Cassio

AQA English Literature A-level
Othello: Character Profiles

Cassio
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CASSIO
CHIVALRY AIN’T DEAD
INTRODUCTION
Cassio is a well-educated man from Florence who has recently been appointed Othello’s
second in command, his lieutenant. With his charm, charisma, upbringing, and handsome
looks, he is your typical ladies’ man, and it’s clear he views himself as such. With the title of
lieutenant under his belt, he is confident and complacent, but still a loyal and devoted
follower of Othello.
Iago resents him for his promotion, believing he should have been chosen over the
inexperienced Cassio, and for his suave, respectable persona. This makes Cassio one of the
many targets of Iago’s vendetta. He gets Cassio fired by getting him into a drunken brawl and
uses his chivalrous behaviour against him by implying he has slept with Othello’s wife,
Desdemona. Cassio is distraught but doesn’t speak up for himself, instead asking Desdemona
to plead his case. This only bolsters Iago’s case against him. While this is happening, we also
learn that Cassio is seeing one of Cyprus’ courtesans, Bianca; she loves him, but he doesn’t
love her, and mocks her behind her back. Despite Cassio’s many failings, he emerges from the
chaos of the play in a better position than when he started: when Iago and Othello’s actions
are revealed, Cassio is put in charge of Cyprus.
While Cassio’s main purpose might be to become one of Iago’s pawns, Shakespeare uses the
character to complement the many themes he explores in the text. Cassio is a foil for both
Othello and Iago: he is white, upper class, and well-spoken, all things that either or both men
envy. As such, he symbolises the authority of rich, white men in society and the anxieties felt
by outsiders. His existence is a catalyst for Iago’s behaviour and an aggravator for Othello’s
jealous insecurity. Simultaneously, Shakespeare exposes the facades Cassio uses to protect
himself, depicting him as someone who isn’t as honourable and brave as he wants others to
believe. He may be a victim of Iago’s lies and manipulations but his decision to rely on
Desdemona for help, taking advantage of her generosity, possibly makes the consequences
even worse.
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
● The Reputable Scholar: Shakespeare depicts Cassio as an intelligent, well-educated

man. When we first hear of Cassio, we are told he is “a great arithmetician, / [...] a
Florentine, / [...] That never set a squadron in the field,” (Act 1 Scene 1). This
establishes him as a man of logic and strategy rather than one of action, with Iago
implying that he isn’t suited to warfare because he is inexperienced “in the field”. In
Shakespeare’s time, Florence was associated with intellect, progress, and the
Renaissance, so introducing Cassio as a “Florentine” goes a long way to telling his
audience what to think of him. Cassio uses his education as a crutch, giving himself a
sense of superiority: for instance, he says of Iago, “You may relish him more in the
soldier than in the scholar,” (Act 2 Scene 1).
● The Push-Over: For all Cassio’s alleged intelligence, he ends up being easily
manipulated by Iago. Despite saying he won’t drink any more because he has “very
poor and unhappy brains for drinking,” mere minutes later he returns on stage and
says, “They have given me a rouse [drink] already,” (Act 2 Scene 3). He gives into
temptation and gets drunk; similarly, he is easily provoked into a fight with Roderigo,
quickly losing his temper: “Let me go, sir; or I’ll knock you o’er the mazzard,” (Act 2
Scene 3). Shakespeare shows that Cassio is not as logical and controlled as he thinks
he is.
● The Honourable Gentleman: Shakespeare portrays Cassio as someone who is

motivated by a deep-rooted sense of honour. He attributes his “manners” and
“courtesy” to his “breeding” (Act 2 Scene 1), suggesting he views himself as a
respectable man of the upper classes. He is chivalrous to women, greeting Desdemona
with “Hail to thee, lady!” (Act 2 Scene 1) and saying she has “an inviting eye, and
yet methinks right modest,” (Act 2 Scene 3). He refuses to disrespect a woman of
high standing with such ‘locker room talk’ as Iago tries to engage him in. His devotion to
righteousness extends to Othello: he declares, “I will rather sue to be despised than
to deceive so good a commander with so light, so drunken, and so indiscreet an
officer,” (Act 2 Scene 3), and, “I may again / Exist and be a member of his love, /
Whom I, with all the office of my heart, / Entirely honour,” (Act 3 Scene 4). He
cannot bear the thought of betraying his general and takes his commitment to Othello
very seriously.
● The Dishonest Knave: Shakespeare shows that Cassio is not so generous with his
honour towards all women, however. He leads on Bianca, a local courtesan, calling her
“sweet love” (Act 3 Scene 4) to her face though Iago notes, “He, when he hears of
her, cannot refrain / From the excess of laughter,” (Act 4 Scene 1). While Cassio
refused to sexualise or demean Desdemona, he is happy to call Bianca a “customer”
who “haunts [him] in every place,” (Act 4 Scene 1). This reveals his duplicitous
nature and his misogynistic views. He gladly takes advantage of Bianca for his own
pleasure and clearly doesn’t value her as a fellow human being.
● The Coward: For all his arrogance and extravagance, Cassio is revealed to be a
coward. When Othello questions him about his drunken brawl, Cassio replies, “I pray
you pardon me, I cannot speak,” (Act 2 Scene 3). Likewise, when Desdemona invites
him to join her in talking with Othello, he declines, explaining, “I am very ill at ease,”
(Act 3 Scene 3). Without the title of lieutenant, Cassio is afraid and incapable. You
might even suspect he is afraid of Othello. As a result, he asks Desdemona to speak for
him, but still has the audacity to pressure her into acting quickly: “That policy may
either last so long [...] / That I being absent and my place supplied, / My general
will forget my love and service,” (Act 3 Scene 3). He is demanding and impatient,
and he punishes others for this.
● The Con: By the end of the play, Shakespeare has made it clear that Cassio is not who
he wants people to believe he is. The moment his role as lieutenant is taken away, he is
a nobody: “I have lost the immortal part of myself, and what remains is bestial,”
(Act 2 Scene 3). His cowardice and reluctance to take action for himself suggest he is
not the brave soldier deserving of his lieutenancy. The chivalrous facade he puts on
hides his proclivity for mocking and exploiting women. He takes advantage of
Desdemona’s generosity when he asks her to be his “solicitor” (Act 3 Scene 3), with
fatal consequences.
RELATIONSHIPS
Othello | Othello is the person Cassio respects the most throughout the play. When everything
is descending into chaos at Iago’s hand, Cassio returns like clockwork to inquire about
Desdemona’s success and his reinstatement. He is devastated that he has fallen out of favour
with Othello, and is humiliated because he acted so dishonorably in such a public setting.
Cassio has a strong moral code of honour, and a large part of this revolves around serving his
higher-ups and doing his duty to the state. As such, he is fixated on regaining his title and
winning Othello’s love. This commitment conveys the importance of homosocial relations in
patriarchal societies, particularly in a patriarchal institution such as the military. If one were to be
cynical about Cassio’s devotion to Othello, one may argue that Cassio serves Othello only
because he is his ticket to career success. Indeed, when Othello’s crimes are exposed, Cassio
takes his place.
When Cassio is trying to persuade Othello to welcome him back - using Desdemona as a
messenger pigeon - he emphasises his past service in the army. He relies on his previous
contributions and successes to convince Othello of his worth rather than trying to atone for his
mistakes. He doesn’t try and do something to make it up to Othello, opting instead for inaction. It
becomes apparent that Cassio is intimidated by Othello and fears his judgement. This serves
as a reminder that their bond is not simple friendship: it is dictated by social codes and power
plays.
Iago | When the play opens, Cassio has managed to offend Iago simply by existing. He
represents everything Iago hates, namely elitism, favouritism, and success with women.
Consequently, Iago decides to use all these things against him: for example, he takes
advantage of Cassio’s charismatic, suave persona when convincing Othello that Desdemona
has been unfaithful to him.
Cassio, like everyone else in the play, has fallen for Iago’s disguise and wholly believes he is an
honest man. He is clueless about Iago’s feud. He confides in him, asks him for advice, and
engages in drunken revelry with him. On the other hand, Cassio looks down on Iago for having
a lower social status: he brags about
being his lieutenant and makes
comments about Iago’s lack of
intelligence. Most likely, this motivates
Iago to get revenge and prove him
wrong.
Desdemona | Cassio admires

Desdemona, thinks she is beautiful, and
- most importantly - respects her as a
reputable member of the upper classes.
We can’t know for certain if he loves
her, though Iago seems to think he
does. Shakespeare plays on this
ambiguity, welcoming speculation and
gossip about their relationship. The
audience can’t help but wonder if Iago
is right; in a way, this makes us complicit in Iago’s plans and in Othello’s gullible vengeance.
When interacting with Desdemona, Cassio is typically chivalrous and honourable. All of his
courtly manners come out in full force. At the same time, though, he is willing to ask a large
favour of her when he comes to her for help. By asking Desdemona to speak to Othello in his
defence, he is taking advantage of Desdemona’s generosity and trust. He comes to her
because she is Othello’s wife, reducing her to her relation to men; also, this act breaks the
divide between military and civil matters, disrupting the couple’s personal life. It was his
mistake that put him in this predicament and he passes the responsibility onto her.
Bianca | Cassio’s relationship with Bianca is built on dishonesty and disrespect. According to
Cassio and Iago, Bianca is obsessed with Cassio and fawns on him, though this is likely
misogynistic hyperbole. Regardless, there is a power imbalance in their relationship, due
partly to class, partly to gender, and partly to unreciprocated feelings. Bianca cares for Cassio,
but Cassio is using her. We see him feign affection and intimacy, manipulating her to stay,
while he mocks and demeans her behind her back. Cassio’s relationship to Bianca gives
Shakespeare the opportunity to display Cassio’s more unlikeable characteristics, such as his
dismissive cruelty and duplicitous nature.
KEY THEMES
Cassio is your typical hero: charming, charismatic, successful, respected. Iago envies him
because of this and his high breeding, fueling his hatred. Plus, Iago’s vendetta is first presented
to the audience as a response to Cassio’s promotion to lieutenant. Hence, Cassio’s character
is used by Shakespeare as a vessel for social tensions, particularly surrounding gender and
class. The ways other characters - particularly Iago - perceive him, and the meanings they
project onto him, are as significant as the character’s own actions. For instance, to Iago, Cassio
becomes a symbol for everything he resents about hierarchical Venetian culture.
Shakespeare writes Cassio as a catalyst, someone whose existence alone provokes other
characters into action because of who he is (a successful, admired Florentine) and what he
represents. This enables the playwright to explore different themes by ‘bouncing’ them off
Cassio’s character and by using Cassio to confront other characters with these themes.
Out of the main characters in the text, Cassio is the only one who ‘fits in’. Iago, as ensign, is
too low down the pecking order for his liking, and he is treated by others accordingly. Cassio is
white, upper class, likeable, and successful. Shakespeare uses his character as a symbol for
traditional white male dominance, as well as the epitome of masculinity. However, his status is
quickly undermined: he is demoted by
Othello and subsequently revealed as a
coward. The ‘perfect man’ we perceive
him as is revealed to be a fraud. In this
way, Shakespeare questions the
legitimacy of white male hegemony
and the upper classes as a whole,
exposing them as frauds and cons.
Misogyny
Cassio, like all of the other male

characters in the text, is used by Shakespeare to reinforce the patriarchal culture within which
the play is set. If the misogynistic view of women we see portrayed were only voiced by one
character in isolation, the effect wouldn’t be as great as having this perspective come from all
sides. However, by having background or minor characters such as Cassio bring up these same
ideals in casual conversation, Shakespeare is able to create a sense of being surrounded by
misogyny. There is no escape from the superiority of masculinity, and as such the women on
stage - and in the audience - are struck with a feeling of claustrophobia.
Cassio, a Florentine, sees himself as a bit of a ‘ladies’ man’, flirting with women and generally
charming them, behaviour he puts down to his “breeding” (Act 2 Scene 1). Yet, at the same
time, he hides his relationship with Bianca because he doesn’t want his “general”, Othello, to
“see [him] womaned” (Act 3 Scene 4). This hypocrisy shows the double standard
surrounding romance and women, with women being seen both as a piece of entertainment
and as an embarrassment. Shakespeare shows that Cassio is ashamed of knowing Bianca, a
courtesan, even as he makes plans to see her. The dynamic these two characters share
demonstrates how women, particularly lower class women or prostitutes, were hidden from
the public sphere: men used them for their own pleasure and exploited them, but refused them
entry to the rest of their lives. Women were regarded as objects that belonged behind locked
doors, waiting patiently for their men to return, with no autonomy or freedom to roam. By
referring to being in a relationship as being “womaned”, it is implied that it is something men
are subjected to, in keeping with the stereotype that women are needy and nag their
husbands; to be “womaned” is to be burdened. Alternatively, Cassio’s secrecy surrounding his
relationship may reflect wider societal attitudes towards romance and women: as a high ranking
officer, Cassio may not want to be associated with something emasculating like love or need,
not least with a prostitute. If people knew he was succumbing to sexual urges, they may think
less of him and doubt his ability to command.
Cassio’s alleged relationship with Desdemona is a crucial part of the plot, drawing the
audience’s attention to their interactions. We can’t help but indulge in gossip and rumour, and
so we wonder if Iago is right when he says, “That Cassio loves her, I do well believe’t,” (Act
2 Scene 1). In this way, Shakespeare welcomes comparisons between Cassio’s relationships
with Desdemona and Bianca. One woman is upper class and respectable, the other is a
courtesan; one is the wife of his boss, unattainable, and the other dotes on him. These roles are
reflected in how Cassio views the two women: he calls Desdemona “a maid that paragons
description and wild fame [...] the divine Desdemona,” (Act 2 Scene 1), whereas of Bianca
he says, “Poor caitiff! [...] Poor rogue! [...] I marry her? What! A customer! [...] She is
persuaded I will marry her out of her own love and flattery, not out of my promise,” (Act 4
Scene 1). He views Desdemona with awe and reverence while treating Bianca as a joke,
mocking and patronising her; this contrast implies men judge women by their social standing.
His outright dismissal of the idea of marrying Bianca emphasises the exploitation of women,
particularly sex workers, as they were regarded as sexual objects. Moreover, Bianca is the
woman Cassio is seeing, yet he treats Desdemona with more dignity, suggesting men hold
more respect for women who they aren’t with: the allure of the unattainable.
However, a different type of commodification and objectification is reserved for Desdemona.

Cassio says, “Our great captain’s captain, left in the conduct of the bold Iago,” (Act 2
Scene 1): by calling her the “captain’s captain”, he depicts her as a powerful authority, yet in
the same breath portrays her as something that must be “left in the conduct” of a male
guardian, like a child or a piece of cargo. The implication is that Desdemona is too delicate or
too unreliable to be left alone. In addition, Cassio describes her as “the riches of the ship”
(Act 2 Scene 1), objectifying her outright with hyperbole that resembles Renaissance love
poetry. Desdemona is another material good in this capitalist society. Shakespeare argues that
misogyny doesn’t dissipate as you move up the class ladder - it merely changes form.
Equally, you could argue that Cassio uses Desdemona in a way akin to his use of Bianca.
Instead of sexual favours, he uses her for political ones: to represent his “suit” (Act 3 Scene
3) with Othello, so that he can regain Othello’s favour and be reinstated as lieutenant. This
favour turns out to be a nail in Desdemona’s coffin, suggesting men ask women to sacrifice
themselves for matters that, at the same time, are denied to women: Cassio wants
Desdemona to help him regain his role in the military, yet the military was not ‘for women’. Plus,
when Desdemona welcomes him to “stay and hear [her] speak”, Cassio declines, and Iago
describes him as “steal[ing] away so guilty-like,” (Act 3 Scene 3). This secrecy resembles
Cassio’s reticence and reluctance about being seen with Bianca. Thus, Shakespeare implies
that Cassio is taking advantage of Desdemona, shamefully and in private, the same way he
takes advantage of Bianca.
Reputation
Reputation is a big part of Venetian life within the play. It decides who gets power and who gets
to keep it, who to know and who to avoid, who is respectable and who is immoral. It is more
important than the quality of your character or your achievements: how people perceive you and
where they think you belong in the social rankings determines the life you lead, like a
self-fulfilling prophecy. As someone is climbing the social ladder, someone else is falling
down it. As such, Othello’s Venetians form a microcosm for Jacobean society, with its nobles
and aristocrats and high society. Even when they are removed from the streets of Venice and
transplanted in Cyprus, this system of reputation persists. Cassio’s character sits at the heart of
this: throughout the play, he is fixated on his reputation and what other people think of him.
When he loses his lieutenancy, he is devastated because of the sense of public shame he
feels. Shakespeare even introduces Cassio’s character to us through the lens of reputation, as
Iago insinuates Cassio was promoted through corrupt favouritism, not merit. This first
impression is supported through his actions, which are calculated (when he’s sober) with an
audience in mind. It is fitting, then, that all eyes are literally on him.
The turning point for Cassio’s character is at the end of Act 2, when Othello demotes him
publicly. Until then, Cassio was depicted as quite an arrogant, self-assured man who sees
himself as invincible. Now, faced with ignominy and an emasculating loss of power, he
flounders in a crisis of identity. When Iago asks him if he is hurt, Cassio replies, “Ay, past all
surgery,” (Act 2 Scene 3), suggesting the greatest wound inflicted is an incorporeal one that
can’t be treated with medicine. Cassio is more concerned with his notoriety and good name than
with his physical health. He says, “Reputation, reputation, reputation! O, I have lost my
reputation! I have lost the immortal part of myself, and what remains is bestial. My
reputation, Iago, my reputation!” (Act 2 Scene 3). Shakespeare’s use of repetition, the rule of
three, and exclamation emphasises how devastating this turn of events is for Cassio. His
“reputation” is the most valuable thing he owns and now he has “lost” it: he fears a life
outside the upper echelons of society. This loss of respectability is mirrored in Shakespeare’s
choice of prose rather than the traditional meter; typically, when a character speaks in prose
within a Shakespearean play, it is a mark of lower class or madness. In Cassio’s case, it could
be both: he has lost his social standing and, faced with this new life, has lost his grip on reality.
Cassio’s distressed cries depict him

as bereaved, in mourning. Paired with
the presentation of reputation as a
physical thing that can be “lost”,
Shakespeare conveys the importance
of honour and prestige in society.
Furthermore, the metaphor “lost the
immortal part of myself” implies
Cassio is mourning his own death. Reputation lives on once you die, through your legacy and
family name in society, making it “immortal”; therefore, having a good reputation is man’s key
to living forever. In contrast, Cassio says “what remains is bestial”; contrary to the belief that
rational thought is what separates man from beast, Shakespeare portrays Cassio’s belief that
respectability is the barrier to animalistic barbarity. Shakespeare examines how qualities of
character, such as morality or wisdom, are bestowed upon a person by their peers, rather than
being something a person can develop for themselves. Alternatively, Shakespeare portrays the
damned fate of someone ostracised from high society; without his reputation, Cassio sees
himself as a beast, a symbol of poverty and depravity.
From this point in the text onwards, the personal motivation of Cassio’s character is to regain
his good standing. In the following acts, he appears on stage solely with the intention of
discussing his reinstatement with others; Shakespeare portrays reputation itself as the
character’s only purpose. Cassio is fixated on becoming lieutenant again but isn’t taking any
steps to make amends with Othello or prove his commitment; instead, he charges others with
the responsibility, asking Desdemona, “I do beseech you / That, by your virtuous means, I
may again / Exist and be a member of his love,” (Act 3 Scene 4). He claims to “love”
Othello, but the audience knows his obsession with reputation; plus, as he doesn’t speak to
Othello himself, there is little doubt that his intentions go beyond his relationship with him. As
Cassio tries to regain his reputation through speech alone - without proving his own merit -
Shakespeare depicts reputation as a hollow, meaningless thing. Furthermore, as Cassio uses
others to advocate for him, Shakespeare examines how authority and respect are matters of
who you know, not what you do.
Even as Cassio is aiming to rebuild his reputation, Iago is taking steps to destroy it. Cassio’s
reputation and quality of character is a big discussion point, even when the character isn’t on
stage. Iago successfully convinces Othello that Cassio is crooked and deceitful, thus ruining
his reputation without Cassio’s true actions factoring in. This contrast, as the two men Iago and
Cassio battle for control of Cassio’s reputation, shows how public opinion isn’t a reflection of
reality, despite it holding a lot of power.
Male Ego
Similarly to reputation, Shakespeare depicts the male ego as a key point of contention within
characters’ interactions. The men in the play are always protecting their pride and honour, to
the point that a lot of their actions and decisions are made with this one goal in mind. Cassio is
no exception. He feels humiliated by his fall from grace and now can think of nothing but
setting things right. He doesn’t want to appear weak to Othello, which is why he asks other
people to speak for him. However, this does make him seem cowardly to those he asks and to
the audience. This juxtaposition may be used by Shakespeare to represent male ego as an
irrational, arbitrary thing: Cassio has decided that asking Othello for help is embarrassing but
asking his wife isn’t, though the two actions aren’t inherently different. This choice may also
reflect how the male ego is intimidated by other men while not valuing female opinion highly at
all. The result of this is that men struggle to form meaningful connections with each other and
women are exploited as tools or consolation for male ego.
Even before his demotion, Cassio is overly protective of his self-image. He tells Iago, “The
lieutenant is to be saved before the ancient,” (Act 2 Scene 3), betraying his arrogance as he
brags about his status. This is also an example of dramatic irony because the audience knows
Iago is plotting Cassio’s downfall and intends to take his place. Therefore, Shakespeare
portrays Cassio as a tragic figure, full of hubris before his imminent decline. Male ego, he
argues, is based in the illusion of power and invincibility. Cassio’s fixation on his role as
lieutenant implies he draws comfort from the title, suggesting men need physical validation of
their importance. Male ego is then a matter of convincing yourself that you are important and
successful, not others. We see this, also, when Cassio tells the crowd, “Do not think,
gentleman, I am drunk; this is my ancient, this is my right hand, and this is my left hand. I
am not drunk now, I can stand well enough, and I speak well enough,” (Act 2 Scene 3).
Shakespeare shows how Cassio doesn’t want others to judge him for being drunk, but from his
actions and words (for instance, the word play in “this is my right hand, and this is my left
hand”) it is obvious he is intoxicated, so we are given the impression Cassio is denying his
drunkenness for his own sake. By convincing himself he’s sober, he can continue to see himself
in charge, not as the weak light weight he is (“I have very poor and unhappy brains for
drinking” (Act 2 Scene 3). Again, he leans on his superiority over Iago as his “ancient” to
reassure his pride. Shakespeare argues male ego promotes delusion and denial of reality.
Shakespeare shows how the male ego is intimidated by the authority and judgement of other
men. Cassio is ashamed of being seen as a drunkard, saying, “I will rather sue to be
despised than to deceive so good a commander with so light, so drunken, and so
indiscreet an officer. [...] O thou invisible spirit of wine, if thou hast no name to be known
by, let us call thee devil!” (Act 2 Scene 3). As his “commander”, Othello holds great
influence in Cassio’s military and social careers - the last thing he wants to do is “deceive”
him. The portrayal of alcohol as an “invisible spirit” and a “devil” alludes to the Bible and the
typical Christian view of drink, emphasising how alcohol leads men away from greatness. You
could argue that Shakespeare shows Cassio passing the blame to something other than himself
to save face. Continuing, Cassio says, “I will ask him for my place again; he shall tell me I
am a drunkard. Had I as many mouths as Hydra, such an answer would stop them all,”
(Act 2 Scene 3). This shows how Cassio fears Othello’s disapproval and rejection. The simile
“as many mouths as Hydra” implies that nothing Cassio does will allow him to recover from
this shame. His pride is irrevocably ruined: “such an answer would stop them all” suggests
he can’t confront his own nature. Alternatively, the allusion to mythology could serve to present
pride as a destructive monster: like the Hydra, when one’s pride is ruined, Shakespeare
suggests one grows more proud and arrogant.
The consequences of Cassio’s ego are fatal. Firstly, it makes him vulnerable to Iago’s
manipulative suggestions: “What’s he then that says I play the villain, / When this advice is
[...] indeed the course / To win the Moor again?” (Act 2 Scene 3). In turn, it sets Desdemona
up for death by placing her in the firing line. By playing the role of Cassio’s “solicitor” (Act 3
Scene 3), she unintentionally enrages Othello and adds credit to Iago’s lies. If Cassio were
willing to overcome his delicate pride and speak to Othello himself, the play’s ending may not
have been so catastrophic. In this way, Shakespeare argues that, while male ego is a personal
delusion, everyone else - especially women - is brought into this delusion and suffers for it.
Symbolism
Shakespeare uses the construct of Cassio to explore the different archetypes surrounding
masculinity and manhood, including the ways in which society judges masculine power. In
Shakespeare’s plays, gender is presented as a performance through which people express their
traits or, more commonly, have traits given to them that they must then uphold. In the case of
Cassio, masculinity is a symbol for authority, confidence, and respectability; all of these things
are later revealed to be hollow facades. Shakespeare argues that social indicators such as
gender and class are used to create an illusion of power. For example, the misogynistic
narrative says that men are better because men are more logical, stronger, and so on; when
these myths are believed enough, male becomes synonymous with better, as in the play. As a
result, Shakespeare posits, masculinity becomes an empty symbol for these ‘better’ traits,
with men rewarded for being men without them actually displaying any of these qualities. Cassio
profits from his reputation as a masculine hero, but he is exposed for not possessing any heroic
traits. Once he has lost his reputation, there is nothing left. In this way, Shakespeare is
questioning the very practice of symbolism even as he employs it in his writing.
The one who falls furthest for the myth of masculinity is Cassio himself. He invests his
self-worth in how others view him, putting forward a persona that pleases him. Bolstered by his
recent promotion, he is conceited, prideful, and - critically - complacent. When he loses his role,
he has no assets with which to regain status except networking and favouritism. Therefore,
Shakespeare writes Cassio as a symbol for the smug, lazy ruling classes. He propels the action
forward through his lack of action, opting to ask others to act for him, and through him
Shakespeare reveals a hierarchy governed by nepotism, bias, and corruption.
Symbolism allows the playwright to take the play out of the realm of reality and into another
playing field, as it appeals to our emotions and memories more than plain dialogue can.
Shakespeare’s exploration of the human condition is strengthened by it.
Chivalry & Civility
Cassio is a young, well-educated, handsome Florentine. As a result, there are certain

expectations that his Venetian peers and
Shakespeare’s contemporary audience would have
about how he should behave and present himself. In
Shakespeare’s time, Florence was known for being
an intellectual, high-cultured city, the birthplace of
the Renaissance; as such, Florentines were
expected to be respectable and intelligent. We see
this in Iago’s description of Cassio as “a great
arithmetician” that “never set a squadron in the
field” (Act 1 Scene 1): Iago actually thinks less of
Cassio for being a man of knowledge, not of
violence. As the play continues, Iago uses Cassio’s
Florentine origins to mark him as the suspicious
outsider, showing how ideas about civility and
respectability differed even within Italy. Venetian culture is so xenophobic and insular that
even the charismatic Cassio is vulnerable to its distrust.
In keeping with Jacobean England’s view of a blossoming, highly-evolved, romantic city of

Florence, there was an expectation amongst the higher echelons of society that courtship
upheld the ideal of courtly love. Courtly love revolved around the character of the attractive
ladies’ man who was chivalrous and proper towards all women. Shakespeare portrays Cassio
as man who engages in this ideal of courtly love; the references in his language to chivalry
symbolise his deep sense of honour. For example, when Iago attempts to provoke Cassio with
lewd euphemisms like “sport for Jove” and “full of game”, Cassio refuses to rise to the bait,
describing her as “a most exquisite lady” with “an inviting eye, and yet methinks right
modest,” (Act 2 Scene 3). Iago’s language is typical of male camaraderie, particularly among
soldiers, where sexist remarks and jokes are exchanged happily. Cassio sets himself apart
from this by depicting Desdemona as a respectable, honourable woman. His chivalrous
demeanor is a symbol for his outsider status and for the unrealistic expectations of female
purity that enslave women.
You could argue Cassio sees himself as the better man for his chivalrous view of women. For
example, he greets Emilia by “kiss[ing]” her, telling Iago, “Let it not gall your patience, good
Iago, / That I extend my manners. ‘Tis my breeding / That gives me this bold show of
courtesy,” (Act 2 Scene 1). The nouns “manners” and “courtesy” present his actions as the
proper, respectful thing to do, implying self-righteousness. The reference to his “breeding”
suggests a person’s qualities can be attributed to their upbringing, class, and nationality.
Cassio’s acts of courtly love thus become symbols for elitism and the extravagant shows of
power perpetrated by the rich.
While Cassio claims to be respectful towards women, his actions undermine his chivalry. He
exploits Desdemona’s compassion and generosity by asking her to take up his “suit” (Act 3
Scene 3), pressuring her when he says, “I would not be delayed,” (Act 3 Scene 4). This
suggests that, despite his show of modesty, he doesn’t respect Desdemona. Furthermore,
Shakespeare demonstrates that this ideal of courtly love isn’t extended to all women: Cassio
repeatedly mocks Bianca and calls her a “customer” and a “perfumed one” (Act 4 Scene 1),
demeaning her for being a prostitute. He compliments her to her face - “Not that I love you
not,” (Act 3 Scene 4), “My sweet Bianca!” (Act 4 Scene 1) - and rejects her when talking
behind her back. This duplicity shows Cassio is not as honourable as he claims. Furthermore,
the hypocrisy of his chivalry exposes the double standards of the upper classes. His courtly
love becomes a symbol for farce and misogyny.
Animals, Beasts, & Monsters
In the Chain of Being, animals are

below humans: they are further from
God and closer to sin.
Conventionally, animalistic imagery
is used to ridicule and cast
judgement on someone’s most base
qualities, such as laziness or selfishness. Comparing someone to an animal robs them of their
humanity, and because of this it sets up a power dynamic: people who behave like animals are
inferior to ‘real’ people. Animalistic imagery is also associated with primitive societies,
depravity, and poverty, so can be used to reveal a character’s perspective on class and race.
Shakespeare features this semantic field within characters’ vocabulary to illustrate how certain
members of society are demeaned or degraded by others.
This is particularly true in Othello, where animals symbolise the morally and the socially
corrupted interchangeably. When Cassio is publicly demoted by Othello, he cries, “I have lost
the immortal part of myself, and what remains is bestial,” (Act 2 Scene 3), suggesting that
without the benefits his reputation brought, he is no better than an animal. This view of
reputation implies that to be considered human, one must be recognised by society - and so
only the upper classes are human. Shakespeare demonstrates that the lower classes were
dehumanised and denied self-worth. Furthermore, the contrast put between the “immortal”
and “bestial” parts of a person suggests that reputation brings people closer to eternal life, so
that they resemble gods, and this is what sets humans apart from beasts. This is contrary to
traditional beliefs in the Jacobean era that stated morality and rational thought were what
separated man and beast. By linking being “bestial” to his reputation, Cassio conflates a loss
of respectability with a loss of morality. This implies that, in society, the two are treated as the
same thing, where your quality of character is defined by how others view you.
“That we should with joy, pleasance, revel and applause transform ourselves into
beasts!” (Act 2 Scene 3) says Cassio, returning to the more conventional view that
self-control puts humans above animals in the divine order. Shakespeare suggests people
seek the thrill of immorality for a source of entertainment, purposefully reducing themselves to
“beasts”. “Revel and applause” connotes decadence, implying it is the rich who pursue an
escape from moral duty; moreover, “applause” implies they are rewarded for their ill deeds.
Alternatively, Shakespeare posits that society encourages aggression and violence in men.
Cassio’s engagement with this semantic field of beasts comes in contrast to his chivalrous,
respectable persona, embodying the hypocrisy and duplicity of the upper classes.
Shakespeare portrays civility as a false moral standard, something people pretend to value
highly but instead use to cover up their sins. Alternatively, the contrast reflects how Cassio is
confronted with the emptiness of his own status. With his reputation - and all the comfort it
brought - stripped away, he discovers he has nothing else to offer. He has no good qualities, no
independence. In his complacency, he didn’t nurture his own strength of character, allowing
himself to regress into a “beast”.
The Military Mindset
Military jargon and a militaristic ethos dominate the men’s discourse and actions in the text.
Qualities praised by Shakespeare’s male characters, such as loyalty, impulsive decision
making, and strategy, are all typically admired and required in a military setting. The problem
comes when this military culture is applied to civilian and domestic matters. These conflicts
cannot be resolved with the aggressive tactics of the military; instead, the application of the
military mindset to the domestic sphere ends in tragedy.
One defining attribute of Venetian military culture is an augmented sense of honour. We see
this clearly in Cassio’s character, as Shakespeare merges the ideals of courtly love and high
society with the fierce loyalty shared by men in arms. The result is a man who cannot maintain
the honourable persona he claims to possess.
Cassio’s militaristic ethos comes to the fore in his discussions of Othello. To Iago, he says he
has “deceive[d] so good a commander with so light, so drunken, and so indiscreet an
officer,” (Act 2 Scene 3), presenting his drunk acts as the ultimate military betrayal. The
adjectives he lists - “light”, “drunken”, and “indiscreet” - are all antitheses of what the perfect
soldier should be. Shakespeare illustrates that breaking this type of ‘Knights’ Code’ is an
egregious sin in military culture, beaten only by betraying your “commander”. Establishing the
premium put on loyalty in the military allows the audience to understand how shocking and
unexpected Iago’s betrayal is.
Cassio’s suit to Desdemona reveals

how important it was for a man’s
military accomplishments to be
recognised. He is concerned, “That I
being absent and my place
supplied, / My general will forget
my love and service,” (Act 3 Scene
3). Shakespeare implies a man
defined his worth through his contribution to his commander and to the state. Cassio’s sense of
honour is anchored in the presentation of his “love and service”, outlining the hierarchy and
master/servant dynamic that Venetian society was built upon. Cassio says, “I may again /
Exist and be a member of his love, / Whom I, with all the office of my heart, / Entirely
honour,” (Act 3 Scene 4). The verb “exist” suggests that without Othello’s favour, Cassio is a
nobody. The nouns “member” and “office” all hold connotations of the military, connecting
Cassio’s loving dedication to his role as lieutenant. Male solidarity and respect are built into
the military culture and become tools for men to pursue higher ranks. Cassio continues, “If my
offence be of such mortal kind / That nor my service past nor my present sorrows [...] /
Can ransom me into his love again,” (Act 3 Scene 4), showing again how moral judgement
was passed based on “service” alone, erasing a multitude of sins. The economic connotation
of “ransom”, alongside the implied dynamic of captor and captured, suggests all male bonds
are forms of exchange and social contract. No relationship is formed without both parties
benefitting, and friendships are governed by ulterior motive and personal gain.
References to the military are used by Shakespeare as a symbol for the toxic masculinity that
controls his characters. Above, we see how precedence is put on a man’s loyalty to the state
rather than on the strength of his character. The military encourages violence and aggression.
Furthermore, the ubiquitous presence of the military in Cassio’s speech symbolises the military
occupation of Cyprus by Venice, and the social conditioning that leads men to worship
warfare. By the play’s end, Cassio has taken Othello’s role - “Cassio rules in Cyprus” (Act 5
Scene 2) - symbolising the volatile power structure in the military and the occupation of
blackness by white forces.
The Handkerchief
Cassio is but one of the many people

who have Desdemona’s handkerchief in
their possession during the course of
the play. Cassio “know[s] not” (Act 3
Scene 4) whose it is or where it came
from, so doesn’t understand the
significance of it. Unknowingly, he
controls Desdemona’s reputation and
her honour: Othello sees the
handkerchief in Cassio’s possession as a symbol for Cassio possessing Desdemona’s love
and virginity, saying, “As doth the raven o’er the infected house, / Boding to all! - he had
my handkerchief,” (Act 4 Scene 1). Cassio’s possession of the handkerchief is an omen for
Desdemona’s fate, symbolising Desdemona’s dependence on Cassio for protection and safety.
Shakespeare shows how men define a woman’s social identity, even when they are unaware of
the power they wield. Desdemona, an isolated, powerless woman, relies on the men around
her to protect her from Othello’s wrath, and Cassio lets her down.
Likewise, Cassio’s attitude towards the handkerchief reveals how society treats a woman’s
identity and individuality. When the handkerchief is passed around between characters,
Shakespeare shows how a woman’s reputation could be sullied and manipulated by others;
furthermore, it shows how a woman’s identity wasn’t her own to control. The handkerchief’s
travels symbolise her loss of autonomy. This significance is compounded in Cassio’s wish, “I’d
have it copied,” (Act 3 Scene 4). Desdemona’s identity is replicated and passed around, a
symbolic form of promiscuity that shows how a woman’s honour is truly ruined by social
disrespect, not by her sexuality. Her private property can be “copied”, showing how women
are replaceable and conditioned to conform to one mould. Cassio participates in this culture in
an almost voyeuristic way, displaying
something intimate to another person
and rendering it for public
consumption. Furthermore, he asks a
courtesan to copy it, linking the
respectable Desdemona and the
prostitute Bianca together in the
universal commodification of the
female body.
CHARACTER IN CONTEXT
The central conflict in the play of ‘Othello’ combines two defining issues of the Jacobean era:
the treatment of women and the treatment of outsiders. In this case, ‘outsiders’ refers to
people of colour, though the same themes can be applied to another big controversy of the
time - the conflict between Catholics and Protestants. Simultaneously, Shakespeare brings the
spotlight to a new system of hierarchy and class, embodied by the city of Venice. This
foreshadows the direction England’s economy was starting to take at the time of writing.
As such, ‘Othello’ is more of a social commentary than a morality play. This genre places
Shakespeare with his contemporaries, as the Jacobean era saw a prominent use of satire and
politics in its literature. That said, the play is not lacking in morals and messages for
Shakespeare’s audience; though ‘Othello’ is set some decades before, its themes and
depictions convey Shakespeare’s perspective on the time he was writing in, the early 1600s.
Shakespeare uses the setting of wartime Cyprus as a lens through which to view his own
‘modern’ time (meaning we can do the same thing!).
Moors
The term ‘Moor’ has historically been used by Christian Europeans to refer to people from
Somalia, Ethiopia, the Middle East, the Berber coast, North Africa in general, and even India - in
short, its use to specify a person’s ethnicity is ambiguous. It was often used as a derogatory
term so accuracy wasn’t important to its user.
Originally, the Moors were a group of Muslims from what is now North Africa who captured the
Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) in 711 A.D. The peninsula became a cultural and
economic capital, but Moorish rule was opposed by European Christians. Eventually, in 1492,
the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand II and Isabella I triumphed in a war against the Moors of the
Iberian Peninsula. This led to the Moors being expelled from Spain, though small communities
still resided throughout Western Europe - including in Italy, where the play is set.
While Cassio does refer to Othello as “the Moor” (Act 2 Scene 1), he is overwhelmingly
respectful and reverent towards him, referring to him as “our great captain” (Act 2 Scene 1),
“so good a commander” (Act 2 Scene 3), and “my general” (Act 3 Scene 3). By embracing
Othello as his commanding officer and admiring him as a great soldier, Cassio defies the racist
attitudes of his peers and the racism surrounding Moors that defined the Venetian and
Jacobean societies. It is possible that Cassio accepts Othello because, as a Florentine, he is
also an outsider. Alternatively, it may be that the duties and loyalties of the military usurp any
racist hostility.
Venice
The Venice of the Jacobean era was close to a cultural utopia in many ways. It was a symbol
of beauty, culture, and civilisation. With its numerous trade links with the Eastern World and
North Africa and its thriving economy, it was the poster child of early Modern Capitalism. At
this time, England was only just beginning to trade abroad. Furthermore, Venice was a
Republic: the wealthier merchant classes controlled the state and bought powerful military
forces to protect colonial exploits.
A consequence of this was the emergence of a new ruling class that hadn’t been seen before.
The city had laws that dictated people dress according to their social standing, but these were
rarely enforced and the emerging mercantile class dressed according to financial, not social,
status. In addition, Venice was viewed as a ‘pleasure capital’, known for a higher sexual
tolerance than other places.
Another consequence of being a centre of international trade was that Venice was a
cosmopolitan capital. Trade brought an influx of immigrants from across the country and the
globe, leading to a constant exchange of material goods and culture. Venice was already
renowned for its cosmopolitan spirit, and its multi-cultural atmosphere only grew through the
16th century. This extended to Venetian outposts and dominions, including Cyprus, where
accounts told of Venetians, Cypriots, Greeks, Jews and Turks living together.
In Venice, foreigners were tolerated because of their economic and military contributions to the
city. It was very common for the Venetian state to hire mercenaries to protect their assets, and
these mercenaries often came abroad. Othello and Cassio are such mercenaries, bringing the
two men together as outsiders hired to kill for a state that doesn’t claim them as its own.
However, as tolerant as Venice was, Venetian society was very insular when it came to
marriage and lineage. Outsiders could come to the city but weren’t allowed to ‘contaminate’ the
pure Venetian line. Iago draws on this aversion to strangers when turning Othello against
Cassio, calling him “guilty-like” (Act 3 Scene 3) and saying, “As knaves be such abroad, /
Who having by their own importunate suit / Or voluntary dotage of some mistress [...] /
Cannot choose / But they must blab,” (Act 4 Scene 1), portraying Cassio as a boastful,
promiscuous foreigner.
Its status as a symbol for progress makes Venice the perfect opening for this play. Shakespeare
explores what it means to be civilised rather than primitive, ultimately exposing societies such
as Venice for being hypocritical and insidious.
Though a Florentine, Cassio fits in with Venice’s reputation for progress, riches, and pleasure.
Iago notes, “He hath a person and a smooth dispose / To be suspected, framed to make
women false,” (Act 1 Scene 3), and plans to use Cassio’s courtly manners against him: “Ay,
smile upon her, do. I will gyve thee in thine own courtship,” (Act 2 Scene 1). Iago
manipulates Cassio’s actions to paint him as another “super-subtle Venetian” (Act 1 Scene
3).
In the end, however, Cassio is the only true ‘winner’ of all the characters in the play. He
survives Iago’s figurative mass-murder and gains control of Cyprus. Hence, an outsider, a
Florentine, is the only one able to make Venetian society work for him.
Cyprus
Crusades against Islam brought Europeans to Cyprus, and the island became a Christian
military base for operations in the Levant (the countries of West Asia that border the
Meditarranean, such as modern-day Israel and Lebanon). The conflict between the Christian
Republic of Venice and the Islamic Ottoman Empire had been an on-off affair since the
mid-fifteenth century; by the time the play premiered, four wars between the two nations had
already taken place. The most recent of these was known as the War of Cyprus, which took
place between 1570 and 1573. This round of violence was precipitated by a Turkish invasion
of the isle between 1570 and 1571 that consolidated Ottoman control.
Choosing to set his play during a crisis of living memory amplifies the tensions within the play,
as well as the play’s significance as a piece of political commentary. This choice is also a
noteworthy divergence from Shakespeare’s source material, Giraldi Cinthio’s ‘Hecatommithi’,
which lacked any clear historical anchor.
Its position within the Ottoman empire made Cyprus singularly vulnerable to Turkish threat, and
the island was dangerously isolated from the rest of the Christian world. The country’s identity
was torn between the two warring religions. The play is likely set during the Battle of Lepanto,
a year after the Turks conquered Cyprus. The battle marked a decisive triumph for the
Christian Venice and its allies ‘the Holy League’. This tense atmosphere pervades the play,
amplifying the claustrophobia and confusion experienced by Iago’s unwilling subjects. When
Cassio is “maimed” by Iago and cries, “What, ho! No watch? No passage? Murder,
murder!”, Lodovico and Gratiano are reluctant to help him at first. They are worried it is a con,
saying, “These may be counterfeit: let’s think’t unsafe / To come in to the cry without
more help,” (Act 5 Scene 1). This emphasises the feeling of doubt that underlies Cyprus and
its inhabitants. Cassio’s cries of “No watch? No passage?” show how alone and frightened
he feels.
This choice of setting and time period evokes another example of typically Shakespearean
dramatic irony. It was believed that victory over the Turks came ‘too late’ to help Cyprus; the
Venetians left Cyprus in 1573, and the island fell to the Turks once more. Shakespeare’s
audience would have known this, making the apparent peace celebrated in Act 2 feel uncertain
and falsely comforting. The characters are lulled into a false sense of security as Iago
prepares to strike. The Venetian government has only temporarily avoided the threat, and
Othello has only temporarily avoided the wrath of his close friend.
The significance of Cyprus as a setting doesn’t end here. Its reputation for savagery and
barbarity, alongside its identity as a military bastion, makes it the antithesis of Venetian calm
and order. Having Venetians in Cyprus brings the conflict between the civil and the primitive to
the fore, just as we witness Cassio’s character fall from grace. He succumbs to the chaos
symbolic of Cyprus, first through his drinking and the “invisible spirit of wine”, followed by
violence as he fights with Roderigo. He tells Iago, “I remember a mass of things, but nothing
distinctly: a quarrel, but nothing wherefore,” (Act 2 Scene 3). Cassio can’t remember why
he started fighting, foreshadowing the meaningless violence that overtakes the island.
Moreover, when he says, “To be now a sensible man, by and by a fool, and presently a
beast!” (Act 2 Scene 3), Shakespeare shows that people contain ‘civil’ and ‘primitive’ parts,
symbolised through Cyprus’ destructive influence on the once respectable Venetians.
Cyprus was denied its own autonomy and sovereign identity because it was continually
occupied by one empire or other. This makes it a symbol for submission, just as Cassio
becomes an unknowing servant to Iago’s desires. Cassio loses his position because of Iago,
but eventually takes over Othello’s role: power is unstable and unguaranteed, and this view of
power is epitomised in Cyprus’ identity. According to myth, Cyprus is the birthplace of
Aphrodite, goddess of love; in contrast, we are presented with an island engulfed by war and
violence. The island has become a figurehead for male power and conflict: the symbol of love
is dominated by warfare.
The relocation to Cyprus marks the point where everything turns on its head. Iago’s plans start
to take hold, and nothing is as it seems. The island’s chaotic identity and renowned ‘primitive’
behaviour take hold. What’s more, the characters never return to Venice. The transition to
Cyprus and everything it represents is irreversible and final. Cassio is the only one who
emerges ‘victorious’ and “rules” Cyprus (Act 5 Scene 2): you could interpret this as Cassio
embracing the island’s chaos and suspicion, or as him managing to subdue and suppress it.
Religion
Religion was a huge part of Jacobean life, and as such plays an important role in all of
Shakespeare’s plays. The Church was influential in the subject of morality as well as the
subject of politics: the Church had the ear of the monarch, who was the symbolic head of the
Church and the government, meaning there was none of the separation between Church and
State that we have today. Because of this, Christian ideology was the foundation of many
aspects of life, and people used it as a touchstone or guide in more ways than one. It’s
important to remember the ubiquity of the Church in everyday life, because Shakespeare
explores its significance as a political force in addition to its moral consequence.
Religion: Protestantism vs. Catholicism
Under the rule of King James I, England

was a Protestant state, but this hadn’t
always been the case. Since Henry VIII’s
separation from the Catholic Church the
century before (part of the movement
known as the Reformation), England had
oscillated between the two denominations depending on who was on the throne. Both
Catholics and Protestants had suffered violence and oppression at the hands of the other.
Because of this, the conflict and controversy religion brought with it was very close to home for
Shakespeare’s contemporary audience. This likely made the religious conflict in the play -
between the Islamic Turks and the Christian Venetians - easier to empathise with, and so
amplified the messages behind it.
Protestantism of the time encouraged a preoccupation with the self. Introspection was
important when practising and maintaining your faith, as there was a movement towards
self-improvement. Similarly, the idea of repentance and confession are fundamental principles
in the Christian faith. Cassio’s personal mission to atone for his actions and win Othello’s love
once more may resemble the narrative of a typical Christian protagonist. Certainly, depicting
himself as a “beast” and wine as the “devil” (Act 2 Scene 3) is consistent with Biblical
teachings on vice and temptation.
Religion: Logic & Self-Restraint
Jealousy and rational thought are integral to the play’s main message, so it’s helpful to know
how Jacobean culture viewed them. You can see evidence of how these cultural beliefs
shaped Shakespeare’s portrayal of human nature; at the same time, you may find instances
where Shakespeare challenges these perspectives.
In accordance with the Chain of Being, it was believed that the ability to think rationally was
what separated humans from animals. A failure of reason was the cause of the fall of man:
allowing passion to overtake reason meant you had lost what made you human, reducing you
to the animalistic state of being. This state was defined by appetite and instinct. It makes
sense, then, that to act irrationally and impulsively made you a monster in the eyes of others,
because you had fallen below the level of man and become bestial.
This ideology comes to the fore when Cassio is demoted by Othello. He mourns his
respectability by saying, “I have lost the immortal part of myself, and what remains is
bestial,” (Act 2 Scene 3). Knowing that being animalistic was associated with logic and
morality, the use of monstrous imagery in his speech implies that reputation and morality are
related. Also, Shakespeare likens the Chain of Being to the hierarchy of Venetian/Jacobean
society.
Archetypes of Femininity
Plentiful tropes and myths surrounded

what it meant to be a woman in
Jacobean times. Generally, there were
four archetypes of femininity, within
which all women were categorised: the
maiden, the wife, the widow, and the whore. These classifications, as you may have already
identified, revolve around the ‘stage’ of a woman’s sexuality; the maiden is a virgin, whereas
the widow has lost her sexual identity and is unanchored in society. Men wanted to marry
virgins - the maiden - but used whores for their own pleasure. The fifth category of ‘witch’ was
reserved for those women deemed too masculine, ugly, or barren to be ‘real’ women.
Additionally, there was the archetype of the fallen woman, someone who had lost her innocence
in the eyes of others; fallen women couldn’t regain their reputations, were the prey of gossips,
and were ostracised from society.
Masculinity drew from these categories of womanhood. They served as goals or benchmarks.
For example, virgins, newly-weds, and demure widows were ‘sexual targets’: men wanted to
sleep with them because the conquest of the apparently unattainable was an irresistible
challenge to their masculinity. Brides and betrothed women were seen as being in a state of
transition between the categories, making them vulnerable to assault or slander. Young,
beautiful wives were both desired and feared, because they could captivate their husbands
and other men with their ‘feminine wiles’.
These contrasting standards of femininity are captured in the character of Cassio. He is

hypocritical and reductive in his treatment of women, respecting women like Desdemona while
demeaning women like Bianca. He describes Desdemona as “divine” and a “maid” (Act 2
Scene 1), idolising her as the perfect maidenly archetype of femininity. At the same time, he
dehumanises and objectifies her, calling her the “riches of the ship” (Act 2 Scene 1) and “a
most fresh and delicate creature” (Act 2 Scene 3). He doesn’t partake in Iago’s perverted
imaginings (“she is sport for Jove” (Act 2 Scene 3)) but he doesn’t stop him, either, thus
enabling this misogynistic depiction of women. He even replies “indeed”, meaning he agrees
with Iago even if he doesn’t use the same outrightly lewd words. This admiration of Desdemona,
particularly in the context of her marriage (“he hath not yet made wanton the night with her”
(Act 2 Scene 3)) is consistent with men desiring the women they can’t have. Desdemona is a
newlywed and so falls into the category of ‘sexual target’.
Contrary to Desdemona, Bianca is a prostitute, and so Cassio sees no need to respect her.
He lies to her, such as, “Not that I love you not,” (Act 3 Scene 4), and behind her back he
calls her a “customer” and a “perfumed one” (Act 4 Scene 1). His treatment of Bianca is
typical of how men treated women they perceived as falling into the ‘whore’ archetype of
femininity. He exploits her, insults her
intelligence and self-worth, and
excludes her from his life outside their
relationship. Furthermore, Cassio’s
simultaneous interest in both
Desdemona and Bianca typifies men
pursuing maidens as unattainable
sexual conquests and as emblems of
respectability while using prostitutes in
private to satiate their needs.
Courtly Love
The ideal of courtly love emerged in Medieval English literature, where knights and noblemen
set out on dangerous adventures to win the love of a fair maiden. The best-known example is
Arthurian legend, which brought together the ideals of the soldier and the lover. It was a
conception of love that prioritised nobility and chivalry above all else, combining religious
discourse and imagery with human sexuality. Courtly love took something as scandalous
and improper as erotic love and made it ‘respectable’ and reputable. To what extent courtly
love was sexual was a point of controversy, as was the question of whether courtly love was a
purely literary invention or was practised in real life.
Though courtly love was conceived in the Medieval Era, its ideas persist to the modern day,
and were popular in early modern Europe. Shakespeare engages with the theme in many of his
plays, often ridiculing or satirising it.
Courtly love revolved around an attractive ladies’ man. He would use poetic language and
chivalry to charm women. There would be the fair lady, a high standing member of the court for
example, who would be worshipped as divinity; she would have many rival suitors for her hand
in marriage. Cassio is the typical ladies’
man, and through his eyes, Desdemona
is the “divine” fair lady worthy of
worship (Act 2 Scene 1). Cassio’s
mention of his “breeding” when kissing
Emilia in greeting (Act 2 Scene 1) and his description of Desdemona as “modest” contrasting
with Iago’s innuendoes can be interpreted in the context of this courtly love ideal. On the
surface, Cassio is the ideal romantic hero; however, Shakespeare undermines this narrative by
exposing Cassio’s cowardice and hypocrisy. He is in a relationship with a courtesan; this is
enough to break the rules of courtly love, but he goes beyond this by insulting Bianca’s
honour. Furthermore, many would say that there is no honour in asking a woman such as
Desdemona to plead your case for you. Shakespeare suggests that the chivalrous knight of
courtly love doesn’t exist.

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AQA English Literature A-level

Othello: Character Profiles

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

● The Reputable Scholar: Shakespeare depicts Cassio as an intelligent, well-educated

● The Honourable Gentleman: Shakespeare portrays Cassio as someone who is

Desdemona | Cassio admires

Cassio, like all of the other male

However, a different type of commodification and objectification is reserved for Desdemona.

Cassio’s distressed cries depict him

Chivalry & Civility

Cassio is a young, well-educated, handsome Florentine. As a result, there are certain

In keeping with Jacobean England’s view of a blossoming, highly-evolved, romantic city of

Animals, Beasts, & Monsters

In the Chain of Being, animals are

The Military Mindset

Cassio’s suit to Desdemona reveals

Cassio is but one of the many people

Religion: Protestantism vs. Catholicism

Under the rule of King James I, England

Religion: Logic & Self-Restraint

Plentiful tropes and myths surrounded

These contrasting standards of femininity are captured in the character of Cassio. He is

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