|TOPIC1|

COVALENT BONDING IN CARBON

Learning Objectives
Students will learn about carbon compounds used in our day to day life.
Students willacquire knowledge about covalent bonds.
Students willlearn and explore the types of covalent bonds.
Learning Outcomes
Students willbe able to explainthe meaning of cOvalent compounds.
Students will be able to draw electron dot structure of atoms and molecules.
Students will be able to appls scientific knowledge to classify carbon compounds as
alkånes. alkanes/alken..
Students will be able to explain properties of covalent compounds.
Students will be able to define allotropyand differentiate between various allotropes of carbon.
Real Life Application The amount of carbon present in the earth's c..
You might have seen your mother applying face and in the atmosphere is very less. The
mask or scrub before going to any function or parties has onlu 0.02% coarbon in the form of earth's crues
carbonates, hydrogen carbonates, coal andminerals
(a
to get glowing skin. Youwill be surprised to know petroleura
that and the atmosphere has 0.03% of
carbon is used in making of face-masks. A carbon
we find that alarge number of carbon dioxide Yet
atom can form covalent bonds with other
carbon our dailu life are made of thingsthat we usein
atoms or with the atoms of other elements. carbon
clothes. medicines, books and manycompounds. Food
Some examples.
other things are
The presence of carbon in a
bu burning the material can be tested
substance in air and passing the aas
formed through lime water. If the lime
milky,then the given material water turns
contains carbon.
Most carbon compounds are p0or
electricity and have low boiling and conductors of
from which it can be melting points
concluded that the forces of
attraction between these molecules are not very
strong. Since these compounds are largels non
conductors of electricity, we can conclude
bonding in these compounds does not give risethatto the
ions. any
To complete the octet,
with other atoms. That iscarbon shares 4 electrons
why, most of the carbon
Carbon
compounds are formed by covalent bonding. Symbol: C
Activated carbon is a form of carbon Nature: Non-Metal
used to filter
contaminants. It has an commonls Atomic Number: 6
binding capacity. The adsorbing excellent metal Mass number: 12
aspects
charcoal have made it apopular additive in of activated Electronic configuration: 2, 4
care products. The
tend to be covalent.
molecules that carbonmany skin
adsorbs Valency: 4
In case of carbon, it has
Thus, the activated carbon four electrons in its outermost
shell and in order to attain
face masks and scrubs can be used to make
because it needs to noble gas configurato
absorb dirt particles from the faceit has the power to electrons.
either gain four electrons or lose Tou
which can then be
removed by taking off the mask or rinsing the
scrub. (1) It could gain four
Let us now study
about the covalent But as the nucleus electrons forming C* an
carbon in detail. bonding in would be difficult forcontgins onls six protons,
the nucleus to hold on to
electrons.
116
EduLart Science Class X
 could lose four
(2) It electrons forming C* cation.
But a large amount of electrons inthis manner. The shared electrons
belong
energy to both
electrons leavingwould be required atoms and lead
toremove four tothe outer shells of both the
cation with six protons innits behind a carbon atoms attaining the noble gas Configuration.
just two electrons, nucleus holding on to Covalent Bond: The tupes ofbonds which are formed
Carbon Overcomes this problem by by the sharing of an electron pair between two atoms
electrons with other atoms of
sharing its valence are known as covalent bonds.
carbon or with
other
elements.Apart from coarbon, there areatoms of Depending upon the number of pairs of electrons
other elements
which form many shared between atoms. there can be single, double or
molecules by sharing triple covalent bonds.
Some Examples of Covalent
Compounds
Compound
Description Covalent Bonding
Hydrogen H) Hydrogen has one electron in its Kshell and it
one more electron to fill the Kshell. So, requires
atoms share their electrons to form atwo hydrogen H-H
hydrogen, Hz. molecule of
nen (O-) Adouble bond is formed
between two
Each atom of oxygen shares two electronsoxygen
with
atoms.
another
atom of oxygen. The two electrons contributed by each O=0
OXygen atom give rise to two shared pairs of
This is said to constitutea double bond electrons.
two atoms. between the
Water Here,one atom of oxygen shares its two electrons with
(H0) two hydrogen atoms.
(H H

Carbon The carbon atom shares its four valence

electrons
tetrachloride with four chlorine atoms to form carbon tetrachloride C C
molecule.
(CcL)
aCBaja-a C

Hydrogen Hydrogen and chlorine atoms share one electron each

chloride to form a hydrogen chloride molecule. H-cI
(HC)
Ammoni£ One atom of nitrogen shares its three valence electrons
(NH3) with three hydrogen atoms and forms ammonia H-N-H
molecule.
H

Methyl chloride Carbon shares its 4 valence electrons with three

(CH3C) hydrogen atoms and one chlorine atom
H-cC

Sulphur A
sulphur atom has 6 valence electrons. Eight sulphur
molecule atoms combine by sharing two electrons among
(Sa) themselves to form a ring like structure.

Carbon and its Compounds 117

 lonicBond Covalent Bond
S.No. have
no Molecules
Molecules have as
(3) definite shape.
A Caution dots () or crosses
use sianparticipitating
(x) for definite shape,
lattice
’Students should not in covalent they have
elements dots (
atoms of different theu can use same sign, either similar
structures.
but between and No
bond formation
Or crosses (x)
for showing
electron sharing
(4)
Electrical
thermal conductivity conductivits electricbucol
atoms of an element.
betweensimilaratoms
of elemnents:
is high.
thermal conductivit
is usually low.
Shaning of electrons
melting point
(5) Usually high melting Low
ofdifferent elements: point.
between atoms highly Low solubility.
Sharing of electrons Usually,
HSH (6) soluble in water.
Usually solids at Exists as solids.,liquids
(7 or gases.
Compounds room temperature.
Properties ofCovalent Allotropes ofCarbon
Description
S.No. Property The various physical forms in which an element con
weak
This is due to the exist are called allotropes of the element. Carbon
Covalent forces of attraction
(1) compounds are between their molecules. existsin three solid forms called allotropes. The three
usually liquids or
allotropes ofcarbon are:
gases
Covalently bonded (1) Diamond
Covalent
(2) molecules are seen (2) Graphite
compounds
have usually to have strong bonds (3) Fullerenes
low melting and within the molecule, but
intermolecular forces are Diamond
boiling points colourless, transparent, sparie
small. (1) Diamonds are
they are described
the and reflect light, which is why
(3) Usualls insoluble This is also due tobonds as lustrous.
in water but presence of strong
within the molecule and hasa high melting point
soluble in
intermolecular
(2) It is extremels hard and
organic solventssmall electricity.
(3) It does not conduct
forces.
Structure of diamond: Diamond is one giant molecule
Since the electrons are in adiamond is bonded
(4) Covalent of carbon atoms. Every atom
shared between atoms covalent bonds.
compounds do to its neighbours by four strongions. This explains
not conduct and no charged particles leaving no free electrons and no
are formed,such covalent electricity.
electricity
Compounds are generally why dianmond does not conduct
poor conductors of
electricity.

Differences between lonic Bond and

Covalent Bond
lonic Bond Covalent Bond
S.No.
An ionic bond is In a covalent bond,
(1) chemical bond the tWo atoms come
between two together to share the
dissimilar (i.e a electron, instead of
metal and a non- an atom taking an Structure of Diamond
metal) atoms inelectron from another.
which one atom Uses of diamond:
gives up an electron (1) Diamond is used in cutting instruments like glass
to another. cutters and in rock drilling equipments, as it is
(2 An ionic bond is A cOvalent bond is extremely hard.
formed between a formed between two
(2) Diamonds are used for making jewellery.
metal and a non-non-metals. (3) Sharp-edged diamonds are used by eye-surgeons
metal.
as a tool to remove cataract.

118 Eduart Science Class X

Graphite
was C-60 which has
(1) Graphiteis black, shiny and opaque. The first one to be identified football.
of a
Carbon atoms arranged in the shape
is avery slippery material. dome designed by
(2) Itis Since this looked like the geodesic was
the molecule
(3) Graphiteis insoluble in water. the US architect Buckminster Fuller,
thasahigh melting point and is a good named Buckminster fullerene.
(4)
electricity, which makes it a conductor
suitable
forthe electrodes neededin electrolysis. material
Structure of graphite : Graphite contain
layers of
carbonatoms. In graphite, each carbon atom is
threeother carbon atoms inthe bonded
to same plane givinga
hexagonall array. Onee of these bonds is a
thus the valency of carbon is double-bond,
satisfied. Graphite
formed by the hexagonal arrays
structure is
placedinlayers one above the other. being Structure of C-60O Buckminster Fullerene

Example 1. Real Life Based:

Adi's sister studies in class Xand told him that the
pencil is made up of carbon. He did not believe and
asked his teacher. Which form of carbon is used to
make lead of pencil and why?
(Remember, Understand)

Total Breakdown
Marks (As per CBSE Marking Scheme)

Structure of Graphite Y ldentify the form of carbon compound

Uses of graphite: 2
used. (1m)
Write the properties of the compound
1) Powdered graphite is used as a lubricant for the while explaining the reason. (1m)
fast moving parts of machineru.
Ans. Carbon in the form of graphite is used in the
(2) It is used for making electrodes in drå cells and
preparation of pencil. Graphite contain carbon
electric arcs as it is a very good conductor of atoms in hexagonal rings which are joined
electricity. to form layers to make a slippery structure.
(3) It is used for making core of pencils called 'pencil Graphite is extrenmels brittle and small amount
leads of pressure on graphite causes it to break. The
Fullerenes properties of brittleness and slippery structure
Fullerenes form another class of carbon allotropes. makes graphite an excellent tool for writing
without applying much pressure.

| TOPIC2|
VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON
Learning Objectives
Students will learn about the factors responsible for the formation of a
large number of compounds.
Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to explain catenation and tetravalency.
Real Life Application broken material. You may look for a
substance that
YOu may sometimes get irritated when qlue sticks can painlessls remove adhesive's residue
and is non
tO your fingers while you trå to reform or irritating at the same time.
fix any

Carbon and its Compounds 119

 this, carbon atoms may be linked by single,
triple bonds.

Tetravalency
doube
The atomic number of carbon is 6 and its
configuration is 2, 4. It has a valency of 4,
bond with four other atoms of Carbon or eSolectroni Con
It
other monovalent element. Carbon form
otoms of
with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur.
many other elements and these
specific properties which depend on the
compounds
,chlorine
compounds
other than carbon present in the molecule.
elemerts
Strong Bonds due to Small
There is a substance called heptane adhesive remover
which can help you get rid from the residues of glue.
Heptane is so named because it consists the longest
Size
The bonds that carbon forms with most
Atomic
continuous carbon chain and has seven carbon elements are very strong due toits small other
atoms.
Adhesive removers are intended to break down glue
these bonds very stable. This enables the nucle
hold on to the shared pairs of electrons stronglu. T
moking
sothat it can be removed from the surfaces easily. It bonds formed by elements having larger atoms
doesn't contain alcohol, so it won't sting or hurt the much weaker.
skin. Sprays are also available for the same. You just
have to simplyspray the adhesive remover onto adry Example 2. Real Life Based:
wipe and then wipe along the areas of glue on your (A) Neha asked her teacher if there is any elemens
skin.
other than carbon which shows catenation?
This is how the versatile nature of carbon shows a
real life application. We will now be studying more
about the diferent properties shown by carbon.
(Understand)
(B) Does the element if any exhibit the propertu of
catenation to the same extent as carbon?
It is estimated that there are about three million
carbon compounds whose formulae are known to (Remember)
chemists which is much greater than the compounds Total Breakdown
formed by all the other elements put together. Marks (As per CBSE Marking Scheme)
The factors due to which this is possible in the case of 2 (A) Name the element (1m)
carbon are: (B) Explain. (1m)
Catenation Ans. (A) Silicon also exhibits catenation and form
The property of carbon element due to which its
compounds with hydrogen.
atoms can join or link with one another to form long (B) Silicon forms compounds with hydrogen
carbon chains is called catenation. These compounds which have chains of up to seven or eight
may have long chains of carbon, branched chains or atoms, but these compounds are very
even carbon atoms arranged in rings. In addition to reactive.
The carbon- carbon bond is very stable.

TOPIC 3
HYDROCARBONS
Learning Objectives
Students will identify the chains, branches and rings formed by carbon.
Students will learn about the classification of carbon compounds as saturated or
unsaturated hydrocarbon.
StudentS will knovw how to define isomerism.

Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to record differences between single, branched and ring
Students will be able to explain structure of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
hydrocarbons.
Students will be able to draw isomers of various hydrocarbons.

120 EduCart Science Class X

 RealLieApplication Structure of Saturated Hydrocarbons
Outin
nthe rain, you often wear rain together
yougo boots The first step is to link the carbon atoms atoms
Whenyourleas do not get wet. These rain with a single bond and then use the hydrogen
made boots are
upofahydrocarbon nomed polyvinsl chloride
that
o t0 satisfytheremaining voloncies of carbon as Showi
PV)PVs.a light synthetic plastic made partially below.
fom
petroleum
C-C Step 1
productio is a connplicated process H H
PC involving
chemistry, but it is now a widely used
ineNDensive
product in a
variets of industries. H-C-C-H Step 2
niectin-nouldino
d is a process that involves meltina
HH
pellets into a liquid form and then pouring
boot mould. It is used for a Ethane
variets of Methane: The sinplest alkane is rnethane (CHA).
thus making it an inexpensive fabrication
Hydrogen has avalencu of 1. As corbon has four witn
Valence electrons, carbon shares these electrons
four atoms of hudrogen in order to wchieve noble gas
configuration.
It is widely used as afuel and is a major cormponent
of biogas and Compressed Natural Gas (CNG).
H

H-C-H
H
carbon
Ethane: Ethane is an alkane having two
atoms. The molecular formula of ethane is CH6
There are seven single covalent bonds present in
between
one molecule of ethane - one single bond between
the two carbon atoms and six single bonds
carbon and hydrogen atoms.
puc boots are a popular low-cost option for H H
wteroroofing and for those looking for light-weight
ho0ts This is an example ofa chlorinated hydrocarbon H-C-CH
MD CPP in our usual ife. In this topic we willstudu and
knowledge more about hydrocarbons and their HH
voriousexamples.
The compounds made up of only hydrogen Mnemonics
ond corbon are called hydrocarbons. These are First six saturated hydrocarbon can be memorised as:
the simplest organic compounds and all other them Mary Eat Plums Before Playing Hockey
compounds are considered to be derived from Mary Methane
hydrogen atoms
bu the replacement of one or more Eat Ethane
by other atoms or groups of atoms. Plums Propane
hydrocarbons
The most important natural source of Before Butane
is petroleurm. There are two types of hydrocarbons: Playing - Pentane
Hockey Hexane
) Saturated hydrocarbons
2 Unsaturated hydrocarbons Unsaturated Hydrocarbons (Alkenes
Saturated Hydrocarbons or Alkanes and Alkynes)
carbon atoms (1) The hydrocarbons in which the two carbon
0 The hydrocarbons in which thebonds are called atoms are connected bya double bond or atriple
are connected by only single bond are called unsaturated hydrocarbons.
saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes.
hydrocarbon (2) Unsaturated hydrocarbons may be alkenes
4 The general formula of saturated (CHH2n) or alkynes (CnH2n-2).
alkanes is CaH. where n is the number of
Carbon atoms in one molecule. The first few (3) The general formula of an alkene is CHn where
n is the number of carbon atoms in one molecule.
akanes are methane (CH4), ethane (CzHs) and
propane (CzH¡). (4) The general formula of an alkyne is ChH2n-2.
are not very where n is the number of carbon atoms in one
9) The saturated hydrocarbons
reactive. molecule.
(9) These hydrocarbons generally give a clean (5) These are more reactive than saturated
hydrocarbons due to the presence of double
Tame. This is because the percentage of carbon and triple bonds which are the sites of chemical
oxidized
S comparativels low which gets
Completely on combustion. reactivity.

Carbon and its Compounds 121

(6) These give a yellow flame with lots of black
smoke. This is because the percentage of H
carbon is comparativels higher than saturated H C--H
H
hydrocarbons which does not oxidize completely
on combustion.
H
Structure of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons H

In the first step, two carbon atoms link together by Cyclohexane-Cetl12 Benzene-CeHe
asingle bond. Each carbon atom combines with Example 3. What will be the formula
two hådrogen atoms. One valencs per carbon atom
dot structure of cyclopentane?
and electron
remains unsatisfied which can be satisfied only ifthere
is adouble bond between the two carbon atoms.
Ethene - The simplest alkene: Ethene is the simplest Total Breakdown
(Rem[NemCERTber)
alkene having two carbon atoms and its molecular Marks (As per CBSE Marking Scheme)
formula is CoHa. There is a double bond between two Write the molecular formula
carbon atoms and four single bonds between carbon 2 Compound and draw it's structure of the
and hydrogen atoms.
(1m +1m)
Ans. The molecular formula of
CgH10 and its electron dot
below:
cyclopentane
structure is
given
Structural formula:
Ethyne-The simplest alkyne: The simplest alkyne is H
ethyne having two carbon atoms and its molecular
formula is CzH,. There is a triple bond between two
carbon atoms and two single bonds between carbon
and hydrogen atoms. H
H-C=C-H
H.
Electron dot structure:
Chains, Branches and Rings
Carbon atoms can form long 'chains' containing tens
of carbon atoms.
When carbon atoms combine, three types of chains
can be formed:
() Straight chains
(2) Branched chains
(3) Closed chains or ring type chains.
Structural Isomerism
Organic compounds having the same molecular
formula but different physical and chemical properties
due to different structures are called structural
Straight Chain of Branched Chain of
Carbon Atoms Carbon Atoms
isomers and this properts is called isomerism.
Isomerisnm is possible only withhydrocarbons having
4or more carbon atoms.
If we look at the structure of butane (CaH1o), we find
that two different 'skeletons' are possible with four
carbon atoms having single covalent bond:
Closed Chain of
Carbon Atoms C-C--C-C
Some compounds have carbon atoms arranged in the
H H H H
form of a ring as in the case of cyclohexane (CeH1p). Its
structure is shown alongside. Similarly, the structure
of benzene (CsH) is also shown:
H HH-c-c
122 Edu_art Science Class X
 find that both these compounds have the same Bxample 5. Real Life Based:
molecularformula C4H10 but different structures and
We
theyarecalled isomers. Sachin went to his arandmother's house during
lsormers
hence of hexane: grandmother
summer vacations. He saw his
H H
HH H H cooking food on kerosene stove. He also noticed
(1)H-c
Sooty deposits on the containers. Find out the
reason for the utensils getting black at the bottom.
H
H HH H H Suggest what Sachin must do to have a clean
H HH HH H H H flame. (Evaluate)

(2H-C

HH H H
H H CH3 H
H-C-C-C-cH (5) H-C--CC-C-H
49
H
HH
CH3
Example4. How many structural isomers can you
drawforpentane? (Create)
[NCERT]
Total Breakdown Total Breakdown
(As per CBSE Marking Scheme) Marks (As per CBSE Marking Scheme)
Marks
Write the number of isomers (Yam) Write why does it happens with reference
Draw their structures (Yam++t%m) toburning of hydrocarbons. (1m)
2
Give a suggestion which Sachin Can
Ane. The molecular formula for pentane is CçH12. adopt to get a clean flame. (1m)
There are three structuralisomers of pentane as
shown here: Ans. Kerosene stove used by Sachin's grandmother
HH H H H H H H has inlets for air so that oxygen rich moisture
H-C-C-C-C--H H-C-C- CH is burnt. Sachin observed that the bottom of
container has sooty deposits and are black, it
H H means that the air holes are blocked and fuel is
H-C-H
also being wasted.
H Sachin must clean the air holes to get a
clean flame. We also know that saturated
H-C-H hydrocarbons burn completely and leave no
residue and unsaturated hydrocarbons burn
H-Cc-H partially and the amount of heat produced is
also very less.
H-C-H

TOPIC 4
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

Learning Objectives
4 Students will learn about the functional groups.
Students will study and acquire knowledge about the various functional groups.
Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to identifs the functional groups present in a carbon compound.
Students will be able to correctly name the carbon compound haing a particular functional group.

Carbon and its Compounds 123

 Some important functional groups are given
Real Life Application table. in th
Whenever there is some boring food in our plate, the Functional
irst thing we all look for is. pickle to add taste and
Hetero
Formula of
texture to our food You must have observed that
these pickles can be stored for a long time. Have you
Atom

CäBr
Group
Halo-(Chloro/
bromo)
Functional Group
-Cl,-Br
thought how these pickles are preserved? (substitutes for
Acetic acid is a type of carboxylic acid which is widely Alcohol
hydrogen
-OH
atom
Used as apreservative in pickles. Carboxylic acids OH
are largely distributed in nature or can be produced CHO Aldehyde H
in the laboratories. These are the compounds
Containing carboxyl functional group, responsible
for the substance's unique behavior and maintaining CO Ketone
chemical activits. Here, the functional group is
attached to the hydrocarbon chain.
COOH Carboxylicacid
-C-OH
The electron dot structure of two
propanal, an aldehyde having molecular forrm Compournds
C,H;CHO and propanone, a ketone, having molec
formula CH,COCH3 are shown below:
Propanal (C,HsCHO)
Structural formula:
Such organic acids have important role in food
industries, since they affect the properties such as HH O
taste, aroma, color and the stability of food items. H-C-C -H
They are used in a wide variety of products for human
consumption.
Let us now learn more in this topic about important Electron dot structure:
functional groups along with their examples. o0

A functional group in an organic compound is an

atom or agroup of atoms bonded together in a
unique fashion, which is usually the site of chemical
reactivity in an organic molecule. H
If in a hydrocarbon chain, one or more
hydrogen
atoms are replaced by atoms of other elements Propanone (CH,COCH)
such as halogens, oxygen, nitrogen,sulphur etc., such Structural formula:
that the valency of carbon remains satisfied, then
the element replacing hydrogen is referred to HO H
as a
heteroatom. HC-C-C-H
These heteroatoms confer specific properties to the
compound, regardless of the length and nature of the
carbon chain and hence are called Electron dot structure:
functional groups.
Important Functional Groups
Free valency or valencies of the group are
the single line. The functional group is shown by
Hx) C
carbon chain through this valency byattached one
to the
hydrogen atom or atoms. replacing
H

124 Edu art Science Class X

 MoreExamples of Functional Groups
Some
Name of Formula of Compound IUPAC name ofCompound
Formulaof
FunctionalGroup Functionl Group Containing Functional Group
Alcoholic CH30H Methanol
.OH
ROH)
CoH;OH Ethanol
CgH,OH Propanol
-CHO
Aldehydic HCHO Methanal
HCHOorRCHO) CHgCHO Ethanal
CHCH,CHO Propanal
Ketonic CHsC0CH3 Propanone
RCOR) CH,COCH;CH3 Butanone

CHCOCH,CH,CH3 2-pentanone
Carboxylicacid HCOOH Methanoic acid
-COOH
HCOOHor CHgCOOH Ethanoic acid
RCOOH) CaHsC0OH Propanoic acid
Halogen CH3Cl Chloromethane
-X
Bromomethane
CHgBr
CHsl lodoethane
Amine Methanamine
-NH2 CH,NH2
Ethanamine
CaH;NH2 Nitromethane
Nitro CH¡NO2
-NO)
Nitroethane
CaHsNO2
-C0OR Ester HCOOCH3 Methyl methanoate
|HCOOC,Hs Ethyl methanoate
Methyl ethanoate
CH,C00CH3
AStudents
Caution
should note that when a functional aroup Total Breakdown
(As per CBSE Marking Scheme)
containing carbon is present in an organic molecule, the Marks
numbering of chain always starts from the carbon of A), (B) write name and draw structure
The given example will carify how the
Anctional grhe
numbering is to done.
2 (m + m+ hm + hm)
Ans. (A) Simplest alkene - Ethene
H H

(Correct numbering) (Wrong numbering)

(B) Simplest ketone - Propanone
Example 6. Name the:
(A) simplest alkene
(B) simplest ketone
and draw their structures. (Remember)

TOPIC 5
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

Learning Objectives
Students wil learn how toexplain the characteristics of homologous series.
4 Students will learn gbout the nomenclature of carbon compounds.
Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to classify carbon compounds in homologous series.
Students will be able to predict the properties of carbon compounds in homologous series.
Students will be able to write the IUPAC names of carbon compounds.

Carbon and its Compounds 125

Real Life Application the melting and boiling points

Import trale i f frm roio cosfort

increasing molecular mass.

Nomenclature of Carbon
increase
The names of compounds in a
bosed on the ngne of the basic
Com po u
homologous Series
by a 'prefiy 'phrase before" or carbon chain
n d s
"suffix "phrasernodfe
indicotirng the nature of the functional
Noming a corbon compound can be group.
h he optured from anfills brned to produce
lectre itu hent builings powet gorboge tnvcks.
following method.
(1) ldentifs the nurnber of carbon
done by t.
having otorns
than LO) Ionfil|- to.enCrÛu rojccts dre
cornpound A cornpound
Curentlu onerting in the {Inited Stote ond orother
S0 Iantfillt ar oood condidotes for tuming their
itorns wOuld have the narne three In tte
propane
mothhe intr (2) In case ofunctional group is
in enerdu recOUrce Wic would
in the norme of the cornpoundpresent, iti
phodu cnugh clectrieity to power eorlu 688,000
home grro5 thr ntion
Ihdin ho manu rogcons to purcue development of a
or asuffix.
(3) If the narne of the functional
with
isindir,
erther arof,
methahe eoonmu 0g0recsielu Doing so will help qiven as a suffix, the narne of the group is
the ountru meet ite nbective of becoming o high modified by deleting the final 'e' carbon
Gnd
Technoloou manufocturing powerhouse oppropriate suffix. For
exanple,
chain with a ketone group
a
would
the following manner: Propane - be
addirg'rs
three-c
=propanone.
nared
(4) If the carbon
chain is
final 'ane' in the name ofunsaturated.
the
ther
Substituted by 'ene or yne. For carbon chcir
carbon chain with a example. a thros
propene and if it hasdouble bond would be caila
a triple bond, it wCuid
called propyne.
Chain Length Functional
Bond
Functiand
Ci Meth
Group
Capuring methane before it gets into the Eth -ene
alss heps reduce the
effects of climateatmosphere
Methane is the first member change. C3
Series
of alkane
homologous Prop -C=C -yne
Let us now learn more But -0-H -ol
about the characteristics of
homologous series and their compounds. Ce Pent -SH -thiol
Ahomologous
having similar
series is a group of
organic compounds C Hex
the successive structures chemical properties in which
-oic acid
compounds differ by CH, group. Hept -C-0-H
Characteristics
(1) Al the
of
members Homologous
of a Series Example
compounds?
7. Howwould you
name the following
homnologous series can
represented by the same general formula. be
(2) Any two
1 carbon adjacent homologues differ by -CH, or (A) CH3-CH,-Br
atom and 2 (B) H- -0
molecular formula. hydrogen atoms in their
(3) The
H H H H
difference in the
molecular (C) H-C-c-cc-c=C-H
two adjacent
(4) All the homologues is 14 u. masses of any
homologouscompounds
series belonging
to the same H HH H (Apply)
have similar [NCERT
properties
the sincegroup.
functional
chemical
these are determined solels by Total
(5) The Breakdown
mernbers of a
homologous series show a Marks
gradual change in their physical
(As per CBSE MarkingScheme)
increase in properties
molecular mass. This is
with Write the IUPAC name of eacn
because compound. (1m+1m+1m)
126
Eduart Science Class X
 Ans
(4)Bromoethane Ans. Alcohol contain similar functional grouP -OH.
(B)Methanal This functional group -OH imparts specific
1-hexyne (as the triple bond is between properties to all the alcohols regardless of the
and second carbon atoms, when
t h efirst length and nature of the carbon chain.
numberedfromright)
The formula of lcohol containing 2, 3 and
Life Based: 4 carbon atoms are: C,H,OH, CzH,OH and
8. Real
Exomple.
whilestudying
about alcohols found that
CatH,OH respectively.
Renu alcohols (up to carbon-3) are colourless
mostofthee temperature. The higher alcohols Such aseries of Compounds in which the
Sorne
at.room
carbon) are oily or viscous. She wants to
liguids functional group (OH) substitutes a hydrogen
(4-10what makes alcohols so similar. Suggest in acarbon chain is called hormologus series.
reason. How does alcohol
know containing 2, 3 or 4
the atoms differ from each other?(Understand) If we look at the homologous series, we know
orbon CH,OH and CaH,OH differ by -CH, unit and
Breakdown
Totol molecular mass 14u. Similarly CaH,OH and
(As per CBSE Marking Scheme) mass
Morks CaHgOH differ by-CH, and molecular
J Write the structural properties while 14u.
exploaining the reason. (1m)
inceases in any
J Use the concept of homologous series to As the molecular mass
show how the alcohol compounds are homologous series, a gradation in physical
properties
diferent from each other. (1m) properties is seen but the chernical
J Write the effect of increasing molecular deterrmined by the
remain the same as they are
mass in homologous series on the basis of
physicaland chemical properties. (1m) functional group.

|TOPIC 6|
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS
Learning Objectives
compounds.
Students will learn about the chemical properties of carbon
and petroleum.
Students willlearn and understand the formation of coal
on burning of hydrocarbons.
- Students will learn to observe the colour offlame
Learning Outcomes
chemical reactions of carbon compounds.
- Students will be able to explain various
write a balanced chemical reaction.
Students will be able to apply scientific knowledge to
coal and petroleum.
Students willbe able to voice their opinion to conserve
public toreduce the use of vegetable ghee.
Students will be able to create awareness among

Real Life Application

in our
When it comes to cooking food. housewives
homes and chefs in hotels often prefer non-stick
COokware. These non-stick utensils are made up of a
chemical compound known as Teflon.
leflon's chemical structure is what gives it
Its distinctive and unusual properties. These
Characteristics make it an ideal chemical for making
dVariety of useful items. such as non-stick pans,
coOKNg pots, and pipes. Teflon is a carbon compound
Whose chemical formula is (CFzCF)n.

Carbon and its Compounds 127

Teflon is relatively safe and stable substance. Teflon (b) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R)
coatings on nonstick cookware begin to break correct explanation of (A) is not the
down at temperatures above 260°C, releasing toxic (c) (A)is true but (R) is false
chemicals into the air. In this way. it can be harmful (d) (A) is False but (R) is true
to human beings.
This shows the chemical property of Teflon. In a
similar way. various carbon compounds exhibit
diverse chemical properties. In this topic, we will
Total
Marks
Breakdown
(As per CBSE Marking (Remenben
Scheme)
(A) ldentify the correct
study and gain knowledge of the chemical properties basis of your option on
of various carbon compounds. activity performed.observations
of the
the
Combustion (B) ldentify the compound
by (1m)
Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in oxygen to Any 4 of5
the correct option.
4 (C) ldentify the correct option. select(1inm)g
give carbon dioxide along with the release of heat and
light. Most carbon compounds also release a large
(D) Give reason using
the (im)
amount of heat and light on burning.
involved.
(E) Choose the correct option
concept
(im)
() C+O,C0, + heat and light by
the concept involved. using
(2) CH4 + 20, 0, + 2H,0 + heat and light Ans. (A) The first student recorded the (1m)
(3) CHCH,OH +30,200,+ 3H,0+ heat and ight
Example 9. Case Based:
observations.
When alcohol, camphor and folowing
Two students performed the following activities to
study the combustion of hydrocarbons.
are taken in a spatula and burnt
uellow coloured flame is observed in co
napt
separhaalteelngy,
The first student took some carbon compounds of camphor and naphthalene as theu
are unsaturated hydrOcarbons. Wheron
botk
(naphthalene, camphor, alcohol) one by one on a
spatula and burned them with teacher's assistance. He alcohol burns with a blue flame as it
is a
observed the nature of the flame and whether smoke saturated hydrocarbon
is produced. He then placed a metal plate above the (B) () C4H10
flame and noted down his observations.
Explanation: The hydrocarbon CaHn or
The second student lighted a bunsen burner and butane will give a clean flame when bumt
adjusted the air hole at the base to get different types as it is an alkane, which is a saturated
of flames/presence of smoke. hydrocarbon containing only single covalent
[NCERT Activity 4.3, 4.4) bonds between carbon atoms.
(A) Record the observations made by the first (C) (b) Oxygen supply is sufficient
student.
(Analyse) Explanation: No, saturated hydrocarbons
(B) Which out of the following hydrocarbons will burn with ablue flame in
give a clean flame when burnt? sufficient suppls
of oxygen and burn with a yellow sootu
(a) CaH1o (b) C4Hs flame when supply of oxygen is insufficient.
(c) CçH1o (d) All of these (D) When camphor is burnt and a nmetal plate is
(Understand)
(C) Saturated hydrocarbons burn with a blue flame kept over the flame, it burns with a yellow
when: sooty flame and asoots deposit is formed
on the metal plate.This is because camphor
(a) oxygen supply is insufficient is an
(b) oxygen supply is sufficient unsaturated hudrocarbon and al
(c) never burns with a blue flame
unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with a
sooty flame due to incomplete combustion
(d) always burns with a yellow sooty of carbon particles. Saturated hydrocarbons
flame
burn with a clean flame in sufficient suppy
(D) Why burning of camphor results(Remember)
in a sooty
of OXygen.
deposit on ametal plate kept over the flame. (E) (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the

Assertion (A): Ethyl alcohol, when(Understand)

(E) correct explanation of (A)
heated with Explanation: Ethyl alcohol when heated|
excess conc. H,SO4 at 334Kgives With excess conc. H,SO at 443K. results in
ethane.
Reason (R): This the dehydration of ethanol to give ethane
conversion is possible through dehydration reaction.
through dehydration reaction.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and
(R) is the CH3CH,0H Conc. H,SO, CH2 = CH, +H,0
443 K
correct explanation of (A) Ethyl alcohol Woter
Ethene

128 EduLart Science Class X

 Colour of Flame on
bons
Burning Hydrocar- Addition Reaction
Saturated hydrocarbons will The reaction in which an atom or a group of atoms IS
blue flame while generally give
unsaturated carbon a clean added tO amolecule is known as addition reaction.
give a
yellowflame with lots of black compounds will Unsaturated hudrocarbons add hydrogen in the
However, limiting the smoke.
incomplete combustion supply of air presence of catalusts such as palladium or nickel
results in to give saturated hudrocarbons. This reaction is
saturatedIhydrocarbons gives ahydrocarbons. Even
sooty flame. Commonly used in the hydrogenation of egetable
The gas/kerosene stove used at home has oils using anickel catalyst. Vegetable oils generally
Sothat asufficientls inlets for air
oive a clean blue flame OXygen-rich mixture is burnt to ndve long unsaturated carbon chgins while animal
fats have saturated carbon chains.
ifthe bottoms offcooking vessels Sare getting
it means that the air holes are blackened,
blocked and fuel is R R Nickel catalyst
getting wasted. +R
Hy
Fuelssuch as coalland
dpetroleum
have
nitrogen and sulphur in them. Their some amount of
che formation of oxides of combustion results Hydrogenation of Vegetable Oils
hich are major sulphur and nitrogen Oils (such as vegetable, olive, sunflower) are liquids
pollutants in the
Ding substances and flames:environment. A
at room temperature. In the food industry, hydrogen
rnduced when gaseous substances burn.flame When
is onlu is added to oils (in a process called
hydrogernation)
ar charcoal is ignited, the wood to make them more solid, or 'spreadable'. The
volatile
A
Vapourise and burn with a
flame insubstances present
the beginning.
hydrogenation of oils help to prolong the shelf-ife of
the food and maintain flavour stability.
luminous flame is seen when the
nnseous substance are heated and startatoms
to
of the
glow.
Since the process of hydrogenation adds hydrogen
pnlour produced by each element is a The atoms tooil, it will reduce the number of
property of that element. characteristic fatty acids and increase the number ofunsaturated
fatty acids in the oil
saturated
Formation of Coal and Petroleum Animal fats generalls contain saturated fatty
Coal and petroleum have been formed from acids which are said to be harmful for health. Oils
which has been subjected to various biomass containing unsaturated fatts acids should be chosen
biological
geological processes. Coal is formed by the remainsand for cooking.
of trees,ferns, and other plants that
lived millions of
years ago. These were crushed into the Earth, Example 10. Which of the following hydrocarbons
bu earthquakes or volcanic perhaps undergo addition reactions? Explain.
eruptions. They were
pressed down by layers of Earth and rocks and slowly CzH_, CgHg, CgHs, CzH, and CH4.
decayed into coal.
(Understand)
[NCERT)
Oil and gas are the remains of millions of Total
tiny
and animals that lived in the sea. When they plants Marks
Breakdown
bodies sank to the sea bed and were died, their (As per CBSE Marking Scheme)
covered by silt.
Bacteria attacked the dead remains,turning them into Analyse and identify the compound on
oil andgas under the high 2 the basis of number of bonds.
pressures which they were (1m)
Explain the reason using the concept
being subjected to. involved.
(1m)
Oxidation Ans. Unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes and
Oxidation is the reaction in which oxygen is added and alkynes) undergo addition reactions as they
hydrogen is removed from an alcohol. When alcohol have double and triple covalent bonds
are sites of chemical which
IS heated with an oxidizing reactivits. The general
agent such as alkaine formula of alkenes is CnH2n and that of alksnes
potassium permanganate or acidified potassium is ChH2n-2
aichromate, theu undergo oxidation and form
Out of the given
carboxylic acid. and CHa are alkaneshydrocarbons, CzH6 CgHg
as they have the general
Alkaline KMnO4+ Heat
CHg-CH, 0H Or acidified K,Cr,0,+ Heat +CH,COOH formula ChH2n2. Hence they will not undergo
addition reaction.
Alkaline potassium permanganate acidified
CzHe is an alkene
potassium dichromate are known as oxidising agents
addition reaction.
(ethene) and will undergo
S they oxidise alcohols to acids,
the starting material that is, add oxygen to CHy is an alkyne (ethyne) and will also
addition reaction. undergo
 to
chlorine is added hydrocarbons
of sunlight, Chlorine can replace the
n

Example 11. Give a

differentiate chemically
between
be used to
test that can butter and
(Understand)
veryfast
reaction.
atoms one by
one. lt is
called a substitution
of atom or a group
because one type another. Anumber of atome
nyredraocgieon
cooking oil. [NCERT] the place of of
takes
are usually formed with the higher homologues o product
Breakdown
Total Marking Scheme) alkanes.
CH4 + Cly Sunlight, CHCl +HCI
(As per CBSE
Marks
distinquish between
Write a test to oil within 2-3 points. Based:
butter and cooking (1m) Example 12. Real Life
observations of the test
with
sonme heart-related
3 Explain the chemical nature of butter
reference to
and cooling oil.
(1am)
Nidhi's father got
and their doctor advised him to start using ol, prooblem
fatty acids for
saturated compounds
and containing unsaturated cooing
Ans. Butter contains
unsaturated compounds. Why should vegetable ghee not to be Consumed
cooking oil contains addition vegetable oile?
Asunsaturated
hydrocarbons undergo What is the hydrogenation of
saturated hydrocarbons
reaction whereas
do not undergo
addition reaction, we will
differentiate
use
chemically Breakdown
(Understang
bromine water test to Total
between butter and cooking oil. Marks (As per CBSE Marking Scheme)
brown in colour) is
Bromine water (reddish hydrocarbons 4 Write the reason with reference to %.
decolourized by unsaturated nature of compound.
addition reaction with (1m)
as they will undergo 2 J Explain the phenomena using a reaction.
bromine. (Im)
CH, = CH, + Br;’ CH,Br-CH,Br Ans. Vegetable ghee should not be
used for conki
bromine will saturated fattu o
Whereas, the brown colour of purposes as it contain
a saturated which are harmful for health.
be retained on reacting with amount of
hydrocarbon. So, when a small Addition of hydrogen to an unsaturate
treated
butter and cooking oil are taken and decolourize hydrocarbon in the presence of catalyst nickel
with bromine water, cooking oil will H H
have
the bromine water whereas butter will not Nickel catalyst +R-C-C-R
anyeffect on it. H,
R
Substitution Reaction R R
another
The reactions in which an atom replaces Ni/Heat
Fats
off atoms from a molecule is calleda Edible oil + H2
atom ora group (Unsaturated) (Saturated)
substitution reaction.
Vegetable oils have long unsaturated carbon
Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and are chains while animal fats have saturated carbon
inert in the presence of most reagents. In the presence chains.

|TOPIC 7|
SOME IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS
Learning Objectives
Students will learn how to perform physical and chemical tests to distinguish ethanol from ethanoic acid.
Students will understand the uses of ethanol, ethanoic acid and esters.
Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to distinguish between alcohol and carboxslicacid.
Students willbe able to explain harmful effects of alcohol.
growth&
Real Life Application What we can do to improve our hair bioti
We all want to be the best when it comes to our taking protein and biotin rich foods because
physical appearance. Having healthy and good hair 0s essential for the production of a hairabout pro th
allows us to look our best and improves our over-all called keratin. But have you ever thought buildiy
being. This has also been highlighted in asurvey that composition of proteins? Amino acids are the linke
states 88% women believes that their hair is related blocks of proteins that haas central carbon atom
to their self-confidence. to various groups present in proteins.

130 EduLart Science Class X

 Ethanol obtained by the
Ethanol an
is alcohol and is from
is obtained
fermentation of molasses which CHsOH.
formula is
Its molaculor
sugarcane juice.Carbon -OH
Alcohols are compounds containing also be
lt can
group ttached to a carbon atom
bu replacing9 o
Considered as derivative of olkane
hydrogen aton by a hydroxsl group (-OH)
Physical Properties of Ethanol
(1) Ethanol is liquid at room ternperature.
asasurprise to youthat carbon is the active
Come
may.
urthmostabundant element present in the nature.
This
is the (2) It is commonly called alcohol and
ingredient of all alcoholic drinks.
after oxygen,it is the second most abundant
tincture of iodine,
present, our bodies. (3) It is used in medicines such as
tonics because it is J
lement
Cabohydrates-lipids, proteins etc, COugh syrups, and many
which are major good solvent.
rs
o fbiomolecules are nothing but the elements proportions.
ofaarbonisselfIn this topic, let us study more about (4) Ethanol is also soluble in water in all
ofalcohol leads to many
dtrentcarbon compounds and their properties. (5) Long-term consumption
health problems.
ChemicalProperties of Ethanol
Chemical Reaction
Property Description
Combustion Ethanol isa highly inflammable liquid and burns with C,H,OH +30, ’2C0,+ 3H,0
ofethanol a blue flame to form CO, and H5o.
Reaction with Ethanol reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide 2CH;OH + 2Na ’2C,H5ONa + H2
sOdium
and hydrogen (it burns with a pop sound)
Oxidotion Alkaline KMnO4 0Xidizes ethanol to ethanoic acid. CH3-CH,OH
Alkaline KMnOa+ Heat
’ CHCOOH
Or acidified K,Cr,0,+ Heat

Dehydration When ethanol is heated at 443 K with excess

CH3-CH,OH H,sO4neCHg=CH, +Hg0
concentrated sulphuricacid, we get ethene.
Esterification The reaction in which an alcohol reacts with a CH,C0OH+CgHsOH Conc HySOsy
carboxylic acid in the presence of conc. H,SO4 to CH,C00C,Hs + H,0
form a Sweet smelling substance known as ester is
known as esterification.
NaOH’CHC0ONa
Sononification When an ester is treated with an alkali solution, CHCOOC,Hs + +CzHsOH
hydrolysis of ester takes place, i.e., the ester is
converted back to the constituent alcohol and sodium
salt of the acid.

Efiects of Alcohol on Living Beings (2) Methanol is oxidised to methanal in the liver.
Efects of Ethanol (3) It reacts rapidly with the components of cells. It
causes the protoplasm to get coagulated, in much
(1) When large quantities of ethanol are consumed, the same way an egg is coagulated by cooking.
it tends to slow down metabolic processes and
depress the central nervous system. (4) It also affects the optic nerve, causing blindness.
4 This results in lack of coordination, mental Uses of Ethanol
Confusion, drowsiness, lowering of the normal (1) It is one of the most important organic chemicals
inhibitions, and finally stupor. and is used as a solvent for lacquers, varnishes,
) Ihe individual mgu feel relaxed but does not perfumes, medicines, etc.
fealise that his sense ofjudament, sense of timing, (2) It is used for sterilizing wounds as it is a good
and muscular coordination have been seriously
antiseptic.
impaired. (3) It is used as a fuel in internal combustion engine
Eects of Methanol and as asubstítute for petrol in motor cars under
0 Intake of methanol in very small quantities can the name 'power alcohol!.
CQuse death.
Carbon and its Compounds 131
 (1) Alcohol is an intoxicant The person lose
discrimination under its

are used in the radiators of motor

vehicles
which
(4) It is used for making antifreeze mixtures,in cold
sensesof
a person
drinks infl uence.
alcohol regulary.
ahdeldihongec
(2) Ifbecomes dependent onit and becomes
COuntries. control and an
body loses its
Tests for Alcoholic Group
(1) Sodium metal test: When a small piece ol
Sodium metal is added to the organic
iquia,
(3) The
loses one's
increased.
consciousness

death if
if the dose of
graduadllycohois
even cause
bubbles of hydrogen gas are produced, indicating (4) It may damages the liver
quantities as it economic
consumed in
the presence of alcoholic group. condition of a
worsensthe
be tested is
(2) Ester test: When the organic liquid to and a tew (5) It
a very
bad effect on
the farnils,
Warmed with some alacial acetic acid
drops of conc. H,SO4, a sweet smelling substanCe
is formed.
(6) It has
development
Ethanoic Acid
ofthe children. psychologica
Denatured Alcohol Ethanoic acid (CHgCOOH) is commonls
Ethanol is an important industrial chemical and is acid. Its
acetic
dilute solution in water (5-8%) known
is os
subjected to very small excise duty. To prevent ts andis used1for preservingfood.
asvinegar ethanoic acidis 290 Kand The known
meting
misuse for drinking purposes, the alcohol supplied for
industrial purposes is rendered unfit for drinking by
point of pure in cold
freezes during winter acid. climates. s
This hence it often
mixing it with some poisonous substances, such as acetic gove riseto
methanol, pyridine, copper sulphate etc. It is known as itsname, glacial
Acid
denatured alcohol. Physical Properties of Ethanoic
smelling
Rectified spirit: Ethanol containing 5 percent water IS
boiling point of
pungent
(1) It is a colourless, K.
391
liquid havinga
known as rectified spirit. proportions
Harmful effects of drinking alcohol: (2) tis miscible with water in all

Chemical Properties of Ethanoic Acid

Chemical reaction
Property Description
2CHCOOH + 2Na ’ 2CHCOONg+H.
Acidic nature Ethanoic acid reacts with metals to form
metal ethanoates and hydrogen. 2CH,COOH +NazCO32CH3C00Na +C0,
It also reacts with sodium carbonate and +H0
sodium hydrogen carbonate. CH,COOH +NaHCO3 CH3C0ONa +C0,
+H;0
These reactions show that the Hatom present
in - COOH group is acidic in nature.
Reaction with Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid reacts with NaOH+ CH,COOH CH,C0ONa +H0
abase abase such as sodium hydroxide to give a
salt (sodium ethanoate or commonly called
sodium acetate) and water.
Reaction The reaction in which an alcoholreactswith a CHC00H+CzH;OHCH,COOC,Hs +H,0
with alcoholscarboxylic acid in the presence of conc. H,S04
(Esterification) to forma sweet smelling substance known as
ester is known as esterification.

Uses of Ethanoic Acid Test tube

(1) It is used for making synthetic vinegar which is containing
reaction
used for preserving food. mixture Beaker
(2) It is used as a reagent in laborators.
Water Wire gauze
(3) Itis used for making white lead [2PbCo, Pb(OH)|
which is used as a white paint.
Burner
A Caution Tripodstand
Students should be careful while doing the activitu to
show the formation of an ester. A test tube containing without
Thistest tube should never be heated the test
alcohol and carboxylic acid should be kept in a beaker os in
the water bath otherwise the mixtureinflommable
shown in the figure. tube would catch fire as alcohol is an
substance.

132 EduLart Science Class X

Erample 13. Real Life Based: laboratory, denatured alcohol is used. What is this
Pooja knows that water is a universal solvent. denatured alcohol? (Remember)
tried dissolve ester the water, but to her
She did Total Breakdown
surprise,it | not dissolve. Give reason, why ester
dissolvein water? Marks (As per CBSE Marking Scheme)
didnot (Understand) 1
V Write the nature and composition of
Total Breakdown
(As per CBSE Marking Scheme)
denatured alcohol. (thm+hm)
Mars Ans. Denatured alcohol is ethanol that has toxic
J Write the reason with substances added to it that makes it unfit for
1 nature of the compound.
reference to the
(1m) human consumption.
Ans. Woter is a polar compound whereas ester is
Example 15. Real Life Based:
non-polar. Non-polar molecules are repelled
bu water so they do not dissolve in it and Akansha went to Chicago, USA in the month of
therefore hydrophobic. are January to meet her brother who works over there.
She learnt that her brother has used amixture of
Saponification Reaction
alcohol and water instead of only water in the car
Esters are sweet--smelling substances. These are used radiator. She is anxious to know why mixture of
in making perfumes and as flavouring agents. Esters ethanol and water is used? (Understand)
reoctinthe presence of an acid or a base to give bac
Total Breakdown
the alcoholl and carboxylic acid. This reaction is known
Marks
assoponiication because it is used in the preparation
(As per CBSE Marking Scheme)
ofsoap. 1
Write the concept as reason for the
Example 14. Real Life Based: mixing of ethanol and water. (1m)
Ans. A mixture of alcohol and water is used instead
Ethanol is used in alcoholic beverages and it is of water in radiators of vehicles in cold climate.
aroduced naturally when yeast and other microbes We know that water freezes at 0°C. Ethanol is
rment sugars found in plants. But in Chemistru added to water to lower its freezing point.

|TOPIC 8
SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
Learning Objectives
Students will understand the process of micelle formation.
Students will learn and explore the cleansing action of soap and detergent and their effectiveness in
cdeaning.
Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to compare the foaming capacity of soapsand detergents.
Students will be able to exhibit creativitsin drawing micelle formation.
Students will be able to differentiate between soaps and detergents.

Real Life Application

As it is awell-known fact that health professionals
play a critical role in improving access and quality
of life for all the living beings. They work round the
clock to save lives of patients suffering from various
diseases. One of the major reasons for the disease
Tansmission is, contaminated hands as they are tull
of harmful disease-causing microorganisms. Washing
nands in areqular interval of time can help reduce
ie potential transmission of disease directly to
Oners or tothe surfaces where they can be picked up We use different soaps and hand wash available in
by others. the market, not only to wash our hands but also to

Carbon and its Compounds 133

 anemulsion in water. The
surtace etc.
(6) This forms dissolving the dirt in
thus helpsin water sOap micele
clothes, oil from skin clothes clean. and we
remove dirt fro our nature and we knOW can wash our
of the dirt you see is oils in soaps and Nat
Most the
dissolve in water. Here, molecule of
that oil cannot because the
detergents come into play potassium salts of long
sodium or dissolves in
SOap constitutes The carbon chain
carboxulic acids. helps
chain
the ionic end dissolves in water thereby
oiland
in cleaning. about the
topic uou will learn in detail
In this action of soaps and NaO
formation and cleansing
detergents. dropet
Soaps
sodium or potassium salts
The molecules of soap are
of long-chain carboxslic acids.
Soap molecule has: Na
Micelle Formation
(1) lonic (hydrophilic) part
(2) Long hydrocarbon chain (hydrophobic)
part Cleansing Action of Soap
(1) Soap in the form of amicelle is able to clean
Hydrophilic the oilu dirt will be collected in the centre of the
end
Hydrophobic micelle.
end
(2) The micelles stay in solution as acolloid and will
Structure ofa Soap Molecule not come together to precipitate because of ion.
Example 16. What change will youobserve if you ion repulsion.
(3) Thus, the dirt suspended in the micelles is glsn
test soap with litmus paper (red and blue)? (Analyse) easils rinsed away. The soap micelles are large
[NCERT] enough to scatter light. Hence, a soap solution
Total Breakdown appears cloudy.
Marks (As per CBSE Marking Scheme) Soap molecules Soap molecules
State the colour change observed giving FNGNa Dirt particle
1
reason for the same. (Ham+hm) -Na(oil or Grease) N Na
Ans. When soap is tested with blue and red litmus
paper, it changes the colour of red litmus to blue -Water
but has no effect on blue litmus paper as soap is
alkaline in nature.
Micelles Soap micelle Soap micelle entraps
(1) Most dirt is oils in nature and we know, oil does the dirt particle
not dissolve in water. Cleansing Action of Soap
(2) Soaps are molecules in which the tNO ends
have differing properties, one is hydrophilic, that Detergents
is, it dissolves in water, while the other end is Detergents are sodium salts of sulphonic acids o
hydrophobic, that is, it dissolves in hydrocarbons. ammonium salts with chlorides or bromide ions
(3) When soap is at the surface of water, the Examples of synthetic detergents are: Sodium
hydrophobic 'tail' of soap will not be soluble in n-dodecyl benzene sulphonate andSodium n-dodecyl
water and the soap will align along the surface sulphate.
of water with the ioníc end in water and
the
hydrocarbon 'tail' protruding out of water. Effectiveness of Soaps and Detergentsiin Hard
Water
(4) Inside water, these molecules have a unique
orientation that keeps the hydrocarbon portion Soap is not effective in hard water as soap reactS WI
out of the water. the calcium and maanesium salts. which cause'and u
(5) The soap molecules, thus form hardness of water, and forms foam with difficuty
called micelles (see figure) where onestructures an insoluble substance (scum) remains after washing
the molecules is towards the oil dropletend of with water.
the ioniC-end is away from the droplet i.e. while in hard water as thecharged
Detergents are compounds
outside. faces ends of these effective do not form insoluble
precipitates with the calcium and magnesium lo
134 Edulart Science Class X
 Thus,theu remain effective in hard water.
usually used to make
() Assertion (A): Soaps are not effective in
forc
Hegent
arg

cleaningclothes. shampoosand water.

hard

Case Based: Reason (R) : The charged ends of detergents

Bample
17. do notform insoluble precipitates
performed the activities to study the
anddetergents in soft and hard water
with the calcium and magnesium
fsoap ions in hard water.
studenttook about 1O mL of distilled water
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
and 10 mL of hard water (from a
correct explanation of (A).
handLpump)in separate test tubes
Ior of drops of soap solution to both. and (b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the
He.
the test tubes correct explanation of (A).
h es
n hoot vigorously for an equal (c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
student took two test tubes with about (d) (A) is false but (R) is true. (Analyse)
of
har water in each and added five drops Total Breakdown
0m colution to one and five drops of detergent Marks (As per CBSE Marking Scheme)
to
theother andshook both test tubes for the (A), (B) ldentify the correct option on the
stton
sAme
peniod [NCERT Activity 4.11, 4.12] basis of your observations of the activity
observations recorded by the first student
The performed. (1m+1m)
W
addingafew drops of soap solution to 1O (C) Write what happens in the given
onLdistilled water andl hard water in separate Any 4 of S situation. (1m)
below. (D) Write the basic structural difference
testtubes is given (atleast one point). (1m)
observation
Salect the correct (E) ldentify the correct option using the
Distilled water Hard water concept involved. (1m)
(o) Lotoffoam Lot of foam observed Ans. (A) (c) Distilled water: Lot of foam observed;
observed Hard water: Curdy precipitate observed
A Curdy precipitate Lot of foam observed Explanation: Soap forms a lot of foam with
observed distilled water but forms a curdy white
precipitate known as scum when mixed
(e) Lot offoam Curdy precipitate with hard water. This is because the soap
observed observed
molecules react with the calcium and
a Curdy precipitate Curdy precipitate magnesium ions present in hard water to
observed observed form the scum.
(Analyse)
(B) (a) Both () and (i)
BThe second student recorded the following
observations after adding five drops of soap Explanation: Soaps form an insoluble
solution and detergent solution to two test precipitate in hard water whereas detergents
are effective even in hard water as they do
tubes containing hard water.
not form insoluble precipitates with calcium
0 Both the test tubes had an equal amount and magnesium ions in hard water.
of foam
(0) The test tube in which soap was added
(C) When we use soap in water containing
calcium sulphate, soap forms foam with
had less amount of foam difficults but forms an insoluble substance
() The test tubes in which detergent was called scum as soap molecules react with
added had less anmount of foam the calcium salt found in hard water.
)A curdy solid was formed in the test tube (D) The molecules of soap are sodium or
in which soap was added potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic
Select the incorrect observations. acids whereas detergents are generally
ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain
0) Both () and (llI) (b) Both () and (V)
carboxylic acids.
9) Both (i) and (V) (d) Both (lI) and (V)
(Analyse) (E) (b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the
correct explanation of (A).
will be while using soap in
Water containingobserved
Explanation: Soaps are not effective in hard
calciumsulphate? (Analyse)
DHow ore Soaps and detergents different water as soap molecules react with the
calcium and magnesium salts present in
(Understand)
structural y?
Carbon and its Compounds 135
 Total
Breakdown
CaSO4, MgSO4, CaCly (As per CBSE Mardng
hard water, such as insolublesubstance
and MgCl, and forms
an
Marks
Write the type ofreactions
Scheme)
and result in the
which
known as scunm.
of detergents is
formation
dlong with the process involved OCCur
of
Howeve, as the structure
soaps, the charged
2
scum
different from that of
not form insoluble
ends of detergents dothe calcium and
precipitates with
Ans. The formation of
scum on her hands
be due to hard water. When soap is
(1m+lm)
magnesium ions in hard water. hard water, the
calcium (Ca) and ad ed
Differences between Soaps and
Detergents (Mg)ions present in hard water
soap. We know soap
contains the mareactgnesium
sodium with
Soaps
Detergents
that are converted to
their respective solts
Soaps are sodium salts
Detergents are the and magnesium salts which precipitate
Scum andtherefore, the lather is not
calium
sodium salts of long
of long chain fatts acids. chain sulphonic acids. formed.
The ionic group present The ionic group present Example 19. Real Life Based:
in soap is -COONa Alankrita noticed that her mother uses a
is-SO-Nat or -sO4-Nat
scrub the clothes whenever she washes
to brush
Soaps are not effective
Detergents can be used
when water is hard.
with her hands but in washing machine, scrubbin cothes
cleansing agents in hard even
Water.
is not done. Why?
(Understand
Soaps are biodegradable Some of the detergents Total Breakdown
and hence do not cause are non-biodegradable Marks (As per CBSE Marking Scheme)
environmental and hence Cause
any Write the function of scrubbing whe
pollution. environmental pollution. 1 done with hands and in washinn
machine.
Example 18. Real Life Based:
(Im)
Ans. Scrubbing with abrush helps in loosening the
Priyanka went to mussoorie with her parents. bonds between the dust particles and fabrics af
While washing her hands and face with soap, she clothes. This work is done by washing machine
noticed that a scum is formed on her hands in place as agitation of dirty clothes is carried out in the
of lather. Why does this happen? (Understand) washing machine.

One Shot Video

of complete Chapter
Watch a concept video of all the topics of
thiscomplete chapter with examples. SCAN AND PLAY

OBJECTIVE Type Questions

|1mark
Multiple Choice Questions Explanation: Only 0.03% of atmosphert
1, Carbon exists in the
of:
atmosphere in the form air contains carbon in the form of carbon
(a) only carbon monoxide dioxide. The natural Concentration of carbon
(b) carbon monoxide in traces and monoxide in the air is around 0.2 parts P
dioxide
carbon million (ppm). It is produced by the incomplete
Supply
(c) only carbon dioxide combustion of carbon due to a limitedformed
(d) coal. OXygen. It is a pollutant which is diesel
[NCERT Exemplarl
Ans. (b) carbon monoxide in traces and when hydrocarbons such as petrol and
dioxide carbon are burnt. Carbon monoxide (CO) is :short-lived
and gets oxidised into carbon dioxide (CO2
 &RelatedTheory
also OCCurs in the
concentration. Strongand fully dissociated, HCl
Caorbon fosci/ form of
minerals such isan acid. Acetic acid is a dissociated and
weak
carbonates, fuels and other acid. As a result, HCl has a higher hydrogen ion
ae
compounds organic
concentration than acetic acid. Lower is the pH,
molecule ammonia (NH3) has: greater is the hydrogen ion concentration and
@A singlebonde greater is the acid strength.
la)onlydouble bonds
) only
b. Given below are the structure of a few
triple bonds hydrocarbon compounds. Which of these is/
) only doouble bonds and one are alkyne?
()
two single bond
combustion () H-C=C-H (0) H
Four
3 compoundsare shown
reactions of
below. carbon
CH4 +O2 ’C0,+ Ha0+ heat
(1) H H () H
CH,CHO +O’ CO2 +Hz0 +heat
H+0; ’ C0, +H50+heat H-¢--H H--C=cH
CoHs +O2 ’CO2+ H,0 +heat
What Can be concluded from the four
reactions? (a) Only () (b) Only ()
(c) Both () and (V) () Both (1) and ()
carbon compounds release OXygen [CBSE Question Bank 2022]
on combustion.
Ans. (c) Both () and ()
() AU carbon compounds release water Explanation: Compound () is ethyne and
onreacting with oxygen. Compound ( ) is propyne. Both of therm
AunAll carbon compounds produce carbon contain a triple bond thus they are alkynes.
dioxide onreacting with oxygen. Compound () is ethene which is an alkene as
it contains a double covalent bond. Compound
Options: (ID) is ethane which is an alkane as it contains a
() Only () (b)()and () single covalent bond.
(c) ) and (I) (d) 0, 01) and (1)
[Mod. CBSE Question Bank 2022] A Caution
Students should remember that alkane, alkene

Ans. (c) () and (i) and alkyne contain single, double and triple bond
Eplanation: All carbon compounds when respectively
burn in a sufficient supply of air, then carbon 6. Astudent conducts an activity, where
dioxide and water vapour are formed and a lot he took a naphthalene ball and burnt. He
compounds
of heat is also produced. Carbon observed that it gives a yellow flame with
they do not
burn in presence of oxygen but lots of black smoke and sooty deposits
release oxygen on burning. For example: around it. What type of hydrocarbon does
naphthalene contain?
CH4+ 202
Combustion
’ CO, +2H,0+ heat
and light (a) Unsaturated, as black smoke represents
complete combustion.
diluted acetic
4 Anita added a drop each of (b) Unsaturated, as sooty deposit represents
acid and diluted hydrochloric acid on pH unburnt hydrocarbons.
colors. Which of
Paper and compared the conclusion? (c) Saturated, as it gives a yellow
flame
the following is the correct which represents complete
combustion.
more than that of
(0) pH of acetic acid is (d) Saturated, as the burning of
any
hydrochloric acid. substance represents complete
less than that of
(0) pH of acetic gcid is combustion. [CBSE Question Bank 2022]
hydrochloric acid.
completely in reaction, alkaline KMnO4 acts
() Acetic gcid dissociates 7. Bln the given
aqueous solution. as!
CHg-CH-OH
Alkaline KMnO4, CH-COOH
(9) Acetic acid is a strong acid Heat

Ans, (a) pH of acetic acid is more than

that of (a) reducing agent (b) oxidising agent
(c) catalyst (d) dehydrating agent
hydrochloric acid lower [CBSE 2016]
HCl has a
Explanation:Asolution of of the same
pH than an acetic acid solution
Compounds 137
Carbon and its
 8. The formulae of four organic compounds are Option (c) represents an alcohol
shown below. Choose the correct option.
() H. ()
group. Any organic substance with
functional group (-OH) bonded to the
a funchiuoorna
oxygensoftuortoamte'
carbon atomis an alcohol An
linked to one hydrogen atom and
atom in the alcohol functional group. one
(u) HH
H
H H Option (b) represents a carboxylic carbn
Option(d) represents aketone group.
H-CC-H

H H
H-C-C-0-H
H H
Cautlon
4 Students usually get confused
functionale gou.
(a) )and (1l) are saturated hydrocarbons while
(b) (in) and (V) are unsaturated hydrocarbons
(c) Addition of hydrogen in presence of
functional group in compounds and
They should remember and
practice
carefully by doing multiple questions. the identcfioyncngept
make mistakes
catolyst changes () to (I) 12. In the soap micelles:
(d) Addition of potassium
permanganate (G) the ionic end of soap is
changes (0) to (V)
the cluster, while the on the surface
Ans. (c) Addition of hydrogen in presence of carbon chain is in
the interior of the cluster.
cotolyst changes () to ()
Explanation: Ethene, ar unsaturated
(b) the ionic end of soap is in
the
the cluster and the carbon interior t
hydrocarbon, undergoes hydrogenation in the the cluster. chain is out of
presence of catalysts made of nickel, platinum,
or pallodium to produce ethane, a (c) both ionic end and
hydrocarbon. Adding hydrogen to saturated
a
carbon chain are in
the interior of the cluster.
bond causes it to become a single doublea (d) both ionic end and
bond,
process known as hydrogenation. carbon chain are on
the exterior of the cluster.
9. It is a product of soap
industry:
Ans. (a) the ionic end off soap is [CBSE 2016, 11
(a) Glycerol (b) Glucose
(c) Ester (d) Propanal. on the Surface nf
the cluster, while the
[DelhiGov. QB 2022 interior of the cluster. carbon chain is in the
Ans. (a) Glycerol
Explanation: Soaps are sodium or Explanation: The soap molecule has a
salts of fatty acids potassium hydrophilic ishead and a hydrophobic tail.
When
hydrolysis of fats and oils.prepared from the soap mixed into the water, the soap
and Glycerol is the Soap is the product molecules arrange themselves into tiny
industry. byproduct of a soap clusters called 'micelles. The
10.
of the soap
(water-loving) hydrophilic parts
1dentify the unsaturated compounds from
the following: outwards, forming the outermolecules
surface of
point
the
micelle. The hydrophobic part
() Propane (1) Propene group together and point (oil-loving)
() Propyne towards the
side. Micelles can trap fats in inner
Options:
(a) () and (U)
(V)Chloropropane help to get rid of oil and dirt. the centre and
(b) () and (V) 13. EThe
(c) (1) and (IV)
(d) (0) and (l) structural formula of benzene is:
H
11. Which of
these [NCERT Exemplar] H-c
(a) H.
H
combine with carbonfunctional
to producegroups can H
H
(a)
(b) alcohol?
H
(c) -OH -C-OH H
(d)
H
Ans. (c) -OH (c C-H C-H
[Diksha] -H
Explanation: Optiongroup.(a) represents
aldehyde functional an
H-

138 [CBSE 2019)

EduLart Science Class X
 reacts with sodium and forms two
Ethano
productsThese are: Ans. (c) Carbon dioxide and water
fA
Explanation: Methane (CH4) burns in the
sodiunmethanoate and hydrogen presence of enough oxygen to produce carbon
e)
sodiumethanoate and oxygen dioxide (CO,) and water (H,0). It creates a lot
)
sodiumethoxide and hydrogen of heat as it burns, which makes it an excellent
ethoxide and fuel source.
14)sodium oxygen
[CBSE 2017, 16, 14, 11] CH4 + 20, ’ CO, + 2H,0 + Heat
sodiumethoxide and hydrogen
(
Related Theory
Ans.
Eplanation: Ethanol (CzHsOH) reacts with Methane is an extremely powerful greenhouse gas.
sodium
sOdiumto form ethoxide (CHsONa)
dlong withtheliberation of hydrogen gas. 17, Which of the following is not a straight
2CzHsOH + 2Ng chain hydrocarbon?
’ 2C,H50Na + Hz
(Sodium ethoxide) (Hydrogen) (a) H3C-CH-CHCH
of these carbon
H3
15Which compounds
representsan alkene? (b) HgC CHh-CHy CH-CHy-CHs
ÇH3
H
(o) H-C=CH (b)
H3

()CH-CH
Hc CHy CH3
H [NCERT Exemplar]
(d) H
18. A student studies that soap solution results
in micelle formation which helps to remove
H H H dirt. It has a unique orientation which helps
[CBSE Question Bank 2022] in keeping the dirt out of the water as shown
in the imnage.
Not
H
Ans.(b)

Na O
H
Dirt
Explanation: Carbon compound (a) is an
akyne as two carbonatoms are connected by
a triple bond and it is ethyne. An unsaturated Na
carbon compound in which two carbon atoms Na
are connected by a double bond is an alkene.
Structure (b) has three double bonds and is What helps the dirt to rinse away?
in the forms of a ring. It is alkene - benzene. (a) Suspension of the dirt in the micelles
Structure (c) has only single covalent bonds (b) A collection of water molecules in the
and is asaturated carbon compound- ethane. centre of the micelle
Structure (d) is a saturated cyclic ring (c) Attraction between the ionic end and the
cyclopropane. dirt to remove it

D Astudent conducts an activity where he () Mixing of the soap molecules along with
the dirt to make it heavier
burns methane in the presence of oxygen.
What is likels to form? [CBSE Question Bank 2022]
(a) Water Ans. (a) Suspension of the dirt in the micelles
b) Carbon dioxide Explanation: In micelles, one end of the
molecule is towards the oil droplet while the
c) Carbon dioxide and water jonic end faces outside, forming an emulsion in
(d) Carbon dioxide and oxygen the water. This dissolves the dirt in water and
thus, the clothes are easily washed.
[CBSE Question Bank 2022]

Carbon and its Compounds 139

 (a) rain (b) tap
19. The name ofthe compound, CH-CHCHO (c) hand pump (d) pond
is:
(a) propanal (b) propanone
23. We all know that soaps and
[CBSE 2046
(c) ethanol (d) ethanal
[CBSE 2016, 14]
is a
are used in every household for
purposes. Ali had just studied
daboute dteeargrienrgtth
20. A student studies that acetic acid cleansing properties of soaps and
saturated compound. The structure of the a micelle is formed | when soap is allso ho
compound is shown.
HO
CH,COOH
water.
dis olved in
Acetic acid,

Why is acetic acid classified as a saturated

compound?
(a) Because there is asingle bond between
the carbon atoms.
(b) Because there is a double bond between The soap molecule has a:
the carbon and oxygen atoms. (a) hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic teil
(c) Because there is a single bond between
the carbon and hydrogen atoms. (b) hydrophobic head and a hydrophile t
(d) Because there is a single bond between
(c) hydrophobic head and a hydrophobict
the carbon and hydroxide diatom. (d) hydrophilic head and a hydrophilic toil
[CBSE Question Bank 2022)
Ans. (a) Because there is a single bond between
(CBSE 2011
the carbon atoms. Ans. (a) hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic toil
Explanation: Ethanoic acid, commonly called Explanation: The structure of soap molecula
acetic acid is a saturated hydrocarbon as it has consists of along hydrocarbon tail at one end
onls single bond between carbon and carbon which is hydrophobic in nature. The other end
atoms. A hydrocarbon in which the carbon is the ionic part which is hydrophilic in ngture
atoms are connected by only single bonds is
called saturated hydrocarbon. 24. Astudent took four test tubes P, 0, Rand
S and filled about 8 mL of
21. Consider the following oils: distilled water
in each. After that he dissolved an equal
() Mobil oil () Castor oil amount of Na,sO4 in P, KzSO, in Q, CaSO,
(uD) Turpentine oil (V)Kerosene in R and MgSO4 in S. On adding an
()Mustard oil (VI)Coconut oil equal
amount of soap solution and shaking each
Which of these can be used for preparation test tube well, a good amount of lather will
of soap? be
obtained in the test tubes:
(a) ), (), (Q1),(VI) (b) (1), (M), (VI) (a) Pand Q (b) P and R
(c) (), (UI), (V), (V) (d) (0), (uI), (V) (c) P,Qand S (d) Q, Rand S
[CBSE 2016] [CBSE 2017
Ans. (b) (), (V). (v)
25. LPG or liquefied
Explanation: The process of making soap is petroleum gas has o
very wide variety of uses, mainly used for
known as saponification. Only the vegetable
oil or animal fat is used. These are heated cylinders across mans different markets s
with sodium hydroxide and anefficient fuel container in the
agriculturd
carboxylate salts. therefore, produce recreation, hospitality, industrid,
Related Theory construction, sailing and fishing sectors.
can serve as fuel for cookina, central heatny
Oil in soaps are used to and to water heating and is a particulary
creates creamy lather. moisturize the skin and

22. Astudent is
cost-eftective and efficient way to hedt
testing water to know which off-grid homes. The main constituent
is best for LPG is butane. LPG is used for cookingin
would findcleansing purposes with soaps. He
that the cleansing many countries for economic reasors,
is best when he action of soap
uses water obtained from: convenience or because it is the preferred
fuel source.
140
EduÇart Science Class X