Non-Linear Load Power Fact 2 Neww

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
A Final Year Project Report On
Non-linear load power factor correction
Group Members Zaka Ullah khattak, Mahmodulhaq, Atif asif, Amjad, Iltaaf.
FACULTY SUPERVISOR MR.Engr. Junaid Session 2006 - 2010 Department of Electronics Engineering, buitms, quetta
BUITEMS DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
NON-LINERAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

BY Zaka Ullah khattak Iltaf URahman Atif Asif Mahmood ulhaq & Amjad
A Final year project submitted to the Department of Electronics Engineering in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION Bachelors of Electronics Engineering
Our Creator and the Supreme Lord of all the worlds and heavens. We thank Allah almighty for his blessings and help in every step to completion of our project.
Acknowledgments
ABSTRACT
To design and implement a real time power factor monitoring and correcting system. Power factor calculation can be done by measuring the lead/lag angle between the voltage and the current waveform of any non linear load. Then by real time high speed switching of capacitor banks the compensation for lead /lag angle would be achieved in closed loop.
The basic goal of our project is to maximize the power factor to its optimum value as much as possible. Using different techniques we can acquire our desired result. The Power Factor Correction method is used for improving the efficiency of a system and reducing the electricity bill.
In this regard a full market survey was conducted, and keeping in view the market demand compelled us to undertake this daunting challenge of power factor optimization. Further study strengthened our determination in pursuing it as out final year project. Electric companies pay heavy fine each month from the electrical companies because of low power factor. With the accomplishment of power factor correction schemes used in our project, it will cut down on these higher electricity costs and benefit the industry as a whole.
Table Of Contents
Certificate of Approval...2 Acknowledgements.4 Table Of Contents...6 List Of illustrations.......................................................................................................9 List of Symbols..11
1 2
Introduction 1.1 Motivation...13 1.2 Goals and Objective.14 1.3 Block Diagram.15 Fundamental Concepts 2.1 What is Power Factor...17 2.2 What is Power Factor Correction.................................18 2.3 Power Factor Explained...19 2.4 Cause of Low Power Factor.20 2.5 Benefits of high Power Factor.21 2.6 Methods of Power Factor Correction...21 2.7 Why Improve Your Power Factor....21 2.8 Correcting Power Factor..22 4
Why to improve the power factor? 3.1 Reduction in the cost of electricity..25 3.2 Technical/economic optimization26
How to improve the power factor? 4.1 Theoretical principles...29 4.2 By using what equipment.............................................31 4.3 The choice between a fixed or automatically regulated bank of capacitors...34
Where to install power factor correction capacitors? 5.1 Global compensation...36 5.2 Compensation by sector..37 5.3 Individual compensation.38 5.4 Mathematical Calculations Involved...39
How to decide the optimum level of compensation? 6.1 General method46 6.2 Simplified method47 6.3 Method based on the avoidance of tariff penalties..49 6.4 Method based on reduction of declared maximum apparent power (kVA)...50
Compensation at the terminals of a transformer 7.1 Compensation to increase the available active power output.53 7.2 Compensation of reactive energy absorbed by the transformer.55
Power factor correction of induction motors 8.1 Connection of a capacitor bank and protection Settings..61 8.2 How self-excitation of an induction motor can be Avoided.64
9 10 11
9.0 Example of an installation before and after powerfactor Correction...67
The effects of harmonics 10.1 Problems arising from power-system harmonics...70 10.2 Possible solutions...71 10.3 Choosing the optimum solution73 Implementation of capacitor banks 11.1 Capacitor elements ....76 11.2 Choice of protection, control devices and connecting Cables.78 6
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Conclusion and Future Recommendations 12.1 Summary of Work...83 12.2 Future Work.84
Appendix A....86 Appendix B........87 Appendix C........88 Appendix D......101 Appendix E......109 References....128
List of Illustrations
Fig. 1 14 Fig. 2 16 Fig. 3 17 Fig. 4 18 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Fig. 7 29 Fig. 8 Fig. 9 31 Fig. 6 32 Fig.7 Project Block Diagram. Power Triangle Phasor Diagram Phasor Diagram with the addition of a capacitive load Power Factor Calculation illustration Multiplying factor for cable size as a function of cos showing the essential features of power-factor Correction Diagram showing the principle of compensation Example of fixed-value compensation capacitors Example of automatic-compensation-regulating equipment Example of automatic-compensation-regulating equipment 33 30 22 25
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION Fig. 8 36 Fig. 9 Fig.10 Fig. 11 Fig. 12 Fig. 13 Global compensation Compensation by sector 37
kvar to be installed per kW of load, to improve the power factor of an installation 42 Reduction of declared maximum kVA by powerfactor improvement 44
Active-power capability of fully-loaded transformers, when supplying loads at different values of power factor 47 Compensation Example 48
Fig. 14 Fig. 15
Reactive power absorption by series inductance Reactive power consumption of distribution transformers with 20 kV primary windings.
50 52
Fig. 16 Fig. 17 Fig. 18 57 Fig. 19 Fig. 20 59 Fig. 21 65 Fig. 22 Fig. 23
Overcompensation of load to completely compensate transformer reactivepower losses. 53 Before compensation, the transformer supplies all the reactive power; after compensation, the capacitor supplies a large part of the reactive power. 56 Maximum kvar of power factor correction applicable to motor terminals without risk of self excitation. Reduction factor for overcurrent protection after compensation. Connection of the capacitor bank to the motor. Operation principle of passive filter. Selection of the most suitable technology depending on the application. Choice of solutions for limiting harmonics associated with a LV 9 57
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NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION capacitor bank supplied via transformer(s). 69 Fig. 24 Capacitor element: (a) Cross-section (b) Electrical characteristics Fig. 25 Cross-section of cables connecting medium and high power capacitor banks. 74 72
Formula Symbols Used

C f I Capacitance (farads) Frequency (Hertz) Current (amps) Currents of bank or stages being switched and of bank or stage already energized A peak value calculated without damping. In practical circuits it will be about 90 percent of this value RMS current (amps) at harmonic (h) Reactive Power (kvar) Three-phase capacitor bank rating Total Power (kVA) kilovolts (kv) Real Power (kw) Power Factor (no unit) Real Power (KW) Reactive Power (kvar) Total Power (KVA)
I1, I2 Imax peak

Ih Kvar kVAr KVA kV KW PF P Q S
10

Vn Vrms Harmonic Voltage magnitude Root mean square (rms) value of voltage Rated maximum voltage in kilovolts Root mean square (rms) value of current Peak magnitude Capacitive Reactance (ohms) Capacitive reactance ( ) Inductive reactance ( ) Resistance ( ) Filter inductor - reactance ( ) Harmonic at which filter is tuned Power factor angle
VLL
I rms Vpk Xc XC XL R Xn n
Introduction
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INTRODUCTION
Since most loads in modern electrical distribution systems are inductive, there is an ongoing interest in improving power factor. The low power factor of inductive loads robs a system of capacity and can adversely affect voltage level. For this reason, power factor correction, through the application of capacitors, is widely practiced at all system voltages. 1.1 MOTIVATION Your utility bills keep going up, and the reliability and quality of your electricity keeps going down. Where will it end? No one can say. Can you demand that your utility to correct the problems on their end? Probably not. Most electricity providers are working hard to come up with both short and long-term solutions for over-taxed power grids and aging delivery systems.
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This may help to alleviate the problem of reliability on the utilitys part. But then, when you add to the mix the increasing consumption, the ever-growing number of electronic devices being used daily in business operations, and the outdated, overworked wiring systems, you can start to see that our electrical systems will continue to be pushed to the limit. Whether you are in a hospital, data center, office building, manufacturing plant, or machine shop, your equipments life expectancy is growing shorter with every power quality event that happens. In addition, if intense power events occur, they can trigger controls, machinery and systems to lock-up or shut down, causing lost work and down time, in addition to damage and the potential for catastrophic losses. Poor power quality can cause a deluge of real costs associated with constant maintenance, decreased product quality, increased scrap, and equipment repair and replacement. Looking into all these adverse consequences compelled us to move forward and try to face these tribulations at an open front. Our system would complement to the performance of the power systems and improve the power factor eliminating the losses and undesirable effects.
1.2 Goals and Objectives
Going on with our project we tried to target below mentioned points as our Guiding principles.
System Capacity :
With the improvement of system power factor, the more system capacity could be made available. With more system capacity, voltage will remain more stable as loads are turned on and off. Also more loads can be added to the system as needed.
System Losses :
With a higher Power Factor, less current flows through the system. There is less power lost to heating of cables, transformers, panels, etc. These devices will run cooler and last longer too. 13
Utility Charges :
Electric utilities must maintain a high Power Factor on their distribution system for efficiency. Industries are typically billed for a low Power Factor, which Power Factor correction will affect. We will try to maintain a 95% Power Factor to avoid this fine as most utilities that bill a Power Factor penalty could be avoided.
1.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM:
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AC POWER SOURCE
CAPACITOR BANK CAPACITOR SWITCHES
CONTROLLER VOLTAGE SENSE POWER MANAGEMENT IC CURRENT SENSE
LOAD
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Fundamental Concepts
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Fundamental Concepts
2.1 What is Power Factor?

Power Factor is a measure of how effectively a site is using its electricity. It is calculated as the ratio of kilowatts to kilovolt amperes (kW/kVA). Power factor compares the power available at the switchboard to the amount that is actually being used by the site. Generally a power factor between 0.9 and 1 is considered good. Power Factor (P.F.) is the ratio of Working Power to Apparent Power.
To understand power factor, we ll first start with the definition of some basic terms: KW is Working Power (also called Actual Power or Active Power or Real Power). It is the power that actually powers the equipment and performs useful work. KVAR is Reactive Power. It is the power that magnetic equipment (transformer, motor and relay)needs to produce the magnetizing flux. KVA is Apparent Power. It is the vectorial summation of KVAR and KW.
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2.2 What is Power Factor Correction?

Power Factor affects every operation with a 3-phase AC electrical supply to some degree or other. Quite simply, Power Factor is a measure of how efficiently electrical power is consumed. The ideal Power Factor is unity, or one. Anything less than one, (or 100% efficiency), means that extra power is required to achieve the actual task at hand. This extra power is known as Reactive Power, which unfortunately is necessary to provide a magnetizing effect required by motors and other inductive loads to perform their desired functions. However, Reactive Power can also be interpreted as wattless, magnetizing or wasted power and an extra burden on the electricity supply. Power Factor Correction is the term given to a technology that has been used since the turn of the 20th century to restore Power Factor to as close to unity as is economically viable. This is normally achieved by the addition of capacitors to the electrical network which provide or compensate for the Reactive Power demand of the inductive load, and thus reduce the burden on the supply.
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2.3 Power Factor Explained:
Diagram 1.1 shows the phasor relationship between active, reactive and apparent power: Inductive kVAr lags the kW by 90 Apparent power (kVA) is the phasor sum of kW + kVAr (lag) Power Factor is the cosine of angle theta.
Diagram 1.2 shows the same power relationship with the addition of a capacitive load: Capacitive kVAr leads the kW by 90 kVA is the phasor sum of kW + kVAr (lag) + kVAr (lead)
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Power Factor is improved as angle theta is reduced and cosine theta therefore tends toward 1.00 (or unity power factor).Both apparent power (kVA) and total reactive power (kVAr) from the supply are significantly reduced.
2.4 Cause of Low Power Factor:

Inductive loads such as transformers, electric motors, and highintensity discharge lighting are major power consumers in industrial complexes and can cause low power factor. Inductive loads basically work on the electromagnetic principals where current creates a magnetic field which in-turn drives motors, producing the desired work. The total or apparent power required by an inductive device is a composite of real power (measured in kilowatts, kW) and reactive power.
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NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION Here the reactive power refers to the non-working power caused by the magnetizing current, required to operate the device. (measured in kilovars, kVAR) With an increase in reactive power, apparent power (measured in kilovolt amps, kVAR) will also increase in your distribution system. This increase in reactive and apparent power causes the power factor to decrease.
2.5 Benefits of high Power Factor:

There are to distinct benefits, cost and efficiency. With a high power factor, your utility bill will be smaller. With a lower power factor higher electric utilitys generation and transmission is required to handle the reactive power component caused by inductive loads. With most utilities charging a penalty fee for power factors less than 0.95, increasing your power factor can avoid this additional fee. As for efficiency, electrical systems branch capacity increases with increasing power factor. An uncorrected power factor will cause power losses in your distribution system, which can cause voltage drops as power loss increases. Excessive voltage drops can cause overheating and premature failure of motors and other inductive equipment.
2.6 Methods of Power Factor Correction:

These are a few strategies for correcting a low power factor a) Minimize operation of idling or lightly loaded motors. b) Avoid operation of equipment above its rated voltage. c) Use of energy-efficient motors. d) Install capacitors in your AC circuit to decrease the magnitude of reactive power.
2.7 Why Improve Your Power Factor:

Some of the benefits of improving your power factor are as follows:
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NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION Your utility bill will be smaller. Low power factor requires an increase in the electric utilitys generation and transmission capacity to handle the reactive power component caused by inductive loads. Utilities usually charge a penalty fee to customers with power factors less than 0.95. You can avoid this additional fee by increasing your power factor. Your electrical systems branch capacity will increase. Uncorrected power factor will cause power losses in your distribution system. You may experience voltage drops as power losses increase. Excessive voltage drops can cause overheating and premature failure of motors and other inductive equipment.
2.8 Correcting Power Factor:

As shown in the diagram below, reactive power (measured in kVARs) is caused by the inductance always acting at a 90 angle to real power. Capacitors store kVARs and release energy opposing the reactive energy caused by the inductor. This implies that inductance and capacitance react 180 to each other. The presence of both in the same circuit results in the continuous alternating transfer of energy between the capacitor and the inductor, thereby reducing the current flow from the generator to the circuit. When the circuit is balanced, all the energy released by the inductor is absorbed by the capacitor.
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NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION In the diagram below, the power triangle shows an initial 0.70 power factor for a 100-kW (real power) inductive load. The reactive power required by the load is 100 kW. By installing a 67-kW capacitor, the apparent power is reduced from 142 to 105 kVA, resulting in a 26% reduction in current. Power factor is improved to 0.95. In the horse and railcar analogy, this is equivalent to decreasing the angle the horse is pulling on the railcar by leading the horse closer to the center of the railroad track.
Because the side pull is minimized, less total effort is required from the horse to do the same amount of work. Capacitor suppliers and engineering firms can provide the assistance you may need to determine the optimum power correction factor and to correctly locate and install capacitors in your electrical distribution system.
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WHY TO IMPROVE POWER FACTOR?
3
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Why to improve the power factor?
3.1 Reduction in the cost of electricity

Good management in the consumption of reactive energy brings economic advantages. These notes are based on an actual tariff structure commonly applied in Europe, designed to encourage consumers to minimize their consumption of reactive energy. The installation of power-factor correction capacitors on installations permits the Consumer to reduce his electricity bill by maintaining the level of reactive-power Consumption below a value contractually agreed with the power supply authority. In this particular tariff, reactive energy is billed according to the tan criterion.
The power supply authority delivers reactive energy for free: 1. If the reactive energy represents less than 40% of the active energy (tan < 0.4) for a maximum period of 16 hours each day (from 06-00 h to 22-00 h) during the 25
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION Most-heavily loaded period (often in winter) 2. Without limitation during light-load periods in winter, and in spring and summer. During the periods of limitation, reactive energy consumption exceeding 40% of the active energy (i.e. tan > 0.4) is billed monthly at the current rates. Thus, the quantity of reactive energy billed in these periods will be: kvarh (to be billed) = kWh (tan > 0.4) where: kWh is the active energy consumed during the periods of limitation kWh tan is the total reactive energy during a period of limitation 0.4 kWh is the amount of reactive energy delivered free during a period of limitation. Tan = 0.4 corresponds to a power factor of 0.93 so that, if steps are taken to ensure that during the limitation periods the power factor never falls below 0.93,the consumer will have nothing to pay for the reactive power consumed. Against the financial advantages of reduced billing, the consumer must balance the cost of purchasing, installing and maintaining the power factor improvement capacitors and controlling switchgear, automatic control equipment (where stepped levels of compensation are required) together with the additional kWh consumed by the dielectric losses of the capacitors, etc. It may be found that it is more economic to provide partial compensation only, and that paying for some of the reactive energy consumed is less expensive than providing 100% compensation. The question of power-factor correction is a matter of optimization, except in very simple cases.
3.2 Technical/economic optimization

A high power factor allows the optimization of the components of an installation. Overrating of certain equipment can be avoided, but to achieve the best results, the correction should be effected as close to the individual inductive items as possible. Reduction of cable size Figure 2.2 shows the required increase in the size of cables as the power factor is reduced from unity to 0.4, for the same active power transmitted.
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Fig. F 2.2: Multiplying factor for cable size as a function of cos
Reduction of losses (P, kW) in cables

Losses in cables are proportional to the current squared, and are measured by the kWh meter of the installation. Reduction of the total current in a conductor by 10% for example, will reduce the losses by almost 20%.
Reduction of voltage drop

Power factor correction capacitors reduce or even cancel completely the (inductive) reactive current in upstream conductors, thereby reducing or eliminating voltage drops.
Note: Over
compensation will produce a voltage rise at the capacitor level.
Increase in available power

By improving the power factor of a load supplied from a transformer, the current through the transformer will be reduced, thereby allowing more load to be added. In practice, it may be less expensive to improve the power factor (1), than to replace the transformer by a larger unit.
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How to improve the power factor?
4
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How to improve the power factor?
4.1 Theoretical principles

An inductive load having a low power factor requires the generators and transmission/distribution systems to pass reactive current (lagging the system voltage by 90 degrees) with associated power losses and exaggerated voltage drops.If a bank of shunt capacitors is added to the load, its (capacitive) reactive current will take the same path through the power system as that of the load reactive current. Since, this capacitive current Ic (which leads the system voltage by 90 degrees) is in direct phase opposition to the load reactive current (IL), the two components flowing through the same path will cancel each other, such that if the capacitor bank is sufficiently large and Ic = IL there will be no reactive current flow in the system upstream of the capacitors.
This is indicated in Figure F 2.3 (a) and (b) which show the flow of the reactive components of current only. In this figure: R represents the active-power elements of the load 29
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION L represents the (inductive) reactive-power elements of the load C represents the (capacitive) reactive-power elements of the power-factor correction equipment (i.e. capacitors).
Fig. F 2.3: Showing the essential features of power-factor Correction.
It will be seen from diagram (b) of Figure 2.3, that the capacitor bank C appears to be supplying all the reactive current of the load. For this reason, capacitors are sometimes referred to as generators of lagging vars. In diagram (c) of Figure 2.3, the active-power current component has been added, and shows that the (fully-compensated) load appears to the power system as having a power factor of 1. In general, it is not economical to fully compensate an installation. Figure 2.4 uses the power diagram to illustrate the principle of compensation by reducing a large reactive power Q to a smaller value Q by means of a bank of capacitors having a reactive power Qc.In doing so, the magnitude of the apparent power S is seen to reduce to S.
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Fig. 2.4: Diagram showing the principle of compensation: Qc = P (tan. - tan)
Example: A motor consumes 100 kW at a power factor of 0.75 (i.e. tan = 0.88). To improve the power factor to 0.93 (i.e. tan = 0.4), the reactive power of the capacitor bank must be: Qc = 100 (0.88 - 0.4) = 48 kvar The selected level of compensation and the calculation of rating for the capacitor bank depend on the particular installation. The factors requiring attention are explained in a general way in clause 5, and in clauses 6 and 7 for transformers and motors.
Note: Before starting a compensation project, a number of precautions should be observed. In particular, over sizing of motors should be avoided, as well as the no-load running of motors. In this latter condition, the reactive energy consumed by a motor results in a very low power factor (~0.17); this is because the kW taken by the motor (when it is unloaded) are very small.
4.2 By using what equipment?

Compensation at LV At low voltage, compensation is provided by: Fixed-value capacitor. Equipment providing automatic regulation, or banks which allow continuous adjustment according to requirements, as loading of the installation changes.
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NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION Note: When the installed reactive power of compensation exceeds 800 kvar, and the load is continuous and stable, it is often found to be economically advantageous to install capacitor banks at the medium voltage level.
Fixed capacitors (see Fig. 2.5)

This arrangement employs one or more capacitor(s) to form a constant level of compensation. Control may be: Manual: by circuit-breaker or load-break switch Semi-automatic: by contactor Direct connection to an appliance and switched with it These capacitors are applied: At the terminals of inductive devices (motors and transformers) At busbars supplying numerous small motors and inductive appliance for which individual compensation would be too costly In cases where the level of load is reasonably constant
Fig. 2.5: Example of fixed-value compensation capacitors
Automatic capacitor banks (see Fig. 2.6)

This kind of equipment provides automatic control of compensation, maintaining the power factor within close limits around a selected level. Such equipment is applied at points in an installation where the active-power and/or reactive-power variations are relatively large, for example: At the busbars of a general power distribution board. At the terminals of a heavily-loaded feeder cable. 32
Fig. 2.6 : Example of automatic-compensation-regulating equipment
The principles of, and reasons, for using automatic compensation:

A bank of capacitors is divided into a number of sections, each of which is controlled by a contactor. Closure of a contactor switches its section into parallel operation with other sections already in service. The size of the bank can therefore be increased or decreased in steps, by the closure and opening of the controlling contactors.A control relay monitors the power factor of the controlled circuit(s) and is arranged to close and open appropriate contactors to maintain a reasonably constant system power factor (within the tolerance imposed by the size of each step of compensation). The current transformer for the monitoring relay must evidently be placed on one phase of the incoming cable which supplies the circuit(s) being controlled, as shown in Figure 2.7. A Varset Fast capacitor bank is an automatic power factor correction equipment including static contactors (thyristors) instead of usual contactors. Static correction is particularly suitable for a certain number of installations using equipment with fast cycle and/or sensitive to transient surges. The advantages of static contactors are : Immediate response to all power factor fluctuation (response time 2 s or 40 ms according to regulator option) 33
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION Unlimited number of operations Elimination of transient phenomena on the network on capacitor switching Fully silent operation By closely matching compensation to that required by the load, the possibility of producing overvoltages at times of low load will be avoided, thereby preventing an overvoltage condition, and possible damage to appliances and equipment. Overvoltages due to excessive reactive compensation depend partly on the value of source impedance.
Fig. 2.7 : Example of automatic-compensation-regulating equipment
4.3 The choice between a fixed or automatically regulated bank of capacitors

Commonly-applied rules: Where the kvar rating of the capacitors is less than, or equal to 15% of the supply transformer rating, a fixed value of compensation is appropriate. Above the 15% level, it is advisable to install an automatically-controlled bank of capacitors. The location of low-voltage capacitors in an installation constitutes the mode of compensation, which may be global (one location for the entire installation), partial (section-by-section), local (at each individual device), or some combination of the latter two. In principle, the ideal compensation is applied at a point of consumption and at the level required at any instant. In practice, technical and economic factors govern the choice. 34
Where to install power factor correction capacitors?
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Where to install correction capacitors?
5.1 Global compensation (see Fig.2.8)

Principle The capacitor bank is connected to the busbars of the main LV distribution board for the installation, and remains in service during the period of normal load. Advantages The global type of compensation: Reduces the tariff penalties for excessive consumption of kvars Reduces the apparent power kVA demand, on which standing charges are usually based Relieves the supply transformer, which is then able to accept more load if necessary
Comments Reactive current still flows in all conductors of cables leaving (i.e. downstream of) the main LV distribution board. For the above reason, the sizing of these cables, and power losses in them, are not improved by the global mode of compensation.
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Fig. 2.8: Global compensation
5.2 Compensation by sector (see Fig. 2.9)

Principle Capacitor banks are connected to busbars of each local distribution board, as shown in Figure 2.9.A significant part of the installation benefits from this arrangement, notably the feeder cables from the main distribution board to each of the local distribution boards at which the compensation measures are applied. Advantages The compensation by sector: Reduces the tariff penalties for excessive consumption of kvars Reduces the apparent power kVA demand, on which standing charges are usually based Relieves the supply transformer, which is then able to accept more load if necessary The size of the cables supplying the local distribution boards may be reduced, or will have additional capacity for possible load increases Losses in the same cables will be reduced
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Comments Reactive current still flows in all cables downstream of the local distribution boards For the above reason, the sizing of these cables, and the power losses in them, are not improved by compensation by sector Where large changes in loads occur, there is always a risk of overcompensation and consequent overvoltage problems.
Fig. 2.9 : Compensation by sector
5.3 Individual compensation

Principle Capacitors are connected directly to the terminals of inductive circuit. Individual compensation should be considered when the power of the motor is significant with respect to the declared power requirement (kVA) of the installation. The kvar rating of the capacitor bank is in the order of 25% of the kW rating of the motor. Complementary compensation at the origin of the installation (transformer) may also be beneficial. Advantages Individual compensation: Reduces the tariff penalties for excessive consumption of kvars Reduces the apparent power kVA demand Reduces the size of all cables as well as the cable losses 38
5.4 Mathematical Calculations:
Power Factor =
Real Power (Consumed Power) (KW) Apparent Power (Supplied Power) (KVA)
Illustration through an example:

Here we have a system with certain load attached, an ammeter and a wattmeter attached.
Wattmeter reads true power; product of voltmeter and ammeter readings yields apparent power. First, we need to calculate the apparent power in kVA. We can do this by multiplying load voltage by load current:
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As we can see, 2.308 kVA is a much larger figure than 1.5 kW, which tells us that the power factor in this circuit is rather poor (substantially less than 1). Now, we figure the power factor of this load by dividing the true power by the apparent power:
Using this value for power factor, we can draw a power triangle, and from that determine the reactive power of this load:
Reactive power may be calculated from true power and apparent power.
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To determine the unknown (reactive power) triangle quantity, we use the Pythagorean Theorem backwards, given the length of the hypotenuse (apparent power) and the length of the adjacent side (true power):
If this load is an electric motor, or most any other industrial AC load, it will have a lagging (inductive) power factor, which means that we'll have to correct for it with a capacitor of appropriate size, wired in parallel. Now that we know the amount of reactive power (1.754 kVAR), we can calculate the size of capacitor needed to counteract its effects:
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Rounding this answer off to 80 F, we can place that size of capacitor in the circuit and calculate the results:
Parallel capacitor corrects lagging (inductive) load.
An 80 F capacitor will have a capacitive reactance of 33.157 , giving a current of 7.238 amps, and a corresponding reactive power of 1.737 kVAR (for the capacitor only). Since the capacitor's current is 180o out of phase from the the load's inductive contribution to current draw, the capacitor's reactive power will directly subtract from the load's reactive power, resulting in:
This correction, of course, will not change the amount of true power consumed by the load, but it will result in a substantial reduction of apparent power, and of the total current drawn from the 240 Volt source:
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Power triangle before and after capacitor correction.
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NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION The new apparent power can be found from the true and new reactive power values, using the standard form of the Pythagorean Theorem:
This gives a corrected power factor of (1.5kW / 1.5009 kVA), or 0.99994, and a new total current of (1.50009 kVA / 240 Volts), or 6.25 amps, a substantial improvement over the uncorrected value of 9.615 amperes. This lower total current will translate to less heat losses in the circuit wiring, meaning greater system efficiency (less power wasted).
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How to decide the optimum Level of compensation?
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How to decide the optimum level of compensation?
6.1 General method

Listing of reactive power demands at the design stage
This listing can be made in the same way (and at the same time) as that for the power loading described in chapter A. The levels of active and reactive power loading, at each level of the installation (generally at points of distribution and sub distribution of circuits) can then be determined.
Technical-economic optimization for an existing installation
The optimum rating of compensation capacitors for an existing installation can determined from the following principal considerations:
Electricity bills prior to the installation of capacitors Future electricity bills anticipated following the installation of capacitors Costs of: Purchase of capacitors and control equipment (contactors, relaying, cabinets, Installation and maintenance costs Cost of dielectric heating losses in the capacitors, versus reduced losses in transformer, etc., following the installation of capacitors.
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6.2 Simplified method

General principle An approximate calculation is generally adequate for most practical cases, and be based on the assumption of a power factor of 0.8 (lagging) before compensation. In order to improve the power factor to a value sufficient to avoid tariff penalties depends on local tariff structures, but is assumed here to be 0.93) and to reduce losses, volt-drops, etc. in the installation, reference can be made to Figure 2.10 page. From the figure, it can be seen that, to raise the power factor of the installation 0.8 to 0.93 will require 0.355 kvar per kW of load. The rating of a bank of capacitors at the busbars of the main distribution board of the installation would be Q (kvar) = 0.355 x P (kW). This simple approach allows a rapid determination of the compensation capacitors required, albeit in the global, partial or independent mode. Example It is required to improve the power factor of a 666 kVA installation from 0.75 to The active power demand is 666 x 0.75 = 500 kW. In Figure L15, the intersection of the row cos . = 0.75 (before correction) with the column cos . = 0.93 (after correction) indicates a value of 0.487 kvar of compensation per kW of load. For a load of 500 kW, therefore, 500 x 0.487 = 244 kvar of capacitive compensation is required. Note: This method is valid for any voltage level, i.e. is independent of voltage.
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48

Fig. 2.10 : kvar to be installed per kW of load, to improve the power factor of an installation
6.3 Method based on the avoidance of tariff penalties

The following method allows calculation of the rating of a proposed capacitor bank,based on billing details. The method determines the minimum compensation required to avoid these charges which are based on kvarh consumption. The procedure is as follows: Refer to the bills covering consumption for the 5 months of winter (in France these are November to March inclusive).
Note: in tropical climates the summer months may constitute the period of heaviest loading and highest peaks (owing to extensive air conditioning loads) so that a consequent variation of high-tariff periods is necessary in this case. The remainder of this example will assume winter conditions in France. Identify the line on the bills referring to reactive-energy consumed and kvarh to be charged. Choose the bill which shows the highest charge for kvarh (after checking that this was not due to some exceptional situation).
For example: 15,966 kvarh in January. Evaluate the total period of loaded operation of the installation for that month, for instance: 220 hours (22 days x 10 hours). The hours which must be counted are those occurring during the heaviest load and the highest peak loads occurring on the power system. These are given in the tariff documents, and are (commonly) during a 16hour period each day, either from 06.00 h to 22.00 h or from 07.00 h to 23.00 h according to the region. Outside these periods, no charge is made for kvarh consumption. The necessary value of compensation in kvar = kvarh billed/number of hours of operation = Qc.The rating of the installed capacitor bank is generally chosen to be slightly larger than that calculated.Certain manufacturers can provide slide rules especially designed to facilitate these kinds of calculation, according to particular tariffs. These devices and accompanying documentation advice on suitable equipment and control schemes,as well as drawing attention to constraints imposed by harmonic voltages on the power system. Such voltages require either over dimensioned
49
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION capacitors (in terms of heat-dissipation, voltage and current ratings) and/or harmonicsuppression inductors or filters.
6.4 Method based on reduction of declared maximum apparent power (kVA)

For consumers whose tariffs are based on a fixed charge per kVA declared, plus a charge per kWh consumed, it is evident that a reduction in declared kVA would be beneficial. The diagram of Figure 2.11 shows that as the power factor improves, the kVA value diminishes for a given value of kW (P). The improvement of the power factor is aimed at (apart from other advantages previously mentioned) reducing the declared level and never exceeding it, thereby avoiding the payment of an excessive price per kVA during the periods of excess, and/or tripping of the the main circuitbreaker. Figure L15 (previous page) indicates the value of kvar of compensation per kW of load, required to improve from one value of power factor to another.
Fig.2.11: Reduction of declared maximum kVA by powerfactor improvement
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Example: A supermarket has a declared load of 122 kVA at a power factor of 0.7 lagging, i.e.an active-power load of 85.4 kW. The particular contract for this consumer was based on stepped values of declared kVA (in steps of 6 kVA up to 108 kVA, and 12 kVA steps above that value, this is a common feature in many types of two-part tariff). In the case being considered, the consumer was billed on the basis of 132 kVA. Referring to Figure L15, it can be seen that a 60 kvar bank of capacitors will improve the power factor of the load from 0.7 to 0.95 (0.691 x 85.4 = 59 kvar in the figure). The declared value of kVA will then be
i.e. an improvement of 30%.
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Compensation at the terminals of a transformer
52
Compensation at the terminals of a transformer
7.1 Compensation to increase the available active power output

Steps similar to those taken to reduce the declared maximum kVA, i.e. improvement of the load power factor, will maximize the available transformer capacity, i.e. to supply more active power. Cases can arise where the replacement of a transformer by a larger unit, to overcome a load growth, may be avoided by this means. Figure 2.12 shows directly the power (kW) capability of fully-loaded transformers at different load power factors, from which the increase of active-power output can be obtained as the value of power factor increases.
Fig. 2.12 : Active-power capability of fully-loaded transformers, when supplying loads at different values of power factor
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Example: (see Fig. 2.13) An installation is supplied from a 630 kVA transformer loaded at 450 kW (P1) with a mean power factor of 0.8 lagging. The apparent power :
The corresponding reactive power:
The anticipated load increase P2 = 100 kW at a power factor of 0.7 lagging. The apparent power:
The corresponding reactive power:
What is the minimum value of capacitive kvar to be installed, in order to avoid a change of transformer? Total power now to be supplied: P = P1 + P2 = 550 kW
Fig. 2.13 : Compensation Q allows the installation-load extension S2 to be added, without the need to replace the existing transformer, the output of which is limited to S
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The maximum reactive power capability of the 630 kVA transformer when delivering 550 kW is:
Total reactive power required by the installation before compensation: Q1 + Q2 = 337 + 102 = 439 kvar So that the minimum size of capacitor bank to install: Qkvar = 439 - 307 = 132 kvar It should be noted that this calculation has not taken account of load peaks and their duration. The best possible improvement, i.e. correction which attains a power factor of 1 would permit a power reserve for the transformer of 630 - 550 = 80 kW. The capacitor bank would then have to be rated at 439 kvar.
7.2 Compensation of reactive energy absorbed by the transformer The nature of transformer inductive reactances All previous references have been to shunt connected devices such as those used in normal loads, and power factor-correcting capacitor banks etc. The reason for this is that shunt connected equipment requires (by far) the largest quantities of reactive energy in power systems; however, series-connected reactances, such as the inductive reactances of power lines and the leakage reactance of transformer windings, etc., also absorb reactive energy. Where metering is carried out at the MV side of a transformer, the reactive-energy losses in the transformer may (depending on the tariff) need to be compensated. As far as reactive-energy losses only are concerned. All reactance values are referred to the secondary side of the transformer, where the shunt branch represents the magnetizingcurrent path.
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The magnetizing current remains practically constant (at about 1.8% of full-load current) from no load to full load, in normal circumstances, i.e. with a constant primary voltage, so that a shunt capacitor of fixed value can be installed at the MV or LV side, to compensate for the reactive energy absorbed.
Reactive-power absorption in series-connected (leakage flux) reactance XL

A simple illustration of this phenomenon is given by the vector diagram of Figure 2.14. The reactive-current component through the load =
The reactive-current component from the source = It can be seen that :
Fig. 2.14 : Reactive power absorption by series inductance
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It can be shown that this kvar value is equal to I2XL (which is analogous to the I2R active power (kW) losses due to the series resistance of power lines, etc.).From the I2XL formula it is very simple to deduce the kvar absorbed at any load value for a given transformer, as follows: If per-unit values are used (instead of percentage values) direct multiplication of I and XL can be carried out. Example: A 630 kVA transformer with a short-circuit reactance voltage of 4% is fully loaded. What is its reactive-power (kvar) loss? 4% = 0.04 pu Ipu = 1 loss = I2XL = 12 x 0.04 = 0.04 pu kvar where 1 pu = 630 kVA The 3-phase kvar losses are 630 x 0.04 = 25.2 kvar (or, quite simply, 4% of 630 kVA). At half load i.e. I = 0.5 pu the losses will be (0.5)2 x 0.04 = 0.01 pu = 630 x 0.01 = 6.3 kvar and so on... This example and the vector diagram of Figure L20 show that: The power factor at the primary side of a loaded transformer is different (normally lower) than that at the secondary side (due to the absorption of vars) Full-load kvar losses due to leakage reactance are equal to the transformer percentage reactance (4% reactance means a kvar loss equal to 4% of the kVA rating of the transformer) kvar losses due to leakage reactance vary according to the current (or kVA loading) squared.
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To determine the total kvar losses of a transformer the constant magnetizingcurrent circuit losses (approx. 1.8% of the transformer kVA rating) must be added to the foregoing series losses. Figure 2.15 shows the no-load and full-load kvar losses for typical distribution transformers. In principle, series inductances can be compensated by fixed series capacitors (as is commonly the case for long MV transmission lines). This arrangement is operationally difficult, however, so that, at the voltage levels covered by this guide, shunt compensation is always applied.In the case of MV metering, it is sufficient to raise the power factor to a point where the transformer plus load reactive-power consumption is below the level at which a billing charge is made. This level depends on the tariff, but often corresponds to a tan . value of 0.31 (cos . of 0.955).
Fig. 2.15 : Reactive power consumption of distribution transformers with 20 kV primary windings
As a matter of interest, the kvar losses in a transformer can be completely compensated by adjusting the capacitor bank to give the load a (slightly) leading power factor. In such a case, all of the kvar of the transformer is being supplied from the capacitor bank, while the input to the MV side of the transformer is at unity power factor, as shown in Figure 2.16.
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Fig. 2.16 : Overcompensation of load to completely compensate transformer reactive-power losses
In practical terms, therefore, compensation for transformer-absorbed kvar is included in the capacitors primarily intended for powerfactor correction of the load, either globally, partially, or in the individual mode. Unlike most other kvar-absorbing items,the transformer absorption (i.e. the part due to the leakage reactance) changes significantly with variations of load level, so that, if individual compensation is applied to the transformer, then an average level of loading will have to be assumed.Fortunately, this kvar consumption generally forms only a relatively small part of the total reactive power of an installation, and so mismatching of compensation at times of load change is not likely to be a problem. Figure 2.25 indicates typical kvar loss values for the magnetizing circuit (no-load kvar columns), as well as for the total losses at full load, for a standard range of distribution transformers supplied at 20 kV (which include the losses due to the leakage reactance).
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Power factor correction of Induction motors
8
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8
motors
Power factor correction of induction
8.1 Connection of a capacitor bank and protection settings General precautions

Because of the small kW consumption, the power factor of a motor is very low at noload or on light load. The reactive current of the motor remains practically constant at all loads, so that a number of unloaded motors constitute a consumption of reactive power which is generally detrimental to an installation, for reasons explained in preceding sections.Two good general rules therefore are that unloaded motors should be switched off, and motors should not be oversized (since they will then be lightly loaded).
Connection
The bank of capacitors should be connected directly to the terminals of the motor.
Special motors
It is recommended that special motors (stepping, plugging, inching, reversing motors, etc.) should not be compensated.
Effect on protection settings
After applying compensation to a motor, the current to the motor-capacitor combination will be lower than before, assuming the same motor-driven load conditions. This is because a significant part of the reactive component of the motor 61
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION current is being supplied from the capacitor, as shown in Figure 2.17.Where the overcurrent protection devices of the motor are located upstream of the motor capacitor connection (and this will always be the case for terminal-connected capacitors), the overcurrent relay settings must be reduced in the ratio: cos before compensation / cos after compensation
Fig. 2.17 : Before compensation, the transformer supplies all the reactive power; after compensation, the capacitor supplies a large part of the reactive power
For motors compensated in accordance with the kvar values indicated in Figure 2.18 (maximum values recommended for avoidance of self-excitation of standard induction motors), the above-mentioned ratio will have a value similar to that indicated for the corresponding motor speed in Figure 2.19.
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Figure 2.18: Maximum kvar of power factor correction applicable to motor terminals without risk of self excitation
Fig. 2.19 : Reduction factor for overcurrent protection after compensation
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8.2 How self-excitation of an induction motor can be avoided

When a motor is driving a high-inertia load, the motor will continue to rotate (unless deliberately braked) after the motor supply has been switched off. The magnetic inertia of the rotor circuit means that an emf will be generated in the stator windings for a short period after switching off, and would normally reduce to zero after 1 or 2 cycles, in the case of an uncompensated motor.Compensation capacitors however, constitute a 3-phase wattless load for this decaying emf, which causes capacitive currents to flow through the stator windings.These stator currents will produce a rotating magnetic field in the rotor which acts exactly along the same axis and in the same direction as that of the decaying magnetic field.The rotor flux consequently increases; the stator currents increase; and the voltage at the terminals of the motor increases; sometimes to dangerously-high levels. This phenomenon is known as selfexcitation and is one reason why AC generators are not normally operated at leading power factors, i.e. there is a tendency to spontaneously (and uncontrollably) self excite.
Notes:
1. The characteristics of a motor being driven by the inertia of the load are not rigorously identical to its no-load characteristics. This assumption, however, is sufficiently accurate for practical purposes. 2. With the motor acting as a generator, the currents circulating are largely reactive,so that the braking (retarding) effect on the motor is mainly due only to the load represented by the cooling fan in the motor. 3. The (almost 90 lagging) current taken from the supply in normal circumstances the unloaded motor, and the (almost 90 leading) current supplied to the capacitors by the motor acting as a generator, both have the same phase relationship to the terminalvoltage. It is for this reason that the two characteristics may be superimposed on the graph.In order to avoid self-excitation as described above, the kvar rating of the capacitor bank must be limited to the following maximum value:
where Io = the no-load current of the motor and Un =phase-to-phase nominal voltage of the motor in kV. Figure 2.18 on previous page gives appropriate values of Qc corresponding to this criterion.
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Example
A 75 kW, 3,000 rpm, 400 V, 3-phase motor may have a capacitor bank no larger than 17 kvar according to Figure 2.18. The table values are, in general, too small to adequately compensate the motor to the level of cos . normally required. Additional compensation can, however, be applied to the system, for example an overall bank,installed for global compensation of a number of smaller appliances.
High-inertia motors and/or loads

In any installation where high-inertia motor driven loads exist, the circuitbreakers contactors controlling such motors should, in the event of total loss of power supply,be rapidly tripped.If this precaution is not taken, then self excitation to very high voltages is likely to occur, since all other banks of capacitors in the installation will effectively be in parallel with those of the high-inertia motors. The protection scheme for these motors should therefore include an overvoltage tripping relay, together with reverse-power checking contacts (the motor will feed power to the rest of the installation, until the stored inertial energy is dissipated).If the capacitor bank associated with a high inertia motor is larger than that recommended in Figure 2.18, then it should be separately controlled by a circuitbreaker or contactor, which trips simultaneously with the main motor-controlling circuit-breaker or contactor, as shown in Figure 2.20. Closing of the main contactor is commonly subject to the capacitor contactor being previously closed.
Fig. 2.20 : Connection of the capacitor bank to the motor
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Example of an installation Before and after Power-factor correction
9
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Example of an installation before and after Power-factor correction
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The effects of harmonics
10
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10
The effects of harmonics
10.1 Problems arising from power-system harmonics

Equipment which uses power electronics components (variable-speed motor controllers, thyristor-controlled rectifiers, etc.) have considerably increased the problems caused by harmonics in power supply systems. Harmonics have existed from the earliest days of the industry and were (and still are) caused by the non-linear magnetizing impedances of transformers, reactors,fluorescent lamp ballasts, etc.Harmonics on symmetrical 3-phase power systems are generally oddnumbered: 3rd,5th, 7th, 9th..., and the magnitude decreases as the order of the harmonic increases.A number of features may be used in various ways to reduce specific harmonics to negligible values - total elimination is not possible. In this section, practical means of reducing the influence of harmonics are recommended, with particular reference to capacitor banks.Capacitors are especially sensitive to harmonic components of the supply voltage due to the fact that capacitive reactance decreases as the frequency increases.In practice, this means that a relatively small percentage of harmonic voltage can cause a significant current to flow in the capacitor circuit.The presence of harmonic components causes the (normally sinusoidal) wave form of voltage or current to be distorted; the greater the harmonic content, the greater the degree of distortion.If the natural frequency of the capacitor bank/ power-system reactance combination is close to a particular harmonic, then partial resonance will occur, with amplified values of voltage and current at the harmonic frequency concerned. In this particular case, the elevated current will 69
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION cause overheating of the capacitor, with degradation of the dielectric, which may result in its eventual failure. Several solutions to these problems are available. This can be accomplished by Shunt connected harmonic filter and/or harmonic-suppression reactors or Active power filters or Hybrid filters
10.2 Possible solutions

Passive filter (see Fig. 2.21)
Countering the effects of harmonics

The presence of harmonics in the supply voltage results in abnormally high current levels through the capacitors. An allowance is made for this by designing for an r.m.s.value of current equal to 1.3 times the nominal rated current. All series elements,such as connections, fuses, switches, etc., associated with the capacitors are similarly oversized, between 1.3 to 1.5 times nominal rating.Harmonic distortion of the voltage wave frequently produces a peaky wave form,in which the peak value of the normal sinusoidal wave is increased. This possibility,together with other overvoltage conditions likely to occur when countering the effects of resonance, as described below, are taken into account by increasing the insulation level above that of standard capacitors. In many instances, these two counter measures are all that is necessary to achieve satisfactory operation.
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Fig. 2.21 : Operation principle of passive filter
Countering the effects of resonance

Capacitors are linear reactive devices, and consequently do not generate harmonics.The installation of capacitors in a power system (in which the impedances are predominantly inductive) can, however, result in total or partial resonance occurring at one of the harmonic frequencies.The harmonic order ho of the natural resonant frequency between the system inductance and the capacitor bank is given by
where Ssc = the level of system short-circuit kVA at the point of connection of the capacitor Q = capacitor bank rating in kvar; and ho = the harmonic order of the natural frequency fo;frequency fo i.e.
or
The closer a natural frequency approaches one of the harmonics present on the system, the greater will be the (undesirable) effect. In the above example, strong resonant conditions with the 3rd harmonic component of a distorted wave would certainly occur.In such cases, steps are taken to change the natural frequency to a value which will not resonate with any of the harmonics known to be present. This is achieved by the addition of a harmonic-suppression inductor connected in series with the capacitor bank.
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On 50 Hz systems, these reactors are often adjusted to bring the resonant frequency of the combination, i.e. the capacitor bank + reactors to 190 Hz. The reactors are adjusted to 228 Hz for a 60 Hz system. These frequencies correspond to a value for ho of 3.8 for a 50 Hz system, i.e. approximately mid-way between the 3rd and 5th harmonics. In this arrangement, the presence of the reactor increases the fundamental frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz) current by a small amount (7-8%) and therefore the voltage across the capacitor in the same proportion. This feature is taken into account, for example, by using capacitors which are designed for 440 V operation on 400 V systems.
Active filter:
Active filters are based on power electronic technology. They are generally installed in parallel with the non linear load. Active filters analyse the harmonics drawn by the load and then inject the same harmonic current to the load with the appropriate phase. As a result, the harmonic currents are totally neutralised at the point considered. This means they no longer flow upstream and are no longer supplied by the source. A main advantage of active conditioners is that they continue to guarantee efficient harmonic compensation even when changes are made to the installation. They are also exceptionally easy to use as they feature: Auto-configuration to harmonic loads whatever their order of magnitude Elimination of overload risks Compatibility with electrical generator sets Connection to any point of the electrical network Several conditioners can be used in the same installation to increase depollution efficiency (for example when a new machine is installed)
Active filters may provide also power factor correction.
Hybrid filter
This type of filter combines advantages of passive and active filter. One frequency can be filtered by passive filter and all the other frequencies are filtered by active filter. 72
10.3 Choosing the optimum solution

Figure 2.22 below shows the criteria that can be taken into account to select the most suitable technology depending on the application.
Fig. 2.22 : Selection of the most suitable technology depending on the application
For passive filter, a choice is made from the following parameters: Gh = the sum of the kVA ratings of all harmonic-generating devices (static converters, inverters, speed controllers, etc.) connected to the busbars from which the capacitor bank is supplied. If the ratings of some of these devices are quoted in kW only, assume an average power factor of 0.7 to obtain the kVA ratings. Ssc = the 3-phase short-circuit level in kVA at the terminals of the capacitor bank Sn = the sum of the kVA ratings of all transformers supplying (i.e. directly connected to) the system level of which the busbars form a part If a number of transformers are operating in parallel, the removal from service of one or more, will significantly change the values of Ssc and Sn. From these parameters,a choice of capacitor specification which will ensure an acceptable level of operation with the system harmonic voltages and currents, can be made, by reference to Figure 2.23.
General rule valid for any size of transformer
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Fig. 2.23: Choice of solutions for limiting harmonics associated with a LV capacitor bank supplied via transformer(s)
Implementation of capacitor Banks
11
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11
Implementation of capacitor banks
11.1 Capacitor elements Technology

The capacitors are dry-type units (i.e. are not impregnated by liquid dielectric) comprising metallized polypropylene self-healing film in the form of a two-film roll.They are protected by a high-quality system (overpressure disconnector used with a high breaking capacity fuse) which switches off the capacitor if an internal fault occurs. The protection scheme operates as follows: A short-circuit through the dielectric will blow the fuse Current levels greater than normal, but insufficient to blow the fuse sometimes occur, e.g. due to a microscopic flow in the dielectric film. Such faults often reseal due to local heating caused by the leakage current, i.e. the units are said to be selfhealing If the leakage current persists, the defect may develop into a short-circuit, and the fuse will blow Gas produced by vaporizing of the metallisation at the faulty location will gradually build up a pressure within the plastic container, and will eventually operate a pressure-sensitive device to short-circuit the unit, thereby causing the fuse to blow
Capacitors are made of insulating material providing them with double insulation and avoiding the need for a ground connection (see Fig. 2.24).
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Fig. 2.24: Capacitor element, (a) cross-section, (b) electrical characteristics
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11.2 Choice of protection, control devices and connecting cables

The choice of upstream cables and protection and control devices depends on the current loading. For capacitors, the current is a function of: The applied voltage and its harmonics The capacitance value The nominal current In of a 3-phase capacitor bank is equal to:
Q: kvar rating Un: Phase-to-phase voltage (kV)
The permitted range of applied voltage at fundamental frequency, plus harmonic components, together with manufacturing tolerances of actual capacitance (for a declared nominal value) can result in a 50% increase above the calculated value of current. Approximately 30% of this increase is due to the voltage increases, while a further 15% is due to the range of manufacturing tolerances, so that 1.3 x 1.15 = 1.5 All components carrying the capacitor current therefore, must be adequate to cover this worst-case condition, in an ambient temperature of 50 C maximum. In the case where temperatures higher than 50 C occur in enclosures, etc. derating of the components will be necessary.
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Protection
The size of the circuit-breaker can be chosen in order to allow the setting of long time delay at: 1.36 x In for Classic range(1) 1.50 x In for Comfort range(1) 1.12 x In for Harmony range(1) (tuned at 2.7 f)(2) 1.19 x In for Harmony range(1) (tuned at 3.8 f) 1.31 x In for Harmony range(1) (tuned at 4.3 f)
Short time delay setting (short-circuit protection) must be insensitive to inrush current. The setting will be 10 x In for Classic, Comfort and Harmony range.
Example 1
50 kvar 400V 50 Hz Classic range
Long time delay setting: 1.36 x 72 = 98 A Short time delay setting: 10 x In = 720 A
Example 2
50 kvar 400V 50 Hz Harmony range (tuned at 4.3 f) In = 72 A Long time delay setting: 1.31 x 72 = 94 A Short time delay setting: 10 x In = 720 A
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Upstream cables
Figure 2.24 next page gives the minimum cross section area of the upstream cable for Rectiphase capacitors.
Cables for control

The minimum cross section area of these cables will be 1.5 mm2 for 230 V.For the secondary side of the transformer, the recommended cross section area is u 2.5 mm.
Fig 2.24: Cross-section of cables connecting medium and high power capacitor banks(1)
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Voltage transients
High-frequency voltage and current transients occur when switching a capacitor bank into service. The maximum voltage peak does not exceed (in the absence of harmonics) twice the peak value of the rated voltage when switching uncharged capacitors. In the case of a capacitor being already charged at the instant of switch closure, however, the voltage transient can reach a maximum value approaching 3 times the normal rated peak value. This maximum condition occurs only if: and The existing voltage at the capacitor is equal to the peak value of rated voltage, The switch contacts close at the instant of peak supply voltage, and The polarity of the power-supply voltage is opposite to that of the charged capacitor
In such a situation, the current transient will be at its maximum possible value, viz: Twice that of its maximum when closing on to an initially uncharged capacitor, as previously noted. For any other values of voltage and polarity on the pre-charged capacitor, the transient peaks of voltage and current will be less than those mentioned above. In the particular case of peak rated voltage on the capacitor having the same polarity as that of the supply voltage, and closing the switch at the instant of supply-voltage peak, there would be no voltage or current transients. Where automatic switching of stepped banks of capacitors is considered, therefore, care must be taken to ensure that a section of capacitors about to be energized is fully discharged. The discharge delay time may be shortened, if necessary, by using discharge resistors of a lower resistance value.
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Conclusion and Future Recommendations
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12
Conclusion and Future Recommendations
12.1 SUMMARY OF WORK
Understanding of state-of-the-art power factor improvement equipment, namely power capacitors, is a prerequisite to assuring economical operation of electrical power systems. This report provided a thorough review of application of power capacitors and capacitor banks. It covered fundamentals and theory regarding power capacitors and power factor correction, methods of calculation, specifying, controlling, protecting, installing, operating and maintaining power capacitors and capacitor banks. It includes detailed analysis of the capacitor application in electrical motor circuits and distribution systems. This report brings you an up to date on the application of capacitors and capacitor banks, answers questions, and gives you hands-on experience in assessing and solving typical problems. After this review, you will be able to analyze the power distribution system in order to determine the need for improvement of power factor. You will be able to calculate energy cost savings associated with the installation of capacitor bank. You will gain the practical knowledge to be able to specify the size and configuration of capacitor bank and associated auxiliary equipment to suit your specific needs.
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12.2 FUTURE WORK:
[1]. We have implemented the improvement using capacitor banks. It can be performed with PF-Controllers. [2].GUI interface could be established using MATLAB. [3].Pre-defined power factors could be fed into the system and improved accordingly. [4].Wireless connectivity can be done.
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APPENDIX A
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12 34 56 7 981 0 111 231 14 11 65
12 34 56 7 981 0 111123 14 11 65
9 C Q 1 R D 21 1 6 2 N 3 9 0 6 C D I O U D 9 E R o E V h L C m A C
U C 2 3 1 CC 3 1 9 U E X X R 1 9 8 1 2 E 3 A
8 C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 U C 2 V / PV P 1 9 X 1 P P P 1 8 X 2 P P P 9 R E S P P 1 2 T P0 1 I 3N T P1 1 I 4N 1 T 5 0 / PP T 1 / PP P 1 2 P 1 . P0 3 P 1 . 1 4 P 1 .R 2 5 P 1 .W 3 6 P 1 . P4 7 P 1 . A5 8 P 1 T. 6 X P 1 R. 7 3 E 1 A 8 9 C 5 U 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 8 C 0P 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 . . . . . . . . C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 23 33 44 55 6 7 / P / P 4 1 R 2 J 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 C 1 1 0 k 1 0 0 1 1 3 3 K 6 8 1 9 1 1
1 2 1 I 3N 1 I 4N 1 T 5 0 T 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 P P P P P P P P 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
V 3 C 9 /PV 3 0P 8 . P 30 7. P 30 6. P 30 5. P 30 4. P 30 3. P 30 2. P 0 . S 2E 1 T P 22 2. P 22 3. T P 0 2 2/ 4 P . T P 1 2 2/ 5 P . / P 2 32 6 . / P 2 32 7 . P 22 8. . P0 2 . . 1 1 7 . R 2 1D 6 / .W 3 2 R 9 . P 4 3S 0 E . A 5 1L 1E .T 6 X 1 D 0 R. 7 X D C 5 1
C C
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P 3 . 7 / P 3 . 6 N / P / P 3 . 1 / P 3 . 0
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3 . 7 3 . 6
0 1 2 O N 1 2 1 R 2 1 0 k 1 0 0 1
K 4 3 1 6 8 1 9
/ P / P 3 . 1 / P 3 . 0
C C
6 - B Y P A S S
Q 1 R D 21 1 6 2 N 3 9 0 6 D I O U D 9 E R o E V h L C m A C Y 1 6 D I P 1
U V V R C
6 C R E 2 S C
GG NN DD
3 9 / PV 30P 8. 0 P 30 7. 1 P 30 6. 2 P 30 5. 3 P 30 4. 4 1 8 X 2 P 30 3. 5 C P 30 2. 6 U 4 P 0 . 7 9 R E S 2E 1 T V C C P 22 2. 0 P 22 3. 1 1 2 T P 0 2 2 / P4 . 2 3 . 1 I 3N T P 1 2 2 / P5 . 3 3 . 1 I 4N U 1 1 T 5 0 / P P 23 2 6. . 4 4 T 1 / P P 23 2 7. . 5 5 A D C 0 8 P 0 24 . 6 6 1 8 1 2 8 7 + I N D 1 B 7 0 2 P 1 . P0 2 . 7 - I N D B 1 P 1 . 1 I S T O D R 1 B 6 2V 3 PA 1R . R 2 1 D 7 / P 3 9 1 5 4 1 6 V 9 R D 1E B 4 F 3 / 5 P 2 1 .W 3 2 R 9 / P 1 L D K 1 B 3R 4 6 P 1 . P 4 3 S 0 E N 1 4 C C L D K 1 B 2I N 5 7 P 1 . A 5 1 L 1 E / P D 1 B 1 6 8 P 1 .T 6 X 1 D 0 / P 1 SD B 7 P 1 R. 7 X D / P 2 C D 5 3 R 8 9 C 5 1 W IR N T R E X A C 2 1 9 1 20 V C C /V R E F 81 0
U 18 0 5 1 1 1 12 13 I N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 C 0 8 0 4 K R R / 2 R 2 V R R U EV 1 SC 6 IC S T O R 1 C V U C 1 R 1 k + R 1 V U C 1 R 1 k + R L M 1 k R 7 4 1 U 1 6U - V 1 C 9 C D Z 2 E N E R 4 . 7 V 7 C 0 0 k L M 1 R k 7 4 1 U 1 6 7 C V 0 A 0 k R 1 0 k 1 0 0 1 1 3 E 2 S I S T O R V A R 1 3 4 6 8 1 9 1 C C 7 - B Y P A S S 1
D D D D 1 D 1 D 1 D D 3 3
A D 3 WT 2 R R R 1 D B C 7 S B 46 BC 15 L 9 K B C 94 L K V B R3 E B 72 B - 6I1 N B + 0I N
GG NN DD
C I N R
CF
1 Q 1 R D 21 1 6 2 N 3 9 0 6 D I O U D 9 E R o E V h L C m A C Y 1 6 D I P
. 7 . 6
. 1 3 U. 0 4 V C
k V U C 1 4 C U 1 C 9 C
R V U C 1 C 3 U U L 1 2 C 1 1 7 A 4 1 7 V 0 Bu 4 9 C 5 R D 1 D E 34 1 0 U L 1 2 M 143 1 1 2 A V 7 R4 1 6 R E S D I S T DO R R 8 IR O 8 DV EA R D Z E 2 N E R 4 . 7 V
20
V C C /V R E F
- V
2 1 1 2 1 A C 4 2 T 5 6 8 4 0 V D D 9 I O D D D 1 I EU O V Y 1 1 C 1D 8 E C - V C C 1 D D 7 I O D D D 1 I EO 0
11
5 8 R I I ON 6 U T Bf U U F F I N O A L B V 1 0 0 R 5
2 1
U - T k 34 6 0 k
11 43 + -
4 3 + V S - V S D 5 3 6 A
V R C C 9 1 0 . 1 u
R 3
5 A
U - V
1 C
5 C
R 4 5 3 0 6 k 5 f / 6 0 V
h m
J R 9 1 2
APPENDIX B
86
Parts List:
One AD536A Two LM7804 6 Vero Boards 6 OP-Amps Four 8.2k resistors Five 10uF capacitors Eight 33pF csapacitors Power supply One fourteen pin holder Three 895C1 microntrollers Three oscillator of 11.0592 MHz Three 895C1 microntrollers holders AC-Capacitors 4-Relays PNP Transistors Diodes Two Lcds
APPENDIX C
87
CODES:
MICROCONTROLLERS
# include <iostream.h> #include <reg51.h> #include <math.h> void main (void) { P0 = 0x FF; //make P0 an output port P1 = 0x FF; //make P1 an input port P2 = 0x FF; //make P2 an input port
unsigned char GetInput(void); unsigned char GetInput1(void);
unsigned char (cur,vol,AP)=0; while (1) { unsigned char GetInput() { unsigned char Input; wr = 0; wr = 1; while(intr); rd = 0; Input = P2; cur= (float)Input / 1.0; return(Input); //scaled to 0 to 100 // for ever loop
88
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION }//end Geting Current
unsigned char GetInput1() { unsigned char Input1; wr = 0; wr = 1; while(intr); rd = 0; Input = P1; vol= (float)Input1 / 1.0; //scaled to 0 to 100 return(Input1); }//end Geting Voltage AP P0 } #include <At89x51.h> #include <reg51.h> #include <math.h> sbit rd = P3^3; sbit wr = P3^4; sbit intr = P3^2; sbit Led = P2^4;//Active Low sbit Led1 sbit Led2 sbit Led3 sbit Led4 = P3^0;//10 = P3^1;//11 = P3^5;//15 = P3^6;//16 = (Input*Input1); = AP;
sbit Btn = P2^5;
//Active Low 89
extern void wait_lcd(void); extern void clr_lcd(void); extern void init_lcd(void); extern void cur_pos(unsigned char); extern void wrt_char(unsigned char); extern void Send2LCD(unsigned char *, unsigned char); void Display(unsigned char, unsigned char); void BlinkLed(unsigned char); void start(void); unsigned char GetInput(void); unsigned char GetInput1(void); unsigned char GetInput2(void); unsigned char GetInput3(void);
/////////////////////////////// Main Function ////////////////////////// void main() { P0 = 0x FF; //make P0 an input port P1 = 0x FF; //make P1 an input port P2 = 0x FF; //make P2 an output port
init_lcd(); clr_lcd(); start(); unsigned char (count,AP,theta,PF,RP,RQP,R,C,load)=0; unsigned char power,value,value1; unsigned char cap;
90
while (1) {
// for ever loop
unsigned char GetInput() { unsigned char Input; wr = 0; wr = 1; while(intr); rd = 0; Input = P0; AP= (float)Input / 1.0; return(Input); }//end Geting AP //scaled to 0 to 100
unsigned char GetInput1() { unsigned char Input1; wr = 0; wr = 1; while(intr); rd = 0; Input1 = P1; Input1 = (float)Input1 / 1.0; //scaled to 0 to 100 return(Input1); }//end Geting count
unsigned char GetInput2() { unsigned char Input2; 91
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION wr = 0; wr = 1; while(intr); rd = 0; Input2 = P0; AP= (float)Input2 / 1.0; load =AP/220; load= load*35; Input2=load; return(Input2); }//end Geting load //scaled to 0 to 100
unsigned char GetInput3() { unsigned char Input3; unsigned char L1; wr = 0; wr = 1; while(intr); rd = 0; Input3 = P0; AP= (float)Input3 / 1.0; load =AP/220; L1=(AP /load) +5 ; Input3=L1; return(Input3); }//end Geting value of voltage //scaled to 0 to 100
theta = (count*0.18); PF ` Display ( power , PF ) Display1 ( 0 , Input2 ) = Cos(theta);
//calculating value of phase angle from fpga counting
92
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION RP = (PF*AP); RQP = sqrt((AP*AP)-(RP*RP)); R = ((vol*vol)/RQP); C = (1/(314.16*R)); cap = C while(1) { Send2LCD(" P F C S if(!Btn) { BlinkLed(power); while(!Btn); }
", Input3);
if( cap<= 0.00001) than 1 uf { power = 0; Led1 = 1; Led2 = 1; Led3 = 1; Led4 = 1; } else if(cap > 0.000001 && cap <= 0.000010) less than 10 uf & greater than 1uf { power = 1; Led1 = 0; Led2 = 1; Led3 = 1; Led4 = 1; } else if(cap > 0.000010 && cap <= 0.000025) capacitance less than 25 uf & greater than 10uf { power = 2; Led1 = 1; Led2 = 0; Led3 = 1; 93
//for capacitance less
//for capacitance
//for
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION Led4 = 1; } else if(cap > 0.000025 && cap <= 0.000045) capacitance less than 45 uf & greater than 25uf { power = 3; Led1 = 1; Led2 = 0; Led3 = 0; Led4 = 1; } else if(cap >`0.000045 && cap <= 0.000055) capacitance less than 55 uf & greater than 45uf { power = 4; Led1 = 1; Led2 = 1; Led3 = 1; Led4 = 0; } else if(cap > 0.000055 && cap <= 0.000065) capacitance less than 65 uf & greater than 55uf { power = 5; Led1 = 0; Led2 = 1; Led3 = 1; Led4 = 0; } else if(cap > 0.000065 && cap <= 0.000075 ) capacitance less than 75 uf & greater than 65uf { power = 6; Led1 = 1; Led2 = 0; Led3 = 1; Led4 = 0; } else if(cap > 0.000075 && cap <= 0.000085) capacitance less than 85 uf & greater than 75uf { 94 //for
//for
//for
//for
//for
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION power= 7; Led1 = 0; Led2 = 0; Led3 = 1; Led4 =`0; } else if(cap > 0.000085 && cap <= 0.000095) capacitance less than 95 uf & greater than 85uf { power = 8; Led1 = 1; Led2 = 0; Led3 = 0; Led4 =`0; } else if(cap > 0.000095 && cap <= 0.000105) capacitance less than 105 uf & greater than 95uf { power = 9; Led1 = 0; Led2 = 0; Led3 = 0; Led4 =`0; } }//end while }//end main ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void Display(unsigned char power, unsigned char cap) { cur_pos(66); wrt_char((PF % 10) + 48); Value /= 10; cur_pos(65); wrt_char((PF % 10) + 48); Value /= 10; cur_pos(64); wrt_char((PF % 10) + 48); Send2LCD(powers[power], 73); } /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 95 //for
//for
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION void Display1(unsigned char value, unsigned char value1) { cur_pos(86); wrt_char(Input2 % 10) + 48); Value /= 10; cur_pos(85); wrt_char((Input2 % 10) + 48); Value /= 10; cur_pos(84); wrt_char((Input2 % 10) + 48); Send2LCD(0, 93); }//
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void BlinkLed(unsigned char Repeat) { unsigned char i = 0; do { Led = 0; Delay(); Led = 1; Delay(); }while(i++ < Repeat); } /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void start() { Send2LCD(" P ", 0);Delay(); // Power Factor Correction System Send2LCD(" Po ", 0); Delay(); Send2LCD(" Pow ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" Powe ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" Power ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" Power ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" Power F ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" Power Fa ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" Power Fac ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" Power Fact ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" Power Facto ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" Power Factor ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" Power Factor ", 0);Delay(); 96
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION Send2LCD(" Power Factor C ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" Power Factor Co ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("Power Factor Cor ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("ower Factor Corr ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("wer Factor Corre ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("er Factor Correc ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("r Factor Correct ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" Factor Correcti ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("Factor Correctio ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("actor Correction ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("ctor Correction ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("tor Correction S ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("or Correction Sy ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("r Correction Sys ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" Correction Syst ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("Correction Syste ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("orrection System ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("rrection System ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("rection System ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("ection System ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("ction System ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("tion System ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("ion System ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("on System ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("n System ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" System ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("System ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("ystem ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("stem ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("tem ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("em ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD("m ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" ", 0);Delay(); Send2LCD(" P F C S ", 0);Delay(); } //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// code unsigned char power[10][8] = { "pf= "pf= "pf= "pf= "pf= "pf= "pf= 97 ",//0 ",//1 ",//2 ",//3 ",//4 ",//5 ",//6
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION "pf= ",//7 "pf= ",//8 "pf= ",//9 }; //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void Delay() { unsigned int i; for(i = 0; i < 10000;) { i++; } } //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// #include<At89x52.h> sbit EN = P2^3; sbit RW = P2^2; sbit RS = P2^1; //Pin 6 //pin 5 //pin 4
void wait_lcd() { int set, cnt; set = 1; cnt = 0; EN = 1; RS = 0; RW = 1; P0 = 255; while(set) { cnt++; if(P0_7 == 0) { set = 0; cnt = 0; }//end if else if(cnt == 255) P0_7 = 0; }//end while EN = 0; RW = 0; }//end wait lcd
98
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION void clr_lcd() { EN = 1; RS = 0; P0 = 1; EN = 0; wait_lcd(); }//end clear lcd void init_lcd() { //entry mode set EN = 1; RS = 0; P0 = 0x06; EN = 0; wait_lcd(); //Display On/Off EN = 1; RS = 0; P0 = 0x0f; EN = 0; wait_lcd(); //Function Set EN = 1; RS = 0; P0 = 0x38; EN = 0; wait_lcd(); } void cur_pos(unsigned char cp) { EN = 1; RS = 0; P0 = 128 + cp; EN = 0; wait_lcd(); }//end cursor position
99
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION void wrt_char(unsigned char ch) { EN = 1; RW = 0; RS = 1; P0 = ch; EN = 0; wait_lcd(); } void Send2LCD(unsigned char *Msg, unsigned char cp) { unsigned char index; cur_pos(cp); for(index = 0; *(Msg + index) != '\0'; index++) { wrt_char(*(Msg + index)); cp++; if(cp == 16) { cp = 64; cur_pos(cp); } } }//end send 2 lcd
APPENDIX D
100
FPGA CODING: Clock Division:

module clk_div_10( clk_in, reset, clk_div_10 ); input input output clk_in; reset; clk_div_10;
reg clk_div_10; reg [2:0] count; always@ (posedge clk_in or negedge reset) begin if (!reset) begin clk_div_10 <= 1'b0; count <= 3'b000; end else begin count <= count + 1; if(count==3'b100) begin count <= 3'b000; clk_div_10 <= ~clk_div_10; end end end endmodule
module clk_div_2( clk_in, reset, 101
clk_div_2 ); input input output reg clk_in; reset; clk_div_2; clk_div_2;
always @ (posedge clk_in or negedge reset) begin if (!reset)
clk_div_2<= 1'b0; else clk_div_2<= ~clk_div_2; end endmodule module testrun(clk,vol,cur,rst,out); input clk; input vol; input cur; input rst; output [8:0]out; reg [8:0] count; reg [8:0] out; reg rflag; always@ (posedge clk or negedge rst ) begin if (!rst) begin count<=0; rflag <= 0; out<=0; 102
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION end else if (vol & ~cur) begin count <= count + 1; rflag<=1; end else if (cur & vol & rflag) begin out<=count; rflag<=0; count<=0; end end endmodule module top_level(clk_in,reset,vol,cur,out); input clk_in; input reset; input vol; input cur; output [8:0] out; wire clk_10MHz, clk_1MHz, clk_100kHz;
clk_div_2 c1(clk_in,reset,clk_10MHz); clk_div_10 c2(clk_10MHz,reset,clk_1MHz); clk_div_10 c3(clk_1MHz,reset,clk_100kHz); testrun t1(clk_100kHz,vol,cur,reset,out);
endmodule
RTL SCHEMATICS OF FPGA:
103
104
105
106
107
APPENDIX E
DATASHEET FOR ATMEL 89C51 108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
References
General Power Factor Correction
[A1] W. F. Ray and R. M. Davis, The definition and importance of power factor for power electronic converters, Proc. European conference on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE), 1989, pp. 799-805. [A2] M. Grotzbach, Line side behavior of uncontrolled rectifier bridges with capacitive DC smoothing, Proc. European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE), 1989, pp. 761-764. [A3] P. Mehta, M. Darwish and T. Thomson, A novel technique for reactive power compensation, Proc. European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE), 1989, pp. 1169-1174. [A4] G. Choe and M. Park, Analysis and control of active power filter with optimized injection, IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 1986, pp. 401-409. [A5] Y. W. Lo and R. J. King, High performance ripple feedback for the buck unity power factor rectifier, IECON93, pp. 948-953. [A6] H. Endo, T. Yamashita and T. Sugiura, A high power factor buck converter, IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 1992, pp. 1071-1076. [A7] K. K. Sen, A. E. Emanuel, Unity power factor single phase power conditioning, IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 1987, pp. 516-524. [A8] M. Morimoto, K. Oshitani, K. Sumito, S. Sato, M. Ishida and S. Okuma, New single phase unity power factor PWM converter-inverter system, IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 1989, pp. 585-589. [A9] M. Kazerani, G. Joos, and P. D. Ziogas, A Novel active current wave shaping 127
NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION technique for solid state input power factor conditioners, IECON89, pp. 99-105. [A10] K. H. Liu and Y. L. Lin, Current waveform distortion in power factor correction circuits employing discontinuous mode boost converter, IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 1989, pp. 825-829. [A11] Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Part 3: Limits Section 2: Limits for harmonic current emissions (equipment input current < 16 A per phase), IEC 1000 3 2 Document, First Edition, 1995 [A12] K. H. Liu and Y. L. Lin, Current waveform distortion in power factor correction circuits employing discontinuous mode boost converter, IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 1989, pp. 825-829 [A13] C. Silva, Power factor correction with the UC3854, Application Notes, Unitrode Integrated Circuits. [A14] L. H. Dixon, Jr., High power factor pre-regulator for off-line power supplies, Unitrode Switching Regulator Power supply Design Seminar Manual, Paper I2, SEM-700, 1990. [A15] E. X. Yang, G. C. Hua, Y. Jiang, and Fred C. Lee, Isolated boost circuit for power factor correction, IEEE Applied power Electronics conference, 1993, pp. 196-203 [A16] C. Zhou and M. M. Jovanovic, Design Trade-off in continuous current mode controlled boost power factor correction circuits, Virginia Power Electronics Seminar, 1992, pp.57-68
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NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

A Final Year Project Report On

Non-linear load power factor correction

BUITEMS DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

NON-LINERAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION Bachelors of Electronics Engineering

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

9.0 Example of an installation before and after powerfactor Correction...67

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Fig. 16 Fig. 17 Fig. 18 57 Fig. 19 Fig. 20 59 Fig. 21 65 Fig. 22 Fig. 23

Formula Symbols Used

I1, I2 Imax peak

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

1.2 Goals and Objectives

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

1.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

CAPACITOR BANK CAPACITOR SWITCHES

CONTROLLER VOLTAGE SENSE POWER MANAGEMENT IC CURRENT SENSE

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

2.1 What is Power Factor?

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

2.2 What is Power Factor Correction?

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

2.3 Power Factor Explained:

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

2.4 Cause of Low Power Factor:

2.5 Benefits of high Power Factor:

2.6 Methods of Power Factor Correction:

2.7 Why Improve Your Power Factor:

2.8 Correcting Power Factor:

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

WHY TO IMPROVE POWER FACTOR?

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Why to improve the power factor?

3.1 Reduction in the cost of electricity

3.2 Technical/economic optimization

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Reduction of losses (P, kW) in cables

Reduction of voltage drop

compensation will produce a voltage rise at the capacitor level.

Increase in available power

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

How to improve the power factor?

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

How to improve the power factor?

4.1 Theoretical principles

Fig. F 2.3: Showing the essential features of power-factor Correction.

NON-LINEAR LOAD POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Fig. 2.4: Diagram showing the principle of compensation: Qc = P (tan. - tan)

4.2 By using what equipment?

Fixed capacitors (see Fig. 2.5)