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Information-Marketing

Article in International Journal of Business Strategy and Automation · December 2020

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6225-2.ch005

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 95

Chapter 5
Information Marketing
José Poças Rascão
Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal, Portugal

ABSTRACT
This chapter discusses the issues of the needs and satisfaction of the customers, in terms of information,
as a basis for the practice of marketing in information management. It enhances the arguments of the
relationship between marketing and information science. The chapter stresses that practicing market-
ing cannot be done without information about customers and to customers and their relationship with
information management, in information science. It stresses the importance of the studies and research
on marketing of information as a philosophical approach for the information management process. The
structure of the chapter synthesizes the existing academic work, seeking to generate new knowledge. It
presents the promotion and communication of information in organizations from the evolution of the
concept of marketing, in an integrated manner, in order complete the implications for future research.

INTRODUCTION

This article aims to make an innovative marketing approach of information from the market and business,
understanding of information in organizations with or without profit. In this sense, it is necessary to clarify
certain concepts in the field of information science. One of these concepts is the unit of information.
Although very widespread in the literature, is not yet widely defined. Guinchat and Menou (1994) use
this term to refer to the companies that have the mission: to identify that can, as accurately as possible,
information that can be useful to managers in support of decision making. (337)

METHODOLOGY OF APPROACH

This is a descriptive and analytic approach seeking to know and analyze the existing scientific or cul-
tural contributions on this subject, from the review of the existing literature. The survey was structured
based on the systemic approach, seeking to the understanding of the problems of post modernity in the
work of Erikson (1998), looking for practical, operational or troubleshooting application of “real life”
organizations.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6225-2.ch005

Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Information Marketing

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Data, Information, and Knowledge

In a global economy, information and knowledge are the greatest competitive advantages that organizations
can have (Davenport & Prusak, 1998). In recent years, we have witnessed a remarkable transformation in
society have quickly transitioned into a society based on industry and transport into a knowledge-based one.
One major challenge for management is to understand what information means: how to manage and
interpret it and what decisions it allows to make in an era of world-wide communications, since infor-
mation is the link that unites us. By being able to transmit large amounts of information quickly across
continents, we transform the world into a global metropolis.
Another challenge facing managers is the wealth of information in present day society, whose most
obvious distress signal in this kind of society is the combination of the production of large amounts
of information, the intensive use of information technologies and communication, and the continuous
learning process. The articulation of these three aspects suggests that the information society quickly
transitioned into the society of knowledge. The symbolic culture of this society requires new types of
learning, organization and management and, therefore, also one for information management.
In the information and knowledge society there are several hierarchical levels or progressive stages
directly related to the learning process of this knowledge. Thus, we can distinguish three stages: data,
information, and knowledge. The messenger on foot or on horseback gave way to the highways of infor-
mation. So, what is information all about, then? Whatever resource may become valuable to be compiled,
saved, duplicated, sold, stolen and even sometimes, a motive for murder.
Many people in organizations spend their workday gathering, studying and processing information.
Some industries have been developed based on the information resource to produce technology (process
technology - the computer, product technology - software and communication technology - communica-
tions equipment + software) in order to store, process, transmit and easily access information.
Managers cannot open a newspaper without being confronted to the term “information.” Countless
books contain the word “information”. Lots of people in organizations perform activities related to the
word “information”. It seems easy to describe what it consists of. However, when we start thinking about
the term “information”, we experience some difficulty in finding the appropriate definition. Part of the
difficulty for managers is in understanding information lies in the fact that they are so accustomed to
dealing with it on a day-to-day basis, that they do not realize the complexities involved. Managers only
realize difficulties when they are confronted with a new language. The potential for misinterpretation
is always present.
Given the vital role communication plays within organizations, those involved in decision-making
must find ways to minimize the likelihood of error. To do this end, it is necessary to understand how
communication unfolds - how information is transmitted from person to person, from computer to com-
puter, and between people and computers. The need to understand information - what it is and how it
flows - is not just limited to large organizations. Whenever a person communicates with another one, we
have a flow of information since communication is a means to provide information to others. Although
used with much interchangeable frequency, the terms “information” and “knowledge” do not mean the
same. “Information” is not the same thing as “data”, although the two words are frequently confused.
Hence, it is essential to make a distinction of the subtle differences between these two concepts.

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Data are generally provided by newspapers, reports and computer software. For example, a list of
the Stock Exchanges on a financial news page constitutes data. When data is acquired and brought into
a global information structure previously attained, these data are converted into information. So, when
someone reads the newspaper Exchange price list, one gets information about various companies. What
allows managers to obtain information from a journal data is their previous knowledge of what these
values mean and how the stock market works.
Data do not carry meaning or significance of facts, images or sounds, as they lack relational elements
essential for the establishment of a complete meaning, where an internal relational structure for a cogni-
tive purpose is absent; that structure is one of the attributes of the information. Data are transformed into
information when their creator assigns meaning to them (Davenport & Prusak, 1998.)
Data are partial representations of facts, images or sounds and have no meaning by themselves, as they
do not lead to the understanding of facts or situations and are converted into information when introduced
into an information structure (global) already acquired (Alter, 1992; Davenport & Prusak, 1998; Devlin,
1999.) The concept of information as data is commonly seen in the field of scientific research. In this
view of information as data with assigned meaning (Checkland & Howell, 1998) or simply:

Information = data + meaning (Devlin, 1999)

Information is the result of adding the data of a specific pattern of relationships establishing its format.
Acting upon information, is not only to act on the data which make it up, but also act on the relationships
that are established, i.e., on the collective or individual formatting standards and through them upon the
way reality is perceived and the follow-up action.
Information is a quantity that measures and/or reduces the uncertainty: that is, everything that reduces
the uncertainty experienced by an observer in relation to the occurrence of an event. Information is the
product of the course of data transformation and relationship, or of other information operations, by
means of which the significant conceptual relations between elements are summed up, considering a par-
ticular purpose of communication. Information refers to the body of facts and / or events in a convenient
decision-making format within a context that defines the relationships between the data (Zikmund, 2000).
The concept of information can be understood from many different perspectives. Information is an
object created by men to represent an identifiable event for them in the real world, integrating and linking
a set of records or data, (Le Moigne, 1979; Alter, 1992). It is the difference that makes the difference
(Bateson, 1972).
In terms of equation:

Information = Data + meaning

When information is internalized to the extent that can be used, it is called knowledge (Zikmund,
2000). It is a fluid mix of framed experiences, values, contextual information and expert insight, and
provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. In organizations,
it is not only found in documents and reports, but also in organizational routines, processes, practices
and norms. Knowledge originates and is applied in the minds of experts (Davenport & Prusak, 1998;
Zikmund, 2000).
Knowledge is the information taken as valid and accepted by integrating data, actions, information and
sometimes assumptions. The need to know requires that someone get, combine and interpret information.

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Information can be regarded as a “substance” that can be acquired, stored and owned by a person or a
group and transmitted from person to person or from group to group. Information has certain stability
and it is, perhaps, the best thought of as existing at the level of society (Davenport & Prusak, 1998). In
consequence, information may be feed knowledge.

Knowledge = Internalized information + ability to use it in new situations.

Thus, knowledge is a mix of information, experience and knowledge that provides a structure that
can be applied to evaluating new information or new situations (Zikmund, 2000). Knowledge lies es-
sentially and intrinsically within people who, at individual level, are far more complex and unpredictable
than society as a whole. Consequently, it is not surprising that knowledge results much more difficult
to attain than information. Knowledge exists primarily within people; it is an integral part of human
complexity and unpredictability (Davenport & Prusak, 1998). Knowledge has a fundamental duality: it
is something storable (at least sometimes we intend to do so) and something that flows (something that
is communicated from person to person). Quite possibly, it is this duality of knowledge (something that
flows and the storage process) what makes its handling and management difficult.

Competitive Intelligence

According to Ferreira (2004), there are two definitions of the term “intelligence”: one related to the
Latin word Intelligentia, which corresponds to College to learn, understand, and the other related to the
English term which means Intelligence information service. These definitions are in accordance with the
definition of Fuld (1995), in which intelligence is the result of an information service, through a process
of understanding the context, providing information that serves to support decision.
Among the various existing definitions in the literature, the SCIP settings – Strategic and Competi-
tive Intelligence Professionals and ABRAIC-Brazilian Association of competitive intelligence analysts
in that competitive intelligence it is a process of management of competitive environment and analysis
of results, under the prism of domestic issues, to support decision-making.
The competitive intelligence helps the managers of any organizations take the decision on information
from various sources. It is a continuous process that involves legal and ethical information collection,
analysis and dissemination of intelligence-controlled to the decision makers.
According to ABRAIC (2011), intelligence is a permanently specialized activity with the goal of
making available information (intelligence) of interest to a particular organization, and the safeguarding
of this information against adverse action of any kind. It is an activity (of intelligence) focused on the
world of business, i.e. to the competitive environment, and seeks the maintenance or development of
competitive advantage over competitors.
Being a service of information, competitive intelligence covers various technical skills of informa-
tion professionals: understanding the information needs of the decision makers, technical collection
and processing of information from several types of sources (human and documentary), analysis of this
information with a focus on solving the problem of decision making, production and dissemination of
information of high added value, among others.

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Information Science

Borko (l968) defined:

information science as a discipline that investigates the properties and behavior of the information,
the forces that govern your flow and processing to optimize its accessibility and use. It relates to the
body of knowledge pertaining to production, collection, compilation, storage, retrieval, interpretation,
transmission, processing and use of the information.

According to Borko (1968) the information science investigates the properties and behavior of the
information, the forces governing the informational flow and means of the processing and information
processing for its optimization of access and use. It is an interdisciplinary science and related to various
fields derived as mathematics, logistics, Linguistics, psychology, computer technology, search operations,
graphic arts, communications, library science, management and other similar fields.
It has a component of pure science, which investigates the subject without taking into consideration
its application, as a component of applied science, which develops services and products. Librarianship
and documentation are applied aspects of information science (Borko, 1968).
For Goffman (l970), the objective of information science is to establish a unified scientific approach
to studying the various phenomena that involve the notion of information, if such features are found in
biological processes in human existence or on machines created by humans. Consequently, the subject
must be related to the establishment of a set of fundamental principles that govern the behavior of the
whole process of communication and its associated information systems.
Saracevic (l991), studied the evolution of the information science and defined it as:

a field dedicated to scientific and professional practice issues facing the problems of effective knowledge
communication and record-keeping of knowledge among human beings, the social context, institutional
or individual use and information needs. The treatment of these issues is considered of particular interest
the advantages of modern information and communication technologies (ICT’s).

The information science was born after World War II to solve a big problem, which was also the
major concern of both the Documentation and the Information Retrieval which is to gather, organize
and make accessible the cultural, scientific and technological knowledge produced in the world. The
information science is an exact science and was born to achieve an exact knowledge from the inspiration
of mathematical and quantitative models (Bronowski, 1977).
It is based on objectivity sought to formulate universal laws of the “behavior” of information. It is
strongly influenced by the empirical sciences intended to establish universal laws that represent the in-
formational phenomenon and hence the need for resorting to mathematical models (information theory),
physical (Entropy) or biological (epidemiological theory).
Saracevici (1991) studied the evolution of the problem that guides the information science and re-
defined it as:

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Information Marketing

a field dedicated to scientific and professional practice issues facing the problems of effective knowledge
communication and record-keeping of knowledge among human beings, the social context, institutional
or individual use and information needs. In the treatment of these issues, are considered of particular
interest the advantages of international modern informational technologies.

MARKETING

During the first thirty years of the last century, the success was achieved by the companies that offer the
lowest price. The products were generally not distinguished and the ability to produce the lowest price
was the secret of success. However, in the 1930’s, the demand for consumer goods was walking to the
saturation and, as such, the customers/consumers have begun to be more demanding than just the basic
performance.
According to Igor Ansoff (1978) in early years of the decade 1930’s, General Motors has triggered
a shift of production to the mentality of the market. This change symbolized the displacement of stan-
dardized products for differentiated ones. In contrast to the guideline for the production the new secret
of success began to move to the “marketing orientation”. Promotion, advertising, sale and other ways
of influencing the consumer became primary concerns of managers.
The shift toward marketing orientation meant an offset of an introverted perspective and, turned into
it to an extroverted and open perspective. Also, it meant a change in the mentality of the production
managers for those with marketing mentality, which led to a struggle for power and the need to acquire
new skills to find new solutions of problems, modifications of structures and systems, and the acceptance
of new levels of uncertainty about the future.
It was only after the Second World War that many industrial enterprises were driven by new tech-
nologies, primarily toward a belated marketing orientation, and then towards the more turbulence
post-industrial era. At this point, the total marketing concept established a balance between conflicting
demands of marketing and production.
The literature review takes us from the School of Scientific Management of Taylor, in the first de-
cades of the last century, until the evolution of the concept of marketing today, whose focus is centered
on customer marketing and positioning of the company. The Delta model Hax (2001) characterizes the
evolution of organizations with more product-centric focus, through a more recent step of customer
orientation and market, to arrive to new forms of relationship with customers, competitors and to ensure
a sustainable, competitive positioning in the context of globalization.
According to Wang Mattar (1986), is found that organizations are at different stages of development,
which are in direct correspondence with the degree of application of Marketing techniques:

• Organizations at the First Stage: Are just producing products and / or services facilitators, and
are geared little value to them;
• In the Second Stage: Organizations incorporate the boosters to produce goods and services and
complement basic offer facilitators and are geared to the needs related to the health and well-being
of clients, but have a strong dependence on brokering.
• Organizations at the Third Stage: Are facing a combined offer of products and or services. Are
organizations that add greater value to the products and / or services.

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• Organizations in the Fourth Stage: Are configured in both vertical and horizontal network,
including suppliers, distributors, public and private organizations that seek to meet the needs of
customers and retain them.

Are these globalization and being part of this phenomenon, the processes of internationalization
of large organizations control almost the entire market, leading to a strong concentration and that, in
practice, this network covers the major developed countries.

Intelligence Units

The term unit of information, although very widespread in the literature, it is not yet widely defined.
Guinchat and Menou (1994) use the term to refer to companies that have as their mission: to identify as
accurately as possible, the information that may be useful to managers to support in decision-making.
SA (2009, p. 17) refers to the units of information, as a generic term to denote different types of
libraries or information of business organizations. In the author’s conception, the use is justified, as the
libraries and / or business organizations increase their field of action with regard to the management of
information stored not only in media (books / paper), but also in electronic, digital and virtual props.
Sueli Amaral (1998) defines intelligence units like:

(...) any type of organization active in the area of information and / or documentation to work with the
records of knowledge in any kind of support, regardless of their designation. They are considered units
of information, all types of libraries, business units / services documentation center, according to its
area of operation and extension. (15)

Rosenfeld and Morville (2002) proposed a model that represents the information architecture as an
intersection of context, content and decision makers / users which is seen in Figure 1.
For authors, each element of the model has the following meaning:

• Context: All organizations have mission, objective, strategies and organizational resources (hu-
man, financial, material, technological and informational). It is necessary to understand the goals

Figure 1. ­
Adapted from Rosenfeld and Morville (2002), “Information Architecture for the World Wide Web, O’Reilly, USA.

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of the organization behind the informational space and resources available for the design and
implementation of information architecture, This must be shaped considering the peculiarities of
each context.
• Contents: Over the structures of representation and organization of informational content and
their potential contemplates the nature, volume and available sources of content and its potential
growth;
• Managers/Decision Makers/Users: Is needed to understand their roles and responsibilities, as
well as their information needs that are extremely variable and influence behaviors of search for
new information;
◦◦ Operational managers are large consumers of information, daily of organizations;
◦◦ Interim managers are consumers, but also already interpret and make decisions on the re-
sources made available to their area of responsibility or business unit;
◦◦ Top managers, are primarily interpreters of trends on the global and immediate surroundings,
as well as skills and internal capabilities-which information (strong signals and or weak) in
which they will support in the definition of the strategy and global objectives, monitor the
implementation of the strategy and the achievement of pre-established objectives.

Gilchrist and Mahon (2004) present a more pragmatic definition focused on the organizational
context, i.e. a plan whose goals are to provide relevant information to the right people at the right time.
Also, include the need for integration of the production, organization and use of information from a
common ontology.
According to the model proposed by Beijerse (2000), the professional information must understand
that the information cannot be considered only as a commodity, since it is not limited to a single product
or raw material for domestic use. The information should be studied as an essential element that allows
the transformation of society.
According to Angelo, e. s., Ziviani, f., (2011), units of information are:

social enterprise, including economic, political, cultural factors and educational, involved with the
management of information, in order to facilitate intellectual control and the logic of the informational
assets through the collection, selection, treatment storage and distribution of information to increase
the understanding of the quitrent on the statement. Also reduce their uncertainty the difference between
the amount required and available for decision-making, about a particular subject.

According to the authors, the aim of the unit is to disseminate information needs and provide the
customer the correct care for the effective use of their records between humans. Offer services of tangible
form (printed) and / or intangible (customized, personal, virtual) to the organization that maintains and
do not exist in isolation, which may or may not-for-profit (Tarapanoff, 2006).
Regardless of your level of expertise or extension, can be: any kind of library and archive, since
traditional virtual and digital information analysis Center or documentation, Engineering draws, video
libraries, provided that it has as its mission the provision of informational inputs to the process of evolu-
tion (Amaral, 2008; Ramos, 1996).
Information is the raw material of fundamental importance in the generation of knowledge to boost
the development of society. How to develop any activity or project, whatever the stage of the work,
without information?

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MARKETING AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

The Marketing is present in all professional areas and in information science, although some rejection.
However, it is stated that the marketing of the products and / or services is useful to solve the problem
of the lack of visibility (information). Information workers seek the teachings of the Marketing to apply
them in information management and to ensure better performance and the success of organizations
Many reasons can explain this behavior, among them is the limitation of Marketing promotion, which
is the visible part of the Marketing (Amaral, 2001).
Make the disclosure to promote the products and / or services, is not enough, because the Marketing
is more than that. The Marketing is a function of management, that is, is a social function and a set of
processes that involve the creation, communication and delivering value to customers, as well as the
management of relationship with them, to benefit the organization and its interested public (American
Marketing Association, 2004).
Although he appeared in for-profit organizations, since 1969 when Philip Kotler and Sidney l. Levy
published their article in the Journal of Marketing, it is admitted the possibility of non-profit organiza-
tions adopt marketing techniques. The adoption of these techniques depends on the research and study
on the adoption of Marketing in the specific context of organizations.
Borko (1968) admits that information science is an interdisciplinary science related, among other
areas of knowledge and, therefore, is the business sciences. As Marketing is a process management ap-
proach and therefore is related to information science about information management. This association
allows you to consider the term information Marketing.
According to Amaral (2004), the study of the information Marketing refers to the organization and
to the systems involved with the processes of management of information relating to the various stages
of the cycle of information, in particular, the research, collection, processing, distribution, analysis/
interpretation to support in decision-making on the part of managers.
The author believes that the organization of information and systems involved are considered units of
information in organizations, with or without profit. Kotler and Keller (2006) include the information in
their studies, when you consider that marketers are involved in marketing products and services, events,
personal experiences, places, property, organizations, information and ideas.
If information workers do not stay awaken to the consolidation theory information science, they are
losing the opportunity to highlight to society the importance of its role in information management for
the featured deserved. They are not recognized by our society and the social role of the intelligence units
and their managers as agents of society transformers.
Among scholars and researchers of information science, resistance to adoption of marketing tech-
niques is a reality. But despite this strong rejection, paradoxically, it is said, too often, for example, that
the marketing of library or the problem of the lack of visibility of the information resulting from the
lack of marketing.

THE MARKETING AND INFORMATION SOURCES

According to Cunha (2001), information sources may include manuscripts and printed publications, as
well as objects that transmit information. They can be divided into three categories: primary, secondary
and tertiary documents.

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Choo (1994; 2006) classifies the information sources in four categories: external and personal sources,
external and internal, personal and impersonal, and internal and impersonal.
According to Pacheco and Valentines (2010), the categorization of sources of information allows
you to understand the scale of each source, i.e. the primary sources express the direct interference of
the author; the secondary sources make use of knowledge of primary sources, since there is a different
treatment of them according to their function; tertiary information sources enables primary and second-
ary sources to be found.
Raj (2009) groups the sources of information on:

• Personal External Sources: Peers from other organizations, experts, customers, competitors,
consultants, partners, scientific and commercial events (face-to-face or virtual interaction);
• Internal Personal Contacts: Employees/employees, coworkers, superiors, partners (face-to-face
or virtual interaction);
• Personal Electronic Sources: Electronic mail (personal or company), forums, discussion groups
on the Web, Messenger, Skype and similar;
• Impersonal External Sources: Documents produced out of organizations (magazines, newspa-
pers, books, reports, periodicals, technical regulations, governmental publications, radio broad-
casts and TV);
• Impersonal Sources: Documents produced within the internal organizations (reports, studies,
reports, memos, files, etc.);
• Impersonal and Electronic Sources: Electronic documents in General, intranet, electronic data-
base, site of the Organization, several Internet sites, news portals, etc.).

Basu and Barbosa (2009) share the Internet information sources in various sectors: mailing lists,
emails (newsletters and Marketing), newsletters, chats, instant messages, search sites or search tools,
intranets, extranets and Web sites.
Tomaél et al (2004), define ten criteria to evaluate the quality of information sources on the Inter-
net: identification of sources of consistency in training, reliability of information, adequacy of supply,
internal and external links, and ease-of-use of the information, layout, source restrictions perceived and
user support.
Eppler (2006), states the quality of information sources on the Internet presents a few problems, such as
information overload, misunderstanding of information, bad judgment and the misuse of the information.
According to Petro (2008), sources of information vary according to the areas and professional
groups, types and degrees of need, in accordance with the purpose and informational situation. With the
identification, classification, selection and organization of information sources, can develop the process
of using these sources, in the different activities of the organizations.
It can be defined as information source all that generates or conveys information, that is, any object
or to respond to a need for information on the part of whoever needs, including products and services of
information, people or network of people, computer programs, digital media, sites and portals.
We present other conceptual contributions about sources of information in Table 1.
The lack of quality sources of information is associated with trust, security, loyalty and truthfulness
of the sources and the information is useful, contextualized, integrated, and easily accessible and in vary-

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Table 1. ­

References Main Issues

Davenport, 2000 The sources should be as varied and complex as possible
The information sources can be internal and external. Indoor fountains are from internal organs. The
Sugahara and Jannuzzi, 2005 external sources are divided in: sources close to market activities, sources of professional character and
expert and institutional sources.
Pereira and Barbosa, 2007 The information sources are classified according to the source, relationship, proximity and a half.
The mapping of the internal and external information sources face the complexity and multiplicity of
Alvarenga Neto, 2008
the same.
The sources of information have evolved over time: stones, Papyrus, paper, photographs, electronic and
Wensing, 2010 electromagnetic means, so the sources of information have become synonymous with informational
resources available in digital format.
The information itself is something immaterial. The information while merchandise exists only when is
Barreto, 2010 quantified, or it was the result of a technical condition of production, such as a book, an article, a song,
a printed image, a work of art, etc.

ing formats. Another important aspect is the source of the information to be objective, concise, correct,
direct, present in several literatures, magazine and recognized.
The use of information involves the selection (filters), technical treatment of the sources of information
in response to a question, a problem solving, decision making, negotiation or understanding of a situation.

INFORMATIONAL MARKETING

According to Kotler and Keller (2006), for most organizations is not the problem, but rather, what to
say (information), and how and how often to say it. This occurrence is Informational Marketing, which
work all the variety of information involving the creation, dissemination and delivery of value to the
target audience, as well as the management of the relationship that will benefit the Organization and
the customer.
According to Angelo, e. s., Ziviani, f., (2011), the Informational Marketing prepares a perspective for
sale, avoiding scares or excessive messages by offering guided by competence (Amaral, 2004):

• Know to interpret informational anxiety of audience;

• Be receptive to criticisms, suggestions and complaints, valuing the evaluations;
• Provide timely returns and courteously;
• Be effective, giving emphasis to the results and developing the capacity to set priorities;
• The entrepreneur must reverse the roles with the client and answer, among others, issues such as:
◦◦ What is the useful information to the customer making the decision to buy?
◦◦ Why choose our products and or services to the detriment of competitors?

Then put in place communication actions to publicize what it does, what it offers and why should
you use your products and / or services, where you can buy and service information, technical support
and the organization itself. The disclosure points that the benefits that the products and / or services can
offer, rather than worry about only in describing their characteristics (Amaral, 2001).

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Information Marketing

The brand supported informational campaigns integrates the reference of the target audience, since
it provides the accurate information for decision making. Even if there is no immediate need, the orga-
nization appears as one that should be sought when the necessity of the product and / or service arise.
According to Kotler and Armstrong (2007), customer/consumer can feel stimulated and got the of-
fer promptly, once the customers/consumers go through five stages of buying decision: recognition of
need; search for information, assessment of alternatives, buying decision and post-purchase behavior.

RELATIONSHIP MARKETING

According to Amaral (1998), information is essential to the practice of marketing because it is an indis-
pensable factor to boost the development of society and an input of fundamental importance of generating
knowledge which, in turn, makes it possible to, efficiently, meeting the diverse needs of the population.
The generation of knowledge-dependent marketing allows the satisfaction of needs, expectations and
concerns of the population, questioning the marketing dependence with regard to information seems to
be out of sense.
Until 1925, what prevailed was a guide to the production, whose concentration was in manufacturing
efficiency. Between 1925 and 1950, the orientation for the production gave way to guidance for sales
where the concentration was about selling products. Between 1950 and 1990, the prevailing orientation
was the marketing orientation, whose concentration was about the needs and desires of customers.
These three guidelines were, essentially, the conquest of new customers for organizations. There
research showed that keep customers was cheaper than gain new ones. These searches seem to have
been a kind of “splitter of the waters” in marketing, since they generated a paradigm shift in posture
adopted by then.
Winning new customers, who scored so heavily marketing culture until 1990, gave way to customer
retention, in which knowledge-based segmentation of the customer happened to be of paramount im-
portance. Organizations have come to realize that obtaining quality information about the client could
generate competitive advantage.
This new point of view gave rise to the so-called non-profit relationship. The relationship marketing
is, in fact, a new philosophy of organizational management based on acceptance of customer orienta-
tion and for profit on the part of organizations and the recognition that should be searched new forms of
communication, establishing a deep and lasting relationship with customers, prospects, suppliers and
all intermediaries, in order to obtain sustainable competitive advantage (Bretzke, 2000).
The relationship marketing is based on the learning relationship between the organization and their
customers, prospects and suppliers to obtain competitive advantages. According to Geus (2000; Kotler,
2003), the ability to learn faster than competitors may be the only sustainable competitive weapon. In
this relationship, the more you interact with these stakeholders, more you find out what they really want,
offering customized products and services.
Morin (1991; p. 19), states that (...) to know a piece we can’t isolate a Word, a piece of information,
it’s necessary to turn it to a context and mobilize our wonder, our culture, to reach an appropriate and
timely knowledge of the same. The problem of knowledge is a challenge because we can only know as
Pascal, if we know the parties; we know the whole in which they are located.
Barreto (2002), advocates the role of information as a tool to modify individual and group conscious-
ness of the individual, since, thanks to the information; the man is placed in line with the memory of its

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past and its future prospects. From this perspective, the author claims that he has established a relation-
ship between information and knowledge, since the information is so perceived and accepted, placing
the individual in a better stage of development, conscious of itself and into the world where is your
individual Odyssey (Barreto, 2002, p. 49).
Barreto (2002) emphasizes that the information is assimilated in an imaginary point of the present, but
with strong reference to the past of the individual informational, combined with a considerable weight
of its prospects and possibilities in the future. Barreto (2002, p. 50), argues that:

production of knowledge is a reconstruction of the mental structures of the individual through his cogni-
tive competence, that is, a change in his stock of accumulated knowledge.

The point of view of Barreto (1994) is that the information to be set to: symbolically significant
structures with the ability to generate knowledge in the individual, and in your group or society. (3)
Can deduce that meet the customer, more than simply information about it, requires the employees
and managers of organizations generating concrete actions that modify their individual and in your
group consciousness, in the sense of the customer. So, you can create them a predisposition to satisfy
the expectations and desires of the customers and, thus, practice marketing more suited to their theory.
The information has assumed importance as a factor of competitive differentiation, becoming in-
creasingly studied carefully in the marketing. It is known that the fundamental condition in the practice
of marketing is knowing what customers of an organization want and need, and to offer them, as far as
possible, what meets these expectations and desires. To satisfy this requisite, it is necessary to “listen”
with certain frequency this audience and frequency this audience, so that the principle of marketing can
be practiced in its fullness.

INFORMATION MARKETING IN ORGANIZATIONS

There are several factors that can influence or delay the adoption of market techniques in information
management, based on the concept of information or business units, related to the practice of market-
ing: unethical by some researchers labeled, the lack of focus in the units of information and or business
units on priority of managers, the lack of knowledge of marketing techniques on the part of managers,
the paucity of literature on the application of marketing techniques, as well as the inadequacy of the
economic theory of information.
According to Amaral (1998), there is a huge shortage of documents (articles, theses, dissertations)
on this topic. The focus of the information marketing is not always the main highlight of the published
documents. The theoretical concepts of Marketing are little discussed in the literature.
Due to technological advances, the information can be electronically disseminated and reach a grow-
ing audience in less time, but still faced with problems related to communication primitives. The optical
market leads to a better understanding of what is the “business” fundamental question on the marketing
orientation. When are known and use marketing techniques in the analysis and segmentation of the
market, the design of business units / all information is easier in decision-making, because the activities
are developed based on market studies, (interests, needs, expectations and desires of consumers).
If in practice, the marketing concept of information units and/or business units to consolidate the
marketing theory of information, we need to encourage research in this area and increase the scientific

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production of researchers interested in this subject. The units of information need to be seen as business
units, since the information is the raw material of knowledge, and both are intangible assets of strategic
relevance in the information and knowledge society in which we live. Despite the information be con-
sidered a feature of organizations, represents a particular class of other resources.
According to McGee, Prusak (1984), the differences arising from the potential of the information
and the challenge to manage it, since the information is infinitely reusable and does not deteriorate or
depreciates and its value, is determined solely by the consumer and, as such, it is necessary to adapt the
offer of information products and services to your interests and needs.
This reinforces the concept of information marketing since it emphasizes the importance of con-
sumer’s information and consumer client need for adequacy of provision of information products and
services to their interests and needs. Customers/consumers are increasingly demanding and consider
the informational products and services offered in the light of the added value that those products and
services you can offer.
The new information and communication technologies allow the easy storage of data on goods,
services and people, as well as the easy access to them. This development combined with marketing
techniques makes it possible to group the customers/consumers by similar data, enable, on the one hand,
to plan the different operations and marketing activities and identify business opportunities and direct
and instant contact.
The goal of the marketing managers is to determine the needs and desires of potential customers/
consumers (target market), to satisfy them with appropriate design, communication and distribution, in
addition to a competitive price for the products and services. The marketing assumes an understanding
of needs, perceptions, preferences, interests and favorites of customers/consumers, to satisfy them and by
the behavior of the target audience, appropriateness of messages from the media, and costs of facilities,
having the purpose to maximize their activities in the area in which it is applied.
Implementing the marketing concept for the information/business units is not always comprehensively
focused by the design, as the assimilation of marketing concepts is often limited to promotional aspects,
more difficult to conquer and maintain markets. Despite the limitation of marketing approach, in the
dimension of the competitiveness of markets, promotion and communication of information assume role
in the survival of organizations.
According to the model proposed by Sueli Amaral (2008), each organization can assign a different
importance and conduct marketing activities differently, depending on its philosophy of action. The
three dimensions can be summarized as follows:

• Philosophical Dimension: To ensure customer satisfaction;

• Functional Dimension: To contribute to the achievement of the exchanges between the
Organization and the market;
• Administrative Dimension: Study, analysis, planning and implementation of marketing activities.

The philosophy of practice in units of marketing-oriented information is service-oriented and the

relationship with customers, making emphasis in the Exchange, through administrative actions, aimed
at the goals of organizations. Functional function relates to the ease of trade between the organization
and the market, while the administrative dimension deals with the analysis, planning, implementation
and control of marketing activities

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The adoption of marketing techniques by the units of information shall correspond to the vision of
the information market in the context of business information, which can only be obtained when they
are conceptual and philosophical principles recognized in marketing.
According to Sueli Amaral (2008), there are various social actors in the information market and
schematically understand the business of organizations and intelligence units or business which can be
observed in the following figure:

INFORMATION MARKET AND BUSINESS INFORMATION

Kotler (1978, p. 37-38) defines as, a distinct group of people and/or organizations that have resources
that they want or can change for different benefits. From the point of view of organizations, market “is
a potential arena for the exchange of resources”. Later, Kotler (2000, p. 140) presents the market defini-
tion as, the set of current and potential buyers of a supply to the market. He also states that the size of
the market depends on the number of buyers that may exist for a given market.
To Kotler (2000, p. 31) there are the following types of market:

• Producers-Buy Resources (Raw Materials, Labor, Financial Resources): That transforms us

into products and services. Sell the finished products to markets intermediaries who, in turn, sell
them to the final consumer markets. These sell their skills and abilities with which receive money
to buy goods and services;
• The Government (Government Market): Taxes to acquire assets of resource markets, producers
and intermediaries to offer public services based on these resources acquired;

Figure 2. Business information

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Information Marketing

The information market is evolving and all organizations of the industry information need to identify
new market segments, develop new products and services and new relationships with their target audi-
ence, using the marketing techniques and tools to succeed in a paradigm shift of society (Rowley, 2006).
The paradigm shift reflects the changing nature of information services and the theoretical and practical
perspectives of the marketing due to the emergence of the Internet.
According to Reboredo (2003, p. 3), the market information may be perceived in a comprehensive
manner to the extent that the information can be:

• Recorded/encoded in various ways;

• Duplicated and reproduced endlessly;
• Transmitted through various media;
• Preserved and stored in various media;
• Measured and quantified;
• Added other information;
• Organized, processed/treated according to various criteria;
• Retrieved whenever necessary according to certain rules.

According to Wurman (1995, p. 47-48), the information marketing can be understood as follows:

• Cultural Information Market: Covers the areas of Arts, humanities and social;
• Information of Market Average: Covering the areas of communication and information science;
• Information Market in Science: Covers the area of science in all its fullness;
• Information Market in Technology: Covers the area of technology in all its breadth;
• Information Markets of Reference: Covers all areas of human knowledge, presented as a refer-
ence or support or vital statistics.

According to Valentim (2000), information markets are mutually supportive in the production of
information in the different areas of knowledge to which they are linked, establishing a value chain that
will grow whenever the information is produced.
Barreto (1996; 1999) does not accept the transposition of marketing concepts because, according to
him, the information market has characteristics which are peculiar, as, in the studies already carried out
it is the provision that determines the search of information.
However, based on market definitions presented by Kotler (1998; 2000), analysis of information laws
proposed by Moody and Walsh (1999), and the vision of Rowley (2006), about information marketing,
you can understand that the information market is that market where there is actual or potential interest
in its own information. This market consists of all the people and organizations that have an interest in
information, also have certain resources and needed to be exchanged for it. The information market is
present in those who offer information (offer) as those that need and seek it (seek).
We need to reflect that the raw material of everyday work, information and knowledge are complex,
changeable and diverse. The complexity may explain the lack of consensus on the outcome of the epis-
temological studies about the concept and definition of information and knowledge.

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PROMOTION AND COMMUNICATION OF INFORMATION

One of the roles of marketing in organizations is the promotion; to make known the same and their
products and/or services by potential customers/consumers making them attractive, as well as showing
how they may be used where to buy them and highlight the main benefits in its use, as well as keep
customers/consumers constantly informed.
According to Le Coadic (1996), the communication is the transactional process between two or more
parties. It is, therefore, a complex process and its role is to convey information. Communication is the
process, the mechanism, the action and the information is the product that will be reported.
Davis (1967), argues that the interdependence between the communication and the information is so
strong that some people set the communication as a, process of passing information and understanding
from one person to another. Drucker (2002), says that communication has become a major concern for
managers, students and professionals of any organization.
The promotion makes use of communication to attract new consumers, sell ideas and strengthen
brands, making it necessary that organizations have increasingly skills and competences in the develop-
ment of their activities of promotion and communication of their products and services and values to
conquer customers/consumers well informed and demanding in this global market.
Krieg-Sigman (1995), considers that all the promotion is communication, but all communication is
production. The communication of information is addressed in the corporate communication. Corporate
communication is a dynamic process that uses various methods and techniques of public relations, jour-
nalism, advertising, research, marketing, human resources that interact in both surroundings as internally.
The main goal of the communication in organizations, sometimes persuasively, is winning the sym-
pathy, the credibility and the trust of customers/consumers. The adjective gives a persuasive manipula-
tive communication even treat yourself to an educational action for the benefit of the citizen to whom
the message is addressed. That’s why organizations must be attentive to the processes of promotion
and communication of information, since, the information explosion requires effective communications
(Drucker, 2002, p. 130).
McCarthy (1950) defined the concept of Marketing-mix into four groups or four P’s: product, price,
place and promotion. Each variable is considered as an element of this compound. At that time, it was
focused on product marketing. Other authors have proposed the inclusion of other P’s marketing and
various social and technological changes and impacts have been influencing and motivating changes in
the 4 P’s.
Richards (1980), proposed the 4 A’s: analysis, adaptation, activation and avaluation. Lauterbom
(1990), suggested the 4 c’s: customer, cost, convenience and communication. Without considering the
specific differences of each proposal, note that amendment has its origins in the essence of the concept,
since in the 4 P’s were centered within the organization and the other proposals consider the influences
from outside to inside the organization (birth; Lauterborn, 2007, p. 50-74).
To Kotler and Keller (2006, p. 532), the problem is that companies don’t communicate, but what to
say, how to say it and how often say. Communications become increasingly difficult as, more and more
companies try to attract the attention of consumers divided.
Las Casas (2006, p. 377), flip, confusingly the term promotion with sales promotion. Promote relates
to inform, persuade and influence the decision-making of buys from customers/consumers. In this context

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the term is more comprehensive than sales promotion. It is considered as promotion activities: advertis-
ing, public relations, personal selling, or any other form of communication. A company may have good
products, reasonable prices and a good distribution chain, but will only succeed if it has a good com-
munication capacity. Kotler and Armstrong (1998), states that communicate with customers should not
be left to chance, namely, promotion and communication inter-relating. Technological advances should
be used in the practice of information marketing.
Amaral (1998), states that the information marketing is a process that takes place without communica-
tion and proposed the study of the process of promotion/communication of information as the Market-
ing activity in units of information. The proposal of the model considers the relationship of promotion
with communication as something integrated, including the noise element in this process, facilitating
the identification of barriers and difficulties faced in promoting the process as a whole, contributing
positively to the effectiveness of the promotion in organizations.
The proposed integration of promotion with the communication meets the affirmations of Kotler
and Keller (2006), when ensuring that modern marketing demands more than develop a good product,
establishes an attractive price and makes it accessible to its consumers. In the process of communicating
with customers/consumers and prospects, it is necessary to know what to say, who and when

INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION

According to Kotler; Keller, (2006, p. 532), the marketing communication is the means by which orga-
nizations seek to inform, persuade and remind customers/consumers on products and services, from the
brands they offer. With the technological evolution, propose the replacement of the mix-for promotional
marketing communication, including: advertising, sales promotion, events, public relations, personal
selling, direct marketing, so as to provide an approximation between the organization and the customers/
consumers, i.e. everything communicates something to the customers/consumers and the contact with the
brand conveys a message that can strengthen or weaken the vision of the client about the organization.
Note that there is a major change in society, leading to change in focus in relation to the factors of
production and development of society. The basis of the transformation is that the information sector is
knowledge-intensive, and not in labor. The added value of knowledge, when incorporated in products,
causes the industrial processing of raw material information by its value added (Barker, Amaral, &
Batista, 1994).
Castells (1999, p. 174-176), states that:

the informational economy is characterized by the development of a new organizational logic, which is
related to the current process of technological transformation, but not up to him.

The big change is the transition from mass production to flexible production. The main dilemma of
managers is to deal with the uncertainty due to changes in the macroeconomic environment, technologi-
cal, political, social, cultural, etc.
According to Rowley (2002), in the digital environment, where operating digital libraries, electronic
commerce and electronic business (e-business) the digital information has become increasingly important
to play double role in marketing.

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E-commerce relates the marketing with delivery of information products, such as electronic newspa-
pers and magazines, newsletters, e-books, digital music, video and audio, software, images. Moreover,
in the digital world, the service providers use the information as a substitute for personal contact (e.g.,
product catalogs, list of FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions), promotion of products and services to sup-
port customer relationships (Rowley, 2002).
Rowley (2006), highlights the marketing in organizations that offer products and/or services of
information as a process by which information and knowledge needs of clients are met by means of
adequate exchange of information about the products and services of these organizations. This involves
the services of these organizations:

• Research on the needs of customers and other market factors;

• Select and define the target clients or groups of clients that seek to achieve information services;
• Set the offer in terms of products and or services associated with the marketing and do this as a
reference for the potential value that the bidder can provide to customers;
• Offer products and services in accordance with the expectations and interests of customers;
• Ensure communication with the target customers;

To Amaral (2004, p. 59-60), the study of information marketing refers to systems and organiza-
tions involved with the processes of information management, relating to different stages of the cycle
of information, such as, the sources, the collection, processing, communication and use of information
relating to the supply of products and provision of information services in support of decision-making.

INFORMATION ON THE PRACTICE OF MARKETING

One of the principles of Marketing is the satisfaction of expectations, aspirations and desires of consum-
ers of goods and services to satisfy their needs. The issue of needs and desires requires understanding of
these concepts, since there are differences between them: someone needs something and this is manifested
in such a way that can be interpreted (Man, 2000, p. 3).
For the economy, the need is the sense of a certain lack the desire to be eliminated. The need is the
desire to have a means to prevent to end an unpleasant feeling or to provoke, maintain or increase a
nice feeling (Sabaté, & f. Tarragó, 1989).
The media that serve people to meet their needs are designated by economists like goods. A “well”
is what we recognize as able to satisfy a need, regardless of any other judgment (for example moral
judgment). The goods can be classified in several ways. The first interest is that distinguishes the so-
called free goods (ex: the air we breathe, the water) of economic goods. A well is an economic one that
is characterized by its scarcity, that is, is the one that exists in quantities less than those required, given
the need felt (Sabaté, & f. Tarragó, 1989).

The usefulness of a good refers to the quality and capacity of this well in meeting the needs of its own
that well. The usefulness of an asset is the ability of this well to meet the needs, and the needs are sub-
jective sensations. It follows that the same well can have different use for different people, depending
on the intensity with which these may experience or feel the needs that can be satisfied with this well
(Sabaté, & f. Tarragó, 1989).

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Closely associated with the concept of utility, is the concept of “economic value”, of which we can say
that it is the quality of everything that gives importance, because it is considered that deserves esteem.
So, the value of a given well also depends on each person, since each can feel distinct appreciation for
a really good (Sabaté, & f. Tarragó, 1989).
Organizations are seeking the economic return through the sale of their products or services on the
market. In a competitive environment, an organization can achieve better performance than their competi-
tors, because it has better features, or because the organization makes better use of its distinctive skills
(Penrose, 1959). A distinctive competency is defined as a distinguished qualification, complementary
assets and the organization’s routines that together enable the company to coordinate a specific set of
activities that provide the basis for competitive advantage (Dosi & Teece, in: Williamson 1999, p. 1094).
Competitive advantage is referred to as an economic profitability (Porter 1980). Subsequently, the
resource base sees the strategy as a continuous research of profitability. Profitability is then defined
as the excess return of a resource that you are the owner of an opportunity cost (Mahoney & Pandian,
1992). In other words, profitability can be measured as a normal financial return.
In order to differentiate the possible sources of profitability, some types are distinguished. For ex-
ample, the return can be performed by (Mahoney & Pandian, 1992):

• Superior ability to manage to coordinate the resources (Penrose, 1959);

• Possession of a valuable resource which is rare;
• Government Protection when barriers to entry of new competitors are high;
• Take risks and business acumen in uncertain and complex immersive media;
• Make better use of the resources of the organization, of any of the physical assets and human
capital.

In short, the resource base is an attempt to explain why the organizations differ in terms of features
and capabilities, and how these differences can lead to positions of sustained profitability, producing
superior financial return. Base resources, therefore, serve the purpose of focusing explicitly the function
of resources and the capacity of organizations, such as the origin of strategy and organizational perfor-
mance. This exploration of the relationship between resources, competition and profit includes, among
other issues, the role of imperfect information in the creation of differences in profitability between
competitors (Grant 1991; Barney, 1986; Itami, 1987).

CONCLUSION

The adoption of marketing techniques in organizations, the concept of information market, essentially
depends on the knowledge that marketers have about the marketing concepts in the field of information
science and the true understanding of the role social, political, educational, cultural and informational
professional of information that goes beyond the rules of technical treatment without the belittling.
Recognizing the need for effective treatment of information, regardless of the physical medium and
format of presentation, its focus on user/decision maker, considering it target audience to be served by
your offer as long as you are facing the business and the information market in which it operates. So, the
organization must be concerned with maintaining a two-way relationship with its target audience (custom-
ers and/or consumers) to meet their interest profiles for information products and services to be offered.

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