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Tides and currents in a two-inlet coastal lagoon: Laguna de Términos, México

Article in Continental Shelf Research · August 1998

DOI: 10.1016/S0278-4343(98)00033-8

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 CONTINENTAL SHELF
RESEARCH

PERGAMON Continental Shelf Research 18 (1998) 1057-1079

Tides and currents in a two-inlet coastal

lagoon: Laguna de Terminos, Mexico
Laura T. Bjorn Kjerfvea
"Marine Science Program, Belle K Baruch Institute for Marine Biology and Coastal Research, and
Department of Geological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208. US.A.
Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines

Received 29 September 1997; accepted 18 December 1997

Abstract
Laguna de Terminos, the largest coastal lagoon in Mexico with a surface area of ZOO km2, is
connected to the Gulf of Mexico via two major ocean inlets. Fifty percent of the lagoon water
volume is renewed every 9 days, mostly as a function of tidal exchange. Two month-long field
measurement periods indicate that the tide is mostly mixed, mainly diurnal with a mean range
of 0.3 m. In the tidal inlets, peak currents measure 1.3 ms-', and are mostly mixed, mainly
semidiurnal. Processes at tidal frequencies explain approximately 70% of the water level
variability; and approximately 95 and 65% of the current variability in the inlets and inside the
lagoon, respectively. The remaining low-frequency variability is attributed to meteorological
forcing. The lagoon receives a mean freshwater discharge of 378 m3 s-' from three rivers, but
the inlets are still well mixed with only a weak gravitational cxrculation in one of the inlets.
Measurements from a single tidal cycle in March 1995 indicate that the net fluxes of salt and
suspended sediment during this period were directed towards the Gulf of Mexico in both inlets,
mostly as a result of advective dominance opposed by lagoon-directed tidal dispersion and
vertical shear fluxes. 0 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

Keywords: Coastal lagoon; Mexico; salt dispersion; sediment dispersion; tides; tidal currents;
water renewal

1. Introduction

L a g u n a d e TCrminos, C a m p e c h e (Fig. l a ) is t h e largest coastal lagoon in Mexico

a n d is of great importance t o t h e marine fishery in C a m p e c h e S o u n d a n d t h e Gulf of

* Corresponding author.
0278-4343/98/$ See front matter 0 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
-

PII SO278-4343(98)00033--8
1058 L.T. Dauid, B. KjerfvelContinental Shelf'Research 18 (1998) 1057-1079

MCxico (Yafiez-Arancibia and Day, 1982; Yhiiez-Arancibia et al., 1980, 1985; 1988).
The lagoon has for many years been the focus of multi-disciplinary studies (Yaiiez-
Arancibia and Day, 1982; Jensen et al., 1989; Rojas-Galaviz et al., 1990; EPOMEX,
1993; Yaiiez-Arancibia et a1.,1994) but flow measurements in the lagoon are sparse.
Questions concerning flow, transport, and mixing, turn-over time, and changes to the
lagoon by anthropogenic impacts will remain unanswered unless the hydrodynamic
processes are better elucidated. Previous studies have surmised that marine waters on
the average enter the lagoon through the eastern inlet and exit the system through the
western inlet. This finding was based on measurements of salinity, Foraminifera
assemblages, and deltaic geomorphology (Phleger and Ayala-Castafiares, 1971);salin-
ity, temperature, chlorophyll-a, suspended solids, and dissolved oxygen distributions
(Botello, 1978); in situ current profiles(Mancil1a-Peraza and Vargas-Flores, 1980;
Candela, 1983); and numerical simulation modeling of currents (Dressler, 1981;
Graham et al., 1981; Kjerfve et al., 1988). Graham et al. (1981) attribute this net
flow-through to the dominant wind forcing of the lagoon, whereas Kjerfve et al. (1988)
concluded that tidal phase differences between the two main tidal inlets aid in
explaining net east-to-west flow- through. On closer inspection of the simulation
results of Kjerfve et al., (1988), the flow- through is quite weak with or without wind
forcing.
Based on measurements of salinity, suspended sediments, and chlorophyll-a, David
et al. (in press) argued that tidal currents entering the lagoon through two tidal inlets
dominate flow exchange and account for the circulation and dispersion in Laguna de
Tkrminos. Specifically, the lagoon has two modes of behavior. During most of the
year, Laguna de Terminos functions as two almost independent systems with only
limited mixing between the two water masses inside the lagoon. During high fresh-
water discharge, however, the lagoon behaves as a single hydrological unit with a net
east-to-west flow-through (David, et al., in press). Even with our measurements,
current measurements in Laguna de Terminos are sparse. We will present measure-
ments of tides and currents in the two inlets and at one location within the lagoon;
calculate net fluxes of salt and total suspended solids (TSS); and estimate the 50%
turn-over time for water in Laguna de Terminos.

2. Laguna de Terminos

The Usumacinta-Grijalva is the largest river system in Mexico with a combined

mean discharge of 2410 m3 s-' (SRH, 1970). Grijalva accounts for 729 m3 s-' and
Usumacinta 1681 m3s-'(SRH, 1970; Milliman et al., 1995). The majority of the
freshwater discharges directly into the Gulf of Mexico, making it the second largest
source of freshwater to the Gulf, after the Mississippi River. The rivers reach the Gulf
of Mexico via several distributaries, and have developed a broad compound delta
(Fig. lb). A series of coastal lagoons border the Tabasco delta plain to the west and the
Campeche delta plain to the east. Laguna de Terminos is the largest of these coastal
lagoons, and receives discharge from the Usumacinta River via a large distributary,
Palizada River.
 L. T. Dauid, B. Kjerfve/Continental Shelf' Research 18 (1998) 105 7-1079 1059

Fig. 1. (a) Laguna de Terminos, Campeche, Mexico with sampling locations: Carmen Inlet; Puerto Real
Inlet; and station 12. (b) Usumacinta-Grijalva river delta in the southern extreme of the Gulf of Mexico.
Meteorological stations are highlighted with a down-arrow (clockwise from topmost left: Palizada, Isla
Aguada, Palizada, Vista Alegre, and Chumpan).
 L.T. David, B. Kjerfve/Continental Shey Research I8 (1998) 1057-1079 1061

Laguna de Terminos is situated at the southern extreme of the Gulf of Mexico

between latitudes N 18" 27' 37" and N 18" 47' 36" and longitudes W 91" 14' 44" and
W 91" 53' 55" (Fig la). The lagoon forms the eastern boundary to the Usumacinta-
Grijalva delta complex; located 90 and 65 km east of the main Grijalva and
Usumacinta distributaries, respectively (Fig. lb). The total surface area of the lagoon
is 2500 km2, and the mean depth is 3.5 m. The lagoon is connected to the Gulf of
Mexico by two ocean inlets at either end of Isla del Carmen, a 38 km long and 2.5 km
wide Holocene, calcareous-sand barrier island (Gutikrrez-Ektrada and Castro del Rio,
1988). These two ocean inlets are significantly deeper than the lagoon. The south-
western inlet, Carmen Inlet, has a mean depth of 6.4 m, a m,aximum depth of 14 m and
measures 3.4 km across. The eastern inlet, Puerto Real Inlet, has a mean depth of 5 m,
a maximum depth of 12 m and measures 3.2 km across. Highway bridges now span
both inlets. Another smaller inlet, Sabancuy Inlet, connect ILaguna de Terminos to the
Gulf of Mexico 43 km to the northeast of Puerto Real Inlet via a narrow shore-
parallel lagoon system, but the net flow exchange is very small compared to the
exchange through the main inlets.
Three rivers account for most of the freshwater input to the lagoon (Yaiiez-
Arancibia and Sanchez-Gil, 1983; EPOMEX, 1993). The largest is Palizada River,
a distributary of the Usumacinta River located near the western extreme of the
lagoon, with a mean discharge of 288 m3 s - ' and a monthly variation from 115 to
497 m3 s-' (CNDCRAA, 1993; David et al., in press). Chumpan River with a mean
freshwater flow of 18 m3 s- ' and the Candelaria-Mamantel rivers with 72 m3 s- ' also
discharge into the lagoon (CNDCRAA, 1993; David et al., in press). The combined
river runoff into Laguna de Terminos thus measures 378 m3 s - ' in addition to an
input of 143 m3 s-' from direct rainfall (David et al., in press). Pan evaporation
measurements at Carmen City (EPOMEX, 1993) indicate an annual evaporation of
1512 mm, which translates into an average 120 m3 s-' water loss from evaporation.
The Laguna de Terminos climate is characterized by three distinct seasons: a dry,
a wet, and a windy. The dry season commonly lasts from March to May, and the rainy
from June to October. Frontal passages, or nortes, traverse the region from the
northwest throughout the year, but nortes dominate when 3 or more frontal passages
occur during a single month. In a typical year, the nortes season lasts from November
to February. In 1995, however, it lasted a month longer, with frontal passages
occurring during eight days in March, with an average !sustained north-northwest
wind speed of 8.3 m s - ' (National Data Buoy CenterjNOAA data). In general,
predominant winds blow from the sectors between north--northeast and east--south-
east with typical speeds of 5 m s- '. During the nortes season, in contrast, winds with
'
speeds greater than 8 m s- blow from the northwest, with prolonged calms occurring
between frontal passages (Yaiiez- Arancibia and Day, 1982).
The Terminos watershed is divided into three zones characterized by different
precipitation signatures. The western zone, represented by meteorological stations at
Palizada and El Carmen, receives low precipitation in April and high in September-
October with 1826 mm annually. The middle zone, represented by Chumpan, receives
low precipitation in April and high June-July with 1602 mm annually. The eastern
zone, represented by Candelaria and Isla Aguada, receives least precipitation in April
1062 L. T. David, B. KjerfielContinentaI Shelf Research I X (1998) 1057-1 079

and high rainfall in June, September, and October with 1424 mm annually (EP-
OMEX, 1993). The air temperature varies 14-40°C with a mean of 27°C (EPOMEX,
1993), and the lagoon water temperature varies 22-34°C with a 27S°C mean (Yafiez-
Arancibia et al., 1982; Alvarez-Guillen et al., 1985).

3. Field measurements

We measured time series of water elevation, currents, temperature, and conductiv-

ity by mooring Interocean S4 electromagnetic current meters (with CTD option)
simultaneously in Carmen and Puerto Real inlets, 42 km apart. Pressure measure-
ments allowed the calculation of water elevation to 4 mm resolution. Temperature
and conductivity measurements allowed calculation of salinity to 0.01 (Foffonoff and
Millard, 1983).
During the nortes to dry season in 1995, we moored a S4 current meter in Carmen
Inlet (N 18" 37' 40" and W 91" 50' 28"), as close to the middle as was allowed by the
local coast guard, 4 m above the bottom and approximately 3.5 m below the surface
for 33 days, 3 March-5 April. We also moored a S4 in the middle of Puerto Real
Inlet (N 18" 46' 45" and W 91" 29' 58") 3 m above the bottom, and approximately
3.5 m below the surface for 42 days, 28 February-10 April. The instruments
were programmed to record an average measurement every 10 min, each average
based on 240 consecutive half-second measurements. The resultant time series are of
excellent quality with exception for a few days at the end of the moorings, when
bio-fouling by barnacles became a problem. These flawed data were omitted from the
analysis.
While, the S4's were moored in the inlets in 1995, we made profile measurements of
currents every meter from surface to bottom, using current vanes (Kjerfve and
Medeiros, 1989), and continuous temperature and conductivity measurements be-
tween surface and bottom near the instrument mooring, every hour during a single
diurnal tidal cycle in each pass. We sampled Carmen Inlet from 0740 h local standard
time on 29 March 1995 until 0840 h on 30 March 1995, and Puerto Real Inlet from
0920 h on 15 March 1995 until 0950 h on 16 March 1995.
During the wet season of 1994, we also moored the two S4 current meters
simultaneously in Puerto Real Inlet (N 18" 46' 50" and W 91" 29' 56") and at station 12
inside the lagoon, near Isla del Carmen, 18 km from Carmen Inlet and 25 km from
Puerto Real Inlet (N 18" 36' 42" and N 91" 39' 50") (Fig. la) in 1994. At station 12, the
S4 current meter was placed 1 m above the bottom and approximately 3.5 m below
the surface for 23 days, 10 August-2 September, resulting in excellent data. However,
we failed to retrieve data from the moored instrument in Puerto Real Inlet.

4. Tidal and low-frequency variability

Variability in physical measurements in Laguna de Terminos can be explained by

tidal and meteorological processes. To analyze the tidal processes, we subjected the S4
 L.T. David, B. Kjerfve/Continental Shelf Research 18 (1998) 1057-1079 1063

water level and current data to tidal harmonic analysis to estimate amplitude and
phase, and the orientation of current ellipses. To analyze the meteorological and
far-field low-frequency responses, we low-pass filtered the data time series using
a filter with a 38 h half-power response, which effectively eliminates semidiurnal and
diurnal tidal variability (Rosenfeld, 1983).
We applied the Sea Level Processing Software (SLPRC) by the University of
Hawaii to the water elevation series from each station as a means of quality control
(Caldwell, 1996). The analysis indicated that 27 days for Carmen, 21 days for Puerto
Real, and 23 days for Station 12, were data free of sensor degradation from barnacle
fouling. We then applied both the SLPRC and Tides Programs for Prediction and
Analysis (Franco, 1988; 1992) to calculate harmonic constants in Carmen Inlet. The
two sets of independent calculations were subsequently used to predict high and low
waters for a 12-month period, which we compared to published predictions by
Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM, 1993) and published predic-
tions by National Ocean Service (NOS/NOAA, 1993). The tidal elevations predicted
by the Franco (1988) program had significantly higher correlation to both the UNAM
and NOSINOAA data. The main advantage of the Franco (1988) program is the
better resolution of shallow water constituents than oiher programs. Here, we will
only report on astronomical constituents calculated with the Franco (1988, 1992)
program, applied to both water level and current data.

4.1. Tides and water level variability

Harmonic analysis of tidal elevations assumes that the rise and fall of the tide, [(t),
can be expressed as the sum of harmonic astronomical c:onstituents (Schurman, 1941;
Dronkers, 1964; Franco, 1988).

where lois the mean water elevation, inis the amplitude; f, and u, are the nodal factor
and nodal angle, respectively, unis the tidal frequency, t is the local time, gn is the
phase lag of the equilibrium tide at Greenwich; and -tT, is the phase angle for
Greenwich Meridian of the nth constituent (Pugh, 198'7).
Water level recordings measured every 10 min for 27 days in Carmen Inlet, for 21
days in Puerto Real Inlet, and for 23 days at station 12 resulted in seven significant
harmonic constants with amplitudes greater than 1 cm (Table I). The mean tidal
range measured 0.31, 0.34, and 0.26 m, respectively. The tidal form number (Defant,
1960) is N , = K , + O , / M , + S2, and measured 3.1 in Carmen Inlet, indicating
a diurnal tide; 2.8 in Puerto Real Inlet, and 2.4 at station 12, in both cases indicating
a mixed, predominantly diurnal tide.
A comparison of calculated harmonic water level amplitudes compared to theoret-
ical harmonics for the tidal potential (Doodson, 1921; Schurman, 1941; Defant, 1960;
Cartwright and Edden, 1973; Pugh, 1987) indicated that for Carmen Inlet, O1 is
430%, K , is 270%, and S, is 20%, while for Puerto Real Inlet, 0, is 400%, K, is
290%, and S2 is 40% as compared to the expected values relative to M, (Table 2).
1064 L.T. David, B. Kjerftre/Continenlal Shelf Research 18 (1998) 1057-1079

Table 1
Significant water level harmonics in Laguna de Terminos, where i,(cm) is amplitude and g, is the phase lag
of the equilibrium tide a t Greenwich (Pugh, 1987)

Constituent Origin Carmen Puerto Real Station 12

-

Diurnal 5 (cm)ig ( r (cm)ig ( ) r (cmlig ( 1

Q1 Large elliptical lunar 3.7 i52 3.5 / 25 3.8 / 66
0 1 Principal lunar 12.01 73 12.5 / 49 9.2 :' 119
K1 Principal solar-lunar 10.7 :' 94 12.8 / 58 8.5 / 125

Semidiurnal
N2 Larger elliptical lunar 3.3 / 286 3.6 i 247
M2 Principal lunar 6.7 303 7.5 :' 270 4.5 1 44
SZ Principal solar 0.5 243 1.3 :' 235 2.8 /' 129

Table 2
Comparison of the relative magnitudes of measured diurnal and semidiurnal tidal responses at the three
locations in Laguna de Terminos to the equilibrium tide, where we have assigned M, = 100 (Doodson,
1921: Schurman, 1941; Cartwright and Edden, 1973; Pugh, 1987)

Constituent Period Relative magnitude (M,= 100)

(solar hours)

Expected Carmen Puerto Real Station 12

Diurnal
Q1 26.87 8 55 46 83
01 25.82 42 179 166 20 1
KI 23.93 58 159 170 187
Semidiurnal
N2 12.66 19 49 48
M2 12.42 100 100 100 100
s2 12.00 47 8 18 60

Thus, for this southern portion of the Gulf of Mexico, the main semidiurnal constitu-
ents, M2 and S2, are selectively dampened as a result of tidal progression across the
broad Campeche shelf. For station 12, 0, is 480%, K , is 320%, and S2 is 130% as
compared to the expected values relative to M2 (Table 2).Thus, inside the lagoon
M2 is dampened. The relative importance of S2 grows from Carmen Inlet, to Puerto
Real Inlet, and further inside Laguna de Terminos. Cross-spectral analysis (Franco,
1988)indicated that the tide at station 12 is significantly more coherent with the tide in
Puerto Real than at Carmen.
With respect to tidal phase (Table I), the three major diurnal and semidiurnal
constituents progress from the northeast to the southwest in the Gulf of Mexico, with
high waters first occurring at Puerto Real Inlet, then at Carmen Inlet, and finally
reaching station 12 inside the lagoon from Puerto Real. For example, relative to high
tide at Puerto Real Inlet, high 0 , tide occurs 1.7 hours later at Carmen Inlet and 5.0
 L. T. David, B. KjerfielContinental Shelf Research 18 (IYY8) 1057-1079 1065

hours later at Station 12. Relative to high K , tide at Puerto Real Inlet, the high tide
lags by 2.4 h in Carmen Inlet and by 4.5 h at station 12. Relative to the occurrence of
high M 2 tide in Puerto Real Inlet, the high M, tide occurs 1.4 h later in Carmen Inlet
and 4.6 h later at Station 12.

4.2. Meteorological and long-term water level variability

The total water level variance measured 196 cm2 in Carmen Inlet. The meteoro-
logical and farfield component is assumed to be the variability of the low-pass
filtered time series, and explained 41% of the total variance. Low-frequency
water level fluctuations with a period of 2 to 3 days is a feature of the filtered data
(Fig. 2). In Puerto Real Inlet, total water level variance measured 256 cm" and the
meteorological and farfield component explained 35%. Besides the 2- 3-day low-
frequency water level fluctuations, there also an indication of the existence of a 16-day
periodicity (Fig. 2).
Inside the lagoon, total water level variance measured 169 cm2 at station 12. Here,
the low-frequency and far-field component explained only 15% of the overall vari-
ance. Low-frequency water level fluctuations of an approximate 4 to 5 day period is
observed in the filtered data (Fig. 2).
During 1-2, 8-9, 17-20 March, and 1-2 April 1995, when north-northwesterly
frontal passages traversed the lagoon, the low-pass filtered sea level at both Carmen
and Puerto Real inlets increased markedly. This suggests that frontal passages may
induce water setup in the lagoon. Likewise, the southeast storm front passage during
28-31 August 1994 (Julian Days 240--243) increased the mean sea level in the lagoon,
but to a lesser extent. In fact, the majority of this increase was more likely due to high
river during this period.

4.3. Tidal currents

Harmonic analysis of tidal current velocities was applied to the decomposed

east-west and north-south components

where q is the speed of the currents, and 6' is the measure of the direction of flow
clockwise from the north, and u and v are the current components positive towards
the east and north, respectively.
The current components can be expressed as a summation of harmonic astronomi-
cal constituents (Schurman, 1941; Dronkers, 1964; Pugh, 1987; Franco, 1988)
 L.T. David, B. Kjerfve/Continental Shelf Research 18 (1998) 1037-1079

Carmen Inlet (1995)

-0.4 -
70 76 80 I6 W S6
Jullan Days

Puerto Real Inlet (1SBS)

Julian Days

I I I
226 250 256 240 24s
Julian Days

Fig. 2. Raw and low-pass filtered time-series water level data for Laguna de Terminos. Data for Carmen
and Puerto Real Inlets were collected during the nortes season of 1995 while data for Station 12 were
collected during the rainy season of 1994. The periods for 25 h data collection in each inlet are highlighted:
15-16 March in Puerto Real and 29-30 March in Carmen.
 L. ?i David, B. KjerfvelContinental Shelf Research 18 (1 998) 1057-1 079

Fig. 3. Tidal ellipses of the significant tidal current harmonics in Laguna de Terminos

where U o and V , are the mean current component velocities, U , and V , are the
component amplitudes, f, and u, are the nodal factor adjustments; a, is the tidal
frequency, t is local time; gumand gumare the time-independent phase lag, and V, is the
equilibrium phase angle for Greenwich Meridian of the nth astronomical constituent.
The U and V amplitudes and phases for each harmonic constituent define a current
ellipse. The ellipse traces the points of individual current vector for a complete cycle
for each astronomical constituent. An ellipse is defined by a major and minor axis,
representing the maximum and minimum currents (Eqs. (6) and (7)), the direction of
maximum speed (Eq. (8)),and the equilibrium phase at zero hour (Eq. (9))(Pugh, 1987;
Franco, 1988). Comparisons of current ellipses between the three stations are shown
graphically (Fig. 3), where
(U2 + ;' + o')"' 9
amplitude of major axis = (6)

amplitude of minor axis - (7)

1068 L. T. David, B. KjerfvelContinental Shey Research 18 (1998) 105 7-1079

Table 3
Current ellipse statistics for Laguna de Terminos, where M and m are the major and minor axes,
respectively, Om,, is direction of the major axis, and S is the equilibrium phase angle

Constituent Carmen Puerto Real Station 12

Mjm Mjm
(cm s- I ) (cm s-')
Diurnal
QI
0 1
K1
Semidiurnal
N2
M2
Sz
Shallowwater
M4

where x is the ellipticity, and the inclination of the major axis relative to true north is

and where the phase of the semi-major axis (6) is given by

26 = arctan
v2sin 2(9" - go)
u2+ v 2cos 2(g, g")- I
where U and V are the amplitudes, and g, and g, are the time-independent phase lags.
The ellipse vector rotation is then given by 0 < g, - g, < n for anticlockwise rotation;
n < g, - g, < 271 for clockwise rotation; and g, - g, = 0, n, 2n, ... ,nn for rectilinear
flow.
We performed harmonic analysis (Franco, 1988) on the current time series from
Carmen Inlet, Puerto Real Inlet, and station 12. The dominant constituents at all
three sampling stations are K , , O,, and M 2 (Table 3). The current form number was
calculated using the amplitude of the major axes and measures 2.7 in Carmen Inlet,
1.9 in Puerto Real Inlet, and 1.1 at station 12 (Defant, 1960). All three current
form numbers are smaller than their respective tidal form number, indicating that
the currents are mixed but substantially more semidiurnal than the water level
variability.
We calculated tidal ellipses for the current data at the three stations. In Carmen
Inlet, all solar constituents rotate anticlockwise, while all lunar constituents rotate
clockwise. In Puerto Real Inlet, both solar and lunar constituents rotate anticlock-
wise. And at station 12, both solar and lunar constituents rotate anticlockwise with
exception of K,. The tidal current constituents in Carmen and Puerto Real inlets are
almost rectilinear and mostly directed along axes oriented 152"-332' and 168'-348',
respectively. The currents at station 12 are significantly smaller in amplitude,
 L.T. David, B. KjerfveIContinental Shelf Research 18 (1998) 1057-1079 1069

and describe an ellipse with the major axis oriented 32"-212". With respect to tidal phase
(Table 3), the major diurnal and semidiurnal constituents progress from the northeast to
the southwest in the Gulf of Mixico, with maximum currents first occurring at Puerto
Real, then at Carmen, and finally reaching station 12 from Puerto Real Inlet. Relative to
maximum currents in Puerto Real, K , currents lag by 1.0 11 in Carmen Inlet and by 3.1 h
at station 12; 0, currents lag by 1.1 h in Carmen Inlet and by 9.4 h at station 12; and
M, currents lag by 0.6 h in Carmen Inlet and by 4.8 h at station 12.

4.4. Low-frequency current variability

Hourly stick vectors of both raw and low-frequency liltered currents are presented
to show the variability of speed and direction (Fig. 4). In Carmen Inlet, the direction of
maximum currents are lagoonward at 121°T and oceanward at 293"T with an
amplitude of 42 cms-'. Low-frequency water level fluctuations of approximately
2 days are prominent features of the current time series A weak cross channel flow is
observed in the inlet with mean v velocity of 6 cm s- '. Total current variance of the
u and ti components are 22.8 x lo2 and 0.6 x lo2 cm2 s-*, respectively. Low-frequency
variability explains only 3% of the overall variance for the u component, while
a substantial percentage of the weak cross channel flow (47% of the overall variance)
is attributed to low-frequency processes. The main low-frequency impact was to
enhance the lagoonward flow in Carmen Inlet.
In Puerto Real Inlet, maximum lagoonward currents were directed towards 107'T
and oceanward currents towards 282"T with an ainplitude of 51 cms-'. Low-
frequency u-currents with a 2-3 day periodicity were prominent during the mooring
periods, and a weak cross channel v-current flowed with a mean speed of 3 cm s- '.
The total current component variance were 33.6 x lo2 cm2s - 2 in the u-component
and 9.6 x lo2 cm2 sC2 in the v-component. The low-frequency component explained
only 2% of the overall u-variance, while 30% of the v-variance was explained by low-
frequency forcing. The net effect of the extensive, shallow sand flats immediately
lagoonward of Puerto Real Inlet is to enhance the outflow from the lagoon.
The currents at station 12 were more variable. The strongest currents flowed
towards 54"T and 224"T, with an amplitude of 7 clm s- ', and exhibited 2-3 day
oscillations, and the mean cross-flow measured 5 cm s-'. The total u and ti current
variance were 0.6 x lo2 and 0.4 x lo2 cm2 s - ~with
, lowfrequency variability explain-
ing 39% of the overall u-variance and 34% of the overall v-variance. The net
low-frequency effect, as seen in the low-frequency filtered currents, was a pronounced
southward flow, particularly during the passage of the front on 28-31 August 1994
(Julian Days 240-243) (Fig. 4) at the same time that the low-frequency filtered water
level increased (Fig. 2).

4.5. Temperature and salinity variability

Hourly time series of temperature and salinity data are presented to show the
variability of temperature and salinity at the three sampling stations during the two
measurement periods (Fig. 5).
1070 L.T. David, B. Kjerfve/Continental Shelf Research 18 (1998) 1057-1079

Hourly Current Vectors, Carmen lnlet (1995)

Filtered Current Vectors, Carmen Inlet

I?
E r o l

-SO I 70 75 8Q 85 90 05
I
Julian Days

Hourly Current Vectors, Puerto Real lnlet (1995)

40

Fi Filtered Current Vectors, Puerto Real Inlet

V)
g 201
-
4
5
0
10
0 -
--
-$O -
-20 -
-a0 a
70 75 BO 85 90 95
Julian Days

Hourly Current Vectors, Station 12 (1994)

40 -1

Filtered Current Vectors, Stdtion 12

-30 I
225 224 135 240 245
Julian Days

Fig. 4. Hourly and low-pass filtered time-series current data for Laguna de Terminos. Data for Carmen and
Puerto Real Inlets were collected during the nortes season of 1995 while data for Station 12 were collected
during the rainy season of 1994.

The mean temperature for both In Carmen Inlet and Puerto Real Inlet was 26.4"C
with total variance of 1.9 and 1.2"C, respectively, of which low-frequency variability
explained 97O/i of the overall temperature variance in Carmen Inlet and 95% in
Puerto Real Inlet. In general, more fresh water occurred in Carmen Inlet with a mean
 L.T. David, B. Kjerfve/Continental Shelf Research 18 (1998) 105 7-1 079 1071

Juhn Days

Puerto Real Inlet dW6)

f 22
70 75 80

Fig. 5. Raw and low-pass filtered time-series data for temperature and salinity in Laguna de Ttrminos.
Temperature is in "C. Data for Carmen and Puerto Real Inlets were collected during the nortrs season of
1995 while data for Station 12 were collected during the rainy season of 1994.

salinity of 34.2, while Puerto Real Inlet had a mean salinity of 36.4. Total salinity
variance was 2.6 and 3.3, respectively. The low-frequency component explained 81%
of the overall salinity variance in Carmen Inlet and 75% in Puerto Real Inlet. There
existed an inverse relationship between temperature and salinity in both inlets.
1072 L.T.David, B. Kjerfve/Continental ShelfResearch I8 (1998) 1057-1079

Temperature showed an increasing trend while salinity decreased. Seasonal heating

explains the temperature increase, while the salinity decrease is explained by more
vigorous mixing and inflow of coastal waters freshened by the Usumacinta-Grijalva
discharge.
At station 12, the mean temperature was 29.8"C and the mean salinity 30.8. The
relatively high temperature at station 12 is due to the shallow water depth and rapid
solar heating of the water column. A significant decrease in both temperature and
salinity was observed (as a response to the passage of a sharp northeasterly front
during the waning days of August in 1994 (Julian Days 24G243). This accounts for
most of the high low-frequency variance, which explains 88% of the overall variance
in temperature and 100% of the variance in salinity. The discharge into the lagoon by
the Palizada, ChumpLn, and Candelaria-Mamantel rivers contributed significantly to
the salinity decrease in the August-September data.

5. Salinity and current profiles in the tidal passes

The salinity and current profile measurements, collected for 25 h during the diurnal
tidal cycles on 15-16 March (Puerto Real) and 29-30 March (Carmen) 1995, were
used to describe the vertical structure in each inlet.
Carmen Inlet had a net depth-averaged salinity of 34.4, ranging from 33.9 at the
surface to 34.9 near the bottom, with a 0.9-1.7 rms temporal variability during the
tidal cycle. Thus, vertical stratification is relatively week. Likewise, Carmen Inlet had
a net depth-averaged velocity of 12 cms-', ranging from 7 to 16 cms-', with a
59-66 cms-' rms temporal variability during the tidal cycle. The upper meter of
water had a slightly lower net velocity and higher temporal variability than the rest of
the water column.
Puerto Real Inlet had a net depth-averaged salinity of 34.5, ranging from 35.4 at the
surface to 35.5 near the bottom, and with a 1.1 rms temporal variability during the
tidal cycle. Likewise, Puerto Real Inlet had a net depth-averaged velocity of
12 cm s-', ranging from 7 to 16 cm s I , with a 55-63 cms- rms temporal variability
during the tidal cycle. Thus, Puerto Real Inlet is for all practical purposes vertically
homogeneous.
For the tidal cycles when measurements were made both net salinity and net
velocity plots are essentially vertically homogeneous. However, it is likely that
Carmen Inlet would more commonly have a well-developed gravitational circulation
in view of substantial freshwater discharge in the southwestern side of the lagoon. The
net seaward flow at all depths suggests that the lagoon was in a net discharge mode
during the tidal cycle when the measurements were made. The net seaward discharge
of water through Carmen Inlet during the diurnal tidal cycle on 29-30 March (Julian
Days 088-089) corresponded to a lowering of the mean sea level of the southwestern
portion of the lagoon by 3 cm. The net seaward discharge of water through Puerto
Real Inlet during the diurnal tidal cycle on 15-16 March (Julian Days 074-075)
corresponded to a lowering of the mean sea level of the northeastern portion of the
lagoon by 1 cm.
 L.T. David, B. KjerfvelContinental Shelf Research 18 (1998) 1057-1079 1073

6. Inlet dispersion processes

To access the transport mechanisms for salt and suspended sediment in the tidal
passes, we chose to decompose the total salt and TSS flux into components attribu-
table to different physical processes, similar to Bowden (1963). Decomposition of
longitudinal dispersion of salt and sediment per unit cross-sectional width were
calculated for each inlet using the modified decomposition according to Kjerfve (1986)

where h is the depth of the cross-section (m), U is the cross-sectional velocity (m s-I),
C is the cross-sectional concentration (kg m - 3 for both salt and TSS). Angle brackets
(( )) indicate time-averaging and overbars depth averaging. This method of analysis
decomposes the instantaneous velocity into a depth-averaged mean,
deviation from the mean, U'. The depth-averaged mean is further decomposed
v,
and vertical
into
-
a tidal mean, (U), and a tidally varying component, UT. The tidally varying
component incorporates-
both diurnal and semidiurnal fluctuations. Similarly for
concentration, C = (C) + CT + C'. The results are summarized in Table 4.
The most obvious result is that the data indicate that the lagoon is in non-steady
state for the 25 h sampling periods. The left-hand side of Eq. (10) is an expression for
the total net flux (FNET= ( h E ) ) of either salt or sediment, and the net fluxes in both
passes are indeed very large. For both Carmen Inlet and Puerto Real Inlet, the
residual salt and TSS transports were directed into the Gulf of Mexico for the sampled
diurnal tidal cycles.
Most of the net salt and TSS transports in both inlets is explained by the advective
flux, the first term on the right-hand side of Eq. (lo), P'1 = (h)(O)(C). This net

Table 4
Decomposed net fluxes of salt (kg s 1 m l ) and TSS (g s-I m-') in the two inlets

Station Carmen Real

Depth (m) 6.4 5.0

Mean velocity ( m s") + 0.12 + 0.12
Salt TSS Salt TSS
(kg s-I m-') (g s-I m-') (kg s - ' m-I) (g s 1 m-')
-
FNET= <hUC) + 25.4 + 53.2 + 23.7 + 38.3
F1 = ( h ) ( E ) ( ? ) + 23.5 + 62.1 + 16.4 + 17.2
F2 = (hTUTCT) + 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 + 0.5
F3 = ( ~ ) ( U T C T ) + 1.7 - 0.1 - 0.5 + 11.3
F4 = ( U ) ( ~ , C , ) + 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 + 0.1
F5 = ( C ) ( ~ T U T > + 0.2 + 0.5 + 7.8 + 8.8
F6 = (hU'C') + 0.0 - 9.2 + 0.2 + 0.8
f
n=1
fn + 25.4 + 53.3 + 23.9 + 38.7
1074 L.T.David, B. Kjerfve/Confinental Shelf Research 18 (1998) 10.57-1079

advective transport is due to a combination of (i) freshwater runoff, (ii) meteorologi-

cally induced storage or emptying of the lagoon, and (iii) average water level difference
between beginning and end of the tidal cycle, corresponding to net storage or
emptying from one diurnal tidal cycle to the next. The large contribution of this term
to the net seaward fluxes in Carmen Inlet is due to high river discharge and a net
emptying of the lagoon. In Puerto Real Inlet the comparatively smaller river input is
enhanced by a predominance of tidal pumping as result of the shallow flood tidal delta
interior to the inlet, resulting in the net seaward fluxes during the measurement period.
The advective term is the main contributor to the net salt flux in Carmen Inlet,
explaining 92% of the overall seaward transport. The only other significant contribu-
tion to the salt flux is the third term (F3 = (h)(UTCT)), a seaward directed tidal
dispersion term, controlled by the phase lag between maximum tidal current and
maximum tidal salinity oscillations, and reaching a maximum value when currents
and concentrations are in phase.
Likewise, the advective term is the main contributor to the net sediment flux in
Carmen Inlet. The advective sediment flux is balanced by a strong lagoonward
contribution due to - the longitudinal flux resulting from vertical shear is the sixth term
in Eq. (lo),F6 = (h U'C'). A large contribution by this term indicates that substantial
vertical concentration and velocity gradients exist. The shear term is expected to
produce a lagoonward contribution where gravitational circulation is well developed
and sediment concentration increases with depth. In the case of Carmen Inlet, the
contribution of the shear term to the net seaward salt flux is insignificant although this
term is an important contributor to the net seaward flux of sediment, because of
increased sediment concentration near the bed.
In Puerto Real Inlet, the net salt flux was directed seaward, consistent with the net
flow. The net seaward salt flux is largely due to the advective term, F1, contributing
69% to the total seaward flow. The advective salt flux was further enhanced by
a strong seaward contribution due to the Stokes' drift in Puerto Real, term
F5 = ( C ) ( h , U,), which becomes. significant whenever the water level and current
variations are more or less in phase.
The net TSS flux in Puerto Real Inlet was also directed seaward and is largely
explained by seaward fluxes due to the advective term, F1, the tidal dispersion term
due to an in-phase variation of tidal currents and TSS oscillations, F3, and F5, the
Stokes' Drift. The particularly large F3 term for TSS, suggests that strong tidal
currents resuspend sediments from the shallow areas, particularly on the ebbing tide.
The consistently large seaward salt and TSS fluxes due to the Stokes' Drift suggest
that the large shallow sediment flats adjacent to Puerto Real Inlet significantly alter
the tidal flow characteristics in the vicinity of the inlet.

7. Water renewal

To estimate the renewal or turn-over of the water in a coastal system is desirable

in assessing ecological function, material transport, and in managing the system.
 L.T. David, B. Kjerfve/Continental ShelfResearch 18 (1998) 1057-1079 1075

However, such estimates are non-trivial and vary depending on the method applied.
One useful measure is the time required to exchange 50% of the water volume in the
lagoon under steady-state conditions. This so-called 50% flushing time has been
defined and estimated by Kjerfve et al. (1996) for coastal lagoons in Brazil, and we will
calculate it for Laguna de Terminos.

Assuming that the rate of water exchange is proportional to the volume in the
lagoon (W), (Pritchard, 1961) solution of the differential equation (Eq. (11))yields the
50% flushing time to be

where k is the rate constant (s-I), defined by the ratio of the sum of all water inputs to
the system to the total lagoon volume (Kjerfve et al., 1996). In making this calculation,
one either considers all lagoon inputs or all outputs, which during steady state yield
the same answer. We chose to consider all inputs, as measures of river discharge and
rainfall are more reliable compared to output estimates, i.e. of evaporation and water
loss through the inlets (Kjerfve et al., 1996). Thus, we define k as

where QR is the river discharge, Qp is the direct precipitation on the lagoon surface,
and QTis the tidal inflow or tidal prism, since the tidal prism represents the amount of
exchange of water during each half diurnal tidal cycle. Data used for our calculations
are listed in Table 5. The tidal prism is the integration of tidal range across the lagoon

Table 5
Calculation of the 50% water renewal time, T,,,, for Laguna de Terminos, where W is the mean system
volume (m3);QRis the river discharge (m3 s"); Qp is the precipitation on the lagoon surface (m3 s-I);Q, is the
tidal inflow (m3 s-I); K is a rate constant (day -I); and TS0%is the 50% water renewal time (day)

Parameter Laguna de Terminos Southwestern Northeastern

Surface area (km2)

Mean depth (m)
W (km3)
Rain (m yr-')
Tide range (m)
QR (m3 s-')
QP (m3 s-')
QT (m3 s-l)
k (day.')
T50%
1076 L.T. David, B. KjerfvelContinental Shelf Research 18 (1998) 1057-1079

and measures 7269 m3 s- ' for the Laguna de Terminos as a whole. It follows that the
50% flushing time for Laguna de Terminos is 8.7 days on the average.
However, if the lagoon is considered to function as two hydrologically almost
independent systems as David et al. (in press) suggest based on measurements of
salinity, suspended sediments, and chlorophyll-a, the flushing time calculations
become different. The southwestern portion of the lagoon with primary ocean ex-
change through Carmen Inlet has an estimated water volume of 3.53 x 10' m3,
QR = 288 m3, Qp = 53 m3, and QT = 2704 m3, yielding T,,, = 9.0 days on the aver-
age. Similarly, the northeastern portion of the lagoon with primary exchange through
the Puerto Real Inlet has an estimated water volume of 5.02 x lo9 m3, QR = 90 m3,
Qp = 70 m3, and QT = 4565 m3, yielding T,,, = 8.2 days on the average. The south-
western portion of the lagoon with a longer estimated flushing time, in spite of the
inflow from the Palizada River, is therefore is slightly more susceptible to degradation
of water quality as compared to the northeastern portion of the lagoon. This way of
calculating 50% renewal time was first derived for and applied to a series of coastal
algoons in Brazil (Kjerfve, 1996).Compared to these Brazilian lagoons where the 50%
flushing times varies from 5 to 84 days, Laguna de Terminos has a vigorous water
exchange and a relatively fast exchange rate.

8. Summary and conclusions

Time series measurements of currents, water level, temperature, and salinity in the
two ocean inlets of Laguna de Terminos, indicated that tide and currents largely vary
tidally, but with a significant low-frequency meteorological component. In contrast,
salinity and temperature remain relatively constant but with substantial low-fre-
quency trends. The seasonal heating of the lagoon indicated by a temperature trend,
and the salinity varied inversely with freshwater input, either from discharge into the
lagoon, or transport lagoonward of coastal waters high in Usumacinta-Grijalva
discharge. The tide in the lagoon is generally mixed, mainly diurnal with a form
number varying from 3.1 to 2.4. The currents, however, are mostly mixed, mainly
semidiurnal with a form number 2.7 to 1.1, indicating a shift towards a semidiurnal
response. In the inlets, profile measurements of velocity, salinity, and TSS indicate
predominantly weak vertical variability; only Carmen Inlet exhibited signs of gravi-
tational circulation.
Although the lagoon clearly was in a non-steady-state mode during the cycles
during which we measured the profiles, we were able to show that the fluxes of water,
salt, and TSS at Carmen Inlet mainly were due to high river discharge and a net
emptying of the lagoon. In contrast, water, salt, and TSS fluxes in Puerto Real Inlet
were due to predominance of tidal pumping and Stokes' Drift, as result of the shallow
flood tidal delta interior to the inlet. Based on our estimate of the overall 50% water
renewal time, we contend that Laguna de Terminos has a vigorous water exchange. In
spite of the high rate of inflow from the Palizada River, the southwestern portion of
the lagoon is potentially more susceptible to degradation of water quality as com-
pared to the northeastern portion of the lagoon.
 L. T. David, B. Kjerfve/Continental Shelf Research 18 ( 1 998) 1057- I079 1077

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge financial support from the Philippine Department of

Science and Technology-Engineering and Science Education Program (DOST-ESEP)
and the University of South Carolina Marine Science Program. We are thankful for
the logistics help provided by Prof. Dr. Alejandro Yaiiez-Arancibia of the EPOMEX
Program of Universidad Autonoma de Campeche, and Prof. M. C. Francisco Vera-
Herrera, the resident director of the Instituto Ciencias Marinas y Limnologia "El
Carmen" Laboratory of Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (ICML-
UNAM). We would also like to thank Carlos Coronado-Molina, Hernan Alvarez-
Guillen, Jocelyn Gardner, Mariana Gardner, Maria del Carmen Ramirez-Santos, and
Jose Andres Reda-Deara for their assistance in the intensive data gathering effort, as
well as Juan Luis Casanova-Gutierrez, Rocio Hernandez-Zapata, Armando Ortega-
Manriquez, Jorge Arturo Benitez-Torres, Ana Laura Lara-Dominguez, Carlos Santis-
bon-Montes de Oca, Evelia Rivera-Arriaga, Patti Sanchez-Gil, and Guillermo
J. Villalobos-Zapata. In particular, we would like to acknowledge the assistance from
Michael Roberts, Julio Sanchez-Chavez, Stephen Stonehill, and Vance Wiese. We
would especially like to thank Vance Wiese for helping produce the figures.

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