy

the learning experience. In the current research, we opted for the reward strategy to motivate

students and help them create a high self-esteem about learning and about themselves. This

strategy has proved to be effective and has resulted in the desired outcomes. For this reason, it

also provides teachers with useful insights to help them try this strategy in teaching other

modules and in different teaching situations.

5.3.3 Other Languages

The idea of reward came with Skinner‟s concept of “stimulus and behaviour”, and in

the last two decades, experts in FL teaching carried out several studies in order to develop this

concept and introduce it into EFL classroom methodology. This work is indeed inspiring for

researchers to study the effectiveness of rewards in learning other foreign languages; the

administration of different types of rewards in the teaching curricula may be of great

effectiveness on learners‟ motivation not only in EFL settings. In this context, Wilson (2006)

points out that “enhanced motivation promotes learning, performance, enjoyment, and

persistence in sport, among other benefits”. (Mc Cullagh and Wilson, 2005; in Wilson 2006).

211
5.4. Types of Rewards (A New Theory)

In education, reward has several definitions given by many researchers. In addition to

the definitions provided in the current work (see Chapter Two), Wilson‟s (2006: 6-7)

definition of reward is considered as one of the most innovative studies in the field. He states

that:

Based on his research, the current author suggests that a reward

can be defined as an external agent administered when a desired

act or task is performed, that has controlling and informational

properties. While rewards are typically delivered to increase the

probability of a response, they can increase or decrease the

probability of an event occurring, depending on the saliency and

direction of the controlling and informational aspects of the

reward… Rewards can come in the form of verbal rewards (i.e.

telling someone “good job!”), physical rewards (i.e. a pat on the

back), or tangible rewards (i.e. giving someone money, food or a

medallion), among others.

Related to this definition, he also introduces a new typology of rewards, that of Deci,

Koestner and Ryan (1999). He points out “that there are 5 basic types of rewards discussed in

the literature: Task non-contingent rewards, Engagement contingent rewards, Completion

contingent rewards, Performance contingent rewards and Unexpected rewards. Task non-

contingent rewards are rewards that are given to participants just to show up in an experiment,

but they are not required to do anything. Engagement contingent rewards are rewards that are

given to participants for participating in activity but they are not required to complete it or

perform it well. Completion contingent rewards are rewards that are given to participants for

211
completing a given task or activity. Performance contingent rewards are rewards that are

given for performance based on a normative value. They also involve rewarding individuals

for defeating others. Unexpected rewards are rewards that are given to participants after a

positive behaviour but the participants were not expected to receive rewards. Wilson (2006:

7). It is a good area of research to study the effects of the previous types of rewards on

learners separately in order to examine the effectiveness of each type in enhancing their

motivation, pride and self-esteem.

Conclusion

Because of time constraints and other pedagogical and administrative obstacles, the

present work has some limitations. However, it has enabled us to suggest some insights that

may be helpful in future pedagogical studies.

212
 CONCLUSION

Teachers of grammar often admit to the fact that students of English find grammar

classes uninteresting, or at least they are not motivated to study this module. Whatever the

real reasons behind such feelings, the aim of recent researches in the field is to find solutions

to learning problems in the class in order to motivate students and to make the learning

process more enjoyable and more effective.

Effective learning cannot occur unless a whole battery of strategies is provided by

teachers or used by learners themselves. Investment of time and effort, self-esteem, risk-

taking and other synthesis and analysis strategies are all implied by the students in order to

achieve effective learning. There are some techniques and learning factors which help to

establish a good classroom atmosphere. Motivation is a very important factor; it can be

achieved through various sub-skills and strategies. Thus, the administration of rewards is one

of these strategies.

This research work starts with the assumption that lack of motivation of students in

grammar classes is due to the lack of the reward strategy at the university level. For this

reason, we have hypothesised that rewards may be very effective for learners of English as a

foreign language in grammar classes in order to increase their motivation and have high

grades in the examination. In order to confirm this hypothesis, students of Second Year LMD

were subject to our experiment. One group has been taught under the usual method of

teaching and two groups received the new method applying the reward strategy.

The observation of the students‟ behaviour in the three groups proved that reward

with its underlying principles has a positive impact on learners‟ behaviour and aptitudes in the

213
classroom. Moreover, the data analysis of the pre-test and the post-test highlights that reward

strategies produce positive results on students‟ performance and on their marks. Teachers‟

consistent recognition of learners‟ performance sustains their interest and motivation and

increases the students‟ engagement and learning outcomes.

214
 APPENDICES

Appendix I: The Test

Appendix II: A Grammar Lesson (Conditional Sentences)

215
 Appendix I

The Test

Name: ………………………………… Group: …………..

Fill in the blanks so that the text would make sense. Read the text carefully before you

answer.

In the Airport

When I got to the airport, I learnt that ………. plane from Cairo, on which my brother

was travelling, had been delayed ……….. Paris with engine trouble and was expected to be

about an hour ………. As a rule I can pass the time ………. happily, watching the planes land

and take off, ………. that evening I had a headache, which I thought that the noise ……….

the engines might make worse. I ………. therefore, to walk around to make the time pass

……….

First of all ………. went back to the place where I left my ………. to make sure that all

the doors were locked. The walk ………. the fresh air did me well, for I felt slightly better as

I …….…the main airport building again. I made my ………. to the restaurant, where I

ordered ………. cup of blank coffee. As I stood drinking this …….… the counter, I studied

the faces of the people around me. …….… passengers were obviously anxious about the time,

………. kept looking at their watches; others checked to see that they ………. tickets,

passports and money. Where there was a group of people, it was ………. to tell which one

216
was about to leave. There was a woman ………. burst into tears as she said goodbye to the

relatives or friends who ………. to see her off.

………. I had finished my coffee; I went to the bookstall, where I bought a couple of

magazines. Both of them about travel, which ………. the time pass pleasantly. Then, I went

to one of the waiting-rooms and made …….... comfortable in a big armchair. I had hardly had

time to open one of my ……….. when someone came up and put his hand on my shoulder. It

was ………. old friend, who was about to leave on a business trip to South America. Since we

had not seen each other for a long time, we found plenty to talk about ………. the arrival of

my brother's plane from Paris was announced.

217
 Appendix II:

A Grammar Lesson (Conditional Sentences)

Part One: Definitions

● Conditional sentences are made of two parts.

- The first part includes the “condition” introduced by “if”, which is the

“reason” for the other part.

- The second part includes the “consequence”, the “result”, of the first part.

Eg : If you come, I will tell you.

● We can have the “result” first then the “condition”.

Eg : I will tell you if you come.

Situation One:

When the condition expresses a general fact, rule, the tense used in the two parts is the

Pr.S .

Eg : If you heat ice, it melts. Ice melts if you heat it.

Pr.S Pr.S

Situation Two:

When the consequence of the condition is in the future, we use the Pr.S in the “Condition”

and the FS in the “Consequence”.

Eg : If it rains, I will use my umbrella. I will use my umbrella if it rains.

Pr.S FS
218
Situation Three:

When the consequence of the condition is hypothetical, (probable, not sure), in the future,

we use the PS in the “Condition” and the Pr. Condi. S in the “Consequence”.

Eg : If I saw a lion, I would run. I would run if I saw a lion.

PS Pr. Condi. S

Situation Four:

When the reason of an action in the past was not fulfiled, we use the P Perf. S in the

“Condition” and the P Condi. S in the “Consequence”.

Eg : If I had woken up early, I would not have missed the train.

P Pref. S P Condi. S

I would not have missed the train if I had woken up early.

Part Two: Use the right tense in the following sentences.

1. If he ……….… (to arrive) late; the others ………...…… (to start) without him.

2. If you ………...... (to behave) like that again, you ..………… (to be punished).

3. You …………… (to succeed) if you …………… (to try) hard enough.

4. If a meeting ………..… (to take) place tomorrow, I …..……. (not to be) there.

5. If I ……..….. (to be you), I …..…….. (to attend) the lecture this evening.

6. I ……….... ( not to go) to the park last night if you …………. (not to tell) me.

7. If I …………. (to be born) in England, I …………. (to speak) perfect English.

8. ………..….. (you to be) able to come yesterday if I …………….. (not to help) you?

9. If you ……………. (to see) his face when he heard the news, you …………... (to

laugh).

219
Part Three: Complete the following sentences.

1. If they study regularly, …………………………………………………..

2. If you leave you door unlocked at night, ………………………………..

3. My work would be easier if ……………………………………………….

4. I would not have come to England if …………………………………….

221
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Résumé

L‟enseignement de la grammaire, comme l‟enseignement de tout autre module,

est devenu une tâche pénible pour les enseignants qui ne cessent de plaindre le

manque de motivation de leurs apprenants.

Pour répondre à cette problématique, nous postulant que le manque de

motivation est attribué à l‟absence de la récompense en classe. En conséquence,

le système de la récompense est introduit dans le cours de grammaire pour

évaluer le progrès que les étudiants puissent atteindre dans l‟efficacité et la

qualité de leur apprentissage. Cette recherche tente d‟expliquer comment

augmenter la motivation des étudiants par la récompense appliquée en cours de

grammaire. Elle étudie l‟effet de la récompense sur les résultats des étudiants de

deuxième année Anglais à l‟université Mentouri de Constantine. Dans cette

recherche 123 étudiants ont pris part. Ils représentent un échantillon aléatoire

divisé en deux groupes expérimentaux et un groupe contrôle. Les étudiants du

groupe contrôle ont été enseignés la grammaire par la méthode usuelle, tandis

que les étudiants des groupes expérimentaux ont été assujettis à la stratégie de

récompense introduite par le chercheur. Le choix de travailler sur deux groupes

expérimentaux été fait pour valider les résultats.

Le chercheur a noté le comportement des étudiants dans les trois groupes

pendant la période d‟entrainement. Après l‟administration du post-test, les

résultats ont été comparés avec ceux du pré-test, dans les trois groupes. Il a été

noté que les participants des deux groupes expérimentaux étaient

remarquablement différents de ceux du groupe contrôle. Ils sont devenus plus

enthousiastes, plus actifs et participent mieux en classe. Les étudiants du groupe

contrôle n‟ont fait aucun progrès qui puisse être remarqué.

Les résultats ont aussi montré que les notes obtenus par les étudiants des

groupes expérimentaux sont meilleurs en comparaison avec ceux du groupe

contrôle.

L‟analyse et l‟interprétation des observations du chercheur ont montré que la

récompense peut être un moyen efficace pour augmenter la motivation des

étudiants en cours de grammaire ainsi que leur potentiel à acquérir d‟autres

items grammaticaux.
 ‫الملخص‬

‫أضحً رعهُى انقىاعذ عهً غزار ثقُخ انًقبَُض عًال صعجب حُش أٌ انكضُز يٍ األطبرذح َشزكىٌ يٍ‬

‫طهىك طهجزهى فٍ انقظى‪ ،‬يًب نىحظ عهُهى يٍ افزقبر نهزحفُش فٍ انزعهى‪ .‬انظؤال انذٌ َطزػ َفظه هُب ‪:‬‬

‫إنً أٌ يذي َظزطُع انًعهى أٌ َقهم يٍ قهق انطهجخ ورحفُشهى نهزعهى فٍ انًقبثم ؟‬

‫نإلعبثخ عهً هذا انظؤال‪ ،‬افززضُب أٌ َكىٌ يزد هذا غُبة عُصز انًكبفئخ أصُبء انذرص‪ .‬و عهُه ادخم‬

‫َظبو انًكبفئخ فٍ رهقٍُ قىاعذ انهغخ نزقُُى يذي رقذو انطهجخ يٍ حُش طزَقخ رعهًهى و َزبئغهى‪ .‬وَهذف هذا‬

‫انجحش نشزػ كُف أٌ رحفُش انطهجخ َشَذ ثفعم رىقع انًكبفئخ خالل درص انقىاعذ‪ ،‬كًب َذرص أصبر‬

‫انًكبفئخ عهً َزبئظ طهجخ انظُخ انضبَُخ اَغهُشٌ فٍ يقُبص انقىاعذ ثغبيعخ يُزىرٌ‪ -‬قظُطُُخ‪ .‬و نقذ‬

‫شبرك فٍ هذا انجحش ‪ 321‬طبنجب‪ ،‬رى اخزُبرهى عشىائُب و قظًىا إنً صالصخ يغًىعبد‪ ،‬يغًىعخ ضبثطخ‬

‫)‪(control group‬و يغًىعزٍُ رغزَجُزٍُ)‪ . (experimental groups‬درص طهجخ انًغًىعخ‬

‫انضبثطخ وفقب نهًُهبط انًعزبد ثًُُب درص طهجخ انًغًىعزٍُ انزغزَجُزٍُ وفقب إلطززارغُخ انًكبفئخ انزٍ‬

‫أدخهذ يٍ قجم انجبحش‪ .‬و َهذف اعزًبدَب عهً يغًىعزٍُ رغزَجٍُُ نزصذَق َزبئظ انجحش‪.‬‬

‫و نقذ راقت انجبحش طهىك انطهجخ انًشبركٍُ ضًٍ انضالس يغًىعبد خالل فززح انزذرَت‪ ،‬و ثعذ اعزُبس‬

‫االخزجبر انجعذٌ )‪ (post-test‬قىرَذ َزبئغه يع َزبئظ االخزجبر انقجهٍ )‪ (pre-test‬انًزعهقخ‬

‫ثبنًغًىعبد انضالس‪ .‬و نقذ نىحظ أٌ طهجخ انًغًىعزٍُ انزغزَجٍُُ يخزهفٍُ عٍ طهجخ انًغًىعخ‬

‫انضبثطخ‪ ،‬فهقذ ثبرىا أكضز حًبطب و َشبطب و أظهزوا يشبركخ أكجز خالل انذرص يقبرَخ يع قزَبئهى‬

‫ثبنًغًىعخ انضبثطخ انذٍَ ظهىا عهً حبنهى دوٌ أٌ أٌ رطىر َذكز‪ .‬و قذ يض هذا االخزالف انعاليبد‬

‫انًزحصم عهُهب فٍ انفحص انجعذٌ و انزٍ رحظُذ ثبنُظجخ نطهجخ انًغًىعزٍُ انزغزَجُزٍُ يقبرَخ يع‬

‫طهجخ انًغًىعخ انضبثطخ‪.‬‬

‫و نقذ ثُُذ دراطخ انُزبئظ انًزحصم عهُهب و رفظُزهب ثىاططخ يالحظبد انجبحش أَه ثئيكبٌ انًكبفئخ أٌ‬

‫ركىٌ وطُهخ عذ فعبنخ فٍ رحفُش انطهجخ أكضز أصُبء درص انقىاعذ و سَبدح قذررهى عهً اكزظبة يعبرف‬

‫عذَذح فٍ هذا انًغبل‪.‬‬