Course 5 - A

Law and Institutions of the
European Union
• EU decision-making process
• There are 3 main institutions involved in EU decision-making:
• the European Parliament, representing EU citizens
• the Council of the European Union, representing EU governments
• the European Commission, representing the EU’s overall interests
• EU policies are typically decided through the ordinary legislative
procedure (formerly known as the ‘co-decision’ procedure). This is a
process where the three main institutions come to agreement on
legislation.
• Drafting EU law
• Before the Commission proposes new initiatives, it assesses the potential
economic, social and environmental impact that they may have.
• The Commission does this by preparing a report called an ‘impact assessment’
that sets out the advantages and disadvantages of policy options. The impact
assessment includes input from non-governmental organisations, national
authorities and industry, as well as expert groups that give advice on technical
issues.
• Individuals, businesses and organisations can provide feedback through public
consultations (questionnaires) on the Commission’s ‘Have your say portal’.
• National parliaments can formally express their reservations if they think that it
would be better to deal with an issue at national rather than EU level.
Slide secundar - Impact assessments
• The need for impact assessments
• Impact assessments are carried out on initiatives expected to have
significant economic, social or environmental impacts. These can be:
• legislative proposals
• non-legislative initiatives (e.g. financial programmes, recommendations for
the negotiations of international agreements)
• implementing and delegated acts
• The findings of the impact assessment process are summarised in an
impact assessment report. The quality of each report is checked by
an independent body, the Regulatory Scrutiny Board, which issues
opinions.
• The impact assessment report must include a description of:
• the environmental, social and economic impacts, including impacts
on small and medium enterprises and competitiveness, and an
explicit statement if any of these are not considered significant
• who will be affected by the initiative and how
• the consultation strategy and the results obtained from it
• Impact assessment reports are published with the proposals or with
acts adopted by the Commission. They are also sent to the EU
lawmakers, the Parliament and Council, to consider as they decide on
whether to adopt the proposed law.
• Better law-making
• Impact assessments form a key part of the Commission's better
regulation agenda, which seeks to design and evaluate EU policies
and laws so that they achieve their objectives in the most efficient
and effective way.
• The better regulation guidelines contain guidance for the Commission
on how to conduct impact assessments. These are accompanied by a
toolbox which provides complementary advice.
Slide tertiar - Better Regulation: why and how
• The Better Regulation agenda ensures evidence-based, transparent
EU law-making based on the views of those impacted. The
Commission evaluates and improves EU laws, focusing on delivering
wher
• Objectives of the Better Regulation agenda
• Ensure EU policymaking is based on evidence
• MakingEU laws simpler and better, and avoiding unnecessary burdens
• Involving citizens, businesses and stakeholders in the decision-making
processes it matters the most.
• What the Commission is doing
• The European Commission is responsible for planning, preparing and
proposing new EU laws and policies. The work is guided by the
annual Commission Work Programme. When proposing laws, the
Commission is assessing their expected significant impacts, namely
but not only, environmental, social and economic. Strategic foresight
is an important element in creating future-proof policies in all sectors.
• The Commission is also responsible for evaluating EU laws and
proposing improvements where necessary in policy reviews.
• The Commission continues to monitor the implementation and
application of adopted initiatives in the Member States.
• Better regulation ensures transparent and efficient decision-making.
Since 2021, the main highlights of the better regulation revised
agenda include:
• Improve public consultations by introducing a single ‘Call for
Evidence’ translated in all languages, on the revamped Have Your Say
portal. The approach combines the feedback on
roadmaps and inception impact assessments with the questionnaire
of public consultations into one.
• Strengthening the Commission’s efforts to simplify EU rules and reduce
unnecessary burdens, while achieving the benefits of legislation (REFIT
programme) and by introducing the ‘one in, one out’ approach. This
principle means that newly introduced burdens are offset by removing
equivalent burdens in the same policy area. The Commission carried out an
one-in, one-out pilot project in the second half of 2021, with ten legislative
proposals covering a broad range of policy areas, impacting different
sectors and stakeholders, to test the approach, its methodology and the
related calculations. Building on the lessons learnt from the pilot, the
Commission is now implementing ‘one in, one out’, starting with the 2022
Commission work programme. The Commission has also committed to
rationalise reporting requirements with a view to reducing them by 25%.
• Removing obstacles and red tape that slow down investments, by key
stakeholders in the Fit for Future high level expert group.
• Mainstreaming the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals,
to ensure that all legislative proposals contribute to the 2030
sustainable development agenda.
• Improving the way in which Better Regulation addresses and supports
sustainability goals, in particular ‘do no significant harm’ and the
digital transformation.
• Integrating strategic foresight into policymaking to ensure it is fit for
the future, by for instance, taking into account emerging megatrends
in the green, digital, geopolitical and socio-economic contexts.
• The Commission’s Better Regulation practices are recognised
internationally by the OECD, and considered advanced among OECD
members.
• Review and adoption
• Once the Commission has presented its proposal, both the Parliament
and the Council review it and can propose amendments. Typically, the
Parliament, the Council and the Commission then meet to see if they
can agree on a complete set of amendments.
• If the Commission does not agree with any amendments, the Council
can only overrule the objection by unanimous decision. If the
Commission considers that the amendments excessively change the
proposal, it has the right to withdraw its proposal.
• If the three institutions do not agree on a common final text, a
second reading takes place.
• During the second reading, the Parliament and the Council can
propose further amendments. Parliament can also block the proposal
if it cannot agree with the Council.
• If the Parliament and the Council agree on the amendments, the
proposal can be adopted. If they cannot agree, a conciliation
committee is set up to try to find a solution. Both the Parliament and
the Council can block the proposal during this final second reading
stage.
• A proposal is adopted into law when the Parliament and Council
agree on a joint text, and it is published in the EU’s Official Journal.
Slide secundar - Ordinary legislative procedure
• How does the legislative process work?
• A Member of the European Parliament, working in one of the parliamentary committees, draws
up a report on a proposal for a ‘legislative text’ presented by the European Commission, the only
institution empowered to initiate legislation. The parliamentary committee votes on this report
and, possibly, amends it. When the text has been revised and adopted in plenary, Parliament has
adopted its position. This process is repeated one or more times, depending on the type of
procedure and whether or not agreement is reached with the Council.
• In the adoption of legislative acts, a distinction is made between the ordinary legislative
procedure (codecision), which puts Parliament on an equal footing with the Council, and the
special legislative procedures, which apply only in specific cases where Parliament has only a
consultative role.
• On certain questions (e.g. taxation) the European Parliament gives only an advisory opinion (the
‘consultation procedure’). In some cases the Treaty provides that consultation is obligatory, being
required by the legal base, and the proposal cannot acquire the force of law unless Parliament
has delivered an opinion. In this case the Council is not empowered to take a decision alone.
• The ordinary legislative procedure gives the same weight to the
European Parliament and the Council of the European
Union on a wide range of areas (for example, economic governance,
immigration, energy, transport, the environment and consumer
protection). The vast majority of European laws are adopted jointly by
the European Parliament and the Council.
• The codecision procedure was introduced by the Maastricht Treaty on
European Union (1992), and extended and made more effective by
the Amsterdam Treaty (1999). With the Lisbon Treaty that took effect
on 1 December 2009, the renamed ordinary legislative procedure
became the main legislative procedure of the EU´s decision-making
system.
• Consultation
• The European Parliament may approve or reject a legislative proposal, or propose
amendments to it. The Council is not legally obliged to take account of Parliament’s
opinion but in line with the case-law of the Court of Justice, it must not take a decision
without having received it.
• In the beginning, the 1957 Treaty of Rome gave Parliament an advisory role in the
legislative process; the Commission proposed and the Council adopted legislation.
• The Single European Act (1986) and the Maastricht, Amsterdam, Nice and Lisbon Treaties
successively extended Parliament’s prerogatives. It can now co-legislate on equal footing
with the Council in a vast majority of areas (see Ordinary legislative procedure) and
consultation became a special legislative procedure (or even a non-legislative procedure)
used in a limited number of cases.
• This procedure is now applicable in a limited number of legislative areas, such as internal
market exemptions and competition law.
• Consent
• Formerly know as the assent procedure, it was introduced by the 1986 Single
European Act in two areas: association agreements and agreements governing
accession to the European Union. The scope for the application of the procedure
was extended by all subsequent modifications of the Treaties.
• As a non-legislative procedure, it usually applies to the ratification of certain
agreements negotiated by the European Union, or is applicable most notably in
the cases of serious breach of fundamental rights under Article 7 Treaty on
European Union (TEU) or for the accession of new EU members or arrangements
for the withdrawal from the EU. As a legislative procedure, it is to be used also
when new legislation on combating discrimination is being adopted and it now
gives the European Parliament a veto also when the subsidiary general legal basis
is applied in line with Article 352 TFEU.
• Consent
• As a legislative procedure, consent is used when new legislation on
combating discrimination is being adopted and it also gives the Parliament
a veto when the subsidiary general legal basis is applied in line with Article
352 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU.
• The Parliament's consent is also required as a non-legislative procedure,
when:
• the Council adopts certain international agreements negotiated by the EU
• in cases of a serious breach of fundamental rights (Article 7 of the Treaty
on European Union)
• for the accession of new EU members
• arrangements for withdrawal from the EU
Slide tertiar - Other legislative procedures
• Other legislative procedures
• Alongside the main legislative procedures, there are other procedures carried out
in Parliament in specific areas.
• Opinion under Article 140 Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union
(monetary union)
• The Commission and the European Central Bank draw up reports for the Council
on the progress in fulfilling their obligations as regards economic and monetary
union of Member States with a derogation.After Parliament has delivered its
opinion, the Council on the Commission’s proposal, decides which Member States
with a derogation fulfil the conditions for adoption of the single currency on the
basis of the criteria laid down in Article 140(1) TFEU and ends these Member
States’ derogations. In this procedure, Parliament votes for the amendments en
bloc and cannot table amendments.
• Procedures relating to dialogue between management and labour
• The Union’s objectives include promotion of dialogue between the two sides of
industry, with a view to the conclusion of agreements and conventions.Under
Article 154 TFEU, the Commission has the task of promoting the consultation of
management and labour at Union level and thus submits to Parliament possible
guidelines for Union action after consulting the two sides of industry.
• Any Commission document or any agreement between management and labour
is referred to the Parliament committee responsible. Where management and
labour have reached an agreement and have requested jointly that the
agreement be implemented by a Council decision on a proposal from the
Commission under Article 155(2) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the
European Union, the committee responsible shall table a motion for a resolution
recommending the adoption or rejection of the request.
• Procedures for the consideration of voluntary agreements
• The Commission informs Parliament when it intends to make use of voluntary
agreements rather than legislation. The committee concerned may draw up an own-
initiative report under Rule 48. The Commission informs Parliament when it intends to
conclude a voluntary agreement. The committee responsible may table a motion for a
resolution recommending adoption or rejection of the proposal and under what
conditions.
• Codification
• Official codification means the procedure to repeal the acts being codified and replacing
them by a single act. The consolidated version includes all modifications since the act
first came into force. It does not contain any modification to the substance of the act.
Codification helps to clarify EU legislation that has undergone frequent modifications.
Parliament’s committee responsible for legal affairs examines the Commission’s proposal
for codification. If there is no modification of substance, the simplified procedure for
adoption of a report under Rule 46 applies. Parliament shall take a decision by means of
a single vote, without amendment or debate.
• Implementing and delegated provisions
• The Commission may introduce implementing provisions for existing legislation.
These provisions are presented to committees of experts from the Member
States and forwarded to Parliament either for information or scrutiny. On a
proposal from its committee responsible, Parliament may adopt a resolution
opposing the measure, stating that the draft implementing measure exceeds the
powers laid down in the legal act concerned, is not compatible with the aim or
the content of the basic instrument or does not respect the principles of
subsidiarity or proportionality, and asking the Commission to withdraw or amend
the draft of measures or submit a proposal under the appropriate legislative
procedure. Where a legislative act delegates to the Commission the power to
supplement or amend certain non-essential elements of a legislative act, the
committee responsible shall examine any draft delegated act where it is
transmitted to Parliament for scrutiny and may submit to Parliament a motion for
a resolution any appropriate proposal in accordance with the provisions of the
legislative act.
Slide tertiar – Legislative initiative
• The Commission has the legislative initiative. However, under the Treaty of Maastricht enhanced
by the Lisbon Treaty, the European Parliament has a right of legislative initiative that allows it to
ask the Commission to submit a proposal.
• Annual and multiannual programming
• According to the Treaty, the Commission shall initiate the Union´s annual and multiannual
programming. In view of achieving that goal, the Commission prepares its work programme,
which is its contribution to the Union’s annual and multiannual programming. The European
Parliament already cooperates with the Commission in the process of drafting the Commission´s
work programme and the Commission shall take into account the priorities expressed by
Parliament at that stage. Following its adoption by the Commission, a trilogue between
Parliament, the Council and the Commission is foreseen with a view to reaching an agreement on
the Union’s programming.
• Detailed arrangements, including a timetable, are set out in Annex XIV of the Rules of Procedure
(Framework Agreement on relations between the European Parliament and the European
Commission). Parliament adopts a resolution on the annual programming. The President asks the
Council to deliver an opinion on the Commission’s work programme and Parliament’s resolution.
Where an institution is unable to comply with the timetable laid down it is required to notify the
other institutions as to the reasons for the delay and to propose a new timetable.
Slide tertiar – Legislative initiative
• Initiative under Article 225 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union
• On the basis of a report by one of its committees, under Article 225 TFEU, Parliament, acting by a
majority of its Members, may request the Commission to submit any appropriate legislative
proposal. Parliament may, at the same time, set a deadline for the submission of such a proposal.
The Parliament committee responsible must first ask the Conference of Presidents for
authorisation. The Commission may agree or refuse to submit the proposal requested.
• A proposal for a Union act on the basis of the right of initiative granted to Parliament under
Article 225 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union may also be proposed by an
individual Member of the European Parliament. Such a proposal shall be submitted to the
President of the Parliament who refers it to the committee responsible for consideration. It may
decide to submit it to the plenary (see above).
• Own-initiative reports
• In the areas where the treaties give the European Parliament the right of initiative, its committees
may draw up a report on a subject within its remit and present a motion for a resolution to
Parliament. They must request authorisation from the Conference of Presidents before drawing
up a report.
• Types of legislation
• The aims set out in the EU treaties are achieved by several types of legal
act. Some are binding, others are not. Some apply to all EU countries,
others to just a few.
• Regulations
• A "regulation" is a binding legislative act. It must be applied in its entirety
across the EU. For example, when the EU’s regulation on ending roaming
charges while travelling within the EU expired in 2022, the Parliament and
the Council adopted a new regulation both to improve the clarity of the
previous regulation and make sure a common approach on roaming
charges is applied for another ten years.
• Directives
• A "directive" is a legislative act that sets out a goal that EU countries must
achieve. However, it is up to the individual countries to devise their own
laws on how to reach these goals. One example is the EU single-use plastics
directive, which reduces the impact of certain single-use plastics on the
environment, for example by reducing or even banning the use of single-
use plastics such as plates, straws and cups for beverages.
• Decisions
• A "decision" is binding on those to whom it is addressed (e.g. an EU
country or an individual company) and is directly applicable. For example,
the Council issued a decision on allowing Croatia to adopt the euro on 1
January 2023. The decision related to the country only.
• Recommendations
• A "recommendation" is not binding. When the Commission issued a recommendation
that EU countries’ media service providers improve their ownership transparency and
safeguard their editorial independence, this did not have any legal consequences. A
recommendation allows the institutions to make their views known and to suggest a line
of action without imposing any legal obligation on those to whom it is addressed.
• Opinions
• An "opinion" is an instrument that allows the institutions to make a statement in a non-
binding fashion, in other words without imposing any legal obligation on those to whom
it is addressed. An opinion is not binding. It can be issued by the main EU institutions
(Commission, Council, Parliament), the Committee of the Regions and the European
Economic and Social Committee. While laws are being made, the committees give
opinions from their specific regional or economic and social viewpoint. For example, the
European Economic and Social Committee issued an opinion on the Commission’s Next
GenerationEU’s small and medium-sized enterprises strategy.
• Track law-making
• Everyone can track the development of proposed EU laws throughout
the law-making process, from planning and adoption to
implementation and revision.
Slide secundar – Track law - making
• Everyone can track the development of proposed EU laws throughout
the law-making process.
• Setting law-making priorities
• Every autumn, the Commission sets its policy priorities for the
upcoming year in the Commission work programme. On this basis it
agrees with the Council and the European Parliament on top
legislative priorities that are included in an annual joint declaration.
Slide secundar – Track law - making
• Planning and proposing law
• As part of the better regulation agenda, individuals, businesses and
stakeholder groups can track Commission initiatives at all stages of
the process.
• Adopting the law
• Interested parties can follow the progress on Commission initiatives
through both the EU and national legislative processes. This starts
from their initial launch through to negotiations in the European
Parliament and Council and finishes with their final adoption and
incorporation into national law.
• Non-essential amendments to EU initiatives that don't need to go
through the full law-making process, called delegated and
implementing acts, can also be tracked through the various stages of
their development.
• Applying EU law
• It is also possible to find what measures countries take to incorporate
EU legislation into national law and track infringement procedures
taken by the European Commission against EU countries.
• Evaluating and improving existing laws
• The European Commission continuously evaluates whether EU laws
are meeting the needs of citizens and business at minimum cost.
Evaluations, fitness checks, and the REFIT programme make existing
EU laws simpler and less burdensome to apply.
• To help facilitate this there is also the REFIT Platform, which brings
together senior experts from business, social partners, civil society
and EU countries to advise the Commission on how to make EU
legislation more efficient and effective while reducing burden and
supporting policy objectives.
• Get involved in law-making
• The Commission’s better regulation agenda allows individuals, businesses,
stakeholders, national authorities and other organisations to contribute to
EU policymaking. You can have your say through
• public consultations (questionnaires) published on the Have your say portal
• the European citizen’s initiative that allows one million individuals residing
in one quarter of the member countries to invite the Commission to
propose legislation
• SINAPSE e-communities that allows experts to share knowledge across the
EU
• the Conference on the Future of Europe
Slide secundar - COFE
• The Conference on the Future of Europe was a citizen-led series of debates
and discussions that ran from April 2021 to May 2022 and enabled people
from across Europe to share their ideas and help shape our common
future.
• The Conference was the first of its kind: as a major pan-European
democratic exercise, with citizen-led debates enabling people from across
Europe to share their ideas and help shape our common future. This was
done via an innovative Multilingual Digital Platform where any European
could share ideas, and both national panels and European Citizens' Panels.
• With more than 5 million unique visitors to the platform and more than
700,000 event participants, the Conference succeeded in creating a public
forum for an open, inclusive, and transparent debate with citizens around a
number of key priorities and challenges.
• Final reports and proposals
• Following an exceptional, year-long journey of discussions, deliberations and
collaboration by citizens from across Europe, on the kind of Europe they would
like to live in, the Conference on the Future of Europe officially came to a close on
9 May 2022 – Europe Day – in Strasbourg. On this day, the Co-Chairs of the
Conference Executive Board delivered a final report containing the 49 proposals
to the Presidents of the European Parliament, the Council and Commission.
• These proposals covered nine topics: climate change and the environment;
health; a stronger economy, social justice and jobs; EU in the world; values and
rights, rule of law, security; digital transformation; European democracy;
migration; education, culture, youth and sport. They included general objectives
and more than 300 concrete measures, and the three institutions are now
examining how to follow up effectively on them, each within their own spheres of
competences and in accordance with the Treaties.
• Commission follow-up on the outcome of the Conference
• The Commission has published on 17 June a Communication offering a
detailed assessment of what is needed to follow up on the Conference’s
proposals. It gives an overview of the next steps, setting out how best to
learn from the Conference and embed participatory democracy into the
European Union’s policy and law making. For instance, building on the
success of the European Citizens’ Panels, the Commission will enable these
panels to deliberate and make recommendations ahead of certain key
proposals, as part of its wider policymaking and in line with Better
Regulation principles. The Commission is organising the first new
generation of citizens’ panel on how to step up action to reduce food waste
in the EU.
• President von der Leyen announced the first set of new proposals in
the State of the Union address in September 2022, as well as in the
accompanying Letter of Intent. These proposals have also been
included in the 2023 Commission work programme. To keep the
citizens who have participated in the Conference informed, and to
keep up the momentum, a feedback event was organised in
December 2022. This event was an opportunity to explain to citizens
how the three EU institutions are following up on the proposals from
the Conference.
• Types of institutions and bodies
• Set-up and location
• The European Union’s institutional set-up is unique and its decision-making
system is constantly evolving. The 7 European institutions, 7 EU bodies and
over 30 decentralised agencies are spread across the EU. They work
together to address the common interests of the EU and European people.
• In terms of administration, there are a further 20 EU agencies and
organisations which carry out specific legal functions and 4
interinstitutional services which support the institutions.
• All of these establishments have specific roles – from developing EU laws
and policy-making to implementing policies and working on specialist
areas, such as health, medicine, transport and the environment.
• There are 4 main decision-making institutions which lead the EU’s
administration. These institutions collectively provide the EU with policy
direction and play different roles in the law-making process:
• the European Parliament (Brussels/Strasbourg/Luxembourg)
• the European Council (Brussels)
• the Council of the European Union (Brussels/Luxembourg)
• the European Commission (Brussels/Luxembourg/Representations across the EU)
• Their work is complemented by other institutions and bodies, which
include:
• the Court of Justice of the European Union (Luxembourg)
• the European Central Bank (Frankfurt)
• the European Court of Auditors (Luxembourg)
• The EU institutions and bodies cooperate extensively with the
network of EU agencies and organisations across the European Union.
The primary function of these bodies and agencies is to translate
policies into realities on the ground.
• Around 60,000 EU civil servants and other staff serve the 450 million
Europeans (and countless others around the world). This is actually a
relatively small number - the French Finance Ministry has
around 140,000 staff for a population of only 67 million.
• Institutions
• The powers, responsibilities and procedures of the EU’s institutions
are laid down in the founding treaties of the EU: the Treaty on the
Functioning of the European Union (1957) and the Treaty on
European Union (1992). More recently, the Lisbon Treaty (2007)
introduced certain amendments and additions to their
competencies.
• The 4 main EU institutions, with their distinct functions, work
together closely to set the EU’s agenda and initiate and coordinate EU
law-making.
• In general, the European Council does not make laws. However, it can
agree on changes in the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU. Its main
role is to determine the EU’s political direction. In most cases, the
European Parliament, the Council of the European Union and the
European Commission produce the policies and laws that apply
throughout the EU. The process they follow is called the Ordinary
Legislative Procedure.
• In principle, the Commission proposes new laws, and the Parliament
and Council of the European Union adopt them. The member
countries then implement them, and the Commission ensures that
the laws are properly applied.
European Parliament
• The European Parliament represents the citizens of EU countries and
is directly elected by them. It takes decisions on European laws jointly
with the Council of the European Union. It also approves the EU
budget. It runs a network of liaison offices in EU capitals, London,
Edinburgh and Washington D.C.
• Overview
• Role: Directly-elected EU body with legislative, supervisory, and budgetary
responsibilities
• Members: 705 MEPs (Members of the European Parliament)
• President: Roberta Metsola
• Established in: 1952 as Common Assembly of the European Coal and Steel
Community, 1962 as European Parliament, first direct elections in 1979
• Location: Strasbourg (France), Brussels (Belgium), Luxembourg
• Website: European Parliament
• The European Parliament is the EU's law-making body. It is directly elected
by EU voters every 5 years. The last elections were in May 2019.
• Elections
• The European elections took place between 23-26 May 2019.
• What does the Parliament do?
• The Parliament has 3 main roles:
• Legislative
• Passing EU laws, together with the Council of the EU, based
on European Commission proposals
• Deciding on international agreements
• Deciding on enlargements
• Reviewing the Commission's work programme and asking it to
propose legislation
• Supervisory
• Democratic scrutiny of all EU institutions
• Electing the Commission President and approving the Commission as a body. Possibility
of voting a motion of censure, obliging the Commission to resign
• Granting discharge, i.e. approving the way EU budgets have been spent
• Examining citizens' petitions and setting up inquiries
• Discussing monetary policy with the European Central Bank
• Questioning Commission and Council
• Election observations
• Budgetary
• Establishing the EU budget, together with the Council
• Approving the EU's long-term budget, the "Multiannual Financial Framework"
• Composition
• The number of MEPs for each country is roughly proportionate to its
population, but this is by degressive proportionality: no country can
have fewer than 6 or more than 96 MEPs and the total number
cannot exceed 705 (704 plus the President). MEPs are grouped
by political affiliation, not by nationality.
• The President represents Parliament to other EU institutions and the
outside world and gives the final go-ahead to the EU budget.
• How does the Parliament work?
• Parliament's work comprises two main stages:
• Committees - to prepare legislation.
The Parliament numbers 20 committees and three subcommittees, each
handling a particular policy area. The committees examine proposals for
legislation, and MEPs and political groups can put forward amendments or
propose to reject a bill. These issues are also debated within the political
groups.
• Plenary sessions – to pass legislation.
This is when all the MEPs gather in the chamber to give a final vote on the
proposed legislation and the proposed amendments. Normally held in
Strasbourg for four days a month, but sometimes there are additional
sessions in Brussels.
European Council
• The heads of state or government of the EU countries meet, as
the European Council, to define the general political direction and
priorities of the European Union. The European Council is chaired by
a president who is elected for a 2.5-year term, renewable once. It
does not adopt laws except for possible EU Treaty amendments.
• Overview
• Role: Defines the general political direction and priorities of the European Union
• Members: Heads of state or government of EU countries, European Council President,
European Commission President
• President: Charles Michel
• Established in: 1974 (informal forum), 1992 (formal status), 2009 (official EU institution)
• Location: Brussels (Belgium)
• Website: European Council
• The European Council brings together EU leaders to set the EU's political agenda. It
represents the highest level of political cooperation between EU countries.
• One of the EU's 7 official institutions, the European Council takes the form of (usually
quarterly) summit meetings between EU leaders, chaired by a permanent president.
• What does the European Council do?
• decides on the EU's overall direction and political priorities – but does not
pass laws
• deals with complex or sensitive issues that cannot be resolved at lower
levels of intergovernmental cooperation
• sets the EU's common foreign & security policy, taking into account EU
strategic interests and defence implications
• nominates and appoints candidates to certain high profile EU level roles,
such as the ECB and the Commission
• On each issue, the European Council can:
• ask the European Commission to make a proposal to address it
• pass it on to the Council of the EU to deal with
• Composition
• The European Council is made up of the heads of state or government
of all EU countries, the European Council President, and the European
Commission President.
• It is convened and chaired by its President, who is elected by the
European Council itself for a once-renewable two-and-a-half-year
term. Among other things, the President represents the EU to
the outside world.
• How does the European Council work?
• It usually meets 4 times a year – but the President can convene
additional meetings to address urgent issues.
• It generally decides issues by consensus – but
by unanimity or qualified majority in some cases. Only the heads of
state/government can vote.
Council of the European Union
• Represents the governments of EU countries. The Council of the EU is
where national ministers from each government meet to adopt laws
and coordinate policies. Ministers meet in different configurations
depending on the topic to be discussed. The Council of the EU takes
decisions on European laws jointly with the European Parliament.
• Overview
• Role: Voice of EU member governments, adopting EU laws and
coordinating EU policies
• Members: Government ministers from each EU country, according to the
policy area to be discussed
• President: Each EU country holds the presidency on a 6-month rotating
basis
• Established in: 1958 (as Council of the European Economic Community)
• Website: Council of the EU
• In the Council of the EU, informally also known as the
Council, government ministers from each EU country meet to
discuss, amend and adopt laws, and coordinate policies. The ministers
have the authority to commit their governments to the actions
agreed on in the meetings. Council meetings take place in Brussels,
except for three months (April, June and October) when they are held
in Luxembourg.
• Together with the European Parliament, the Council is the main
decision-making body of the EU.
• Not to be confused with:
• European Council - quarterly summits, where EU leaders meet to set
the broad direction of EU policy making
• Council of Europe - not an EU body at all
• What does the Council do?
• negotiates and adopts EU laws, together with the European
Parliament, based on proposals from the European Commission
• coordinates EU countries' policies
• develops the EU's foreign & security policy, based on European
Council guidelines
• concludes agreements between the EU and other countries or
international organisations
• adopts the annual EU budget - jointly with the European Parliament
• Composition
• There are no fixed members of the EU Council. Instead, the Council
meets in 10 different configurations, each corresponding to the policy
area being discussed. Depending on the configuration, each country
sends their minister responsible for that policy area.
• For example, when the Council meeting on economic and financial
affairs (the "Ecofin Council") is held, it is attended by each country's
finance minister.
• Who chairs the meetings?
• The Foreign Affairs Council has a permanent chairperson - the EU High
Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. All other Council
meetings are chaired by the relevant minister of the country holding
the rotating EU presidency.
• For example, any Environment Council meeting in the period when Estonia
holds the presidency will be chaired by the Estonian environment minister.
• Overall consistency is ensured by the General Affairs Council - which is
supported by the Permanent Representatives Committee. This is composed
of EU countries' Permanent Representatives to the EU, who are, in effect,
national ambassadors to the EU.
• Eurozone countries
• Eurozone countries coordinate their economic policy through
the Eurogroup, which consists of their economy and finance
ministers. It meets the day before Economic & Financial Affairs
Council meetings. Agreements reached in Eurogroup gatherings are
formally decided upon in the Council the next day, with only ministers
of Eurozone countries voting on those issues.
• How does the Council work?
• EU ministers meet in public when they discuss or vote on draft legislative acts
• to be passed, decisions usually require a qualified majority:
• 55% of countries (with 27 current members, this means 15 countries)
• representing at least 65 % of total EU population
• You can watch the Council's public sessions live in all EU languages. When a
Council meeting is public, so are its minutes and votes.
• To block a decision, at least 4 countries are needed (representing at least 35% of
total EU population)
• exception - sensitive topics like foreign policy and taxation require a unanimous
vote (all countries in favour).
• Simple majority is required for procedural & administrative issues
European Commission
• The European Commission represents the common interests of the EU and
is the EU’s main executive body. It uses its ‘right of initiative’ to put forward
proposals for new laws, which are scrutinised and adopted by the
European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. It also
manages EU policies (except for the Common Foreign and Security Policy,
which is conducted by the High Representative for CFSP, Vice-President of
the European Commission), and the EU’s budget and ensures that
countries apply EU law correctly. Representation offices act as the
Commission’s voice across the EU. They monitor and analyse public opinion
in their host country, provide information about EU policies and the way
the EU works, and facilitate the Commission’s cooperation with the host
member country.
• Overview
• Role: Promotes the general interest of the EU by proposing and enforcing
legislation as well as by implementing policies and the EU budget
• Members: A team or 'College' of Commissioners, 1 from each EU country
• President: Ursula von der Leyen
• Year established: 1958
• Website: European Commission
• The European Commission is the EU's politically independent executive
arm. It is alone responsible for drawing up proposals for new European
legislation, and it implements the decisions of the European
Parliament and the Council of the EU.
• What does the Commission do?
• Proposes new laws
• The Commission is the sole EU institution tabling laws for adoption by
the Parliament and the Council that:
• protect the interests of the EU and its citizens on issues that can't be
dealt with effectively at national level
• get technical details right by consulting experts and the public
• Manages EU policies & allocates EU funding
• sets EU spending priorities, together with the Council and Parliament
• draws up annual budgets for approval by the Parliament and Council
• supervises how the money is spent, under scrutiny by the Court of
Auditors
• Enforces EU law
• together with the Court of Justice, ensures that EU law is properly
applied in all the member countries
• Represents the EU internationally
• speaks on behalf of all EU countries in international bodies, in particular in areas of trade policy
and humanitarian aid
• negotiates international agreements for the EU
• Composition
• Political leadership is provided by a team of 27 Commissioners (one from each EU country) – led
by the Commission President, who decides who is responsible for which policy area.
• The College of Commissioners is composed of the President of the Commission, eight Vice-
Presidents, including three Executive Vice-Presidents, the High Representative of the Union for
Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, and 18 Commissioners, each responsible for a portfolio.
• The day-to-day running of Commission business is performed by its staff (lawyers, economists,
etc.), organised into departments known as Directorates-General (DGs), each responsible for
a specific policy area.
• Appointing the President
• The candidate is put forward by national leaders in the European Council, taking
account of the results of the European Parliament elections. He or she needs the
support of a majority of members of the European Parliament in order to be
elected.
• Selecting the team
• The Presidential candidate selects potential Vice-Presidents and Commissioners
based on suggestions from the EU countries. The list of nominees has to be
approved by national leaders in the European Council.
• Each nominee appears before the European Parliament to explain their vision and
answer questions. Parliament then votes on whether to accept the nominees as a
team. Finally, they are appointed by the European Council, by a qualified
majority.
• The current Commission's term of office runs until 31 October 2024.
• How does the Commission work?
• Strategic planning
• The President defines the policy direction for the Commission, which
enables the Commissioners together to decide strategic objectives,
and produce the annual work programme.
• Collective decision making
• Decisions are taken based on collective responsibility. All Commissioners are equal in the
decision-making process and equally accountable for these decisions. They do not have any
individual decision-making powers, except when authorized in certain situations.
• The Vice-Presidents act on behalf of the President and coordinate work in their area of
responsibility, together with several Commissioners. Priority projects are defined to help ensure
that the College works together in a close and flexible manner.
• Commissioners support Vice-Presidents in submitting proposals to the College. In general,
decisions are made by consensus, but votes can also take place. In this case, decisions are taken
by simple majority, where every Commissioner has one vote.
• The relevant Directorate-General (headed by a Director-General, answerable to the relevant
Commissioner) then takes up the subject. This is usually done in the form of draft legislative
proposals.
• These are then resubmitted to the Commissioners for adoption at their weekly meeting, after
which they become official, and are sent to the Council and the Parliament for the next stage in
the EU legislative process.
• The work of these 4 main EU institutions, which covers the legislative
and executive tasks of the EU, is complemented by the work of
another 3 EU institutions: the Court of Justice of the European Union,
the European Central Bank and the European Court of Auditors.
These 3 institutions are responsible for managing the judicial,
financial and external audit aspects of the European Union.
Court of Justice of the European Union
• The Court ensures that EU law is followed, and that the Treaties are
correctly interpreted and applied: it reviews the legality of the acts of
the EU institutions, ensures that EU countries comply with their
obligations under the Treaties, and interprets EU law at the request of
national courts.
• Overview
• Role: Ensuring EU law is interpreted and applied the same in every EU country; ensuring countries
and EU institutions abide by EU law.
• Members:
• Court of Justice: 1 judge from each EU country, plus 11 advocates general
• General Court: 2 judges from each EU country
• Established in: 1952
• Location: Luxembourg
• Website: Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU)
• The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) interprets EU law to make sure it is applied in
the same way in all EU countries, and settles legal disputes between national governments and
EU institutions.
• It can also, in certain circumstances, be used by individuals, companies or organisations to take
action against an EU institution, if they feel it has somehow infringed their rights.
• What does the CJEU do?
• The CJEU gives rulings on cases brought before it. The most common types of
case are:
• interpreting the law (preliminary rulings) – national courts of EU countries are
required to ensure EU law is properly applied, but courts in different countries
might interpret it differently. If a national court is in doubt about the
interpretation or validity of an EU law, it can ask the Court for clarification. The
same mechanism can be used to determine whether a national law or practice is
compatible with EU law.
• enforcing the law (infringement proceedings) – this type of case is taken against a
national government for failing to comply with EU law. Can be started by
the European Commission or another EU country. If the country is found to be at
fault, it must put things right at once, or risk a second case being brought, which
may result in a fine.
• annulling EU legal acts (actions for annulment) – if an EU act is believed to
violate EU treaties or fundamental rights, the Court can be asked to annul
it – by an EU government, the Council of the EU, the European Commission
or (in some cases) the European Parliament.
Private individuals can also ask the Court to annul an EU act that directly
concerns them.
• ensuring the EU takes action (actions for failure to act) – the Parliament,
Council and Commission must make certain decisions under certain
circumstances. If they don't, EU governments, other EU institutions or
(under certain conditions) individuals or companies can complain to the
Court.
• sanctioning EU institutions (actions for damages) – any person or company
who has had their interests harmed as a result of the action or inaction of
the EU or its staff can take action against them through the Court.
• Composition
• The CJEU is divided into 2 courts:
• Court of Justice – deals with requests for preliminary rulings from national
courts, certain actions for annulment and appeals.
• General Court – rules on actions for annulment brought by individuals,
companies and, in some cases, EU governments. In practice, this means
that this court deals mainly with competition law, State aid, trade,
agriculture, trade marks.
• Each judge and advocate general is appointed for a renewable 6-year
term, jointly by national governments. In each Court, the judges select
a President who serves a renewable term of 3 years.
• How does the CJEU work?
• In the Court of Justice, each case is assigned 1 judge (the "judge-
rapporteur") and 1 advocate general. Cases are processed in 2 stages:
• Written stage
• The parties give written statements to the Court - and observations can also be
submitted by national authorities, EU institutions and sometimes private individuals.
• All of this is summarised by the judge-rapporteur and then discussed at the Court's
general meeting, which decides:
• How many judges will deal with the case: 3, 5 or 15 judges (the whole Court), depending on
the importance and complexity of the case. Most cases are dealt with by 5 judges, and it is
very rare for the whole Court to hear the case.
• Whether a hearing (oral stage) needs to be held and whether an official opinion from the
advocate general is necessary.
• Oral stage – a public hearing
• Lawyers from both sides can put their case to the judges and advocate
general, who can question them.
• If the Court has decided an Opinion of the advocate general is necessary, this
is given some weeks after the hearing.
• The judges then deliberate and give their verdict.
• General Court procedure is similar, except that most cases are heard
by 3 judges and there are no advocates general.
European Central Bank
• The ECB and the European System of Central Banks are responsible
for keeping prices stable in the euro area. They are also responsible
for the monetary and exchange rate policy in the Eurozone and
support EU economic policies.
• Overview
• Role: To manage the euro, keep prices stable and conduct EU economic &
monetary policy
• President: Christine Lagarde
• Members: ECB President and Vice-President and governors of national
central banks from all EU countries
• Location: Frankfurt (Germany)
• Website: European Central Bank
• The European Central Bank (ECB) manages the euro and frames and
implements EU economic & monetary policy. Its main aim is to keep prices
stable, thereby supporting economic growth and job creation.
• What does the ECB do?
• sets the interest rates at which it lends to commercial banks in
the eurozone (also known as the euro area), thus controlling money supply
and inflation
• manages the eurozone's foreign currency reserves and the buying or
selling of currencies to balance exchange rates
• ensures that financial markets & institutions are well supervised by
national authorities, and that payment systems work well
• ensures the safety and soundness of the European banking system
• authorises production of euro banknotes by eurozone countries
• monitors price trends and assesses risks to price stability.
• Composition
• The ECB President represents the Bank at high-level EU and international
meetings. The ECB has the 3 following decision-making bodies:
• Governing Council – the main decision-making body.
Consists of the Executive Board (see below) plus the governors of the
national central banks from eurozone countries.
• Executive Board – handles the day-to-day running of the ECB.
Consists of the ECB President and Vice-President and 4 other members
appointed for 8-year terms by the leaders of the eurozone countries.
• General Council – has more of an advisory & coordination role.
Consists of the ECB President and Vice-President and the governors of the
central banks from all EU countries.
• How does the ECB work?
• The ECB works with the national central banks of all EU countries. Together they form
the European System of Central Banks.
• It leads cooperation between central banks in the eurozone. This is referred to as
the Eurosystem.
• The work of the governing bodies
• Governing Council – assesses economic and monetary developments, defines eurozone
monetary policy and fixes the interest rates at which commercial banks can borrow from
the ECB.
• Executive Board – implements monetary policy, manages day-to-day operations,
prepares Governing Council meetings and exercises powers delegated to it by the
Governing Council.
• General Council – contributes to advisory and coordination work and helps to prepare
for new countries joining the euro.
European Court of Auditors
• The ECA contributes to improving EU financial management, and
promoting accountability and transparency, and acts as the
independent guardian of the financial interests of EU citizens. It
checks that EU funds are correctly accounted for, that they are raised
and spent in accordance with the relevant rules and regulations, and
that they deliver value for money.
• Overview
• Role: To check EU funds are collected and used correctly, and help improve
EU financial management.
• President: Tony Murphy
• Members: 1 from each EU country
• Website: European Court of Auditors
• As the EU's independent external auditor, the European Court of Auditors
(ECA) looks after the interests of EU taxpayers. It does not have legal
powers, but works to improve the European Commission's management of
the EU budget and reports on EU finances.
• What does the ECA do?
• audits EU revenue & expenditure, to check EU funds are correctly raised, spent, achieve
value for money and accounted for
• checks any person or organisation handling EU funds – including spot checks in EU
institutions (especially the Commission), EU countries and countries receiving EU aid
• writes up findings and recommendations in audit reports, for the European Commission
and national governments
• reports suspected fraud, corruption or other illegal activity to the European Anti-Fraud
Office (OLAF)
• produces an annual report for the European Parliament and Council of the EU, which the
Parliament examines before deciding whether to approve the Commission's handling of
the EU budget
• gives its expert opinion to EU policymakers on how EU finances could be better managed
and made more accountable to citizens
• Also publishes opinions on preparatory legislation that will impact EU
financial management, as well as position papers, reviews and ad hoc
publications on EU public finance issues.
• To be effective, the Court must be independent of the institutions and
bodies it audits. To this end, it is free to decide on:
• what it will audit
• how to do this
• how & when to present its findings
• The Court's audit work focuses mainly on the European Commission – the
main body responsible for implementing the EU budget. But it also works
closely with national authorities, because the Commission manages most
EU funds (around 80%) jointly with them.
• Composition
• Court members are appointed by the Council, after consulting the
Parliament, for renewable 6-year terms. They choose one of their
number as President for a 3-year term (also renewable).
• How does the ECA work?
• It carries out 3 types of audit:
• Financial audits – checking that accounts accurately present the financial
position, results and cash flow for the year.
• Compliance audits – checking that financial transactions follow the rules.
• Performance audits – checking that the EU funds achieve its goals with the
fewest possible resources and in the most economical manner.
• The Court is divided into audit groups called 'chambers'. They
prepare reports & opinions for the Court members to adopt, thus making
them official.
Bodies
• In addition to the institutions, there are a number of bodies which
play specialised roles in helping the EU to fulfil its tasks. Some bodies
have the task of advising the institutions (the European Economic and
Social Committee, the European Committee of the Regions); others
ensure that the institutions comply with EU rules and procedures (the
European Ombudsman, the European Data Protection Supervisor).
The European External Action Service is an external policy body that
supports the EU on foreign affairs matters.
European External Action Service
• The EEAS is the European Union’s diplomatic service. It helps the High
Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy/Vice-President
of the European Commission implement the EU’s common foreign
and security policy, and ensures the consistency and coordination of
the EU’s external action. It has a network of EU
Delegations throughout the world.
• Overview
• Role: Manages the EU's diplomatic relations with other countries outside
the bloc and conducts EU foreign & security policy
• High Representative for Foreign Affairs & Security Policy: Josep Borrell
• Website: European External Action Service
• The European External Action Service (EEAS) is the EU's diplomatic service.
It aims to make EU foreign policy more coherent and effective, thus
increasing Europe's global influence.
• What does the EEAS do?
• supports the EU High Representative in conducting EU foreign and security policy
• manages diplomatic relations & strategic partnerships with non-EU countries
• works with the national diplomatic services of EU countries, the UN and other
leading powers
• Practical examples include:
• peace building – through political, economic and practical support
• ensuring security – under the Common Security & Defence Policy
• maintaining good relations with the EU's immediate neighbours through
the European Neighbourhood Policy
• development and humanitarian aid and crisis response
• tackling climate change and human rights issues
• Composition
• The European External Action Service is led by the EU foreign affairs
chief – or High Representative for Foreign Affairs & Security Policy. It
is composed of:
• in Brussels – expert staff transferred from the Council of the EU,
the European Commission and EU countries' diplomatic services
• worldwide – a network of EU "embassies" (delegations)
• How does EEAS work?
• The High Representative is also a Vice-President of the European
Commission. He represents the EU's foreign and security policy around the
world, coordinates the work of the European Commission on EU external
relations and chairs meetings of EU Foreign, Defence and Development
ministers. The High Representative/Vice President implements EU foreign
& security policy, together with EU countries and using national and EU
resources. This helps ensure consistency in foreign policy across the bloc.
• Outside its borders, the European Union is represented by a number of in-
country offices – EU delegations – which have a similar role to that of an
embassy.
European Economic and Social Committee
• The EESC represents a variety of civil society stakeholders from across
Europe, including employers, workers and representatives from other
social, occupational, economic and cultural organisations. The
European Parliament, the Council of the European Union and the
European Commission consult the EESC when they take decisions on
policy matters within its remit.
• Overview
• Role: Advisory body representing employers' and workers' organisations and
other interest groups
• President: Oliver Röpke
• Members: 329 from all EU countries
• Website: European Economic and Social Committee
• The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) is an EU advisory
body comprising representatives of workers' and employers' organisations and
other interest groups. It issues opinions on EU issues to the European
Commission, the Council of the EU and the European Parliament, thus acting as a
bridge between the EU's decision-making institutions and EU citizens.
• What does the EESC do?
• It gives the interest groups a formal say on EU legislative proposals. Its
three key tasks are to:
• ensure that EU policy and law are geared to economic and social
conditions, by seeking a consensus that serves the common good
• promote a participatory EU by giving workers' and employers'
organisations and other interest groups a voice and securing dialogue
with them
• promote the values of European integration, and advance the cause
of participatory democracy and civil society organisations
• Composition
• EESC members represent the variety of civil society organisations across
Europe, including businesses, trade unions and other interests. They are
nominated by national governments and appointed by the Council of the
EU for renewable 5-year terms. The number of members per
country depends on that country's population.
• The EESC elects its President and 2 Vice-Presidents for two-and-a-half-year
terms. Members belong to one of three groups:
• employers
• workers
• other interest groups (e.g. farmers, consumers)
• How does the EESC work?
• The EESC is consulted by the European Parliament, the Council of the EU
and the European Commission on a variety of subjects. It also
issues opinions on its own initiative.
• Members work for the EU, independently of their governments. They meet
9 times a year. Opinions are adopted by a simple majority vote.
• Meetings are prepared by the EESC's specialised sections and the
consultative commission on industrial change. The EESC's specialist think-
tanks (known as 'observatories') track the progress of EU strategies.
• The EESC keeps in touch with regional and national economic and social
councils throughout the EU - mainly to share information and discuss
particular issues.
European Committee of the Regions
• The CoR represents regional and local authorities. The European
Parliament, the Council of the European Union and the European
Commission consult the CoR on matters of relevance to local and
regional authorities.
• Overview
• Role: Advisory body representing Europe's regional and local authorities
• President: Vasco Alves Cordeiro
• Website: European Committee of the Regions
• The European Committee of the Regions (CoR) is an EU advisory
body composed of locally and regionally elected representatives coming
from all 27 Member States. Through the CoR they are able to share their
opinion on EU legislation that directly impacts regions and cities.
• What does the CoR do?
• The CoR gives regions and cities a formal say in EU law-making ensuring
that the position and needs of regional and local authorities are respected.
• The European Commission, the Council of the EU and the European
Parliament must consult the CoR when drawing up legislation on matters
concerning local and regional government such as health, education,
employment, social policy, economic and social cohesion, transport, energy
and climate change.
• If this is not done, the CoR can bring a case before the Court of Justice.
• Once the CoR receives a legislative proposal, it prepares and adopts
an opinion and circulates it to the relevant EU institutions.
• The CoR also issues opinions on its own initiative.
• Composition
• The CoR members are elected representatives serving in local or regional authorities.
Each country nominates members of its choice who are appointed for renewable five-
year terms by the Council of the EU. The number of members per country depends on
the size of that country's population.
• Members from one country form the national delegation which reflects the political,
geographical, regional and local balance of their country.
• Each member can also choose to be part of a political group in the CoR. Currently there
are six political groups reflecting a range of political affiliations: the European People's
Party (EPP), the Party of European Socialists (PES), Renew Europe, the European Alliance
Group (EA), the European Conservatives and Reformists Group (ECR) and The Greens.
Members can also choose not to be part of a political party if they so wish (non-aligned).
• The CoR appoints a president from among its members for a two-and-a-half-year term.
• How does the CoR work?
• The CoR appoints a rapporteur (one of its members) who consults
stakeholders and prepares the opinion. The text is discussed and
adopted by the CoR commission in charge of the policy area
concerned. The opinion is then presented to all members in plenary
session who vote to amend and adopt it. Finally, the opinion is shared
and communicated to all relevant EU institutions.
• There are up to 6 plenary sessions per year, adopting opinions that
cover 50 to 80 EU legislative projects.
European Investment Bank
• The EIB is the lending arm of the European Union. It focuses its
activities on climate and the environment, development, innovation
and skills, small and medium-sized businesses, infrastructure and
cohesion.
• Overview
• Role: provides funding for projects that help to achieve EU aims, both within and outside the EU
• President: Werner Hoyer
• Board of Directors: comprises one director per EU country, plus one from the European
Commission
• Founded in: 1958
• Website: European Investment Bank
• The European Investment Bank (EIB) is jointly owned by the EU countries. It seeks to:
• boost Europe's potential in terms of jobs & growth
• support action to mitigate climate change
• promote EU policies outside the EU
• What the EIB does
• The Bank borrows money on capital markets and lends it on favourable terms to
projects that support EU objectives. About 90 % of loans are made within the EU.
None of the money comes from the EU budget.
• The EIB provides 3 main types of products and services:
• lending – about 90 % of its total financial commitment. The Bank lends to clients
of all sizes to support growth and jobs, and this support often helps to attract
other investors
• 'blending' - allowing clients to combine EIB financing with additional investment
• advising and technical assistance - maximising value for money
• The EIB makes loans above EUR 25 million directly. Where smaller loans are
involved, it opens credit lines for financial institutions that then lend funds to
creditors.
• Composition
• All EU countries are shareholders in the EIB. Decisions are taken by the following
bodies:
• the Board of Governors, comprising ministers (mostly finance ministers) from all
EU countries. It defines general lending policy.
• the Board of Directors, chaired by the EIB President, which comprises 28
members appointed by the EU countries and one appointed by the European
Commission. It approves lending and borrowing operations.
• the Management Committee, the Bank's executive body, which handles day-to-
day business.
• The Audit Committee checks that EIB operations are conducted in a proper
manner.
• The Bank's departments implement management decisions.
• How does the EIB work?
• It makes borrowing and lending decisions, based on the merits of
each project and the opportunities offered by financial
markets. Within the EU, it has specific lending priorities. Outside the
EU, it supports the EU development and cooperation policies
worldwide.
• As an independent body, the Bank takes its own borrowing and
lending decisions. It cooperates with other EU institutions, especially
the European Commission, the European Parliament, and the Council
of the EU.
European Ombudsman
• The European Ombudsman is an independent and impartial body that
holds the EU’s institutions and agencies to account and promotes
good administration. The Ombudsman helps people, businesses and
organisations who face problems with the EU by investigating
complaints about maladministration, as well as by proactively looking
into broader systemic issues.
• Overview
• Role: Investigates complaints against EU institutions, bodies, offices &
agencies
• Ombudsman: Emily O'Reilly
• Location: Strasbourg (France)
• Website: European Ombudsman
• The European Ombudsman investigates complaints about poor
administration by EU institutions or other EU bodies. These may be lodged
by citizens or residents of EU countries or by EU-based associations or
businesses.
• What does the Ombudsman do?
• The Ombudsman investigates different types of poor administration,
for example:
• unfair conduct
• discrimination
• abuse of power
• lack of information or refusal to provide it
• unnecessary delays
• incorrect procedures
• How is the Ombudsman chosen?
• The European Parliament elects the Ombudsman for a renewable 5-
year term. This is one of its first tasks when newly elected.
• How does the Ombudsman work?
• The Ombudsman's office launches investigations either in response to
complaints or on its own initiative. An impartial body, it takes no orders
from any government or other organisation. It produces an annual activity
report for the European Parliament.
• The Ombudsman may be able to solve your problem simply by informing
the institution concerned. If more is needed, every effort is made to reach
an amicable solution that will put matters right. Should this fail, the
Ombudsman can make recommendations to the institution. If these are
not accepted, the Ombudsman can draw up a special report to the
European Parliament, which must then take appropriate action.
• The Ombudsman and you
• If you are dissatisfied with an EU institution, body, office or agency,
you should first give it a chance to put things right. If that fails, you
can complain to the Ombudsman.
• You must make your complaint within 2 years of the date on which
you became aware of the problem. Make sure you say who you
are, which institution or body you are complaining about, and why.
You may ask for the complaint to remain confidential.
• If the Ombudsman cannot deal with your complaint, you will be
informed of other bodies that may be able to help.
European Data Pro
• The EDPS ensures that EU institutions and bodies respect people’s
right to privacy when processing their personal data.
• Overview
• Role: Ensures that EU institutions and bodies respect people's right to privacy
when processing their personal data
• Supervisor: Wojciech Wiewiórowski
• Website: European Data Protection Supervisor
• The EU institutions and bodies sometimes process citizens' personal
information - in electronic, written or visual format - in the course of their duties.
Processing includes collecting, recording, storing, retrieving, sending, blocking or
erasing data. It is the task of the European Data Protection Supervisor (EDPS) to
uphold the strict privacy rules governing these activities.
• What does the EDPS do?
• supervises the EU administration's processing of personal data to
ensure compliance with privacy rules
• advises EU institutions and bodies on all aspects of personal data
processing and related policies and legislation
• handles complaints and conducts inquiries
• works with the national authorities of EU countries to ensure
consistency in data protection
• monitors new technologies that might have an impact on data
protection
• How does the EDPS work?
• The Supervisor is appointed for a renewable 5-year term of office. For
everyday operations, the EDPS comprises 2 main entities:
• Supervision and Enforcement - evaluates data protection
compliance by EU institutions and bodies.
• Policy and Consultation - advises EU legislators on data
protection issues in various policy areas and new legislative
proposals.
• The EDPS and you
• The EU institutions and bodies must not process personal data on your
• racial or ethnic origin
• political opinions
• religious or philosophical views
• trade-union membership
• Nor may they process data on your health or sexual orientation, unless these are needed for health care purposes. Even then, this
must be done by a health professional or other person sworn to professional secrecy.
• If you believe that your right to privacy has been infringed by an EU institution or body, you should first tell the EU staff
members responsible for processing your data in the instance where you think the infringement was committed. If you are not
satisfied with the outcome, contact the data protection officer of the EU institution or body which you believe has committed the
infringement.
• If this fails, you can make a complaint to the EDPS using a complaint submission form. The European Data Protection Supervisor
will investigate and let you know whether they agree with your complaint and, if so, how the situation is being rectified.
• If you disagree with the EDPS's decision, you may take the matter to the Court of Justice of the EU.
European Data Protection Board
• The EDPB is an independent body that ensures the consistent
application of data protection rules throughout the EU, and promotes
cooperation between national data protection authorities in the EU.
• Overview
• Role: To ensure that the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the Data Protection Law
Enforcement Directive are consistently applied in the EU countries, as well as Norway,
Liechtenstein and Iceland.
• Chair: Anu Talus
• Number of staff: 21
• Location: Brussels
• Website: European Data Protection Board
• The EDPB is an independent body which:
• ensures that EU law in this field – especially the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and
the Data Protection Law Enforcement Directive – is consistently applied in all countries that are
covered by it, and promotes cooperation among the national data protection authorities
• What does the EDPB do?
• provides general guidance (including guidelines, recommendations and best practice) to clarify the GDPR
• adopts consistency findings, designed to make sure the GDPR is interpreted consistently by all national
regulatory bodies, for example in cases relating to 2 or more countries
• advises the European Commission on data protection issues and any proposed new EU legislation of
particular importance for the protection of personal data
• encourages national data protection authorities to work together and share information and best practices
with each other
• If you think your data has not been protected, you have 3 options:
• contact the organisation holding your data
• contact your national data protection authority
• put the matter before a national court
• National data protection authorities can conduct investigations and impose penalties where necessary.
• Who is on the EDPB?
• Chair and 2 deputy chairs, appointed for renewable 5-year terms of
office
• Each national data protection authority and the European Data
Protection Supervisor (EDPS)
• For day-to-day operations, the work of the EDPB receives analytical,
administrative and logistical support from a secretariat provided by
the EDPS. The members of the staff of the EDPB Secretariat are
working under the instructions of the Chair of the EDPB.
• How does the EDPB work?
• The Board has regular meetings in Brussels, to discuss and make
decisions on data protection related issues.
• The decisions are made by the plenary meetings, gathering the head
of national authorities, on the basis of preparatory work of expert
subgroups meetings and of the EDPB Secretariat.
Interinstitutional services
• The EU institutions created 4 interinstitutional services to serve and
support the work of the EU institutions, as well as its agencies and
bodies. They each have specific remits, which cover the essential
requirements of the EU institutions, such as recruitment, staff
learning and development, IT and publishing. The Publications Office
was established in 1969, whereas the other offices were set up more
recently – the European Personnel Selection Office in 2003, the
European School of Administration in 2005 and the Computer
Emergency Response Team in 2012.
Computer Emergency Response Team for the
EU institutions, bodies and agencies (CERT-EU)
• CERT-EU manages threats to EU institutions' computer systems –
supporting IT security teams in each EU institution and liaising with
public-sector CERT counterparts in EU countries.
• Overview
• Role: Helps make the ICT infrastructure of all EU institutions, bodies and
agencies more secure
• Head: Saâd Kadhi
• Partners (if applicable): CERTs in EU and non-EU countries, international
organisations and fora, specialised IT security companies
• Location: Brussels
• Website: CERT-EU
• What it does
• CERT-EU comprises a team of IT security experts from the EU
institutions and bodies. It collects, manages, analyses and shares
information with EU institutions, bodies and agencies on threats,
vulnerabilities and incidents related to unclassified ICT infrastructure.
It also coordinates responses to incidents at inter-institutional and
institutional level, for example, providing or coordinating the
provision of specialised operational assistance.
• Who benefits?
• The EU’s institutions, bodies and agencies benefit from CERT-EU’s
work. CERT-EU offers various specific services aimed at preventing,
detecting, mitigating and responding to cyberattacks. It supports all
the EU institutions, bodies and agencies by sharing information on
threats and vulnerabilities that may affect their ICT infrastructure and
by providing protective or remedial measures.
• CERT-EU’s cooperates with national CERTs (in both EU and non-EU
countries) and international partners, which helps improve the level
of information exchange in the EU and beyond.
European School of Administration
• The European School of Administration provides training in specific
areas for EU staff and works in close cooperation with the training
departments of all the institutions to avoid any duplication of effort.
• Overview
• Role: The mission of the European School of Administration is to
provide high quality learning opportunities that meet the needs of all
EU institutions and their staff.
• Acting Head: Christiane Keutgens
• Location: Brussels and Luxembourg
• Website: European School of Administration
• What it does
• The European School of Administration provides learning opportunities for EU staff. The learning
offer includes:
• management and leadership programmes
• newcomers training
• certification: a training programme for assistant-level staff who have been identified by the
institutions in which they work as having the potential to become administrators.
• Key Skills training, well-being and resilience workshops
• Erasmus for Public Administration programme: short study visits for young national civil servants
from EU countries whose jobs involve EU matters.
• DISPA: a network of Member States’ Directors of Institutes and Schools of Public Administration,
as well as the European Institute of Public Administration (EIPA). The EU institutions are
represented by the European School of Administration and the Learning and Development unit of
the European Commission. The purpose of this network is to promote cooperation and exchange
of good practice in the area of training for public servants.
• Who benefits?
• Staff of the EU institutions and agencies benefit from this learning
offer, which helps EU staff to grow professionally, develop new skills
and, ultimately, fulfil their potential.
European Personnel Selection Office (EPSO)
• EPSO is the EU’s selection office. It organises competitions to recruit
candidates to work for EU institutions and agencies.
• Overview
• Role: Organises high-quality selection procedures to select staff for
the EU institutions, bodies and agencies
• Director: Minna Vuorio
• Location: Brussels (with an office in Luxembourg)
• Website:European Personnel Selection Office
• What it does
• EPSO organises open competitions and selection procedures to recruit candidates for EU institutions, bodies and agencies, such as the:
• European Parliament
• Council of the European Union
• European Commission
• European Court of Justice
• European Court of Auditors
• European External Action Service
• European Economic and Social Committee
• European Committee of the Regions
• European Data Protection Supervisor
• European Ombudsman.
• EPSO processes some 45,000 applications a year for approximately 800 permanent positions. In addition, it manages a database of over 70,000
registered candidates for approximately 600 contractual positions a year.
• EPSO often shares best practice with international organisations such as the UN, NATO and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.
• Who benefits?
• The main beneficiaries of EPSO’s work are the EU recruiting services,
as well as prospective candidates for positions in the EU institutions,
bodies and agencies. They benefit from EPSO’s fair, transparent and
efficient selection procedures, which enable the EU institutions,
bodies and agencies to recruit the right person for the right job, at the
right time.
• It is more efficient and cost-effective to have a single office recruit
staff than have each EU institution, body and agency organise its own
selection procedures or competitions.
Publications Office of the European Union (OP)
• The Publications Office of the European Union is the official provider
of publishing services to all EU institutions, bodies and agencies. As
such, it is the central point of access to EU law, publications, open
data, research results, procurement notices and other official
information.
• Overview
• Role: Support EU policies and provide publishing services to the EU
institutions, bodies and agencies.
• Director-General: Ms Hilde Hardeman
• Website: Publications Office of the EU
• What it does
• The Publications Office of the European Union is the official provider
of publishing services to all EU institutions, bodies and agencies. This
makes it the central point of access to EU law, publications, open
data, research results, procurement notices, and other official
information.
• Its mission is to support EU policies and make a broad range of
information publicly available as accessible and reusable data. The
overall aim is to facilitate transparency, economic activity, and the
dissemination of knowledge.
• Who benefits?
• The Publications Office’s main audience is the public (individuals and
businesses).
• Thanks to our work, a wide range of official EU information is
available to the public as findable, accessible, interoperable and
reusable (FAIR) data — essential in today’s data-driven economy. The
Publications Office thus supports transparency, economic activity, the
development of modern technologies such as artificial intelligence,
and access to knowledge in general.
• This means we play a significant role in several of the EU’s political
priorities: democracy, the economy, and digital transformation.
Decentralised agencies
• There are currently over 30 decentralised agencies. They have their
own legal personalities, are set up for an indefinite period and are
distinct from the EU institutions.
• Decentralised agencies contribute to the implementation of EU
policies. They also support cooperation between the EU and national
governments by pooling technical and specialist expertise and
knowledge from both the EU institutions and national authorities.
• Decentralised agencies are spread across Europe and work on issues
affecting the everyday lives of nearly 450 million people living in the
EU. Examples include food, medicine, justice, transport safety, drug
addiction and the environment.
• The European Medicines Agency is a decentralised agency, located in
Amsterdam. Established in 1995, it works on ensuring the efficacy and
safety of human and veterinary medicines across Europe. It also
promotes research and innovation in the development of medicines.
It has contributed significantly to the development of children’s
medicines, remedies for rare diseases, advanced therapies, and
herbal and veterinary medicines. It also has a role to play in tackling
such public health challenges as AIDS, cancer, Alzheimer’s, and
diabetes
Common foreign and security policy
• The EU has set up 3 agencies to carry out very clearly defined technical, scientific and management tasks.
The trio’s overarching mission is to help the EU and its member countries to implement the common foreign
and security policy, including the common security and defence policy, and other aspects of EU external
action.
• European Defence Agency
• The Defence Agency supports the development of defence capabilities and military cooperation between EU
countries. It stimulates defence research and technology, strengthens the European defence industry and
acts as a military interface on EU policies.
• European Union Institute for Security Studies
• The Institute analyses foreign, security and defence policy issues. It provides analysis, organises discussion
forums to help formulate EU policy, and contributes to debates on security strategy in and outside Europe.
• European Union Satellite Centre
• The Satellite Centre provides geospatial intelligence products and services, primarily by analysing data from
Earth observation satellites. It provides decision makers with early warnings of potential crises to enable
diplomatic, economic and humanitarian measures to be taken in good time.
Executive agencies
• The European Commission has set up 6 executive agencies for a limited

period of time to manage specific tasks associated with EU programmes.
These executive agencies, which are legal entities, work on Commission
initiatives ranging from health and education to innovation and research.
• For example:
• The European Commission established the European Innovation Council
and SME Executive Agency (EISMEA) to develop and implement the
European Innovation Council that identifies and supports breakthrough
technologies and innovations. The Agency is also responsible for managing
EU programmes in SME support, innovation ecosystems, single market,
consumer policy and interregional innovation investments. It makes sure
that work funded by these programmes delivers results and provides the
Commission with valuable input for its policy tasks.
Euratom agencies and bodies
• There are 2 Euratom agencies and bodies which were set up to
support the aims of the European Atomic Energy Community
Treaty (EURATOM, 1957). The aims of the Treaty are: to coordinate
national nuclear research programmes for peaceful purposes; to
provide knowledge, infrastructure and funding for nuclear energy;
and to ensure sufficient and secure supplies of nuclear energy.
Euratom Supply Agency
• The mission of the Euratom Supply Agency is

to maintain regular and equitable supply of nuclear materials
(ores, source material and special fissile material)
for all users in the European Atomic Energy Community.
• The strategic objective is
the security of supply of nuclear materials, particularly nuclear fuel,
for power and non-power uses,
by means of the common supply policy
Fusion for Energy Joint Undertaking
• The joint undertaking manages the EU’s contribution to
the ITER (originally, the International Thermonuclear Experimental
Reactor) project, designed to demonstrate the scientific and
technological feasibility of fusion power, and cooperates with Japan
on fusion research and development projects.
• Fusion for Energy (F4E) is the European Union organisation managing
Europe’s contribution to ITER— the biggest scientific experiment on
the path to fusion energy. This partnership of seven parties (China,
Europe, Japan, India, the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation
and the USA), represents half of the world’s population and 80% of
the global GDP. Europe is responsible for nearly half of the project,
while the other six parties contribute equally to the rest.
• Our mission is to bring fusion, the energy of the Sun and the stars, to
Earth. To do so, we are working closely with industry and research
organisations to provide the infrastructure and the components of
the biggest fusion device. In parallel, F4E is involved in three major
fusion R&D projects, stemming from the Broader Approach
Agreement signed between Europe and Japan. Ultimately, F4E will
contribute to the development of demonstration fusion reactors by
offering technical know-how and expertise.
• F4E was established on 19 April 2007 for a period of 35 years. Its
headquarters are in Barcelona (Spain) and has offices in Cadarache
(France) and Garching (Germany).
• For further reading please visit
• https://european-union.europa.eu/institutions-law-
budget/institutions-and-bodies/types-institutions-and-bodies_en
• https://www.europarl.europa.eu/infographic/legislative-
procedure/index_en.html
• https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/council-eu/decision-
making/ordinary-legislative-procedure/
• https://european-union.europa.eu/institutions-law-budget/law/how-
eu-policy-decided_en

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• The mission of the Euratom Supply Agency is

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