THE EFFECTS OF WEARABLE TECHNOLOGY ON HEALTH-RELATED

BEHAVIOR CHANGE AMONG UNDERGRADUATE COLLEGE STUDENTS

By

MELISSA COX, M.S.

Bachelor of Science in Recreation Management

University of Central Oklahoma
Edmond, Oklahoma
2005

Master of Science in Exercise Science

University of Central Oklahoma
Edmond, Oklahoma
2007

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of

Southern Nazarene University
in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for
the Degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
June 2023
 THE EFFECTS OF WEARABLE TECHNOLOGY ON HEALTH-RELATED

BEHAVIOR CHANGE AMONG UNDERGRADUATE COLLEGE STUDENTS

Dissertation Approved:

Dr. Sylvia Goodman

Dissertation Chair

Dr. Shari Rodgers

Dissertation Director

Dr. Shawn Pendley

Committee Member

Dr. Adrienne Cressman

Committee Member

ⅱ
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

As it’s been said, there is no passion to be found playing small and settling for a life that’s
less than the one you’re capable of living. This journey has shown me what it’s like to not
just work hard, but to progress and experience growth. It’s given new meaning to
discipline, consistency, and putting your trust in others. That trust was laid upon an
amazing committee for which I am forever grateful for.

To Dr. Sylvia Goodman–for serving as chair of my committee with integrity, grace, and
unwavering support. This work would not have been possible without your thoughtful,
gentle nudges pointing me in the right direction.

To Dr. Shari Rodgers–you came in as a breath of fresh air and brought new life into my
study. Thank you for being a joyful and wise champion for me, always quick to reply to
my stressed out emails or text messages. You lit up the finish line when it seemed dim at
times and I will always be appreciative.

To Dr. Shawn Pendley–the APA and resident wordsmith. Thank you for your tenacity and
attention to detail. Your expertise helped me create a piece of work that was more robust,
insightful, and grammatically correct.

To Dr. Adrienne Cressman–colleague, friend, and committee member. I value your

commitment to see me continually evolve into a better version of myself. You are a true
example of what it means to reach back and pull someone else up to achieve their goals.

To my cohort–arguably one of the best SNU has joined together. Thank you for a
GroupMe thread that contains countless prayer requests, praise reports, and words of
encouragement.

To Claire–my biggest hope is that you can see that you can do anything you put your
heart and mind into. And I know you will. You are my biggest joy and best thing I’ve
ever done. Proud of you for the girl you are and for the woman you will become.

To Stephen–thank you for the sacrifices you made and for the support you unselfishly
gave so I could achieve this dream. You are a testament to how much God loves me.

To family and friends–I’m forever grateful to you for your encouragement. I don’t know
how I got so lucky to have such amazing people in my life.

Acknowledgements reflect the views of the author and are not endorsed by committee members
of Southern Nazarene University.
Name: MELISSA COX

Date of Degree: JUNE 2023

Title of Study: THE EFFECTS OF WEARABLE TECHNOLOGY ON

HEALTH-RELATED BEHAVIOR CHANGE AMONG UNDERGRADUATE
COLLEGE STUDENTS

Major Field: DOCTORATE OF EDUCATION IN ADMINISTRATION AND

LEADERSHIP

Abstract: The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine how the use of wearable
technology may increase motivation and eliminate barriers to physical activity among
college students. Ten college students ages 18-24 were recruited to complete a survey and
interviews about their use of wearable technology and to further examine their
experiences through the components of the Self-Determination Theory (SDT). Data
showed that participants favored the use of wearable technology and had experiences of
their usage meeting at least one of the three components of the SDT. Results also showed
participants felt more motivated to engage in physical activity when some form of
wearable technology was integrated into their regimen. There is a high need for social
connection with others for this age group and results showed that wearable technology
provided this for most participants. Researchers can use this study to further investigate
how evolving technology can play a part in health-related choices among this population,
which can combat the decrease in physical activity during college years.

Keywords: wearable technology, Self-Determination Theory, motivation

ⅳ
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………….. 1

Problem Statement.………………………………………………………………... 1
Purpose Statement.………………………………………………………………….3
Research Questions…………………………………………………………………4
Theory………………………..……………………………………………………. 4
Procedures…………………………………………………………………………..5
Significance of Study……………………………………………………………….6
Definition of Terms…………………………………………………………………7
Summary and Organization of Study……………………………………………….8

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………….10

Wearable Technology Benefits to Healthy Lifestyle Habits.....................................10

Historical Perspective of Wearable Technology............................................11
Increasing Motivation with Wearable Technology ………………………..13
Benefits of Wearable Technology to Meet PA Guidelines………………....13
Risks of Physical Inactivity and College Population………………………………21
Wearable Technology Possibilities and Perspectives………………………24
Wearable Technology Challenges ...........……………………………….....26
Wearable Technology and Its Role in Increasing Physical Activity ........................28
Self-Determination Theory...........................................................................29
Connection of Theory to Study....……………………….............................31
Chapter 2 Summary………………………………………………………………..35

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………......37

Purpose Statement………………………………………………………………....37
Research Questions………………………………...……………………………. .38
Research Design…………………………………………………………………...38
Methodological Procedures………………………………………………….…….40
Researcher Role……………………………………………………………….…...47
Data Verification Strategies………………………………………………….…….49
Limitations of Study………………………………….…………..………….…….52
Chapter 3 Summary………………………………………………………….….....52

ⅴ
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS………………………………....………………………....54

Data Presentation................................................................................................... 54
Research Context Description……………………………………………55
Participant Descriptions............................................................................. 56
Narrative Description.................................................................................61
Data Analysis.........................................................................................................73
Theoretical Analysis……………………………………………….….….73
Thematic Analysis…………………………………………………….….80
Chapter 4 Summary………………………………………………….…...90

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS………………………………...…………………... 91

Summary of Study...……………………………………………………………...91
Discussion of Findings…………………………………………………………...92
Conclusions of Study...………………………………………………………...... 98
Limitations of Study....……………………………………………………...…...101
Implications of Study for Research and Practice..…..…………………..….…...102
Recommendations for Future Research…..……………………………….…….104
Chapter 5 Summary....……………………………………………………….…..106

REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………....107

APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………….131

ⅵ
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Data Collection Table…………………………………………………………44

Table 2: Trustworthiness Table…………………………………………………….…..51

Table 3: Participant Profile Summary………………………………..………….……..60

ⅶ
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Moderate-to-Vigorous Activity Effects on Mortality……………………….21

Figure 2: Self-Determination Theory……………………………………………….…31

ⅷ
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Exploring wearable technology as a bridge between physical activity and negative

health consequences is important. The focus of this study was centered on wearable

fitness technology. It employed a qualitative study design to examine the effect of

wearable technology devices on college students’ attitudes towards physical activity and

personal perceived barriers. College students commonly face the challenge of making

daily choices that lead to a healthy lifestyle, which include eating nutritiously, being

physically active on a consistent basis, and limiting stress (Nanney et al., 2015). In the

past, health issues have mainly affected older generations; however, the evidence and

trends of increased health concerns among young adults is an important issue and one

that must be recognized and addressed (Poobalan & Aucott, 2016). This 18-25 age group

is overweight and obese at the highest rates and have an increased rate of hypertension,

type 2 diabetes, and other preventable illnesses.

Problem Statement

In recent years, wearable technology has ignited a new mode for behavior change

with the rapid development of information and communication technology. Wearable

technology, especially fitness trackers, identifies and organizes the attributes of mobility

1
and connectivity so that users can access information conveniently and communicate

with others, often in real-time (Lee et al., 2016). This technology provides quantification

of instant data and interpersonal communication that is highly desired by college

individuals and has been found to be a potential motivator for this population (Haney,

2018). As this college-age population currently exhibits increased rates of overweight,

obesity, type 2 diabetes, and other health concerns that are preventable through positive

lifestyle changes, wearable technology could potentially make an impact on increasing

the knowledge and motivation necessary to implement such lifestyle changes (Cha et al.,

2015).

Given the unique nature of wearable technology, there has arisen a trend for

advocating for the use of technology, including fitness trackers, in the development and

implementation of health behavior change interventions (Welch et al., 2018). While the

benefits of engaging in a consistent exercise program are well-established, college

students often lack the specific knowledge and motivation to engage in exercise. These

two problems have been shown to be ameliorated by the use of wearable fitness

technology (Rupp et al., 2016). Wearable fitness technology has been related to

significant perceived positive health outcomes (Lunney et al., 2016). McFadden et al.

(2021) completed an online survey with college students and found a significant link

between the most motivated group for regular exercise and for regular device use.

Even though college students can often disregard the importance of maintaining a

healthy lifestyle because of various reasons and influences, these individuals are frequent

adopters and users of all different types of technology. Almost all college students own a

2
smartphone (96% of those 18-29 years old) and spend a significant amount of time on

technology (Mobile Fact Sheet, 2021). Wearable technology has been one of the most

prevalent fitness trends in recent years and has the potential to make a positive impact on

an individual’s goal-setting behavior, perceived barriers to engage in physical activity,

and on their motivation levels. College students, with their demanding schedules and

perceived barriers, can benefit from knowing how to bridge the gap between their

psychological and social needs with their physical health. Using the Self-Determination

Theory (2001) and its focus on extrinsic and intrinsic motivational factors, this type of

research is key to programming interventions that promote behavior change and active

lifestyles.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the potential impact that

wearable technology, specifically wearable fitness trackers, can have on increasing

motivation and eliminating barriers to physical activity in college individuals. Data were

collected and analyzed through the lens of Ryan and Deci's (2001) Self-Determination

Theory, including components of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. This theory

proposes that those with amotivation possess the lowest levels of motivation to engage in

physical activity, while those who possess intrinsic motivation have the highest levels of

self-determination and engage in physical activity for the challenge and pleasure

(American College of Sports Medicine et al., 2018).

3
 Research Questions

The following research questions were the focus of this study:

● Q1: What are college students’ feelings about incorporating wearable fitness

technology in support of a fitness regimen?

● Q2: What are the challenges and barriers college students experience while

attempting to incorporate and maintain use of wearable fitness technology in

support of a fitness regimen?

● Q3: What are some successful approaches college students use to incorporate and

maintain use of wearable fitness technology in support of a fitness regimen?

● Q4: Through the lens of Ryan and Deci's (2001) Self-Determination Theory, and

specifically the psychological needs of social connection, autonomy, and

competence (or mastery), how do students incorporate and maintain use of

wearable fitness technology in support of a fitness regimen?

Theory

The epistemological perspective that this study followed is that of constructivism.

Constructivism is a “philosophical view that maintains there are multiple realities, in

which people construct their own meaning of the world” (Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell,

2018, p. 276). Because this study examined how wearable technology could impact an

individual’s attitude, motivation, and perceived barriers towards physical activity, this

was an appropriate theory to apply.

Ryan and Deci’s (2001) Self-Determination Theory represents a broader framework

that studies human motivation. This theory suggests that individuals will seek challenges

4
and become motivated to grow and change when three innate psychological needs are

met: social connection, autonomy, and competence or mastery. To what extent these three

needs are met can be a picture into a person’s motivational status, whether that

motivation is intrinsic or extrinsic or both. This theory will be further discussed in

Chapter 2.

Procedures

A qualitative case study approach was used in this study. A case study can be useful

to employ when there is a need to obtain an in-depth appreciation of an issue, event or

phenomenon of interest, in its natural real-life context (Crowe et al., 2011). For this study,

it was observed how college students implement wearable technology to possibly

increase their motivation to engage in physical activity, as well as their attitudes and

approaches in doing so.

For this study, participants were recruited from two different universities and their

associated required health and wellness course. From University 1, participants were

recruited from Healthy Life Skills. From University 2, participants were recruited from

the Lifetime Wellness course. These courses are traditionally taken by freshmen and

sophomore students, but upperclassmen may also be included in the sample size. These

sites were selected because they both included the demographic of college students 18-24

years old. Data collection lasted for four weeks and began at the beginning of the fall

semester while the courses were in session.

I interviewed and provided questionnaires for ten college students at each university

for this qualitative case study. This selection of participants was appropriate for this study

5
as the purpose was to identify the combination of factors that motivates the use of

wearable technology for those within this age range. Subjects were presented with the

Motives for Physical Activity Measure–Revised (MPAM-R) questionnaire to assess their

motives for participating in any kind of physical activity and used for participant

selection. Students who were not student-athletes were included in the study to better

represent the general population.

Significance of Study

This study intended to contribute to the body of knowledge related to promoting

and maintaining a healthy lifestyle, especially in the area of meeting the recommended

amount of daily physical activity. This study may contribute to the literature that

investigates using wearable technology, specifically fitness trackers, to increase physical

activity and promote a positive behavior change in college students (Haney, 2018).

Research

This study was important because it may reveal potential physical and mental

benefits for the participants. Although some studies have previously examined the effects

of fitness trackers on behavior change in adults, including increasing physical activity

levels, research has not been done extensively for the college population (Easton, 2018;

Haney, 2018; Razon et al., 2019; Zarate, 2017). This study contributed new information

on the possible impact of wearable fitness technology for this specific population.

Theory

Ryan and Deci's (2001) Self-Determination Theory is used often in the field of

study for health and wellness because of its focus on motivation (González-Cutre &

6
Sicilia, 2012). Ryan and Deci (2000) posited that individuals will seek out challenges

meeting three psychological needs, including autonomy, competence, and social

interactions. Previous studies have used this theory in investigating physical activity

promotion and found a positive correlation between the use of wearable technology and

positive behavior changes, including an increase in physical activity (Pope, 2018). This

research supports this theory and can be duplicated for future studies that research fitness

trackers and physical activity.

Practice

This study was significant because of the potential impact that wearable technology

could have on health behaviors, especially among college students who could benefit

from an increase in physical activity. The American College of Sports Medicine (2017)

has stated that the long-term effects of regular physical activity are numerous, including

improved mental health and decreased risk for chronic diseases. The findings of this

study could help the college population meet the recommendations of 150-minutes per

week of moderate-level physical activity set forth by the American College of Sports

Medicine by increasing motivation and adherence through the use of wearable

technology.

Definition of Terms

● Cues to Action: Factors that facilitate the change process (American College of

Sports Medicine et al., 2018).

● Enjoyment/Interest: To be engaged in activity because it is found to be

stimulating, fun, and rewarding (Frederick & Ryan, 1993).

7
 ● Perceived Barriers: Beliefs about the direct and indirect costs of the exercise or

physical activity (American College of Sports Medicine et al., 2018).

● Perceived Benefits: Beliefs about the benefits and effects of exercise or physical

activity (American College of Sports Medicine et al., 2018).

● Physical Activity: Any bodily movement that is generated by the contraction of

skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure (Pribyslavska, 2017).

● Self-Efficacy: Confidence in one’s own ability to perform or complete a task

(American College of Sports Medicine et al., 2018).

● Wearable Technology: Term for a group of devices that are meant to be worn

throughout the day, such as the wrist or hip. Smartwatches and fitness trackers

make up a majority of the devices (Wearable Technology Market Share & Trends

Report, 2023).

Summary and Organization of the Study

Chapter 1 provided an introduction to the study, including the problem statement,

purpose of the study, and the research questions used to guide the study. The chapter also

identified and discussed the chosen qualitative design for the study. Additionally, the

procedures section described how participants were selected and what data were

collected. Lastly, this chapter identified the potential significance of the study to

theory, research, and practice, as well as, provided a definition of key terms used in the

study.

Chapter 2 offers an in-depth review of the literature in order to provide a deeper

understanding of the research topic. The literature explores the history and evolution of

8
wearable technology, its potential advantages and disadvantages for users, and its

relationship with physical activity. The literature also reviews possible reasons why the

implementation of wearable technology in a physical activity regimen could increase

motivation for its users. Finally, it discusses the theory for the study, Ryan and Deci’s

(2001) Self-Determination Theory (SDT).

Chapter 3 presents the methodology of the study. The study’s purpose statement

and research questions will be restated. It also includes the epistemological perspective of

the study, as well as information about the study’s qualitative research design. This

chapter explains the methods procedures, including how participants were selected, how

data were collected and analyzed, and role of the researcher. Ethical considerations are

also discussed.

Chapter 4 presents the findings from the study and what took place during the

data collection process. The chapter describes the research context, participant

descriptions, and narrative descriptions of the research questions. The chapter also

analyzes the data through the lens of Ryan and Deci's (2001) Self-Determination Theory.

Chapter 5 presents an overall summary of the study, as well as a discussion of the

findings. The chapter identifies and discusses conclusions of the study. Limitations of the

study and implications for future research and practice are discussed. Chapter 5

concludes with recommendations for future research about this research topic and closes

with a final summary of the chapter.

9
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Wearable technology has an immense potential impact on the health behaviors,

specifically physical activity levels, among both children and adults. As overweight and

obesity rates continue to rise, the need for an intervention and motivational tool is greatly

needed. As technology has become deeply integrated and highly depended upon in

everyday life, the implementation of technology-based behavior change interventions

which promote an increase in physical activity could present a life-changing tool for all

ages. The key topics laid out in this literature review include a review of physical activity

recommendations and associated benefits, risks of physical inactivity, and the potential

influence of wearable technology, specifically fitness trackers.

Wearable Technology Benefits to Healthy Lifestyle Habits

In recent years, wearable technology has ignited a new mode for behavior change

with the rapid development of information and communication technology. Wearable

technology, especially fitness trackers, identifies and organizes the attributes of mobility

and connectivity so that users can access information conveniently and communicate

with others, often in real-time (Lee et al., 2016). This technology provides quantification

of instant data and interpersonal communication that is highly desired by college

individuals and has been found to be a potential motivator for this population (Haney,

10
2018). As this college-age population currently exhibits increased rates of overweight,

obesity, type 2 diabetes, and other health concerns that are preventable through positive

lifestyle changes, wearable technology could potentially make an impact on increasing

the knowledge and motivation necessary to implement such lifestyle changes (Cha et al.,

2015).

Historical Perspective of Wearable Technology

Although most people would identify today’s wearable devices as “smart” due to

their connection with advanced technology, it is often overlooked that the “smartness”

refers to actually delivering a better experience for the user. The evolution of wearable

devices began before the twentieth century when, in 1266, Roger Bacon outlined the

principles for corrective lenses and created the first pair of smart glasses (Ometov et al.,

2021). Innovations continued in the 19th century when the idea of strapping a pocket

watch around the wrist was introduced and resulted in the first wrist watch (Ometov et

al., 2021).

Wearable fitness technology as it is known today originated in 1965 with the

invention of the Manpo-kei, which translates to “10,000 steps meter” (A Study of Fitness

Trackers and Wearables, 2020). The creator, Dr. Yoshiro Hatano, developed the wearable

with the idea that 10,000 steps were necessary to balance calorie intake and expenditure.

This benchmark of steps is still used in wearable technology today. Fitbit was founded in

2007 by James Park after seeing the potential of putting on sensors, such as

accelerometers, on smaller devices. Fitbit launched its first device in 2009 (Fitbit

History: Founding, Timeline, and Milestones, 2020).

11
 Prices for such devices range from $100-$250 and can help in improving

behavior. Examples of help include supporting change by tracking various health metrics,

including, but not limited to, heart rate, step count, duration of the activity, energy

expenditure, and sleep patterns (Pope, 2018). Current wearable technology devices

available include a wide range of smartwatches. Some of the most popular include the

Fitbit, Polar, Apple Watch, and Jawbone.

The overall wearable technology market is in the billions of dollars and these

devices are commonplace on the wrists of all types of people, ranging from fitness

instructors to kids in an elementary physical education class to serious runners. Although

there was a time recently in which their future was questioned due to the amount of

people discarding their use of them, they are making a comeback.

As stated earlier, the wearable technology market size is projected to grow from

$116.2 billion in 2021 to $265.4 billion by 2026 (MarketsandMarkets, 2021). There are

multiple factors that contribute to this optimistic economic forecast, including the

prospects of newer technology, new forms of wearables, integration of augmented reality,

and more. The recent impact of Covid-19 created a surge in wearable technology usage,

especially in the healthcare sector.

There are many forms of wearable technology available, with one of the main

divisions being in the realm of health and fitness. Worn by both novice and experienced

users, the purposes of using wearables include tracking activity, heart rate, caloric

expenditure, and creating community. Some of the most common devices include Apple

Watch, Polar Watch, Fitbits, and Garmin Watch (Song, 2022).

12
Increasing Motivation with Wearable Technology

Technology has become an inseparable part of daily life. This can largely be

attributed to the need for quick, easily accessible information and communication.

Wearable technology has gained more attention on its potential for promoting health

behavior change.

Self-efficacy alone may not motivate individuals to engage in health-related

behavior (Olahnder et al., 2013). Social influence and feeling belonging to a community

significantly increased the likelihood of enrollment in physical activity classes, and

moderate physical activity was increased by an average of 1.6 days more than the control

group (Zhang et al., 2015). Wearable technology allows users the convenience of

portability while providing reminders, rewards, and motivation for physical activity. Fritz

et al. (2014) found that users who had been using tracking devices for a long term saw

initial value in the devices which initiated a change in habits. Numerical feedback was

seen as a driving factor for moving more throughout the day, and reward systems built

into the software were motivators for added movement. The social aspect of the devices

can be seen as a motivator when they are connected to others with the same types of

goals (Fritz et al., 2014).

Benefits of Wearable Technology to Meet PA Guidelines

Research has confirmed the benefits of meeting physical activity

recommendations for all ages. In addition to reducing the risk for heart disease, regular

physical activity can also lower body fat percentages, reduce anxiety, lower risk of

mental health issues, and improve sleep (Wilkerson, 2018). American College of Sports

13
Medicine recommends 150-minutes per week to reduce the risk of postpartum

depression, gestational diabetes, dementia, falls in older adults, and excessive body

weight (ACSM, 2022). ACSM (2022) also found that single bouts of exercise can

promote improvements in memory, quality of life, and energy levels.

Wearable fitness technology has been found to help facilitate its user in reaching

physical activity recommendations. Haney (2018) found that college females used

wearable fitness technology to increase their physical activity, identify calorie intake and

increase energy expenditure. In a similar study, participants reported that consistently

using a wearable technology device helped to increase confidence and motivation for

engaging in physical activity (Kinney, 2017).

College students represent a population that could potentially benefit from the use

of wearable technology as an intervening tool to motivate, provide goal-setting strategies,

and track physical activity. In an annual survey conducted by the American College of

Sports Medicine, wearable technology had been ranked number one among fitness trends

since 2016. In 2021, it fell to second place as virtual training took the top spot as a result

of Covid-19 (ACSM fitness trends, 2021). Furthermore, 90% of college students use at

least one social media site and have shown interest in the use of technology for

implementing a personal behavior change (Pope, 2018).

Wearable Technology Aiding in Reaching PA Recommendations

Many chronic diseases and health issues that adults experience can be prevented,

alleviated, or reversed by engaging in a regular physical activity program. Research has

found that the more time an individual is sedentary, the higher their risk for premature

14
death, chronic disease, mental health issues, and other conditions (Pope, 2018;

Wilkerson, 2017). This information creates the need for adults to gain the recommended

daily amount of physical activity.

Various studies and organizations have provided effective recommendations for

daily physical activity goals. The most widely recognized recommendation is for all

healthy adults aged 18-65 to achieve a minimum of 30-minutes per day of moderate-level

physical activity on at least five days per week, or vigorous-level physical activity for

20-minutes for a minimum of three days per week (ACSM, 2022). Another physical

activity goal includes obtaining 10,000 steps per day. One study found that when

individuals were given the option of obtaining 10,000 steps per day or walking for

30-minutes, those who chose the step option actually accumulated 2,000 more steps than

those working in the 30-minute bout (Fitzsimons et al., 2012).

Quantified Self Movement

With the growth of wearable technology, a movement has emerged with its

foundation based upon the fact that individuals can collect and analyze data on different

aspects of their personal life. The Quantified Self (QS) movement is a growing global

effort to use new mobile and various wearable technology devices to obtain personal data

about everyday activities quickly, (Lee, 2013). Self-tracking tools, especially fitness

trackers, are now widespread among people who wish to monitor all types of information

about themselves in order to potentially change aspects of their lifestyle for improved

health.

15
Fitness Trackers for Measuring Steps

There are various ways to quantify physical activity with measuring step count

being a commonly used measurement (Bassett et al., 2016). The main recommendation is

for adults to accumulate at least 10,000 steps per day, which is the equivalent of about

five miles. The majority of wearable technology devices, especially fitness trackers,

provide its users with the ability to assess their daily step values. However, it’s important

to also determine the accuracy of these measurements. Studies have examined various

wrist- and hip-worn monitors and their step count accuracy. Step counts measured by the

evaluated fitness trackers have been compared to criterion measures including

pedometers, accelerometers, or manual step counting (Pribyslavska, 2017).

In regards to hip-worm monitors, the Fitbit One underestimated steps when

performed at a lower walking speed, but became more accurate during walking at a faster

speed. The device showed a great deal of accuracy across all speeds with a low error rate

ranging from 1.0% (fast speed) and 3.8% at a slower speed (Storm et al., 2015).

Despite the benefits of walking 10,000 steps per day, a combination of that

recommended step count and a duration of 30-minutes of moderate-level physical activity

may be a better approach (Bottoms, 2021). The 10,000 step count recommendation may

encourage individuals to be more active throughout the day, but steps only count towards

the 150-minute per week recommendation if done at a moderate-to-vigorous intensity

level. Similarly, completing 30-minute of moderate-level physical activity does not

require to be active throughout the entire day. Although individuals may achieve the

16
30-minute goal per day, they could still sit down most of the day which leads to poor

health outcomes.

Fitness Trackers for Measuring Energy Expenditure

Energy expenditure is the amount of energy that a person needs to carry out daily

physical functions such as breathing, digesting food, and exercising. This is an important

measurement that fitness trackers can provide because energy expenditure must be

balanced with energy intake to prevent weight gain (Scott, 2020). While counting steps

may be an easier or simpler way to track physical activity levels, assessing and measuring

energy expenditure could be more valuable and appropriate for weight management.

Evaluating energy expenditure can be accomplished by comparing monitor estimates to

energy expenditure by direct or indirect calorimetry (Pribyslavska, 2017).

The Fitbit is a commonly used fitness tracker and has been studied several times

and can be worn at different locations on the body. Wrist-worn models have been studied

for assessing energy expenditure during all types of exercise and activities. The Fitbit

Flex was found to overestimate energy expenditure during treadmill walking and running

when the subjects could self-select the intensity level, but to underestimate energy

expenditure during rest, resistance training, and stationary cycling. The overestimation

was 40 kcal over 15-minutes and 52 kcal over 20-minutes when running on a treadmill

(Pribyslavska, 2017).

Physical Activity and Exercise Using Wearable Technology. Because the terms

physical activity and exercise can be used synonymously, it is important to understand the

conceptual distinctions between the two terms. To understand the difference is to be able

17
to appropriately interpret and compare results across various types of studies

(Pribyslavska, 2017). While physical activity involves unstructured or unplanned bodily

movements, as in what is required in activities of daily living, exercise is a subcategory

of physical activity and is identified as repetitive, planned, and purposeful movement

(Dasso, 2018).

Physical activity is any bodily movement that is generated by the contraction of

skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure (Pribyslavska, 2017). Physical activity

can be divided into categories based on will (voluntary or involuntary), intensity (light,

moderate, or high), or as parts of everyday life (sleep, leisure, work) (Caspersen et al.,

1985). The amount of energy expenditure can be based on these categories and is greatly

influenced by the extent of participation in each category. Energy expenditure is also

highly affected by personal demographic factors, such as sex, body composition, fitness

status, age, and more (Pribyslavska, 2017).

Exercise also requires bodily movement that results in an increase in energy

expenditure above resting levels. However, exercise differs as it is more structured and

planned for the individual. As goals of exercise differs between individuals, the objective

is to improve one or more components of health-related fitness (cardiorespiratory fitness,

body composition, flexibility, muscular strength, or muscular endurance) or skill-related

fitness (speed, balance, power, and agility) (Pribyslavska, 2017).

Cognitive Benefits to Using Wearable Technology

Some benefits of engaging in physical activity on brain health and cognitive

function can occur immediately after moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. A few of

18
these benefits include lower levels of anxiety, improved mood, and improved sleep

(Real-life Benefits of Exercise and Physical Activity, 2020). Long-term effects of regular

physical activity can also include a lowered risk of depression and dementia. It can also

result in higher performance on academic exams and school assignments, brain

processing speed, and memory (American College of Sports Medicine, 2017; Benefits of

Physical Activity, 2020). Some of these benefits can be especially pertinent to

school-aged children and university students whose cognitive and mental demands are

greater. Mental health issues among this demographic have almost doubled over the past

decade (Eisenberg, 2019). Tyson et al. (2010) found lower levels of anxiety and

depression among those college students who participated in high levels of physical

activity.

All-Cause Mortality

Research has shown that regular physical activity prolongs life, including

cardiovascular disease and some forms of cancer. Studies have found that individuals

who achieve 150 minutes a week of physical activity have a 33% lower risk of mortality

than those who live a sedentary lifestyle (Benefits of Physical Activity, 2020). In

addition, an excessive amount of activity, especially vigorous-intensity activity, is not

required to reduce the risk of all-cause mortality. Benefits begin to appear and increase

with any amount of moderate- or vigorous-intensity physical activity (Benefits of

Physical Activity, 2020).

19
Figure 1

Moderate-to-Vigorous Activity Effects on Mortality

Note: Leisure Time Physical Activity (MET-hours per week). Figure is retrieved from The

Scientific Foundation for the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans (2nd Ed.), n.d.

Health Benefits of Improving Muscular Fitness Using Wearable Technology

Physical activity can promote a higher level of physical fitness, which is

composed of different elements, or health-related components, applicable to all

populations. Health-related components include cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular

strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition (American College of

Sports Medicine, 2017). Improving muscular fitness through increasing daily physical

activity is important for several reasons. For older women who are more susceptible to

osteoporosis, physical activity and enhanced muscular strength can increase bone mineral

density and content, as well as prevent, slow, or reverse the loss of bone mass (American

20
College of Sports Medicine, 2017; Benefits of Physical Activity, 2020). This is especially

important to older adults who have an increased risk of hip fractures, falling, and other

injuries due to poor muscular fitness as they age. Improved muscular fitness can also

decrease the risk of physical function limitations and nonfatal disease.

Reduction in Cardiovascular Risk Factors Using Wearable Technology

The benefits of increasing daily physical activity for overall heart health are

noteworthy as heart disease rates increase. Participating in regular physical activity can

decrease cardiovascular risk factors through the reduction of inflammation, reduced

insulin needs, reduced total body fat, and reduced resting systolic/diastolic pressure

(American College of Sports Medicine, 2017). Several large-scale studies have found a

dose-response relationship between physical activity and cardiovascular disease. Aerobic

activity has an inverse relationship with the risk of premature death from all causes and

specifically from cardiovascular disease and strokes, which are the two leading causes of

death in the United States (American College of Sports Medicine, 2017; Benefits of

Physical Activity, 2020).

Risks of Physical Inactivity and College Population

Given the unique nature of wearable technology, there has arisen a trend for

advocating for the use of technology, including fitness trackers, in the development and

implementation of health behavior change interventions (Welch et al., 2018). While the

benefits of engaging in a consistent exercise program are well-established, college

students often lack the specific knowledge and motivation to engage in exercise, but these

two problems have been shown to be ameliorated by the use of wearable fitness

21
technology (Rupp et al., 2016). In fact, wearable fitness technology has been related to

significant perceived positive health outcomes (Lunney et al., 2016). McFadden et al.

(2021) completed an online survey with college students and found a significant link

between the most motivated group for regular exercise and for regular device use.

Results from the 2007 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System showed that

41% of Americans aged 18 to 24 years old did not participate in any physical activity or

didn’t reach the recommended amount each day (Nanney, 2014). Studies have found

there appears to be a steep decrease in physical activity among young adults, especially

as they enter college settings (Keating et al., 2018). One of the most significant changes

in physical activity levels occur throughout the passage from high school to college with

physical activity levels decreasing up to 63% (Drake, 2018). Because of this lack of

physical activity as a part of their daily routine, the carry-over effects of being sedentary

are more likely to develop into adulthood. Consequently, researchers have suggested that

physical activity should be promoted more heavily during this stage of life (Keating et al.,

2018).

Self-tracking with the use of wearable technology is the action by which the user

voluntarily or autonomously records and monitors features of their daily activities and of

their workouts. This process of gathering data related to daily activities, bodily

movements, and evaluating the data to produce shareable information enforces and

encourages the social experience of the devices (Lomborg & Frandsen, 2016; Pfeiffer et

al., 2016). Wearable fitness tracking can promote physical activity in college students

because of its ability to allow users to track and receive feedback in real-time (Haney,

22
2018). Advances in wearable technology, such as the integration of social media posting

and the use of a web interface, allows users to interact with friends and complete group

challenges (Haney, 2018).

Real-time feedback for the user is a predominant component of promoting

physical activity and exercise in young adults. Sullivan and Lachman (2016) found that

framed messaging through wearable technology is an effective way to increase physical

activity. Feedback and rewards can be used as a motivating tool, and the accessibility of

wearable technology are proving to be a successful factor. Studies are finding positive

results between recorded physical activity and the use of wearable technology (Haney,

2018).

In one study conducted to measure the effectiveness of tracking physical activity

using a wearable fitness tracker over a 6-month period, the researchers found that there

was a significant improvement in the duration and frequency of physical activity

engagement for those participants who had lower levels of physical activity at baseline

measurement (Schrager et al., 2017). In addition, the researchers found improvements in

overall stress.

Al-Eisa et al. (2016) examined the effectiveness of using social media platforms

as a motivation tool to increase physical activity among college females. Using an

Instagram physical activity application, researchers tested the adherence to physical

activity by reinforcing reminders to users to engage in physical activity. Researchers

concluded that the integration of social media could be an engaging and effective tool to

motivate college students to increase their physical activity levels (Al-Eisa et al., 2016).

23
 One of the most commonly applied and effective interventions used to increase

physical activity among adults is the implementation of goal-setting. Goal-setting

involves identifying a specific and desired performance outcome for the individual and

can be used in combination with self-monitoring, social media posting and interactions,

and real-time feedback (Zarate, 2017). Because goal-setting is most often combined with

these other interventions, Normand (2008) researched these components and found if

used together to increase daily steps for adults. The goal-setting procedure for this study

involved subjects setting daily step goals as part of their overall physical activity goals.

Daily steps of the subjects were tracked using a pedometer worn throughout the duration

of the day. Participants reported their daily steps by email and received positive feedback

from the researcher. The study found that all participants increased their daily step count

when the multi-component intervention was used, but then also found a decrease in daily

steps when the intervention was not applied (Normand, 2008).

Wearable Technology Possibilities and Perspectives

As with any self-reporting tool, there are concerns regarding the correct

representation of information. Users who self-report their activities could potentially

misrepresent the correct intensity or duration of their physical activity. Studies have

shown positive health effects that physical activity can provide an individual, even if the

activities are documented by self-report. Sattelmair et al. (2011) reported a dose-response

relationship between self-reported physical activity and the incidence of coronary heart

disease. Those individuals who self-reported a higher frequency of running, cycling, or

24
other cardiorespiratory training had a lower body mass index and risk of hypertension as

well (Pribyslavaska, 2017).

In addition to wearable technology having a potential positive effect on an

individual user, more focus has been placed on its possible impact on students in a

physical education setting. Physical activity and school sports are outlets for students to

engage in an environment that produces increases in fitness levels (Bailey et al., 2009).

Niemiec and Ryan (2009) evaluated school-based interventions with the idea of altering

physical activity intentions and self-reported leisure time physical activity behavior with

the goal of improving physical activity participation. They found that students who

received content from teachers who were supportive ended up reporting stronger

motivations to exercise during free time and engaged in physical education more

frequently.

Accelerometers are mobile devices used to track the number of calories burned,

steps taken, and heart rate and have been used for physical fitness assessments for over

25 years (Ward et al., 2005). Ward et al. (2005) were able to demonstrate how each

functional domain of the accelerometer was used to integrate technology to help increase

students’ physical fitness knowledge through visualization of their own data. The study

results indicated that the accelerometers motivated students to increase their engagement

in physical education classes. The findings noted that the increased engagement and

participation by students were likely due to being able to visualize the calories they

burned, steps, and heart rate after performing push-ups, sit-ups, and a mile run, which are

the most common assessment tests (Ward et al., 2005).

25
Wearable Technology Challenges

The convenience and accessibility of wearable technology devices provide users

with convenient and easy access to their personal health and wellness data. Despite this

ease of accessibility, some reports have indicated that approximately one-third of devices

purchased are not used after a period of 6-12 months even though one in ten American

adults own some form of wearable technology (Lee, 2016). Fifty percent of users who

purchase a Fitbit completely stop using their device within the first two weeks

(Asimakopoulos et al., 2017). Attention and more research is needed to discover why

users abandon wearable devices, especially considering their popularity and market

growth.

In regards to its impact on college students, some studies have found little or no

significant effect on the increase of physical activity. Specifically, Kim et al. (2019) and

Melton et al. (2016) investigated whether the use of smartwatches would increase the

physical activity levels and found no difference from the control group. However,

skepticism exists for these studies as neither established a health behavior change theory

or evaluated any change in personal demographics (Pope, 2018).

There has been limited research on the use of wearable technology among college

students. However, more focus and research has been applied to populations, such as with

older adults. Observations from these studies have been mixed with conflicting results.

Wang et al. (2015) found that the Fitbit and text messaging prompts to increase physical

activity among overweight and obese adults were only effective during the first week of

the study. Conversely in a 2015 study, researchers found a significant increase in physical

26
activity levels over a 16-week period among overweight and obese postmenopausal

women (Pope, 2018).

An important issue to address is the validity and reliability of wearable

technology devices, especially fitness trackers. In a review conducted by Evenson et al.

(2015), researchers examined the validity and reliability of the Fitbit and Jawbone

devices because they are among the most popular fitness trackers. Their research found

that the two devices have a strong validity during laboratory-based tracking, but a

moderate to strong validity when tracking freely during daily activities. This review also

found that both devices underestimated energy expenditure for its users (Evenson et al.,

2015). In another study, similar conclusions were found when researchers evaluated a

wider range of devices. Bunn et al. (2018) came to the conclusion that the devices

underestimated energy expenditure, as well having a moderate to strong validity rating

for the devices included in the study. These findings regarding the validity and reliability

of wearable devices cannot be understated as their integration into the healthcare system

has increased, especially during the Covid-19 pandemic.

Consumer and User Challenges of Wearable Technology

As the market growth of wearable technology continues to rise, so does the

potential increase in legal issues, product liabilities, and political policies. The wearable

technology market size is projected to grow from $116.2 billion in 2021 to $265.4 billion

by 2026 (MarketsandMarkets, 2021). Trailblazers in the industry include Fitbit, Apple

Watches, and GoPro, while more devices are premiering each year. Alongside the

27
increase in value has been the rise in concerns over various consumer aspects associated

with user privacy, data sharing, and product safety.

In 2014, the International Privacy Conference stated in a publication that a large

volume of data, or big data, should be treated as personal data (Ah Kim, 2016). Examples

in this personal data include an individual’s social security number, email address,

location, and images. There are several security vulnerabilities presented by wearable

technology that are not always apparent to the user. One of the most common security

breaches occurs when the transfer of information from the device is dependent on

Bluetooth. When the device cannot connect to the internet using Bluetooth, an attacker

can use sniffers to steal unauthorized data by detecting the broadcast signal (Ching &

Singh, 2016).

Product liability is another concern that has initiated the attention of the Consumer

Product Safety Commission. In 2014, there was a recall of over one million units of the

Fitbit Force when it was stated that the devices could cause skin irritation from the metal

casings, adhesive, or materials used in the strap (Ah Kim, 2016). Although Google Glass

seems like a commercial failure and is no longer a popular device, it did raise crucial

concerns. In recent years, the device was banned in several public establishments because

of its ability to videotape third parties (Eveleth, 2018).

Wearable Technology and Its Role in Increasing Physical Activity

Even though college students can often disregard the importance of maintaining a

healthy lifestyle because of various reasons and influences, these individuals are frequent

adopters and users of all different types of technology. Almost all college students own a

28
smartphone (96% of those 18-29 years old) and spend a significant amount of time on

technology (Gramlich, 2020). Wearable technology has been one of the most prevalent

fitness trends in recent years and has the potential to make a positive impact on an

individual’s goal-setting behavior, perceived barriers to engage in physical activity, and

on their motivation levels. College students, with their demanding schedules and

perceived barriers, can benefit from knowing how to bridge the gap between their

psychological and social needs with their physical health. Using Ryan and Deci’s (2001)

Self-Determination Theory and its focus on extrinsic and intrinsic motivational factors,

this type of research is key to programming interventions that promote behavior change

and active lifestyles.

Self-Determination Theory

As various barriers to physical activity exist, personal motivation is a commonly

cited barrier by adolescents and adults. Research has discussed the importance of

understanding how motivation can regulate and influence the initiation of physical

activity (Wilson et al., 2004). Ryan and Deci’s (2000) Self-Determination Theory (SDT)

is an often applied theory in the health and wellness domain because of its focus on

motivation (Gonzalez-Cutre & Sicilia, 2012). This macro-theory establishes different

motivational variables that could lead to behavioral and cognitive outcomes. The theory

posits that individuals will seek out challenges to meet three basic psychological needs,

including autonomy, competence, and social interactions (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Autonomy is an individual’s desire to be self-dependent and possess a high level of

self-efficacy. Competence is a person’s mastery of skill or of their performance and

29
equates to feeling effective and capable. Lastly, the need to belong to a community or

have satisfying relationships is the third component of this theory (Pope, 2018). As these

needs are progressively met, an individual will most likely continue to engage in the

chosen behavior or challenge.

This theory can serve as a guide to understanding physical activity behavior

(Nanney, 2014). In one study, the researchers tested the applicability of the SDT in the

context of physical activity. Subjects were surveyed on their life goals, motives to engage

in physical activity, exercise participation, and exercise behavior regulation. The

researchers hypothesized that exercise behavioral regulation could predict exercise

participation, which could test SDT. Intrinsic regulations significantly predicted exercise

behavior among the subjects. These results confirmed the applicability of the SDT

continuum in its context of physical activity (Nanney, 2014).

30
Figure 2

Self-Determination Theory

Note. The figure is adapted from Ryan and Deci’s (2001) Self-Determination Theory

(Cook & Artino, 2016).

Connection of Theory to Study

Wearable technology can be a useful and effective platform for introducing an

intervention to increase engagement in physical activity, especially to illicit

self-motivation among users. In 2020, one in five adults said they regularly wear a

smartwatch or a fitness tracker (Vogels, 2020). College students represent a special

population that could potentially benefit from the use of this type of technology to

facilitate improved physical activity behaviors. The attributes that wearable technology

31
possess, such as connectivity and mobility, allows users to access their information

instantly, as well as online. This population, being tech-savvy and possessing the desire to

connect with others through social media and technology, could potentially increase their

engagement in physical activity through the more consistent use of wearable technology.

The convenience and practical utility of wearable technology devices can enable users to

track their progress towards daily and long-term goals, as well as compare their progress

and statistics with others through specific online platforms (Pribyslavska, 2017).

Movement technology, such as the Fitbit, is quickly increasing in popularity. Movement

technology includes the measurements and recording of movement, such as steps,

distance traveled, calories burned, and duration of exercise (Nanney, 2014).

Motivation Categories

Ryan and Deci (2000) proposed that the extent to which the three psychological

needs are met may provide a picture of an individual’s motivation status, which ranges

along a motivation continuum. This continuum ranges from amotivated to intrinsically

motivated. Intrinsic motivation is the most desirable level because it is thought to exist

when a person chooses to engage in the behavior or activity for reasons beyond external

reasons (Kilpatrick et al., 2002).

Types of Motivation. There exist different types of motivation.

(a) Amotivation–lack of motivation for engaging in an activity or behavior.

(i) Non-Regulation–a person is not motivated by or does not value the

behavior or activity and, therefore, does not apply any effort towards the

behavior or activity (Pope, 2018). Ryan and Deci (2000) further elaborate

32
 that this state is related to a learned sense of helplessness and any lack of

intention to change a behavior.

(b) Extrinsic Motivation–motivation exists for possible engagement in behavior or

activity, but motivation can vary from external to internal demands.

(i) External-Regulation–engagement in activity is most likely done so to meet

an external demand, such as a reward or to avoid a punishment (Lox et al.,

2014).

(ii) Introjected-Regulation–engagement in behavior or activity is most often

done to avoid guilt or anxiety regarding not participating, as well as to

receive possible praise from others (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

(iii) Identified-Regulation–engagement in behavior or activity becomes

important to the individual and has new value in the individual’s life

(Pope, 2018).

(iv) Integrated-Regulation–engagement in behavior or activity has become of

great personal value to the individual (Pope, 2018).

(c) Intrinsic Motivation–engagement in the behavior or activity not only aligns with

the individual’s personal values, but they would need no external motivation to

participate (Pope, 2018).

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy, the belief in one’s own self that they can successfully perform a

desired task or behavior, plays a vital role in behavior change and is the foundation for

motivation and action (Bandura, 2004). Those with high self-efficacy are most likely to

33
expect positive outcomes and view challenges as opportunities and something they can

overcome. Williams and colleagues conducted a study where a 7-Day Physical Activity

Recall was given at baseline, 6 months, and 12 months and psychosocial variables, such

as self-efficacy, were measured at 6 months. They found that self-efficacy measured at 6

months was a good predictor of physical activity maintenance at 12 months (Wilkerson,

2017).

Self-Determination Theory Related to Wearable Technology and PA

Ryan and Deci’s (2001) Self-Determination Theory (SDT) has been widely

researched in the area of physical activity and how it can be applied to an individual’s

motivation. Teixeira et al. (2012) provided evidence for the positive relationship between

self-determined motives to engage in physical activity and weight-loss and

weight-management long-term. Researchers also found that the subject in this study

reported a higher level of satisfaction and enjoyment in the exercise. These findings

support the importance of intrinsic regulation, as well as how their feeling of confidence

and finding the physical activity rewarding contributed to weight management (Teixeira

et al., 2012).

In another study, Ryan et al. (1997) studied the effectiveness of intrinsic

motivation versus extrinsic motivation when applied to exercise adherence. Subjects

joined either an aerobics class or a tae kwon do class, which were both done in a college

setting for 10 weeks. The subjects could attend as many times as they wanted to each

week while their adherence to each class was noted and compared. The researchers found

that the tae kwon do participants were significantly less likely to stop attending and

34
reported a higher level of enjoyment and competence. These results support the SDT and

reaffirm that intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, and interest produce the greatest adherence

(Ryan et al., 1997).

Ryan and Deci’s (2001) Self-Determination Theory is based on the assumption

that human beings have an innate tendency to seek out challenges, to explore their

environment, to learn, to grow, and to develop social connections. According to this

theory, intrinsic motivation can be impacted by three psychological characteristics:

competence, autonomy, and relatedness, which are tied to basic psychological needs

(Ryan & Deci, 2002).

In the context of physical activity, SDT predicts that individuals will have greater

intrinsic motivation for physical activity if, by being physically active, they can fulfill

their needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2002). In other

words, as suggested by SDT, perceived competence at physical activity, physical activity

autonomy, and relatedness during physical activity are expected to be associated with

intrinsic motivation for physical activity and subsequent physical activity behavior.

Wearable technology could possibly have a positive impact on competence, autonomy,

and relatedness for its users.

Chapter 2 Summary

Chapter 2 provided an overview of the increasing rate of overweight and obesity

levels in the United States and how the lack of physical activity adherence has led to the

issue. First, the chapter reviewed the current physical activity recommendations, as well

as the benefits associated with achieving those daily movement goals. Next, it was

35
discussed how the relationship between physical inactivity and obesity can negatively

affect an individual’s health and quality of life. Barriers to exercise were also identified,

especially among college aged students which is applicable to this study. The chapter also

introduced the trend of wearable technology and its potential benefits in improving

physical activity levels. Previous research has indicated that the integration of fitness

trackers can sometimes positively influence a user’s physical activity levels, but more

research needs to be done. Chapter 3 introduces the methodology in this qualitative study.

It includes the research design, research questions, methodology section, data verification

strategies, and limitations of the study.

36
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

This chapter covers the research design of the study, including site and participant

selection. In this chapter, I also discuss the research design and reasoning for why a

qualitative design is being applied. The methodology section includes the rationale for

participant recruitment at the university and the criteria for how participants were

recruited and included. The instrumentation section includes the data collection

instrument, how interviews were conducted, and the procedures for data collection. The

data analysis section includes the type and procedure for coding. This chapter continues

with an explanation and discussion on ethical procedures, which include how participants

were approached and treated, IRB approvals, data collection, treatment of collected data,

data confidentiality, and any conflicts of interest that may exist.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the potential impact that

wearable technology, specifically wearable fitness trackers, can have on increasing

motivation and eliminating barriers to physical activity in college individuals. Data were

collected and analyzed through the lens of Ryan and Deci's (2001) Self-Determination

Theory, including components of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. This theory

37
proposes that those with amotivation possess the lowest levels of motivation to engage in

physical activity, while those who possess intrinsic motivation have the highest levels of

self-determination and engage in physical activity for the challenge and pleasure

(American College of Sports Medicine et al., 2018).

Research Questions

The following research questions were the focus of this study:

● Q1: What are college students’ feelings about incorporating wearable fitness

technology in support of a fitness regimen?

● Q2: What are the challenges and barriers college students experience while

attempting to incorporate and maintain use of wearable fitness technology in

support of a fitness regimen?

● Q3: What are some successful approaches college students use to incorporate and

maintain use of wearable fitness technology in support of a fitness regimen?

● Q4: Through the lens of Ryan and Deci's (2001) Self-Determination Theory, and

specifically the psychological needs of social connection, autonomy, and

competence (or mastery), how do students incorporate and maintain use of

wearable fitness technology in support of a fitness regimen?

Research Design

Epistemological Perspective

The epistemological perspective that this study followed was that of constructivism.

Constructivism is a “philosophical view that maintains there are multiple realities, in

which people construct their own meaning of the world” (Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell,

38
2018). Because this study examined how wearable technology could impact an

individual’s attitude, motivation, and perceived barriers towards physical activity, this

was an appropriate framework to apply.

Qualitative Approach Description

The purpose of qualitative research was to provide rich descriptions about the

phenomena under study as they occur in their natural environment (Sousa, 2014).

Qualitative approaches are similar in their goal because the intent is to gain a better

understanding of a specific phenomenon from the experiences of the individuals

experiencing it (Haney, 2018). In this study, participants shared their lived experiences

with wearable technology within the three psychological components of Ryan and Deci’s

(2001) Self-Determination Theory.

Qualitative Design

To explore the lived experiences of college students and their use of wearable

technology, a qualitative case study approach was used. The case study is used as “an

intensive description and analysis of a phenomenon or social unit such as an individual,

group, institution, or community” (Merriam, 2002, p. 8). According to Yin (2014), case

study research involves the study of a case within a real-life, contemporary context or

setting. A case study design was used to richly describe how wearable technology can

possibly improve motivation, competence, autonomy, and connection. A case study

methodology is designed to ask open-ended questions, such as “how” and “why?” (Yin

2014). The goal of the research questions for this study was to gain a deeper

understanding on the effects of wearable technology on one’s intrinsic and extrinsic

39
motivation towards physical activity. Qualitative research design is described as a method

used to collect narrative data without the use of statistical analysis (Privitera &

Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2018). Merriam (2002) described qualitative researchers as those who

pursue a better understanding of the meaning people have construed from their own

experiences.

Methodological Procedures

Research Context

The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the potential positive impact

that wearable technology can have on increasing motivation and eliminating barriers to

physical activity in college students. Participants were recruited from two different

universities and each university’s undergraduate health and wellness course. These

courses are traditionally taken by freshmen and sophomore students, but upperclassmen

were also included in the sample size.

Participant Selection

Students interviewed were identified and selected by using purposive sampling.

Purposive sampling is used for the selection and identification of information-rich cases

(Palinkas et al., 2013). Previous studies have used a purposive sampling strategy for

college student participants. In a study conducted by Sharma et al. (2016), a purposive

sampling method was used to select young college females 18-22 years old who met the

sample criteria for their study. Researchers in that study stated the purposive sampling

allowed them to recruit participants who had experiences in nutrition, knowledge of fruit,

and vegetable consumption. They also indicated that purposive sampling was

40
successfully used to select information-rich participants who added rich texts to the

phenomena of their study.

Participants were selected based on their enrollment in the general education

health and wellness course at the universities. Those in the sample were 18-24 years old

and of all fitness and physical activity levels. I interviewed 10 college students for this

qualitative study. This selection of participants was appropriate for this study as the

purpose was to identify the most effective motivators for use of wearable technology for

those within this age range, as it has been observed that physical activity declines during

this season of life.

Data Collection

Wearable technology is currently a burgeoning area of research in the field of

health and wellness; therefore, different methodologies will be implemented. To explore

students’ experiences and perceptions about wearable technology, different tools were

used to collect data, including the MPAM-R questionnaire and one-on-one interviews.

Participants were given the MPAM-R questionnaire prior to selection to determine their

levels of motivation to engage in any type of physical activity. Every college student,

who gave consent, was asked a few demographic questions about themselves and then

interviewed later to examine and explore their experiences and perceptions of integrating

wearable technology in their intended or current physical activity regimens. Following

this questionnaire and participant selection, interviews were conducted on a one-on-one

basis.

41
Interviews

It was necessary to perform interviews for this study to gain insight from each

participant on what motivates them intrinsically and extrinsically, their personal

perceived barriers, and how they would describe their self-efficacy when applied to

physical activity knowledge and performance. Interviews are the most common format of

data collection in qualitative research (Jamshed, 2014). This study used a semi-structured

format because preset questions, open-ended questions will be presented to the

participants. Interviews were scheduled after contacting each participant through their

university email. Each in-person interview was held on a day and at a time that best

suited the participant and researcher while giving special attention to not interfere with

students’ course schedules. Interviews were held on each university campus at locations

that were easily accessible and would provide a quiet enough environment to not interfere

with the audio recording. Students at University #1 met in the lobby of their university

wellness center. Students at University #2 met at the coffee shop located on campus.

Interviews were recorded using the Voice Memos app on the researcher’s iPhone.

Participants were made aware that they were being audio-recorded.

Interviews were transcribed the same week that actual interviews took place using

Sonix. The accuracy of the recording and the transcript was sent to the participant via

their university email to be checked for accuracy. They could add or delete comments if

necessary. Informed consent forms were provided to students upon their arrival. Each

interview began with an overview of the study, completion of the informed consent, and

42
the opportunity for each participant to ask questions. Each interview was allotted thirty to

forty-five minutes. Questions that were presented can be seen in Appendix E.

Documents

Motives for Physical Activity Measure - Revised (MPAM-R). Subjects were

also presented with the Motives for Physical Activity Measure–Revised (MPAM-R)

questionnaire to assess their motives for participating in any kind of physical activity. The

MPAM-R is a 30-item scale that assesses five different motives for physical activity.

These five motives include fitness, appearance, competence, enjoyment, and social

(Frederick & Ryan, 1993). Within the MPAM-R questionnaire, there are measurements

for intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. For example, the competence scale measures

intrinsic motivation while the social scale measures extrinsic motivation (Ryan et al.,

1997). Fitness and health motives refer to engaging in physical activity with a goal of

becoming physically strong, healthy, and energetic Appearance motives refer to physical

activity engagement with the goal of becoming more physically attractive, reaching a

goal weight or building muscle (Ryan et al., 1997). Competence motives refer to the

desire to gain or master a new skill, improve performance, or meet a challenge. Social

motives are to be physically active to make new connections and friendships. Finally, the

enjoyment motive is becoming more physically active because it is fun, stimulating, or

interesting (Ryan et al., 1997). For the purpose of this study, the focus was on

competence, autonomy, and social motives.

These were administered for the additional purpose of participant selection and

done in paper format. This questionnaire was important to administer in this study

43
because the researcher can use the results to highlight how motives for physical activity

engagement and adherence were either intrinsically or extrinsically oriented, thus relating

back to satisfying SDT basic needs competence, autonomy, and connection. Results of

this survey can be seen in Appendix G.

Table 1

Data Collection Table

Data Collection Specific Information

Research Questions Method Collected from Method

Q1: What are college students’ feelings Interview Interview Question Q1 (a)
about incorporating wearable fitness Document MPAM-R: Autonomy (2,7,11,18,22,26,29)
technology in support of a fitness MPAM-R: Competence (3,4, 8,9,12,14,25)
regimen? MPAM-R: Connection (6,15,21,28,30)

Q2: What are the challenges and barriers Interview Interview Questions Q2 (a-d)
college students experience while Document MPAM-R: Autonomy (2,7,11,18,22,26,29)
attempting to incorporate and maintain use MPAM-R: Competence (3,4, 8,9,12,14,25)
of wearable fitness technology in support MPAM-R: Connection (6,15,21,28,30)
of a fitness regimen?

Q3: What are some successful approaches Interview Interview Question 3 (a)
college students use to incorporate and Document MPAM-R: Autonomy (2,7,11,18,22,26,29)
maintain use of wearable fitness MPAM-R: Competence (3,4,8,9,12,14,25)
technology in support of a fitness MPAM-R: Connection (6,15,21,28,30)
regimen?

Q4: Through the lens of Ryan and Deci's Interview Interview Questions Q4 (a-f)
(2001) Self-Determination Theory, and Document MPAM-R: Autonomy (2,7,11,18,22,26,29)
specifically the psychological needs of . MPAM-R: Competence (3,4,8,9,12,14,25)
social connection, autonomy, and MPAM-R: Connection (6,15,21,28,30)
competence (or mastery), how do students
incorporate and maintain use of wearable
fitness technology in support of a fitness
regimen?

Data Analysis

An important phase of qualitative research is the data analysis process. This process

helps researchers organize and begin to evaluate their collected data by coding, mapping,

44
describing patterns and themes (Ngulube, 2019). Because qualitative data is collected

from limited sources, it requires an extensive amount of data and a way to organize and

analyze the data (Ngulube, 2019). The data in this study consisted of transcribed

interviews and the Motives for Physical Activity Measure — Revised.

The researcher is the main data collection instrument in qualitative case study

design. Stake (1978) maintained that the case study research method was best

used when adding to an existing experience and humanistic understanding. Similar to

Stake’s explanation of case study research method, Yin (2014) described the case study

method as a preferred research method when the “how” or “why” research questions are

addressed, a researcher has little or no control over behavior and the focus of the study is

mainly exploratory. The goal of case study research was to rely on the participants’ views

of the situation (Yin, 2014). Yin (2014) also emphasizes the importance of the exactness

of transcribing what participants have said.

Interviews were transcribed the same week that actual interviews took place to

maximize recall and to facilitate follow-up and identify gaps in the research. Sonix was

used to transcribe the interviews. Sonix is a highly accurate, automated transcription that

supports dozens of languages, dialects, and accents (Sullivan, 2022). After transcribing

the interviews, I used verbatim responses to discover codes and themes. Organizing this

data was done on an Excel spreadsheet. Data was pre-coded by highlighting and listing

the various repeated words and phrases found within the data. The repeated words and

phrases were recorded on an Excel spreadsheet to determine what primary topics were

seen in the data. The initial coding was started by identifying, reflecting, and exploring

45
the emergent information of the data to saturation through descriptive coding (Mania,

2022).

A list of codes was created to identify the different topics found in the data. Codes

were copied and organized into an Excel spreadsheet according to topic. The second

cycle of coding began by using “codes generated from the literature and theory to analyze

the data for similarities” (Mania, 2022). The list of codes was used to create a second

cycle of coding. The list was used to explore the different topics and major terms related

to competence, autonomy, and connection and their relationships to wearable technology.

The list of codes was grouped by similarities and fit into five different themes.

These themes became the major findings of the study. They answered the research

questions and led to the research conclusions. Data were reread and reviewed with the

themes in mind and then the data was cut and stacked to determine if changes were

needed (Mania, 2022). Data analysis included assigning pseudonyms, securing data

collected, and ensuring proper interpretations of data collected. Information gathered

during the data collection phase was kept confidential by using pseudonyms to identify

all students interviewed, as well as their associated university.

In addition to the data collected through participant interviews, the MPAM-R

questionnaire also provided data for each individual regarding their motives to engage in

physical activity. The three subcategories of autonomy/enjoyment, competence/mastery,

and social/connection were all calculated the same way by finding the sum of each one.

Scores allowed the researcher to see which of the three areas each participant placed

more importance on.

46
 The information was secured by either keeping data collected in the researcher’s

possession or a locked file cabinet in the researcher’s office or home. Multiple

perspectives and contrary findings were reported and addressed to ensure accurate

interpretation of the data through member checks and collaboration with colleagues and

peers. In this research study, meaning was constructed by gathering college students’

experiences through documents and personal interviews.

Researcher Role

My proposed study in which I examined the effects of wearable technology,

specifically fitness trackers, on behavior change among college students is qualitative. As

an instructor in a Kinesiology and Health Studies department and as a fitness

professional, I acknowledged that I potentially carried a confirmation bias because I hold

a strong belief that this type of technology can increase physical activity and promote

other healthy behavior changes. To prevent the influence of this bias, I carefully

expanded my sample size to those also outside of the athlete community and included all

backgrounds of physical activity history, as well as withheld any verbal cues or

encouragement to subjects suggesting the potential impact of such technology.

Ethical Considerations

The Belmont Report of 1979 recommends three principles for the ethical conduct

of research involving human participants, including respect for persons, beneficence, and

justice (Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2018). Respect for persons means that the

participants in this study will be treated as autonomous agents and be able to make

informed decisions about their choice to participate (Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2018).

47
Beneficence means that it is my responsibility as the researcher to minimize the risk and

maximize the benefits (Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell, 2018). Justice means that all

participants in the study will be treated equally and fairly (Privitera & Ahlgrim-Delzell,

2018).

Data Collection Ethics

Data collection ethical considerations included, but were not limited to obtaining

IRB approval, soliciting participants for the study, and gaining access to the sites and data

collection. The informed consent process was well-described, and steps were taken to

minimize coercion or undue influence. All interviews were conducted outside of the

participants’ course schedule to prevent any schedule conflicts. Also, the researcher was

careful to address how data will be secured, stored, and protected during the data

collection and analysis process; this included the length of time data was stored.

The study was presented to the Institutional Review Board at Southern Nazarene

University and met the rigorous standards to be an approved research project. This

research was approved due to the ethical considerations that included maintaining the

confidentiality of the participants’ names by providing pseudonyms. Lastly, the data was

carefully secured, stored, and protected during the data collection process. Security and

protection of the data was achieved by using the Qualtrics online application to create the

research tool and send to participants that is password protected.

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Data Analysis and Interpretation Ethics

To follow data analysis and interpretation ethical standards, I reported any

contrary findings during my study. When completing the interpretation of data, the use of

regular procedures was important, so it was done properly and accurately.

Data Verification Strategies

One purpose of qualitative research is to gain understanding of shared lived

experiences both past and present. The goal of trustworthiness in the study was for the

researcher to accurately represent experiences of others.

Credibility

Credibility refers to the accuracy and honesty of the participants’ experiences and

the researcher’s interpretation of those reported experiences and how they are reported

(Cope, 2013). Cope also suggested that a qualitative study is considered credible if other

individuals can quickly and easily identify the same experiences in their own lives.

Member checking allows subjects to read their transcribed interviews for accuracy

before the next step of data analysis occurs, which allows for more authenticity of the

study (Houghton et al., 2013). Each participant was given a copy of their transcribed

interview with an option and encouragement to contact me with any concerns or

questions.

Participants were identified and selected using purposive sampling. The purposive

sampling allowed for the recruitment of students who could share their experiences about

wearable technology. Other studies have used a purposive sampling strategy for this

population. In a study by Sharma et al. (2017), a purposive sampling method was used to

49
select college students aged 18 to 22 years old who met the sample criteria for their study.

The researchers indicated that purposive sampling was successfully used to select

information-rich participants who added rich texts to the phenomena of their study.

Transferability

Transferability refers to the practice of transferring findings from one study to

another study (Cope, 2014). When researchers can use contents and ideas of a study for

their own study it is considered to satisfy the measure of transferability (Haney, 2018). In

this study, transferability was created by using the data collected from interviews and

reporting a detailed description of the experiences of the subjects in the results.

Suggestions were also provided for ways that the results from this study can be tested by

other researchers examining the same topic and similar research questions (Colorafi &

Evans, 2016).

Dependability

Dependability refers to the constancy of the data over like conditions. It also

consists of the observable and documented research methods process that ensures that the

findings of the study are consistent and reproducible (Cope, 2014). Transcribed

interviews in this study were uploaded into Sonix. This software transcribes audio to text,

which made it easier for me to code the data into an Excel program and to further

discover themes.

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Confirmability

Confirmability is the researcher’s ability to show that the data accurately represents

the participants’ responses and not that of the researcher’s biases or viewpoints (Cope,

2014). An audit trail was also included in this study. Interview transcripts were also

offered to participants as an optional review for member checking.

Table 2

Trustworthiness Table

Credibility Examples Results

Member checks Participants will receive Participants received transcripts

transcripts to check for accuracy and a chance to ask questions.
and an opportunity to provide
clarification.

Transcripts of interviews Transcripts provide authenticity. Verbatim interview transcripts

completed.

Transferability Examples Results

Thick description Include portraits of individual Demographics recorded.

participants, their perspectives,
description of their networks,
how those networks may be
engaged.

Dependability Examples Results

Sonix Sonix can be used to efficiently Rich insights and clearly

transcribe responses and analyze articulated information.
the interviews.

Audit trail All documents will be available Documents stored and locked for
for audit, including interview requested audits and for
transcripts and interview confidentiality.
protocol.

Confirmability Examples Results

Member checks Participants will receive Transcript provided.

transcripts to check for accuracy
and an opportunity to provide
clarification.

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 Limitations of Study

A purposive sampling method was used, making the scope of the study limited to

only this sample population. The participants were recruited from two local universities

and may not represent the overall population of college students. In addition, a sample

size of ten participants may not represent a large population.

The academic year had the potential to pose issues with scheduled breaks and

events for students. These breaks in the schedule could have also caused changes in

physical activity motivation levels. There was also the potential for courses moving to an

online format due to Covid-19 precautions, which could have led for interviews to move

to an online format.

The Motives for Physical Activity Measure - Revised (MPAM-R) was used to

assess participants’ motivation to take part in physical activity. This instrument relies on

student self-reports and can be subjective. One drawback of the MPAM-R is how

students would want to be portrayed according to each of the responses they record.

Chapter 3 Summary

In this chapter, the purpose statement and the research questions were reintroduced.

The research design was discussed in detail which included the qualitative approach.

Chapter 3 also discussed the importance of the role of the researcher, including

eliminating any biases. The section on methodology discussed participant selection and

recruitment. The data analysis plan was also discussed, along with the choice of NVivo

software for transcribing and coding. Chapter 4 includes the information on the

52
interviews, interviews, setting, and demographics. Chapter 4 also includes the data

collection, data analysis, and evidence of trustworthiness.

53
 CHAPTER 4

FINDINGS

The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the potential impact that

wearable technology, specifically wearable fitness trackers, can have on increasing

motivation and eliminating barriers to physical activity in college individuals. Ryan and

Deci’s (2001) Self-Determination Theory was used as the theory for the study and

provided a lens to explore the lived experiences of young college students and their use

of wearable technology, including constructs such as social connections, autonomy, and

competence. Data were gathered from 10 college students during individual face-to-face

interviews. The participants detailed their experiences surrounding their use of wearable

technology related to social connections, autonomy, and competence. In this chapter, a

thorough explanation of the interview process, a synopsis of the participants, how data

were collected, the data analysis process, the study’s findings, and themes that emerged

through the data analysis process are included. The interviews were guided and presented

as they relate to the main research questions.

Data Presentation

Permission was granted through the IRB process to recruit and interview

participants from two Oklahoma universities. Once permission was obtained from the

54
Department Chair at each university, the instructor for the identified courses at each

university were contacted by the researcher with more details about recruitment. These

details included how students would be contacted, purpose of the study, assurance that

the study would not interfere with regular class times, and how the instructor would play

a part in the study. Course instructors were asked to provide email lists of the students so

that I could request participation. There were 10 students who successfully completed

each step of the study ranging from signing the Informed Consent to participating in the

face-to-face interview.

Research Context Description

The focus of this qualitative study was to examine the perceptions and

experiences of college students surrounding their use of wearable technology in physical

activity and exercise. Participants in this study currently attended two undergraduate

universities in the Oklahoma City area. Participants represented every classification level

from freshmen to seniors. Both universities were meeting fully in-person and were no

longer making necessary changes due to Covid-19.

University 1

This university was a public, four-year institution located in Central Oklahoma.

Its highest degree offered is a Master's degree. The 2023 tuition and fees was $8,233 for

Oklahoma residents and $19,121 for out-of-state students. The school offered both

undergraduate and graduate programs and a total of 13,250 students were enrolled. It

offered 204 major programs through online and on-site education where fourteen

programs were available through distance learning (College Statistics, 2023). This

55
university offered numerous resources in facilities, opportunities, and equipment in

regard to physical activity. The campus had a multi-purpose wellness center that included

amenities such as equipment rentals, group fitness, personal training, outdoor climbing

wall, weight room, indoor track, basketball courts, and more.

University 2

This university was a private four-year institution located in Central Oklahoma.

Its highest degree offered was a Master’s degree. The 2023 tuition and fees was $21,316

for undergraduate students. The school offered both undergraduate and graduate

programs and a total of 482 students were enrolled. It offered 23 major programs through

online and on-site education where one program was available through distance learning

(College Statistics, 2023). Its campus offered a small weight room available to students

and staff, but limited on other amenities.

Participant Descriptions

The 10 participants in this study included both males and females with an age

range of 18-24 years old. Each participant was identified and selected based on

purposive sampling. The purposive sampling allowed the researcher to find college

students who could provide information about their experiences with wearable

technology. All participants were current undergraduate students at their university and

currently used some form of wearable technology as part of their physical activity

regimens. All participants were born in the United States except for one participant who

was an international student from England. Participants were selected based on voluntary

56
interest. All college students who participated in the study are referred to using

pseudonyms.

Participant Profiles

Austin. Austin was a 24 year old senior. His preferred wearable technology was

the Apple Watch. He said the main reason for this Apple Watch adoption was for the

convenience it provides. Austin’s main form of physical activity is basketball and also

said he uses the music features of his wearable technology when he works out at the gym.

On the MPAM-R questionnaire, Austin scored a 47 subcategory of autonomy/enjoyment,

which indicated that this was his highest motive to engage in physical activity.

Eric. Eric was a 21 year old junior who preferred the Apple Watch over other

devices. Eric explained that he uses the Apple Watch because it is the device he is most

comfortable with and because it is the most popular among his friends. Eric frequently

links his device to his social media accounts and said that increases his motivation to be

active. However, he also said that having his device interact with social media can

decrease his motivation because “there are so many distractions on social media. Like

you could go from a workout video to a girl in a bikini like that.” Eric scored a 38 in

competence/mastery which indicated to be his strongest motive.

Alice. Alice, 24 years old, was a senior at her university. Alice has been a

cheerleader for several years and now coaches younger children in the sport. Alice

explained that she uses the Apple Watch because she owns Apple “everything else” so

her device easily connects to other devices. Out of all of the participants, she had the

most discussion about device adherence issues. The issues arise, she explained, “arise

57
because the device wristband interferes with the movements involved in gymnastics and

cheerleading.” On the MPAM-R questionnaire, she scored the highest on competence,

mastery with a score of 38.

Courtney. Courtney was a 24 year old senior. Her preferred device was an Apple

Watch because “it syncs to iPhone apps which are needed for school and work.” Courtney

discussed that she is very active and grew up as an athlete so uses her device often for her

workouts. She scored highest in competence/mastery on the MPAM-R questionnaire with

a score of 36.

Abbi. Abbi was 24 years old. She was a current senior at her university. Abbi

scored highest on the autonomy/enjoyment subcategory with a score of 49. As an Apple

Watch user, she preferred this device because:

You can track lots of different things on it, not just fitness. But like what you eat.

It can help you set reminders like when to work out or different things like that. It

can even track how much you sleep.

Presley. Presley was a 20 year old sophomore. She preferred the Apple Watch

over her previously used Fitbit because she can receive iPhone notifications on her Apple

Watch, whereas the Fitbit didn’t have that capability. Presley also identified Instagram

and Facebook as the social media platforms she shares her completed workouts on. On

the MPAM-R questionnaire, she scored highest in competence/mastery with a score of

38.

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 Micheal. Micheal, a 24 year old senior, worked with high school athletes,

specifically track and field. A runner himself, he preferred the Garmin Watch. Micheal

uses the Garmin Watch because:

My friend was using one and I saw kind of how they were using it and I thought it

was kind of cool. And then I didn’t really want to do the Apple Watch because it

didn’t seem like it was made for runners. And the Garmin Watch seems to be

specifically branded towards running more and working out so I did that.

Micheal continued by identifying Strava as his preferred application because of its

ability to map out running routes using GPS, which then links to his Garmin Watch. His

strongest motivation was shown to be autonomy/enjoyment with a score of 40.

Layla. Layla was a 19 year old sophomore from Heath, Texas. She was an Apple

Watch user and on the university archery team. She explained that the archery team did

not engage in a lot of physical activity or “fitness stuff” so she used her device more often

for her personal workouts. She explained one drawback she has experienced to utilizing

wearable technology is:

If I'm running I constantly try and look at my watch to see where I’m at, like all

the time. So sometimes that does get in my head or slow me down because I’m

trying to stop and look at the watch.

Her strongest motivator, according to the MPAM-R questionnaire score of 43, was

competence/mastery.

Matt. Matt, a senior, was a 21 year old international student. He played soccer

most of his life and also played collegiate-level. Matt scored highest in the

59
competence/mastery subcategory with a score of 49.Matt preferred the Apple Watch,

explaining:

Whenever I work out, I always start my tracker. You could download an app on

the Apple Watch that’s called Nike Tracker, I think, and that can track runs, walks,

soccer, weight lifting. And it incorporates tracking your calories and beats per

minute, stuff like that.

Madison. Madison was an 18 year old freshman. She chose to use the Apple

Watch after abandoning her usage of the Fitbit. She explained she mainly uses her device

when she works out and to count her steps. Madison’s highest motive was

autonomy/enjoyment with a score of 39.

Table 3

Participant Profile Summary

Participant Gender Age Classification Preferred WT

Austin M 24 Senior Apple Watch

Eric M 21 Junior Apple Watch

Alice F 24 Senior Apple Watch

Courtney F 24 Senior Apple Watch

Abbi F 24 Senior Apple Watch

Presley F 20 Sophomore Apple Watch

Micheal M 24 Senior Garmin

Layla F 19 Sophomore Apple Watch

Matt M 21 Senior Apple Watch

Madison F 18 Freshman Apple Watch

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Narrative Description

The study explored data through four research questions. The first three questions

are discussed in the narrative description while the fourth is discussed in the theoretical

analysis. Each research question is answered by providing supportive data collected

through interviews and survey results.

Q1: Student Perceptions and Feelings

The first research question of this study is: What are college students’ feelings

about incorporating wearable fitness technology in support of a fitness regimen? Some

participants discussed more extensively than others about their feelings and perceptions

and how they incorporate their wearable technology into their workouts. However, three

perceptions were mentioned consistently: (1) relationships and connectivity, (2) access to

real-time feedback and data, and (3) impact on autonomy.

Relationships and Connectivity. Promoting and nurturing social connections

through wearable technology can be an effective tool in fostering physical activity

engagement. Past research (Haney, 2018) has also examined how college students can

feel more motivated to be physically active when they feel connected to their family or

friends. Participants in this study also spoke to that finding and this study examined the

same potential outcome. Participants spoke to their experiences of feeling less or more

connected to others because of their wearable technology.

Social Connections. Although this subcategory on the MPAM-R questionnaire

showed to be the lowest motive in engagement in physical activity, participants addressed

their positive experiences in connectedness that they have experienced. Participants

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identified different modes of feeling connected, including virtually and in-person with

friends and family.

Layla shared her positive experience:

I think [wearable technology] improves my social connection more by, you know,

college gets busy and if I haven’t talked to my sister in a while so I will compete

with her and I’ll be like ‘get that ring closed’ or, you know, it gives me a little bit

more to maybe have a chance to talk to my sister when I haven’t talked to her as

much lately or something.

Participants repeatedly discussed how they used features on their devices such as

syncing their workouts with others, sharing or posting their workouts on social media,

and building connections through competitions or challenges provided by mobile

applications. Matt shared, “If you’re in a team of people [on an app], it’s a good way to

have a competition. And competition builds relationships in your team.”

A limited number of participants in this study talked about their preference to

sync their devices with their social media accounts. The two social media platforms

identified by name were Instagram and Facebook. Matt mentioned that he likes that he

can still get his Instagram notifications on his device, which helps him to stay connected

to others while working out. Presley also said, “I like getting notifications through

Instagram and Facebook.” Austin said, “You can post on social media and be used to not

only motivate yourself, but also motivate other people.”

These shared experiences of the use of wearable technology by the participants

identified the desire to belong to a community to connect to other people through social

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networking for encouragement and self-efficacy related to their health behavior and

meeting their health-related goals.

As I interviewed participants, some of them indicated that the connection aspect

of their devices was a driving feature for their usage of the device. Community and

accountability were results of wearable technology deemed important by some, but not

all, participants. Micheal discussed his experience and feelings:

I use it when I run and I’ll have another running app where I can log it and it’s

kind of like a social media kind of thing for running. People can like how your

runs are and see how far you go or track your progress a little bit. And then you

can kind of encourage people through liking their run. The app kind of connects

you to all the people that connect their watch to the app. It’s fun to see that.

Eric also shared, “I think it does help me connect to others because you can, like,

say you post something on social media and people are like, I want to do this too. It’s just

a good way to connect you with other people.”

Social Disconnections. Participants shared levels of self-awareness in how their

wearable technology could have a negative effect on their social connections. Austin

explained:

I try to block out everybody. For example, I go to Vasa Fitness or something and

there’s too many people in there, I just don’t want to talk to anybody. So I put my

headphones in, lock the world out.

Matt shared a similar perspective on how his wearable technology could cause the

feeling of disconnection by saying:

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 If you have technology [to use by] yourself, I feel like it can really help you. But

if you’re in a group with people, you can maybe be more focused on yourself and

how you feel like you’re doing and how your watch is basically telling you how

you’re doing rather than connecting with a group of people that you’re working

out with. You can be more focused on your technology.

Courtney also shared her experience of feeling disconnected to others who don’t

perform at the same level: “So if someone’s not active, then I feel like that you wouldn’t

really feel connected to them because they’re not really in that area with you in your

life.” Abbi commented on a similar experience, “You can get down on yourself when you

see what others are doing.”

Access to Real-Time Feedback. Wearable technology monitors physical activity

and displays data for an individual to receive instant feedback. These devices use sensors

to measure and organize data, including steps taken, miles completed, calories burned,

and heart rate during physical activity (Haney, 2018). Participants in this study discussed

how they prefer using the analytics when engaging in different activities. Matt discussed

this:

During workouts, I like to start my tracker and it tells me my beats per minute and

my calories [burned] and that really helps because you can see how hard you’re

working and whether you’re pushing hard enough or if you’ve got room left to

push more. And I think that’s really helpful.

The Apple Watch was the preferred wearable technology for 90% of the

participants. The Apple Watch provides real-time data and feedback through tracking

64
user steps, tracking calories burned, and energy expenditure during workouts. This

wearable technology device is unique as it has a dual-core processor featuring stand,

move, and exercise rings that gives the user a visual of daily movements and can be

shared with friends (Haney, 2018). Alice, an Apple Watch user stated, “Closing the rings

is my goal for each day. They make me want to get up and walk or exercise for 30

minutes just to reach my daily goal.”

Another Apple Watch user, Micheal, discussed how he mainly uses his device to

monitor and focus on his Vo2 during workouts. Presley and Madison also commented on

the Apple Watch features of real-time data and feedback by stating they use their device

to track their heart rate during exercise.

Participants commented on how they integrate their wearable devices into their

running routines, as well as the real-time tracking of their routes. Micheal said:

I use it when I run and I’ll have another running app where I can log it and it’s

kind of like a social media thing for people running. It tracks my heart rate, tracks

how far I go. I didn’t really want to do the Apple Watch because it didn’t seem

like it was made for runners. And the Garmin Watch seems to be specifically

branded towards running more and working out. [On Garmin] I like looking at my

Vo2 levels that the watch tracks. And so when I’m running or working out over

the span of weeks or months, the Vo2 max may increase or decrease by a point of

two.

Abbi shared her experiences about her wearable device and its real-time feedback

by saying:

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 I think it’s a lot easier to, like, listen to music whenever you have a watch instead

of your phone and be able to have earbuds or something. Then it’s just easier to

track your workout. You don't have to pull your phone out and look or have…a

stopwatch or anything like that. It’s already just there on your wrist. Everything

you could need is just so much more accessible.

Impact on Autonomy. Participants identified ways in which wearable technology

enhanced or reduced their autonomy over their physical activity choices. The use of

wearable technology showed to impact their autonomy by presenting different barriers or

challenges. It also improved their feeling of autonomy and control through being able to

self-govern their own workouts.

Increase in Autonomy. Presley stated, “Knowing where I’m at and where I want

to go makes me feel more autonomous.” Madison also noted the positive impact wearable

technology has on autonomy, “[Wearable technology] helps you keep track of your own

personal workout time instead of other people telling you what to do.”

Matt also discussed how incorporating his device into his workouts provided him

an aspect of being able to self-govern his workout intensity. He shared:

Well, if I don’t have my watch on, I’m always wondering, like, how hard am I

working? Am I working out hard enough? Am I pushing myself where I should

be? And obviously, when you’re trying to work on specific things, like, I don’t

know, like sprinting or aerobics or anaerobic, you can see where your heart rate is

and that is going to tell you and identify to you where you are. And if you need to

slow down, speed up, maintain.

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 Decrease in Autonomy. Although the majority of participants explained how their

devices provided a positive impact on their autonomy and feeling like they are

self-governing their physical activity, there were a few comments that highlighted a

negative impact. Abbi shared how breaking her device led to feeling less in control

during her workout. She said, “One time I was doing a v-up type workout and I hit my

watch on the ground and it broke my screen. So that sucked. But other than that, I think

they’re better built now.”

Q2: Challenges and Barriers

The second research question of this study is: What are the challenges and

barriers college students experience while attempting to incorporate and maintain use of

wearable fitness technology in support of a fitness regimen? Participants identified and

elaborated on different challenges and barriers they experience in attempting to

incorporate and maintain use of their wearable technology. Some challenges and barriers

were frequently mentioned among participants, including (a) tracking inaccuracies, (b)

battery life or keeping it charged, (c) being distracted by their device or its notifications,

and (d) mental barriers created by their devices.

Tracking Inaccuracies. A feature that is commonly used by wearable technology

users is being able to track routes during different types of cardiovascular exercise, such

as running. Micheal noted that this was one of his major challenges because running is

his physical activity of choice. He said, “There may be problems if you’re indoors and

running on a treadmill.” He added that it’s been his experience that when he runs on a

treadmill or track indoors that the GPS on his wearable device is inaccurate.

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 Alice shared a similar experience, saying:

If you’re out of range with your phone, it does not work well. And then

sometimes, like, I feel like it doesn’t fully track everything that I’ve done. Like

I’ll go and run and it’s like paused. I’m not paused. I’m still running. So I think

there’s just a little bit of flukes in them.

Layla commented on the human error aspect of tracking issues she has

experienced. She said,

So like personally my watch, I have to like, start it when I work out. So if I don’t

start it sometimes, then I’ll miss all of the workout until I remember to start or

until it reminds me to start it. So sometimes I feel like I’m not getting all of my

stats out of it because I forgot to start it.

Device Access. One challenge that was repeated among participants was keeping

their device’s battery charged so they could use it when needed. Alice and Madison both

stated that keeping their devices charged was a challenge and that their workouts “didn’t

count” if it did not record on their device. Alice stated:

Usually I’m pretty good about wearing it. Like I wake up and just automatically

put it on. But if I don’t charge it at night, then that’s a different scenario. But

usually…if I go to the gym and I don’t have it on and I feel weird…I feel naked

without it.

Mental Barriers. Participants also explained how their wearable devices actually

created mental barriers and challenges. Matt said:

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 If you think you’re working hard and you’re not. I think mentally that can affect

you when you’re working out because you feel like you’re doing well. But when

you look at your wrist, you’re not doing as well as you think you are.

Abbi also shared how the data and real-time feedback on her device can affect

her, “When it’s linked to social media…seeing everyone else be successful and then

you’re like, crap, ok well, I’m not as good or whatever. So then you get down on

yourself.” Courtney shared a similar experience saying, “It can be demotivating to see

you’re not doing well.”

Distractions. Participants also spoke to the issue of their wearable technology

ultimately becoming a distraction to their motivation and during their fitness routines.

Distractions mentioned included notifications and trying to adjust or read the device

during physical activity. Courtney said, “When my [wearable technology] goes off, I just

get distracted from what I’m doing and then just all my attention goes towards my

wearable technology.”

Matt added his own experience with trying to view his device during workouts:

The one thing I’ve found hard is when you try to look at your beats per minute

when you’re doing workouts and it takes a little bit to read it. So like when you’re

doing rounds and stuff and you have a short break, you can’t wait there for two

minutes to wait for it to read how long or how fast your heart is beating. I think it

could be a little quicker than that.

Presley also shared how her device can become a distraction while she is

engaging in physical activity:

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 Sometimes when I’m working out, if I get a notification from...social media, I feel

like it can be a bit distracting sometimes, but I just look at it and then see it’s not

anything important and keep going.

Adherence Issues. Another issue that was discussed was abandoning planned

workouts or activities if participants did not have their devices, especially if they could

not record their data or track different analytics. Alice discussed their challenge of being

limited to when their wearable technology could be worn. Alice explained:

Sometimes I want to wear it in my [activities], but my watch won’t stay on my

wrist during some of the stunts or tumbling that I do. So I feel like it’s a big

challenge for me because a lot of the time, this [activity] is my only workout for

the day.

Q3: User Strategies

The third research question of this study is: What are some successful approaches

college students use to incorporate and maintain use of wearable fitness technology in

support of a fitness regimen? Participants discussed different ways they incorporate and

maintain use of their wearable technology. Some of these strategies included logging

workouts by starting applications on devices, using devices to find and maintain

accountability with peers or family, and syncing music apps.

Logging Workouts. A repeated method that was identified was ensuring that

their fitness trackers were started prior to an activity or workout. Matt said, “Whenever I

workout, I always start my tracker.” Alice elaborated on this:

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 I’m usually pretty good about wearing it. I wake up and just automatically put it

on. But if I don’t charge it at night, then that’s a different scenario. But usually, if

I go to the gym and I don’t have it on, I feel weird. I feel naked without it.

Micheal likewise successfully integrates his Garmin Watch into his workouts:

I use it when I run and I’ll have another running app where I can log it and it’s

kind of like a social media thing for running and people kind of see like how your

runs are and see how far you go or track your progress a little bit. And then you

can kind of like encourage people through liking their run or whatever.

Madison also commented on how she tracks and logs her workouts on her device.

She said, “If I start timing when I’m like running and start timing runs. The more you

run, the longer you run.” Layla also uses the tracking feature and finds it beneficial

saying:

It tracks all the stuff for me. So it wouldn’t be something that I would have to go

back and think like what was this specific workout or this amount of calories or

stuff like that. Or…if I’m running, it’ll tell me the distance and I won’t have to try

and map it out beforehand.

Matt continued to speak upon his experience and strategies as the interview continued.

He added:

I always have it on my wrist. So I know as an athlete, I have practice at 2:00 every

day. So I make sure I start it at the start of practice and end at the end. And I can

see how hard I’ve worked.

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 Accountability. As participants spoke about engaging in physical activity on their

own or with a group of people, a need to gain or provide accountability was identified.

Wearable devices can provide accountability through different outlets provided by

wearable devices, including applications, opportunities to encourage others or extend

invitations to join, and through structured or casual competitions.

Matt commented on how he uses his device to stay accountable with his peers:

I just feel like they’re a great way to track yourself. It’s a good way to help each

other as well because your mates can see how you’re doing. If you had a group

and if there’s someone straggling behind you, you could always encourage them

because you can see their stats, and stuff like that is a good way to track yourself

and to keep your friends accountable.

Abbi also found that accountability improves adherence and motivation to

workout. Abbi said, “You can massage someone from [your device] to come workout

with you.” Courtney also stated, “others can keep you accountable.” Layla also shared

her experience of how her device can improve accountability:

I think that it’s kind of like a good idea to kind of make a community because for

me, like I’m a competitive person. So if I’m competing with somebody to…close

my rings first, then I’m more…motivated to close them.

Micheal also explained how he found accountability through his wearable device,

especially when his running routes are posted on synced apps. He said:

Other people can see [running routes] and then other people around the area or my

friends like see me running around that area. They’ll say…hey I also run around

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 that time too, so then we can get into a group or something. Running in groups is

usually much easier than running alone.

Music Apps. Listening to music through the means of wearable technology also

proved to be a successful strategy for some. Eric spoke about how incorporating the

music feature on this wearable device is an approach he finds successful. He said, “It just

kind of really blocks out the noise. It helps me focus and lock in more on what needs to

be done.” Austin and Layla both also stated that they frequently used the music

applications on their devices to increase motivation. Layla said, “You can listen to music.

I like listening to music when I’m working out.”

Data Analysis

Data analysis is presented in two different sections. First, the fourth research

question will be discussed through the lens of the Self-Determination Theory. Second, the

themes generated following the transcription of the interviews will be presented. The data

developed the following themes: (a) social influences and barriers in using wearable

technology, (b) impact on user motivation towards physical activity, (c) wearable

technology features, (d) effects on user knowledge and competence, and (f) impact on

user autonomy. The following discussion of themes demonstrates how wearable

technology impacts college students as seen through the lens of the theory.

Theoretical Analysis

Three of the research questions that guided this qualitative study were addressed

in the previous section. The fourth question of this study is: Through the lens of Ryan and

Deci’s (2001) Self-Determination Theory, and specifically the psychological needs of

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social connection, autonomy, and competence (or mastery), how do students incorporate

and maintain use of wearable fitness technology in support of a fitness regimen?

Ryan and Deci’s (2001) Self-Determination Theory establishes different

motivational variables that could lead to behavioral outcomes. The theory proposes that

individuals will seek out challenges to meet three psychological needs, including

autonomy, competence, and social interactions (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Each of the

elements are discussed based on the theory and the data collected in the subsections that

follow.

Autonomy

Autonomy is an individual’s desire to be self-dependent and possess a high level

of self-efficacy (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The majority of the participants interviewed gave

insight into how wearable technology negatively or positively affected their autonomy

and self-governance over their physical activity. Their experiences revealed how they

perceived having either low or high self-efficacy over their physical activity choices and

routines.

Positive Impact. Madison discussed how wearable technology increased their

feelings of self-governing and control, “It helps you keep track of your own personal

workout time instead of other people telling you what to do.” Presley echoed a similar

statement saying that their wearable technology helped them to “know where I am in my

fitness levels or where I am in the activity and that makes me feel more autonomous.”

Autonomous motivation can be defined as engaging in a behavior because it is

perceived to be consistent with one’s own intrinsic goals or outcomes. Austin, Alice,

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Matt, and Madison identified their daily goal of “closing the rings” on the Apple Watch,

which motivated them to be active each day. Other participants identified features of

wearable technology that they used on a regular basis in order to meet their goals and to

take ownership of their physical activity. Austin said, “My wearable technology can track

how many miles you run or steps you took.”

Competition to Self and Others. Participants identified how their wearable

technology challenged them to improve upon previous workouts and data they received.

Wearable technology provides different real-time feedback and data to its users

depending on which applications or features the user chooses or is automatically

provided. Micheal said he “likes to see where I can improve.”

Matt talked about how he mimics one of his favorite professional athlete’s

routines of comparing results to peers and teammates, as well as his own daily results.

Matt said:

I watch a professional footballer…him and his players, him and his teammates

and they compare their results of resting heart rate, how much they’ve rested,

calories, bpm, stuff like that. So it’s good to compare and have a little

competition.

Abbi also mentioned the competitive factor in her interview, “Me and my friend,

Kayla, used to try to beat each other at challenges all the time.” Later in the interview

Abbi also explained:

I like the challenge thing and being able…to track everything you do so that no

matter what you’re honest about what you’re doing. So if you’re a part of some

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 sort of a fitness challenge, especially for a prize, I think that’s really good because

you can see what other people are doing and that will motivate you or even tell

you how much harder you need to work to obtain the prize that you want.

Presley spoke about the real-time competition she holds with herself while she is

working out. She explained, “One thing that I’ll do whenever I go for a run, I like to

watch my pace on the Apple Watch to see…how fast I need to pick it up or how slow I

need to take it down a bit.”

Negative Impact. Courtney shared how wearable technology can negatively

impact their motivation and autonomy, stating, “Sometimes competition [from

applications on wearable devices] isn’t a good thing. It can bring people down, feel left

out, and less motivated.” This participant also said “it can be demotivating to see you’re

not well on your stats and workout.” Abbi shared the same experience, “You can get

down on yourself when you see what others are doing and comparing yourself to them.”

Matt shared a similar negative experience:

If you think you’re working hard, you’re not. I think mentally that can affect you

when you’re working out because you feel like you’re doing well. But when you

look at your wrist, you’re not doing as well as you think you are.

Matt commented on his negative experiences and perceptions later in the

interview:

Some people are obviously more active, so you could say you could have better

scores. So you feel like sometimes a competition isn’t a good thing in the fitness

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 world. It can bring people down and make people feel like left out and less

motivated.

Competence

Competence is a person’s mastery of skill level of their performance and will

impact self-efficacy levels (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Participants discussed how wearable

technology could impact their competence, which is the feeling of becoming more

proficient at a skill or performance. According to Ryan and Deci (2000), competence can

be positively or negatively impacted by performance feedback. This is an important

consideration when examining performance feedback provided by wearable technology.

Positive Impacts. Participants shared different experiences and perceptions of

how their devices positively impacted their competence and performance. Micheal

explained how the use of his wearable device improves his competence and feelings of

skill mastery:

It’s important to have [wearable] technology helping you because it gives you

more information about your body, your fitness and like your workout regimen.

And so there’s apps I use and the watch helps with those. So I like it a lot.

Abbi explained how she can feel more competent or improved at a skill by

incorporating her device into her workouts:

I definitely think there's a lot of apps that are available that you could even follow.

If you don’t know what you’re doing, [apps] can help you and explain or give you

guidelines or even about running. There’s apps that coach you through what

you’re doing or when to stop and when not to run.

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 Presley also shared how using wearable technology can help increase her feelings

of improved performance and competence in her workouts:

So one thing that I’ll do is like whenever I go for a run, I like to watch my pace on

the Apple Watch to see like how fast I need to pick it up or how slow I need to,

like take it down a bit. So I really like to use that [feature] as well as watching my

heart rate. So I know like my Vo2 max and where I’m at on that. It definitely

makes me feel more knowledgeable knowing just where I’m at and how I’m

improving. I definitely like to after workout, I’ll take a picture of my watch so I

know next time I just need to do a little better.

Negative Impact. Out of all of the interviews, one participant revealed how his

wearable technology doesn’t make a significant or positive impact on his physical

activity or competence. While this participant discussed how music apps improve his

motivation to be active, he didn’t find the same experience for his performance. Austin

said, “I mean, like, I’ll download some apps of, like, stretching, possibly mobility, stuff

like that. But as far as wearable things go, no, I don’t feel like it helps my workout.”

Sleep Tracking. In addition to using devices to track their fitness data,

participants also used their wearable devices to track sleep patterns and durations. Presley

stated:

I also do like to use the sleep app to know like how well a night of sleep I got. So

if I didn’t get very good sleep last night, I like to use that to know, okay, if I’m off

a bit in practice, that’s probably why. So that is another app that I kind of do like

to use just to feel more like knowledgeable about how I’m doing.

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 Abbi also indicated that she uses her wearable device to track her sleep, but not as

consistently as she would like because she usually has her device on a charger overnight.

Both participants discussed how they made the connection of sleep quality or duration to

their physical activity performance.

Micheal also used his wearable device to track his sleep patterns and discussed

how this feature is set up for users:

My Garmin Watch has an app that lets us log it and we can pay a little bit extra

like a subscription fee and we can get more data. And this data can kind of help us

track our sleep habits.

Social Connection

The third component of Ryan and Deci’s (2001) Self-Determination Theory is the

individual’s desire to belong to a community or establish a level of social connectedness.

College students desire opportunities to participate in social interactions while engaged in

a certain behavior/activity (Pope, 2018). Haney (2018) discussed the advances in

wearable technology, such as the integration of social media posting and the use of a web

interface, which allows users to interact with friends and complete group challenges.

Positive Impacts. Presley said they used wearable technology to “connect with

others at the same fitness level.” Austin stated a similar preference, “I feel more

connected knowing [friends] are running at the same pace or level.” Participants

continued to share positive experiences using their wearable technology to connect with

others. Micheal said, “There are times when using an app or a tracker, people can say ‘I

run over there too’ and you can meet new people that way.” In regards to feeling a part of

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a community, Layla and Matt both discussed how using the competitive aspect of some

forms of wearable technology can help them meet new people, build new relationships,

and provide accountability.

Negative Impacts. Participants also commented on how wearable technology can

have a negative impact on their social connections. Layla shared that “it’s not fair when

competing with someone if one person had more time to be active.” Other participants

had similar statements in their interviews. Matt said, “You can get more focused on

yourself and what your [wearable technology] is telling you rather than connecting with a

group of people you’re working out with.”

Lack of Desired Features. Participants also shared how their wearable

technology did not have the features necessary to connect with other people. Madison

said, “With the [Apple] watch alone, you can’t connect online with others.” Another

participant, Austin, emphasized that he frequently listens to music through his device, but

not all music streaming services are offered on his Apple Watch.

Social media platforms, such as Instagram and Facebook, were only mentioned a

couple of times by participants. Austin said, “Notifications from social media can be

distracting when working out.” Abbi stated that she used social media platforms to share

her workout online and with friends.

Thematic Analysis

The qualitative research approach and case study research design were applied to

the process of data analysis and theme identification by interviewing students who

currently incorporate some form of wearable technology into their physical activity

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regimen or plan to do so. Once the interviews were gathered, they were transcribed. After

transcribing the data using Sonix, I used verbatim responses to discover codes and

themes. Excel spreadsheets were used to organize the data. Questions and responses were

reviewed for coding and to identify themes for the narrative description. Deductive

coding and inductive coding were used to generate the five themes that will be discussed

in the following sections.

Theme 1: Social Influences and Barriers

Participants were asked to describe how wearable technology positively or

negatively impacted their social connection with others. According to interviews,

wearable technology plays an important role in connecting with others, especially those

who may be engaging in similar physical activity. Some of the most frequently occurring

comments were about how wearable technology allowed them to connect with others

through different features on the technology.

Positive Social Impact. Virtually working out with other people allowed for

social interaction and pushed the participants to work towards meeting their physical

activity goals. Eric and Presley also discussed the impact of the type of people with

whom they surround themselves as influencing their own physical activity behaviors.

Micheal discussed how they find it much easier to virtually run with other people instead

of feeling like they were running on their own. Matt explained that the social

relationships he developed and maintained through wearable technology devices

provided him a competitive push to engage more frequently or intensely in his physical

activity. Participants found camaraderie in syncing workouts through their wearable

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devices even if they were not physically running or working out together. Presley stated,

“I definitely felt more connected knowing we’re running at the same pace based on what

our watches say.”

More than half of the participants described the beneficial aspect of wearable

technology to connect with their peers and others who engage in similar physical activity.

Austin shared how he has experienced positive social connection through his wearable

device by saying:

There are times when using my app and fitness tracker I can see where other

people are running and then you can kind of meet up with people sometimes and

meet new people that way. You can encourage other people by liking their run or

workout.

Courtney said, “Fitness trackers and apps help me connect with my sister through

competition.” Interviewees identified a variety of positive ways that their wearable

technology increased their feeling of being connected to others. Layla said, “It’s a good

way to build community.” And Austin added, “I feel more connected knowing that we are

running at the same pace or at the same fitness level.”

Presley shared a similar perception, “I think it helps me feel connected…when

I’m working out with my team, knowing where they’re at and I can compare it to where

I’m at and see if we’re at the same level.” She continued:

I think it helps me improve by knowing…to pick certain girls to run with because

I know that I can run at the same pace as them and at the same time. So it helps

me connect more to certain girls because I know I can keep up with them.

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 Negative Social Impact. Some interviews identified reasons that their wearable

technology negatively impacted their social connections. Courtney said, “You could get

more focused on yourself and what your watch is telling you rather than connecting with

a group of people you’re with.” Other interviewees shared similar experiences. Austin

shared, “I block others out when I’m focusing on an app and my wearable technology.”

Matt also stated that “you can be more focused on your technology.”

Theme 2: Impact on User Motivation

Motivation, competition, and goals were all common topics among participants.

A majority of participants identified the different ways that wearable technology

increased their motivation to be more physically active. Alice said, “Technology keeps

me motivated to go workout because looking at it reminds me that I need to go do it.”

Matt echoed, “It’s my goal to fill my rings everyday.”

Extrinsic Motivation. Although the majority of participants identified intrinsic

motivational factors from wearable technology, one participant mentioned an extrinsic

motivational factor. Abbi shared, “Fitness challenges on wearable technology can

motivate you especially where there is a prize.” Although she didn’t recognize any

specific challenges or prizes, she said, “Me and my friend used to, like, try to beat each

other at challenges all the time.”

Intrinsic Motivation. While an extrinsic motivational factor was identified by a

participant, several statements were made contributing to the intrinsic motivational

factors from using wearable technology. Abbi said, “I’m very competitive and it taps into

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that.” Austin stated, “You can track how many miles you run or steps you take, post on

social media, and this can be used to motivate yourself and also others.”

Matt elaborated on how he uses his device’s features to increase his motivation.

He said:

On my home screen here, it tells me how many calories I’ve burned, how long

I’ve stood for, how long I’ve been active for. And my aim is to fulfill all those

rings every day. So that keeps me going.

Layla identified music as a contributing motivational factor for when she

workouts as did Austin. They discussed how their Apple Watch allows music to be

played through certain applications, such as Spotify, on their phones.

Competition Factor. Other motivational factors were discussed by the

participants. The knowledge that their own activity levels were less than that of their

peers, also motivated them to become more physically active. Different participants

commented on how being able to see others’ physical activity endeavors motivated them

to complete their own workouts at a higher level. Eric stated, “On the Apple Watch you

can sync and compete against a friend. So sometimes we have competitions and it's really

fun and it definitely pushes me to workout a lot more often than I usually do.”

Participants found the competition feature to be an important part of sharing their

workouts to help motivate them to be more physically active.

Goal Setting. There was a repeated occurrence of interviewees referring to the

relationship between their daily goals and using wearable technology. The most common

goal mentioned was closing the Apple Watch activity rings. Matt said, “My goal is to fill

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rings everyday.” Layla added, “My wearable technology shows if I hit my goals for the

day.” Madison and Alice also referenced closing their rings as a goal each day.

Theme 3: Features and Challenges

Participants were asked to discuss any barriers and challenges that existed in

adopting and using their wearable technology. Through these open-ended questions,

interviewees identified different features of wearable technology that affected their

adoption and usage patterns. Some issues were echoed by numerous participants, while

other participants cited specific issues personal to them.

Real-Time Feedback. The most common features of wearable technology that

were identified were its ability to track heart rate, track sleep, incorporating the ability to

listen to music, and displaying calories burned. Madison said she consistently uses the

heart rate tracker. Matt added, “I start my tracker and it shows my bpm and heart

calories.”

Participants discussed how they preferred the features of wearable technology

where they had a visual representation of their activity level to determine how close they

were to their goal that day or over a certain period of time. The most common feature that

was identified by participants was the Apple Watch rings, for which the daily goal is to

close the three display rings. The middle green ring is the exercise ring and has a default

setting of 30-minutes of physical activity per day, usually met with some form of

intentional exercise (Kozuch, 2021). This goal also aligns with the physical activity

recommendations set forth by the American College of Sports Medicine.

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 User Challenges. On the other side of these perceived benefits were identified

challenges of using wearable technology, especially those challenges specific to physical

activity. “It’s hard to read when you’re working out. You would have to stop to see it

clearly,” said Matt. Alice and Madison both commented that they experienced the

challenge among participants was remembering to keep it charged or charging it

overnight.

Tracking Issues. Micheal discussed the challenges of tracking indoor activities

versus outdoor activities. This participant stated that they noticed tracking and data errors

on their wearable technology when comparing their indoor and outdoor workouts. Alice

also identified “flukes in tracking activity,” but did not identify if it was related to

geographic locations. It was discussed how sometimes their devices will not track their

steps or miles during physical activity. Participants identified their annoyance by these

types of issues and felt like their undocumented steps did not count.

Reduction of Barriers. Another positive aspect that was mentioned by

participants was the easily accessible data and feedback, which led to greater user

satisfaction and reduction of barriers to engage in physical activity. Abbi said:

I think it’s a lot easier to, like, listen to music when you have a watch instead of

having your phone and being able to have earbuds or something. And then it’s just

easier to track your workout. You don’t have to pull your phone out and look at a

stopwatch or anything like that. It’s already just right there on your wrist.

Everything you could need is just so much more accessible.

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 Presley shared about the convenience of using her wearable technology, “I do like

to use my AirPods as well as the Apple Watch. And I like that with the Apple Watch,

like, you can change your music on your watch while you’re still running.” Layla also

shared about how it reduces physical activity barriers:

So, like, when I’m doing a workout, it tracks all that stuff for me. So it wouldn’t

be something that I would have to go back and think, like, this was the specific

workout or this amount of calories or stuff like that. Or, like, if I’m running, it’ll

tell me my distance and I won’t have to try and map it out beforehand.

Matt said, “I think one barrier that can be reduced is wondering how hard you’re

working. As I’ve said, because you’ve got it all on your wrist, you can see and it’s telling

you how hard you’re working.” Abbi shared her experience, “If you don’t know what

you’re doing, [apps] can help you and explain or give you guidelines, even with running.

There’s apps that coach you through what you’re doing or when to stop and when not to

run.” This type of guidance could be helpful for those who may not engage in different

types of exercise or physical activity because of lack of experience or encouragement.

Theme 4: Effects on User Knowledge and Competence

Interview responses also provided information regarding how wearable

technology may increase user knowledge and competence regarding physical activity.

This type of self-efficacy is beneficial for those engaging in an exercise or physical

activity program. Abbi said about their wearable technology, “If you don’t know what

you’re doing, apps can explain the workout or give guidelines.”

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 Micheal said, “It’s important to have technology helping you because it gives you

more information about your body, fitness, and your workout.” Presley stated she feels

“more knowledgeable knowing where I’m at and how I’m improving.”

Eric discussed his experience of how wearable technology can increase his

knowledge about his training and workouts. When asked how it can help improve his

athletic performance, he said:

Watching others online like YouTube. Things like that. Or apps on my device.

And even when you don’t have a trainer, you can be your own trainer because

there’s so many things like technology out there that can help you.

Theme 5: Impact on User Autonomy

Autonomy and analytics were common topics in the interviews. Interviewees

recognized how the analytics provided by their wearable technology contributed to their

autonomy and the self-governing of their activities. Common analytics identified by

participants included Vo2max, heart rate, calories burned, and distance completed in a

workout. Participants shared experiences of how their device’s analytics and data

presented had both a positive and negative impact on their autonomy and feelings of

self-efficacy. While most participants had experiences to share, Austin and Presley stated

that they feel their wearable technology had no effect on their autonomy over physical

activity.

Positive Impact. Increasing autonomy could be greatly beneficial in motivating

this population to become more active and adopt healthier lifestyle habits. Participants

indicated that the analytics provided by their wearable device increased their autonomy

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and feelings of being in control. Presley stated, “Knowing where I’m at and where I want

to go makes me feel more autonomous.” It was said by Austin that technology “makes

me feel more knowledgeable by knowing just how I’m improving.” A couple of

participants identified how wearable technology aids in the self-governing of their

physical activities and workouts. Madison stated, “It helps you keep track of your own

personal workout time instead of other people telling you what to do.” Eric said his

wearable technology “helps me block out the noise and keeps me focused on what needs

to be done.”

Negative Impact. Wearable technology could also have a negative impact on this

population’s self-efficacy over their physical activity choices. This type of impact can

affect motivation and engagement as college students can feel a lack of motivation and

autonomy. Participants shared their experiences in feeling demotivated and having low

self-efficacy. Courtney said, “It can be demotivating to see you’re not doing well.” When

asked what aspects of his wearable technology caused him to feel less autonomous, Matt

answered:

When you’re not doing so well. The numbers are there showing you you’re not

doing as well as you think you are, which means it can maybe demotivate you to

maybe think you’re not training or not doing as well as you think you are

physically.

Analytics and Data. Analytics provided by wearable technology showed to be a

common topic among participants. Matt stated that his wearable technology “can track

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calories and seeing how much you burn is helpful.” Micheal discussed how he liked how

his wearable technology tracked his running mileage and showed his heart rate.

Layla discussed how wearable technology increased her feelings of

accomplishment by viewing her device data:

For me, like with my Apple Watch, when I work out, it will show me, like, my

calories and stuff. So it kind of helps me feel like, oh, I did make good progress

today or did hit a good goal today.

Chapter 4 Summary

Chapter 4 presented the data collected in the qualitative case study. Interviews and

survey collection captured the experiences of ten college students. Participants provided

thick, rich, descriptive answers for this study’s research questions. Five themes developed

from the data: (a) social influences and barriers in using wearable technology, (b) impact

on user motivation towards physical activity, (c) wearable technology features, (d) effects

on user knowledge and competence, and (f) impact on user autonomy. Data were also

analyzed through the lens of Ryan and Deci’s (2001) Self-Determination Theory,

including its three components: autonomy, competence, and social connections. Chapter

5 will discuss the meaning and interpretation of this data.

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 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of Chapter 5 is to provide a summary of this study. This chapter will

compare the findings of the study to existing literature and form conclusions based on the

analysis of the data within the study. This chapter will also present the limitations of the

study and the implications of the findings for research and practice. Finally, Chapter 5

will conclude with recommendations for future research opportunities created from the

findings of this study.

Summary of Study

This population of college students can potentially benefit from integrating

wearable technology into their fitness regimen through device features, including social

connection and goal-setting tools. College students are motivated to use wearable fitness

technology based on how they perceive the ease and usefulness of the device as related to

data performance, behavioral attitudes, and physical activity goals (Lunney et al., 2016).

This technology provides quantification of instant data and interpersonal communication

that is highly desired by college individuals and has been found to be a potential

motivator for this population (Haney, 2018). The purpose of this qualitative study was to

examine the likelihood that college individuals will use wearable technology, specifically

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wearable fitness trackers, to increase motivation and eliminate barriers to being

physically active. Ten college students shared their experiences and perceptions regarding

wearable technology. The researcher used four research questions, and five themes

emerged from the data.

Discussion of Findings

The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the potential impact that

wearable technology can have on increasing motivation and eliminating barriers to

physical activity in college individuals. After in-depth interpretation, analysis, and

synthesis of the findings were conducted, five themes emerged. The themes presented in

the discussion of findings include (a) social influences and barriers in using wearable

technology, (b) impact on user motivation towards physical activity, (c) wearable

technology features, (d) effects on user knowledge and competence, and (e) impact on

user autonomy. The following discussion compares and contrasts those themes to the

existing literature.

Theme 1: Social Influences and Barriers in Using Wearable Technology

Multiple participants in this study discussed how wearable technology can

negatively or positively impact their social connectedness to others based on a variety of

factors. Interviews revealed that college students desire community and to nurture social

connections. Participants discussed how social features on their wearable devices

sometimes influenced their motivation to engage in physical activity. As noted by Pope

(2018), 90% percent of college students use at least one social media site and have shown

interest in the use of technology for implementing a personal behavior change. Chen et al.

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(2017) stated that social and community features on wearable technology devices allow

users to share data through social networking features and are influenced by others

achieving their goal making them more likely to do the same.

There was little mention from participants of specific social media platforms

being a factor in whether or not wearable technology impacted decisions to engage in

physical activity. While such platforms and applications such as Strava and Facebook

were briefly discussed, participants discussed how they found these outlets helpful and

applicable. Fotopoulou and O’Riordan (2017) indicated that the feedback displayed on

the screen of some wearable technology devices can be motivating and while

continuously checking collected data can be a tedious activity for users, the rewards and

positive affirmation of wearable technology can promote and encourage self-efficacy of

users taking responsibility for their health.

Social support has been established as a strategy for improving levels of physical

activity in college students. College students who surround themselves with peers who

are physically active end up increasing their own physical activity levels (Middelweerd et

al., 2014). Wearable technology allows this population to have a larger social network as

they can stay connected and share their physical activity with friends or family anywhere

in the world. Healthy competition with their friends or family can help provide college

students with motivation to be physically active. Participants in this study discussed the

importance of being held accountable, as well as feeling connected, by sharing their

activity with friends and family via wearable technology. This finding is important to

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consider when thinking about best practices for utilizing wearable technology to promote

physical activity among college students.

Theme 2: Impact on User Motivation Towards Physical Activity

This study revealed the importance of wearable technology providing a means to

motivate a population that could greatly benefit from meeting physical activity

recommendations. In one study, it was discussed how college females used wearable

fitness technology to increase their physical activity, identify calorie intake and increase

energy expenditure (Haney, 2018). In a similar study, participants reported that

consistently using wearable technology helped to increase their confidence and

motivation for engaging in physical activity (Kinney, 2017).

Participants in this study indicated that their wearable technology devices

contributed to both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation in engaging in physical activity, as

well as creating goals and intentions for behavior change. According to Ryan and Deci

(2000), increasing an individual’s perceived competence, relatedness, and

self-determination is key in progressing an individual from certain degrees of amotivation

and externally regulated forms of extrinsic motivation to greater levels of

internally-regulated forms of extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation.

Past research has found that college students used wearable technology to

increase their physical activity, identify calorie intake and increase energy expenditure

(Haney, 2018). Participants in another study reported that consistently using a wearable

technology device helped to increase confidence and motivation for engaging in physical

activity (Kinney, 2017). Participants in this study reported the same experiences

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regarding increased motivation to engage in physical activity. Participants identified

various types of motivations in relation to their wearable technology: (a) motivation to

use it to be or become more physically active; (b) motivation to continue physical activity

because of the reinforcement and real-time feedback from achieving goals; (c) motivation

from being socially connected to others who also use their devices to share information

about their physical activity; and (d) motivation from tracking or reminding oneself when

it’s time to be active. Participants discussed the negative aspects of wearable technology

including device and mobile application malfunctions, questioning their accuracy, and

getting too focused on the quantitative feedback during the activity itself. It is important

to address negative consequences of wearable technology when designing and

implementing potential interventions in the future.

Theme 3: Wearable Technology Features

An additional finding is that the analytic features dominated the push towards

meeting or exceeding physical activity goals. College students frequently used the

analytics features on their wearable devices, such as heart rate, Vo2max, calories burned,

steps or miles completed, and sleep tracking. Participants specifically relied heavily on

tracking their active calories during different modes of physical activity and discussed

how this data influenced future physical activity because participants wanted to use the

most efficient and effective workouts.

This appears to be an important aspect of wearable technology adoption and use

among this age group. Jones et al. (2017) discussed how college students track their step

counts and feel that the feedback makes them more aware of the need for increased

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physical activity. Another study stated that wearable devices that track and differentiate

physical activity intensities by monitoring heart rate aids in self-efficacy, engagement,

progress that leads to meaningful gains, and self-confidence in physical activity skills

(Yavelberg et al., 2018). Heart rate monitoring with the use of wearable technology has

been shown to increase user knowledge about the level of intensity during physical

activity, as well as the instant feedback used to meet those levels (Dooley et al., 2017).

Consistent in this study with previous research, the participants indicated that the

instant feedback provided by their devices encouraged behavior change to reach their

physical activity goals and the findings concluded that data feedback motivated some

level of increased physical activity. Simpson and Mazzeo (2017) stated that both fitness

and calorie tracking with the use of wearable technology provides motivation and

opportunity to track caloric goals.

Theme 4: Effects on User Knowledge and Competence

According to some participants who were interviewed, wearable technology can

be beneficial for providing instructions or coaching towards health-related and

fitness-related components. Participants identified specific features they use that increase

their personal levels of knowledge and competence for their physical activity, such as

applications that provide guidelines and instructions for exercise movements. As

discussed in a 2015 study, this population currently shows increased rates of overweight,

obesity, type 2 diabetes, and high blood pressure that are preventable through positive

lifestyle changes (Cha et al., 2015). Wearable technology could potentially make an

impact on increasing the knowledge and motivation necessary to implement such lifestyle

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changes. Chen et al. (2017) also affirmed that wearable technology provides education on

goal setting to encourage behavior change. Several participants in this study identified

specific goals in relation to their wearable technology, such as closing the daily Apple

Rings on the Apple Watch.

Ickes et al. (2016) stated when young college students receive educational

resources on physical activity they participate more frequently in exercise. Participants

discussed how wearable technology has helped motivate them to be physically active

because they receive instructions and guidance from their devices, such as workout

routines that can be easily followed and completed.

Theme 5: Impact on User Autonomy

The participants in this study revealed that they liked feeling in control of their

physical activity and being able to self-govern their health-related choices. Participants

also liked the idea of having increased control and self-efficacy over their everyday

activity monitoring. Researchers have stated that wearable technology has shown to

increase a users’ motivation and willingness to reach their fitness goals, improve

self-confidence, contribute to their own health, and facilitate preventive health care while

becoming a daily habit (Becker et al., 2017).

Fotopoulou and O’Riordan (2017) indicated that the feedback displayed on the

screen of wearable devices is motivating, and although checking collected data can be a

tedious activity, the rewards and positive affirmation of wearable technology encourages

self-efficacy of users taking responsibility for their health. The participants of this study

revealed that they liked being connected to technology as the use of wearable technology

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became a daily habit that increased self-confidence related to their physical activity. They

also liked the idea of having increased control and self-efficacy over their everyday

activity monitoring. Becker et al. (2017) stated that wearable technology has been shown

to increase a users’ willingness to reach their fitness goals, intensify self-confidence, and

increase user autonomy.

Conclusions of Study

Understanding college students’ intent to change behavior through the use of

wearable technology is important in order to potentially impact and improve health

behavior and issues within this population. Adverse health consequences of poor nutrition

choices, lack of physical activity, and risky behavior by this age group suggest the need

for both research studies and age-related health prevention strategies such as

technology-based approaches. Wearable technology has become the most popular and

widely-used exercise device to the point that it has landed as the top trend of the 2022

and 2023 American College of Sports Medicine Fitness trends survey (Thompson, 2023).

This qualitative study contributes to the literature of how wearable technology can

potentially bridge a gap between physical activity and technology.

Benefits and challenges of using wearable technology as an integrated part of

their physical activity regimes differed among the participants in this study. However, the

common theme among all participants was that they preferred to have their devices

during physical activity as doing so met at least one of the three components of the

Self-Determination Theory. This qualitative study revealed that participants experienced

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both positive and negative impacts through integrating their wearable devices in their

physical activity routines and structured workouts.

It is important to note that only four participants identified enjoyment as their

highest motivator to participate in physical activity. Ryan and Deci’s (2001)

Self-Determination Theory says that when each of the three components are met,

individuals are more likely to pursue activities out of enjoyment rather than from a sense

or reward. This finding is contrary to this theory.

Autonomy

Participants in this study discussed the importance of having autonomy over their

workouts and physical activity choices. There are different features and settings on

wearable technology that can promote autonomy, but there is a need for the creation of

additional self-governing features that this age group can use. College students desire to

see real-time feedback about their activity progress and status among their peers. The

participants in this study identified several features they currently use, such as tracking

distance, sleep, heart rate, Vo2 max, but they also identified the desire to better socially

connect through their wearable devices. Participants placed a high value and importance

on tracking the analytics provided by their devices as indicated in their repeated

discussion of this feature on their device interface.

Another conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that wearable technology

can provide numerous opportunities for increased motivation among its users. This can

lead to a higher level of self-efficacy and self-governing. Participants in this study

confirmed this with their discussions of what they personally use to increase their

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motivation, including closing rings on the Apple Watch each day, tracking pace and

mileage, tracking calories burned, workout reminders provided by devices, and fitness

challenge opportunities.

Competence

This study also showed a connection between wearable technology and user

knowledge and competence over their physical activity. Despite their fitness experience,

participants affirmed that their devices provide useful information regarding techniques,

workout routines or challenges, and helpful guidelines for physical activity and fitness.

The results of this study suggest that this population will benefit from wearable

technology features that promote education and growth in the areas of physical fitness.

This would especially benefit those who have less experience or knowledge about what

movements or workouts they should be performing in alignment with their goals.

Social Connection

This component of the Self-Determination Theory (2001) was frequently

discussed by the participants. As seen in the continued rise of social media, this age

group thrives on social connections and having an online presence. Wearable technology

can provide both through features such as integration into social media accounts, seeing

the physical locations of others with the opportunity to join them, competition features,

accountability tools, and more. A conclusion of this study is that wearable technology

positively affects motivation and eliminates barriers to physical activity when the social

connection component is met.

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 Limitations of Study

The study has a few different limitations. A purposive sampling method was used

in the study of college students making generalizability of the study limited to this sample

population. All of the participants attended universities in Oklahoma, and were

volunteers who met the study’s criteria. The findings are not generalizable to college

students from other colleges or universities or those who were younger than 18 or older

than 25 years of age. The data analysis was subjective and the results from the study may

not be representative of all students within this age group. Hays et al. (2016) stated that

credibility for qualitative studies should include sampling adequacy. Saturation was

reached with a small sample size of 10 participants and was appropriate for gaining

in-depth information related to college students and the impact of wearable technology on

their motivation; however, it does not allow generalizability of the findings.

Additionally, a limitation for the study was potential researcher influence.

Although a professional and unbiased relationship was established for the study, the

participants may have known that I organize and participate in numerous physical fitness

and health-related activities in the running, cycling, and fitness communities where I

reside, and their opinions and responses to the interview questions may have been

influenced by this prior knowledge. To reduce potential researcher influence for the study

because I actively work within the fitness community in Oklahoma City and have

experience with physical activity and wearable technology, my Apple Watch and physical

activity attire were not worn.

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 An additional limitation is the lack of triangulation in the study. This study relied on

two sources of data, a motivation survey and an interview protocol. While these sources

thoroughly addressed the study’s research questions, the findings must be regarded as

failing to meet common expectations of verification. The contribution of more data

sources could enrich and reinforce the findings in future studies.

Implications of Study for Research and Practice

There is a pressing need to explore behavior change strategies for college students

to become more physically active. Understanding how wearable technology could

potentially impact motivation among college students helps to frame the context of this

study. One study found that college students, females, in particular, used wearable fitness

technology to increase their physical activity, identify calorie intake and increase energy

expenditure (Haney, 2018). In a similar study, college students reported that consistently

using a wearable technology device helped to increase confidence and motivation for

engaging in physical activity (Kinney, 2017).

College students, in general, have shown a decline in physical activity levels,

which result in a variety of acute and chronic health conditions. Studies have found there

appears to be a decrease in physical activity among young adults, especially as they enter

college settings (Keating et al., 2018). One of the most significant changes in physical

activity levels occur throughout the passage from high school to college with physical

activity levels decreasing up to 63% (Drake, 2018). Health behaviors throughout the

young adult developmental stage are important, as they are likely to become habits that

continue into late adulthood. Young adults often face challenges of an obesogenic

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environment rich with inexpensive, poor nutritional-quality processed foods, and

sedentary lifestyles (Hebden et al., 2015). The goal of this research was to explore the

potential benefits of wearable technology to increase motivation and eliminate barriers to

physical activity for college students. The following sections outline the implications of

this study on research and practice.

Research

This study contributes to the research on wearable technology and how it relates

to behavior change and motivation amongst college students through the lens of the Ryan

and Deci’s (2001) Self-Determination Theory. Existing literature gives a defined pathway

to the potentially effective ways that wearable technology can eliminate barriers to

engaging in physical activity for this population. This research produced a strong

relationship between the three components of the theory and the integration of wearable

technology into a health-related behavior change program. Researchers can use this study

to continue to explore how wearable technology of all types can improve the autonomy,

competence, and social connectedness of its users’ pursuits for positive behavior change.

This research added to the knowledge that this age group can greatly benefit from using

technology and tools that they are already familiar with and use frequently.

Practice

This qualitative study informs and educates how wearable technology can

potentially improve health-related behaviors of its adopters and users. To understand how

to motivate and educate this age group about the benefits of engaging in regular physical

activity, fitness professionals, coaches, educators, and other related professionals can

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apply the findings of this study to their practice and programming. This data also helps

the users themselves in knowing what features could be advantageous for them to use

during physical activity, as well as how devices could be used to increase motivation to

engage in workouts.

In understanding how college students positively respond to feeling autonomy,

competence, and being socially connected, professionals can continue to integrate

wearable technology into their motivational pursuits for this population. The ability for a

younger generation to take control of their health has potentially long-lasting effects into

adulthood.

Recommendations for Future Research

The association with the use of wearable technology to engage young adults in

health-related interventions and behavior change has been identified as a significant area

for future research; however, the majority of research studies have been quantitative

(Bice et al., 2018). Further research should be qualitative in nature to gain more in-depth

insight of the experiences of college students and their intent for behavior change with

the use of wearable technology. Additional studies could be conducted by recruiting a

broader sample of college students from universities in larger cities and rural areas.

This study included a small sample size of 10 participants. Additional qualitative

studies could be conducted by recruiting a broader population sample of college students.

Future research might also reveal different outcomes if the study is conducted with a

population that is inclusive to college students whose college majors include kinesiology

courses. Half of the participants in the study acknowledged they had a greater

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understanding and knowledge about the amount of physical activity necessary for

healthier choices and healthier outcomes due to health and wellness education being part

of their major.

Future research should also focus on different university grade levels as opposed

to it being open to all undergraduate level students in one study. The mental, social, and

physical differences between freshmen and senior level students, as well as the age spans

between participants, were underestimated in the current study. Studies could benefit

from focusing on lower level undergraduate students, especially freshmen, as this is

commonly the season of life in which physical activity decreases.

The current study did not differentiate gender similarities or differences. An

additional recommendation for future studies is to investigate the differences between

genders in their experiences of integrating wearable technology into their health and

fitness goals. This could result in a more in-depth understanding of how different genders

intend to use wearable technology for behavior change and which features are more

applicable and useful to each gender.

As this study did not examine a wide range of wearable technology devices,

future studies could offer insight about how different brands and types of wearable

devices impact its users. Comparing different wearable devices in a larger participant

sample could also provide richer data than the current study. As this field of technology

evolves, future research should run parallel with its growth so an understanding of

wearable technology evolves with it.

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 Another recommendation for future studies is to focus on a specific brand of

wearable technology because devices differ in what features and services they provide to

users. Although ninety percent of participants in this study used an Apple Watch, a study

in which all participants described their experiences about the same brand could offer

further insight on benefits and disadvantages of wearable technology.

Chapter 5 Summary

Chapter 5 summarized the context, framework, and methodology of this

qualitative study. The themes that emerged from the data included social influences and

barriers in using wearable technology, impact on user motivation towards physical

activity, wearable technology features, effects on user knowledge and competence, and

impact on user autonomy. The study had different limitations, including a small sample

size and potential researcher influence on participants. Chapter 5 concluded with different

suggestions for future research. This study of college students related to the intent for

behavior change with the use of wearable technology is important and necessary in order

to understand their lived experiences of self monitoring and for gaining insight into how

tracking daily activities motivates and encourages this millennial generation to better

manage their health.

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 APPENDICES

Appendix A

Institutional Review Board Approval

131
 Appendix B

Informed Consent Document

Title of Study: The Effects of Wearable Technology on Health-Related Behavior Change

Among college Students
Principal Investigator: Melissa Cox, Doctoral Candidate, Southern Nazarene University
Faculty Advisor: Dr. Gayle Kearns, Dissertation Director, Southern Nazarene University

Purpose:
You are being invited to participate in a study on how wearable technology can
potentially affect health-related behaviors among college students. The purpose of this
study is to explore how the use of wearable technology could possibly decrease or
eliminate perceived barriers to physical activity.

Procedures:
As a participant in this study, you have been selected to participate in interviews, where
you will be asked questions about yourself regarding your physical activity habits,
attitudes, and perceived barriers. There will also be a paper questionnaire called a
Motives for Physical Activity Measure that you will complete at the beginning and end of
the study.

Confidentiality:
The records and results of this study will be kept private and confidential. Any written
results will discuss group findings and will not include information that will identify you.
Consent form documents will be kept separate from all other documents. Research
records will be stored securely and only researchers and individuals responsible for
research oversight will have access to the records. It is possible that the consent process
and data collection will be observed by research oversight staff responsible for
safeguarding the rights and wellbeing of people who participate in research.

Risks of Participation:
There are no known risks associated with this project that are greater than those
ordinarily encountered in daily life.

Benefits:
This study is intended to contribute to the body of knowledge related to promoting and
maintaining a healthy lifestyle, especially in the area of meeting the recommended
amount of daily physical activity. This study may reveal potential physical and mental
benefits for the participants.
132
Contacts:
If you have questions about the study, please contact:

Melissa Cox Dr. Gayle Kearns

Ed.D. Candidate SNU Dissertation Director

[phone number] (405) 491-6354

mcox@mail.snu.edu gkearns@mail.snu.edu

If you have questions about your rights as a research volunteer, you may contact:

Dr. Anthony Rodin

SNU IRB Chair
6729 NW 39th Expressway
Bethany, OK 73008
(405) 491-6686
IRB@snu.edu

133
 Appendix C

Script for Permission to Access Research Site

Kinesiology Department Chair Letter of Permission for Access to Research Site and
Interview Request

Department Chair, Kinesiology and Health Studies

[redacted for privacy]

Dear [redacted for privacy]:

For my research study at Southern Nazarene University, I am seeking your permission

to gain access to courses within your department to conduct a study regarding how
wearable technology could affect health-related behavior change among college
students. The purpose of this study is to explore perceptions and perceived barriers
towards physical activity and how the use of wearable technology could affect different
aspects of motivation and engagement.

If you are willing to allow us to access courses within your department, I would like to
conduct one 30-45 minute interview and a questionnaire with a random sample of the
Healthy Life Skills / Lifetime Wellness students on a day and time that is convenient for
students.

I hope to have all interviews and surveys completed in August-September 2022. Thank
you for your consideration in allowing us access to your Healthy Life Skills / Lifetime
Wellness students to conduct this study. If you have any questions regarding our project,
please contact me for further discussion.

Melissa Cox

mcox@mail.snu.edu

[phone number]

If you are willing to allow me to proceed with this research, please indicate so with your
signature below.

_____________________ __________________ Department Chair

134
 Appendix D

Script for Soliciting Volunteers for Participation

Dear Student,

A doctoral student in the graduate program at Southern Nazarene University is seeking

your participation in a study regarding how wearable technology could affect
health-related behavior change among college students. The purpose of this study is to
explore perceptions and perceived barriers towards physical activity and how the use of
wearable technology could affect different aspects of motivation and engagement.

If you are willing to be interviewed, I would like to conduct one 30 to 45 minute

interview and a questionnaire with you on a day and time that is convenient for you. The
data collected from the interviews will be carefully and respectfully guarded. I hope to
have all interviews completed in September 2022.

Thank you for your consideration in being a participant in our study. If you have any
questions regarding our project, please contact me for further discussion.

Melissa Cox

mcox@mail.snu.edu

[phone number]

If you are willing to participate in one 30-45 minute interview, please indicate so with
your signature below.

___________________________ Student / Study Participant - Printed Name

___________________________ Student / Study Participant - Signature
___________________________ Date Signed

135
 Appendix E

Interview Question Protocol

Institution: ________________________
Interviewee: _______________________
Interviewer: Melissa Cox, Graduate Student - SNU
Date of Interview: ___________________
Time of Interview: ___________________
Location of Interview: _________________

Introduction: Thank you for meeting me today. The records of this interview will be kept
private and will also be destroyed one year after the completion of this study. Also, you
will be granted anonymity in the publication of this study. To review, there are no risks in
participating today, and your participation is completely voluntary. Please feel free to stop
and ask questions at any time.

Demographic Questions

1. Current age ___________

2. Gender ______________

Autonomy

Q1: What are your feelings about incorporating wearable technology in support of a
fitness regimen?

(a) Please describe how wearable technology may or may not help you feel more
autonomous in your fitness regimen.

Q2: What are challenges/barriers to feeling autonomy when incorporating wearable

technology into a fitness regimen?

(a) What aspects of wearable technology cause you to feel more autonomous when
incorporating it into a fitness regimen?
(b) What aspects of wearable technology cause you to feel less autonomous when
incorporating it into a fitness regimen?
(c) Can you identify any barriers that become reduced or eliminated with the use of
wearable technology?
(d) Can you identify any barriers that seem to increase with the use of wearable
technology?

136
Q3: What are some successful approaches you use to incorporate wearable technology
and maintain use of wearable technology in your fitness regimen?

(a) Can you describe how these approaches may be improving your autonomy? What
works best and what doesn’t work well?

Connection

Q1: What are your feelings about incorporating wearable technology in support of a
fitness regimen?

(a) Please describe how wearable technology may or may not help you feel more
connected to others in your fitness regimen.

Q2: What are challenges/barriers to feeling connected to others when incorporating

wearable technology into a fitness regimen?

(a) What aspects of wearable technology cause you to feel more connected to others
when incorporating it into a fitness regimen?
(b) What aspects of wearable technology cause you to feel less connected to others
when incorporating it into a fitness regimen?
(c) Can you identify any reasons you felt less connected with the use of wearable
technology?
(d) Can you identify any reasons you felt more connected with the use of wearable
technology?

Q3: What are some successful approaches you use to incorporate wearable technology
and maintain use of wearable technology in your fitness regimen?

(a) Can you describe how these approaches may be improving your social
connections? What works best and what doesn’t work well?

Competence

Q1: What are your feelings about incorporating wearable technology in support of a
fitness regimen when it comes to mastering the skill or feeling competent?

(a) Please describe how wearable technology may or may not help you feel more
competent in your fitness regimen.

Q2: What are challenges/barriers to feeling competent when incorporating wearable

technology into a fitness regimen?

(a) What aspects of wearable technology cause you to feel more competent when
incorporating it into a fitness regimen?
(b) What aspects of wearable technology cause you to feel less competent when
incorporating it into a fitness regimen?

137
 (c) Can you identify any reasons you felt less competent with the use of wearable
technology?

(d) Can you identify any reasons you felt more competent with the use of wearable
technology?

Q3: What are some successful approaches you use to incorporate wearable technology
and maintain use of wearable technology in your fitness regimen?

(a) Can you describe how these approaches may be improving your social
connections? What works best and what doesn’t work well?

Outside the Theory

Q4: Describe how, when, and the duration of your use of wearable technology.

(a) What brand of wearable technology do you use or prefer?

(b) What made you decide on this brand?
(c) What factors contribute to your continued use of wearable technology?
(d) What features of your wearable technology do you use during physical activity?
(e) What features of wearable technology do you use to increase motivation?
(f) Do you sync your wearable technology with social media platforms?
(i) In what ways does this increase or decrease your motivation to engage in
physical activity?

138
 Appendix F

Instrument

Motives for Physical Activities Measure – Revised (MPAM-R)

The following is a list of reasons why people engage in physical activities, sports and exercise.
Keeping in mind your primary physical activity/sport, respond to each question (using the scale given) on
the basis of how true that response is for you.

1 7
2 3 4 5 6
Not at all True for Me Very True for Me

___ 1. Because I want to be physically fit.

___ 2. Because it’s fun.
___ 3. Because I like engaging in activities which physically challenge me.
___ 4. Because I want to obtain new skills.
___ 5. Because I want to look or maintain weight so I look better.
___ 6. Because I want to be with my friends.
___ 7. Because I like to do this activity.
___ 8. Because I want to improve my existing skills.
___ 9. Because I like the challenge.
___ 10. Because I want to define my muscles so I look better.
___ 11. Because it makes me happy.
___ 12. Because I want to keep up my current skill level.
___ 13. Because I want to have more energy
___ 14. Because I like activities which are physically challenging.
___ 15. Because I like to be with others who are interested in this activity.
___ 16. Because I want to improve my cardiovascular fitness.
___ 17. Because I want to improve my appearance.
___ 18. Because I think it’s interesting.
___ 19. Because I want to maintain my physical strength to live a healthy life.
___ 20. Because I want to be attractive to others.
___ 21. Because I want to meet new people.
___ 22. Because I enjoy this activity.
___ 23. Because I want to maintain my physical health and well-being.
___ 24. Because I want to improve my body shape.
___ 25. Because I want to get better at my activity.
___ 26. Because I find this activity stimulating.
___ 27. Because I will feel physically unattractive if I don’t.
___ 28. Because my friends want me to.
___ 29. Because I like the excitement of participation.
___ 30. Because I enjoy spending time with others doing this activity.
139
 Appendix G

MPAM-R Results for Entire Sample and Individual Participants

Survey Question Autonomy/Enjoyment Mean

2 Because it’s fun. 4.8

7 Because I like to do this activity. 5

11 Because it makes me happy. 5.3

18 Because I think it’s interesting. 5.4

22 Because I enjoy this activity. 5.2

26 Because I find this activity stimulating. 5.1

29 Because I like the excitement of participation. 4.7

Survey Question Competence/Mastery Mean

3 Because I like engaging in activities which physically 4.7

challenge me.

4 Because I want to obtain new skills. 4.9

8 Because I want to improve my existing skills. 5.3

9 Because I like the challenge. 5.2

12 Because I want to keep up my current skill level. 5.6

14 Because I like activities which are physically challenging. 5

25 Because I want to get better at my activity. 5.6

Survey Question Social/Connection Mean

6 Because I want to be with my friends. 3.2

140
 Because I like to be with others who are interested in this
15 activity. 4.3

21 Because I want to meet new people. 3.8

28 Because my friends want me to. 2.2

30 Because I enjoy spending time with others doing this 4.6

activity.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Participant Autonomy/Enjoyment Competence/Mastery Social/Connection

Austin 47 44 16

Eric 36 38 23

Alice 35 38 21

Courtney 31 36 14

Abbi 49 44 26

Presley 36 38 23

Micheal 40 39 22

Layla 30 43 18

Matt 48 49 28

Madison 39 32 13

141
 VITA

Melissa Cox

Candidate for the Degree of

Doctor of Education

Dissertation Title: THE EFFECTS OF WEARABLE TECHNOLOGY ON

HEALTH-RELATED BEHAVIOR CHANGE AMONG UNDERGRADUATE
COLLEGE STUDENTS

Major Field: Administration and Leadership

Biographical:

Education:

Completed the requirements for Doctor of Education in Administration and

Leadership at Southern Nazarene University, Bethany, Oklahoma in June 2023.

Completed the requirements for the Master of Science in Wellness Management at

University of Central Oklahoma in 2007.

Completed the requirements for the Bachelor of Science in Recreation

Management at University of Central Oklahoma in 2005.

Experience:
Kinesiology and Health Studies Professor and Advisor at Southwestern Christian
University, 2014-Present

Adjunct Instructor for Professional and Graduate Studies at Southern Nazarene

University, 2022-Present

Adjunct Instructor for Kinesiology and Health Studies Department at University

of Central Oklahoma, 2007-2022

Professional Memberships:
Kappa Delta Phi, National Academy of Sports Medicine, Athletics and Fitness
Association of America, American College of Sports Medicine
 ProQuest Number: 30524874

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