CHAPTER II

RRL

PHILIPPINES

Ferns have been part if many communities in the Philippines and are classified as an
endangered species with the conservation status of fern. It is important to study them, how
people use them, protect them or use them (DAO, 2017-11). Many researchers deal with
resource behavior and practices, but few focuses on ferns. Ferns are very important components
of the ecosystem (Praptosuwiryo et al., 2011). Ferns consist of 20,000 species of plants in a large
part of the world, and 943 species can be found in the Philippines, it was classified in the phylum
or phylum Pteridophyta, also known as Filicophyta. Ferns are very accessible to various
biological studies because there are several species of ferns and in fact new species of
pteridophytes continue to be found in tropical regions. In addition, ferns have a very distinctive
shape of young leaves and a rope loop shape that is not found in other plant species (Yusuf,
2010)

Ferns play a key role in the environment and in humans. These plants are often
overlooked but they are of great help in maintaining the balance of the environment as one of the
main sources of the food chain (catapang, et al., 2012). Consequently, there are still areas in the
Philippines where there are no records of this species. Most people generally do not consider
ferns to be ecologically important (amoroso, et al., 2016). Species richness of native montane
forests in the Philippines can be influenced by several factors, including sample size, climatic
conditions, soil type, and geographic location (Kessler, 2010). Species richness is also affected
by some anthropogenic disturbances, such as the conversion of forests to agricultural or
industrial land and pollution (amoroso, et al., 2016). In addition, plants die out due to their
characteristic successional patterns. Agriculture, invasions and urbanizations are important
factors in hot areas, while hydrological disturbance is a major cause in cold areas (le roux, et al.,
2019).

Ferns (Pteridophyta) are free-sporing vascular plants with a unique life cycle of free-
living gametophyte and sporophyte stages. Fern species account for nearly 90% of extant
diversity, the first higher level classification of pteridophytes in the world. The objective of this
study was to assess and identify different species compositions and diversity variations of ferns
found at lower altitudes in Barangay San Rafael, Prosperidad Agusan del Sur, Philippines. In
addition, the researchers used the square sampling method as one of the best and classic tools
used in ecology, especially to determine the diversity of specific sampling sites. In addition, the
Shannon Diversity Index method was used in the study to determine the biodiversity of plant
species, especially ferns (Pteridophyta). The total number of ferns collected mostly from
Barangay San Rafael, Prosperidad, Agusan del Sur are nine (9) species from 5 families. The
researchers combined the collected data for ferns (Pte-ridophyta) to calculate a diversity of
1,864, and their diversity was medium, because most likely the fern communities were similar in
all transects. Thus, the study area has an average species diversity, resulting in a more complex,
stable, and productive ecosystem, as can be observed in the San Rafael Forest. The results show
that the growth and spread of ferns were significantly inhibited by environmental characteristics
(Saro, et al., 2022).

Species richness accounts for about 19% and 33% of the total number of pteridophytes
species in the Philippines and Mindanao, respectively. It is very similar to Mount Burnay and its
surroundings in Northern Luzon with 199 species (Iwatsuki & Price, 1977), Panay Island with
228 species (Barcelona, 2004), Balinsasayao Twin Lakes National Park in Negros Oriental with
232 species (Amoroso, et al., 2016b), and Mount Malindang in Misamis Occidental with 280
species (Amoroso, et al., 2012). It is higher than the Karst forest on the island of Bohol with 169
species (Barcelona, et al., 2006), Mt. Bali-it in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park in Northern
Luzon with 167 species (Barcelona, 2003), Mount Marilog in Davao City with 165 species
(Amoroso, et al., 1996), and Mt. Hamiguitan Range Wildlife Sanctuary in Davao Oriental with
152 species (Amoroso, et al., 2016a). Ferns are an important part of the southern temperate forest
and an important functional group in forest vegetation dynamics (Brock et al., 2016; Brock et al.,
2019). Mature trees were recorded growing on trunks of tree ferns and clustered (Newton &
Healey, 1989; Derroire et al., 2007). Pteridophytes are known as seedless vascular plants. It had
a very flourishing and growing past dominating the earth's vegetation about 280-230 million
years ago. Although they are now widespread and largely replaced in the current flora by seed-
bearing vascular plants, they nevertheless clearly form a fairly prominent part of the modern
flora of the world (Aishan, et al., 2018).
INTERNATIONAL

Tree ferns often have height differences between closely related species and
cultivars/morphotypes (gaxiola, et al., 2008; lehnert, 2014). Although ferns are an important
group in forest structure, these plants have historically been neglected in floristic and ecological
studies (weigand & lehnert, 2016). The main fern families of the subtropical atlantic forests are
cyatheaceae and dicksoniaceae. The first (around 15 species) prefer a warm humid climate with
few seasons (bystriakova, et al., 2011). Ferns play an important role in ecosystem dynamics and
can influence tree species regeneration and nutrient cycling (brock, et al., 2016). The impacts of
tree plant macro-litterfall have been assessed as one potential component impacting vascular
species foundation (Gillman & Ogden 2001; Gillman et al. 2002; Gillman et al. 2004).

The abundance of ferns in areas that were not affected by the fire It does not inhibit the
formation and growth of crown trees, including broadleaf trees that produce fleshy fruit (Brock
et al., 2017). It is the only genus of ferns in which polyploidy has been reported, with
intercontinental divergence at the species level. The species G. capensis can be found on two
continents, Africa and South America (korall & pryer, 2014). This also has an important
ecological function acting as a host of native epiphytic plants (Mehltreter et al. 2005; Mehltreter
and García-Franco, 2008).

Regarding climate change, it is important to know how species and communities

react to environmental changes. Looking for patterns of abundance and phenotypic variation
along altitudinal gradients can provide evidence of adaptive limits. The assessed species richness
and variability in morphometric and stomatal characteristics in five tree fern species (cyathea
fulva, C. divergens, C. myosuroides, Alsophila firma and Gymnosphaera salvinii) distributed
along an altitudinal gradient in a well-preserved Mexican rainforest. Community – and species –
level variability was assessed using exploratory and multivariate data analysis methods. To
investigate whether species abundance is determined by environment, determine the degree of
variation along the altitudinal gradient, test zonal differences and relationships with elevation
humidity, and soil nutrients, and estimate the proportion of intra- and inter – species variation.
Community response to elevation and soil nutrients. The studied fern community showed a
strong species exchange along the altitudinal gradient, somewhat affecting soil nutrient
concentration, supporting environmental determinism. All measured markers showed a gradient
variation. Stomatal characters (size and density) varied significantly less than morphometric
characters (stem diameter, furrow length and grain length), but stomatal density also shows
interesting intraspecific patterns. Overall, fern community patterns indicate a strong effect of
species identity, especially for species living at the lower edge of the cloud forest, which showed
the clearest morphometric and stomatal patterns associated with contrasting environments rather
than changes in elevation. The concordance of morphometric and stomatal patterns in this region
indicates hydraulic adjustments in response to contrasting environments. Our results show that
ferns respond to environmental changes by adapting morphometric plasticity and stomatal
density, which is important for predicting possible responses to changes in environmental
conditions due to climate change. (Merino, et al., 2023). Due to their dispersal ability, ferns can
be widely distributed by living in remote areas and favorable environements. The nature of the
geographic range of fern species depends on their ability to disperse and the availability of
suitable environments (Tryon, 1972, 1986). Adult tree ferns of the genera Cyathea and Alsophila
are often collected from remnants of tropical forests near the city of Cuetzalan (Puebla, Mexico).
Local artistsans use the random roots surrounding the stems of ferns as a substrate for their
crafts. In this region, tree ferns regenerate abundantly in disturbed areas, such as roadsides,
where their mortality is high due to weeding and other road maintenance. Planting young ferns
from these areas in safe places can contribute to the ex-site conservation of the species. The sale
of planted ferns could alsoprovide an additional source of income for local families. Identified
and estimated the abundance of all tree ferns species found along roadsides in this area.
Evaluated the profitability of planting the young ferns Cyathea divergens and Alsophila firma
under different conditions of light availability. Although 30% of wild roadside specimens
survived 1 year, C. divergens graft survival was 73.3 and 86.7% and A. firma graft survival was
93.3 and 40% when planted in a safe location under an open canopy and 50% shade respectively.
The C. divergens transplant produced more leaves and grew faster than the A. firma transplant.
Individuals of both species planted in 50% shade produced more leaves and grew faster than
those planted in open canopy areas. Planting proved to be a time-consuming and inexpensive
strategy that promoted the conservation of native ferns and offered local people a potentially
viable alternative to artisanal or handicraft production. (Eleuterio & Perez-Salicrup, 2009).

The strongest limiting factor, the current global distribution of scaly fern sporophytes is
annual rainfall, which is consistent with the low desiccation tolerance of gametophytes.
(Watkins, et al., 2009). However, the current distribution and development of tree fern climatic
niches in cloud forests are influenced by geographic and historical factors. (Bystriakova, et al.,
2011).

Several studies have clearly analyzed that ferns play an important role both ecologically
and economically. Ecologically, the presence of ferns acts as a producer in the food chain and
plays a large role in the nitrogen cycle. On the other hand, the fern has an economically
important commercial potential as an ornamental and medicinal plant (Zhang Xianchun, et al.,
2016). According to research on several aspects related to ferns in different regions of Indonesia,
including the distribution of pteridophytes on Mount Selamat (Widhiastuti, 2006), the
relationship between different plant species of the fern family Polypodiaceae (Nurchatyati,
2010). The composition of the community was greatly influenced by the change in altitude, the
amount of precipitation and the abundance of plant species. Forests and mountains are perfect
and ideal for studying the effects of climate change on species distribution with their rapid
change and climatic characteristics over short altitude distances and geographical
features(Kessler, et al., 2016; Rogora, et al., 2018).

Ferns are common elements in the Atlantic Forest, sometimes covering more than half of the
forest area. As with most groups, climate change can affect the distribution and diversity of
ferns. To investigate the extent of these effects in the subtropical Atlantic rainforest, we
measured changes in species distribution, alpha and beta diversity between the current climate
and future climate scenarios by 2050. The area of most tree fern species generally decreased.
Thus, species richness will tend to decrease in the future, especially in rainforests. In general,
beta diversity does not usually change on a regional scale, but the relative oddity of the
composition of some sites can affect it. Subtropical Atlantic Forest (PA) protected areas contain
more alpha diversity than outside PAs - the same is true for beta diversity. Our study provides
new insights into the impact of climate change on ferns by integrating this impact assessment
into distribution, alpha and beta diversity across study areas and PAs (Gasper, et al., 2021.)
 Ferns (Pteridophyta) and lycophytes are particularly sensitive to increased temperatures
and greatly reduced precipitation, both of which are predicted to be affected by future climate
change, and their response to these conditions is likely to vary between terrestrial and epiphytic
species (Mandle, et al., 2010). More and more tropical forests are being cut down, which has
caused a major loss of habitats and fragmentation of the landscape. Studies of different plant
groups show changes in species diversity and community composition in response to these
effects. However, less is known about how these effects affect ferns and lycophytes. In this
study, we assessed the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on ferns and lycophytes in
lowland, unflooded forests of the Ecuadorian Amazon. Obtained a collection of data from
thirteen plots located along gradients of habitat loss and fragmentation (as measured by the
landscape fragmentation index: fragindex) and used community and diversity indices to assess
species responses. In addition, climate plays an important role in the ecosystem and climate is
very sensitive, a globally distributed and variable group of plant species such as pteridophytes
has received much attention in the literature on the condition of studying global altitudinal
distribution (Sanchez-Gonzalez, et al., 2010). As found 3824 specimens of 55 species. Plots with
higher fragment index values (more than 20% habitat loss and fragmentation) had the least
diversity, but plots with habitat loss and fragmentation between 12% and 21% had the highest
diversity, not landscapes. without a trace Although community composition varied along the
strawberry index gradient, species turnover was not significantly related to this index. These
results indicate that changes in the landscape caused by deforestation change habitat availability,
which affects the distribution of ferns and lycophytes (Moulatlet, 2023). Previous studies of fern
responses to habitat loss and fragmentation in tropical forests have shown that smaller forest
remnants contain different communities than larger remnants in Amazonian island
landscapes(Zuquim, et al., 2022), central Uganda(Bulafu, et al., 2022) and tropical forests in
China(Cicuzza & Mammides, 2022). In addition, forest patch configurations such as patch size,
isolation, and distance from edge were also associated with changes in fern diversity(Murakami,
et al., 2005; Silva, et al., 2015).

Fern abundance tends to be lower near forest edges(Silva, et al., 2014), and some groups,
such as epiphytes, are more sensitive to edge environmental conditions than terrestrial species
(Zuleta, et al., 2016). Due to the sensitivity of ferns to habitat changes, it has been argued that
they can be used as an indicator group for environmental degradation due to increasing landscape
edge effects (Paciencia & Prado, 2005b; Silva, et al., 2015, 2018). The reduction in the richness
of small forest remnants and forest edges occurs locally. Fragmentation can increase habitat
diversity and thus increase the richness of ferns in the landscape (Paciencia & Prado, 2005a), but
in the long term the distance between populations can limit movement and gene flow, which can
cause local extinctions when the probability of recolonization decreases (Fischer &
Lindenmayer, 2007).