1. Explain Plate tectonics.

The Earth’s surface is made up of a series of sections- known as tectonic

plates (also called lithospheric plate). These plates are composed of the
Earth’s crust and the solid outermost layer of the upper mantle.
Tectonic plates are float on the mantle through which flow convection
currents. The convection currents move the tectonic plates away from or
towards or alongside each other. These movements along plate boundaries
give rise to earthquakes, volcanoes, oceanic trench, and fold mountains.
The study of plate movement and the effect it has on the formation of
volcanoes and earthquakes is known as plate tectonics.

2. Describe plate boundaries.

Plate boundaries are the edges where two or more plates meet. Most geologic
activities, including volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain building, take place
at plate boundaries. Plate boundaries are also known as plate margins or
zones of activity, and can be classified as either constructive,
destructive or conservative depending on relative plate motion.
 Constructive/divergent margins: the two plates move away from
each other. Earthquakes and volcanoes can both occur in this type of
margin.
 Destructive/convergent margins: the two plates move towards each
other. Earthquakes, and volcanoes can both occur in this type of margin.
 Conservative/Transform margins: the two plates slip past each
other. Eearthquakes can occur at these conservative margins if the plate
gets stuck.
 A fourth type, a collision margin, consists of two plates of continental
crust moving towards each other. If two continental plates collide,
neither can sink and so the land buckles upwards to form fold
mountains. Earthquake can also occur.
3. What causes an earthquake?

An earthquake is the shaking and vibration of the Earth's crust due to

movement of the tectonic plates. Earthquakes can happen along any type of
plate boundary.

Earthquakes occur when stress and pressure developing through the process
of plates movement reach breaking point, and are released suddenly from
inside the crust. The sudden release of energy causes the shockwaves or
vibrations travelling through the Earth as an earthquake wave or seismic wave.
The point inside the crust where the pressure is released is called the focus or
origin at depth. The point on the Earth's surface above the focus is called
the Epicenter. The waves are felt most strongly at the epicentre, becoming
less strong as they travel further away. The most severe damage caused by an
earthquake will happen close to the epicenter.

Some earthquakes are caused by human activities such as:

 nuclear testing
 building large dams
 drilling for oil/natural gas
 coal mining

4. Measuring an earthquake

The strength of an earthquake is determined using an instrument called a

Seismograph. It measures or records the intensity, direction, and duration
of earthquakes. The intensity of an earthquake can be determined from the
recording made by a seismograph using a scale known as the Richter scale.
The lowest value or 1 indicates a quake that is almost not felt, and a value of 8
or higher indicates a massive earthquake
Earthquakes are now measured using the Moment Magnitude Scale (or
simply Magnitude scale). This measures the size of the seismic waves during
the earthquake more accurately. Each step in the scale is ten times greater
than the previous number. This is a logarithmic scale. The amount of damage
caused by an earthquake is measured by the Mercalli Scale.
5. Effects of an Earthquake

Positive impacts Negative impacts

- Underground minerals may be - Kills people, animals and

brought nearer to the surface destroy wildlife
- Destroys buildings, roads, and
infrastructures
- can cause surface faulting,
ground rapture, liquefaction
and subsidence of the
ground, landslides and fires.
- An undersea earthquake can
create tsunamis

6. What are volcanoes? How they form?

A volcano is formed when a hole, crack or vent in the Earth’s crust allows
molten rock (magma), solid rocks, hot ash, steam and other gases to escape
onto the Earth’s surface and into the air.
The majority of volcanoes in the world form mostly along the divergent and
convergent boundaries of Earth's tectonic plates.
constructive (divergent) margin: At a constructive plate margin, the
plates move apart from one another. When this happens the magma from the
mantle rises up to make (or construct) new land in the form of a shield
volcano.
destructive margin: A destructive plate margin usually involves
an oceanic plate and a continental plate. As the plates collide, the oceanic
plate is forced beneath the continental plate. This is known as subduction and
results in the formation of an ocean trench. This happens because the
oceanic plate is denser (heavier) than the continental plate. When the plate
sinks into the mantle it melts to form magma. The pressure of the magma
builds up beneath the Earth's surface. The magma escapes through
weaknesses in the rock and rises up through a composite volcano. The
volcanic eruptions are often violent, with lots of steam, gas and ash.
Hotspots - Hotspots are places where the magma rises up through the crust.
They are caused by a static source of magma, often away from plate margins.
 Different geological structures can cause vertical weakness or faults within a
plate. As the hot spots beneath the Earth crust are hotter than other, these
can build hole through the crust forming a weakness or exploit an existing
weakness, allowing molten magma to rise up to the surface to form shield
volcanoes.

Types of Volcanos
There are two main types of volcano depending on their shape or type -
composite and shield.

Composite volcanoes are steep-sided and cone-shaped. They are made up of

alternating layers of lava and ash (other volcanoes just consist of lava). Mount Etna
in Italy is a composite volcano. Composite volcanoes are found on convergent
plate boundaries, where the oceanic crust subducts beneath the continental crust.

Composite volcanoes are found on convergent plate boundaries, where the oceanic
crust subducts beneath the continental crust. Composite volcanoes have the
following characteristics:

 The eruptions from these volcanoes may be a pyroclastic flow rather than a lava flow.
A pyroclastic flow is a mixture of hot steam, ash, rock and dust. Acidic lava, which is
very viscous (sticky).
 Steep sides as the lava doesn't flow very far before it solidifies.
 Alternate layers of ash and lava. For this reason, they're also known
as stratovolcanoes. Strato means layers.
 Violent eruptions.
 Longer periods between eruptions.

Shield volcanoes have gently sloping sides and runny lava that covers a
wide area. Gases escape very easily from shield volcanoes. Mauna Loa in
Hawaii is a shield volcano.

Shield volcanoes are found on divergent plate boundaries, where two plates move
away from one another. Shield volcanoes have the following characteristics:

 basaltic magma, which is high in temperature, very low on silica and with low gas
content - this type of magma produces fluid lava with very little explosive activity
 basic lava, which is non-acidic and very runny
 gentle sides as the lava flows for long distances before it solidifies
 no layers, as the volcano just consists of lava
 less violent eruptions
 shorter periods between eruptions
According to the frequency of eruption, Volcanoes are of three types: active,
dormant or extinct.
Active volcanoes are those that may erupt any time or have erupted in the
recent past. Many active volcanoes are found around the Pacific Ocean,
giving rise to the name, the ‘’Pacific Ring of Fire’’. Mount Vesuvius and Mount
Etna, Italy, the Mount St Helens, USA and Mauna Loa, Hawaii are some well-
known active volcanoes.
Dormant volcanoes are those that have not erupted for several years but
activity can be detected inside and could erupt in future. e.g. Mount Fuji,
Japan and Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
Extinct volcanoes are those that are not expected to erupt in future as no
activity can be detected. e.g. Mount Kulala, Keniya, and Ben Nevis, Scotland.

Types of volcano

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Effects of volcanic eruptions

Volcanic eruptions can have a devastating effect on people and the environment.

However, unlike earthquakes, volcanoes can also have a positive impact on an area. These
positive impacts can help to explain why people choose to live near volcanoes.

Positive Negative

The dramatic scenery created by volcanic eruptions attracts Many lives can be lost as a result of a
tourists. This brings income to an area. volcanic eruption.

If the ash and mud from a volcanic

The lava and ash deposited during an eruption breaks down
eruption mix with rain water or melting
to provide valuable nutrients for the soil. This creates very
snow, fast moving mudflows are created.
fertile soil which is good for agriculture
These flows are called lahars.
 Positive Negative

The high level of heat and activity inside the Earth, close to a
Lava flows and lahars can destroy
volcano, can provide opportunities for generating geothermal
settlements and clear areas of woodland or
energy. geothermal energy can be harnessed, which
agriculture.
provides cheaper electricity for locals

minerals are contained in lava, eg diamonds - these can Human and natural landscapes can be
be mined to make money destroyed and changed forever.
Describe the formation of Volcanoes: