ABSTRACT

The intricate electrical systems of modern

aircraft demand specialized test equipment
for accurate, reliable, and above all,
airworthy operation. This paper demystifies
the essential tools employed in aircraft
electrical testing. We begin with the
ubiquitous multimeters, voltmeters,
ammeters (digital and analog), indispensable
for basic troubleshooting and diagnostics
thanks to their versatility in measuring
voltage, current, and resistance. The
oscilloscope takes center stage, offering a
window into the dynamic world of electrical
signals. It unveils waveform analysis, signal
integrity issues, and circuit malfunctions,
enabling precise diagnoses. The function
generator replicates real-world electrical
signals and injects them into circuits for
ELECTRICAL TEST EQUIPMENT testing. This allows engineers to analyze
system behavior under controlled conditions
Laboratory Report
and identify potential weaknesses. Moving
beyond these fundamental tools, we delve
into specialized equipment designed for
targeted testing in aircraft systems, such as
NIDA Trainer, Bonding Tester,
Electrodynamometer and Megger.

BATCH 231-Group 1
Course Code: AV01 M3 & M4
 Group 1 Student Details
s/n Name ID Number

1 ImaObong Ephraim 110048

2 Lawrence Lawrence 110051

3 Moses Okon 110052

4 Peter Akpan 110053

5 Utibe Etuk 110055

1
Table Of Content
• Introduction
• Unit 1 Analog Ammeter, Voltmeter and Ohmmeter
• Unit 2 Digital Multimeter
• Unit 3 Function Generator
• Unit 4 Oscilloscope
• Unit 5 NIDA Trainer with Card
• Unit 6 Bonding Tester
• Unit 7 Electrodynamometer
• Conclusion

2
Introduction:
The safe and efficient operation of modern aircraft hinges on the intricate harmony of
their electrical systems. This paper delves into the essential equipment employed in
aircraft electrical testing, empowering professionals to navigate the complex landscape
of avionics diagnostics. We begin with the workhorses of the trade: multimeters,
voltmeters, and ammeters (both digital and analog). These versatile instruments
provide the foundational measurements of voltage, current, and resistance, serving
as the first line of defense in basic troubleshooting and diagnostics.
Moving beyond static values, we explore the oscilloscope – a window into the dynamic
world of electrical signals. It unveils the intricacies of waveforms, pinpointing signal
integrity issues and diagnosing circuit malfunctions with unparalleled precision. The
function generator then takes center stage, allowing engineers to simulate real-world
electrical signals and inject them into circuits under controlled conditions. This
proactive approach helps identify potential weaknesses and optimize system behavior
before they threaten flight.
The complexity of modern avionics necessitates specialized equipment like the NIDA
Trainer, Bonding Tester, Electrodynamometer, and Megger. Each instrument tackles
a specific challenge:
• NIDA Trainer: Designed to accommodate a variety of Nida experiment cards,
the Model 130E console is used to support a multitude of subject areas from
core electronics to advanced telecommunications. Three PC positions allow
students to learn input, process, and output concepts as they experiment and
troubleshoot real circuitry.
• Bonding Tester: Verifying the integrity of critical connections for optimal
operation.
• Electrodynamometer: Measuring vital performance parameters of engines and
generators.
• Megger: Assessing insulation resistance to prevent electrical leakage and
ensure safety.

3
Unit 1 Analog Type Ammeter, Voltmeter and Ohmmeter.

The permanent-magnet moving-coil (PMMC) instruments basically consist of a light-

weight coil of copper wire suspended in the field of a permanent magnet. The current
in the wire cause the magnetic field is produces that interacts with the field from the
permanent magnet. Analog Ammeter and Voltmeter measures Direct current. To
measure AC with it, a rectifier will be first used to convert the AC to DC and the
electrical quantities can then be measured. DC Ammeter and Voltmeter is used to
measure the value of current in amperes in branch of an electric circuit and voltage in
the circuit. Before the instruments are used, the instrument must calibrate to get the
accurate measurement.
Analog ammeter move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the current of the
circuit. This ammeter always connected in series with a circuit in which current is to
be measured. This is because, the value of current flow is same at the circuit. The
value of currents changes when there is a junction in the circuits. Besides, to avoid
affecting the current level in the circuit, the ammeter must have a resistance much
lower than the circuit resistance.
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference
between two points in an electric circuit. There are two types of voltmeters which is
analog and digital voltmeter. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in
proportion to the voltage of the circuit and the digital voltmeters give a numerical
display of voltage by use of an analog to digital converter.
Analog ohmmeters are devices used to measure electrical resistance in a circuit or a
component. They typically feature two test leads (on which the component's terminals
are connected) and a needle (or pointer) that deflects according to the component’s
electrical resistance value.

4
Construction And Basic Principle Operation

Voltmeter

Figure 1: Analog Voltmeter

The current is directly proportional to the voltage across the coil and the scale of
PMMC meter could be calibrates to indicate the value of voltage. The coil resistance is
normally very small and the coil voltage is also usually very small value. Resistance
must add to the PMMC instrument to make the voltage measured value is larger. To
increase range of the voltmeter, connect the resistance in series with the PMMC
instrument.

Figure 2 : construction of dc voltmeter

5
 Figure 3 : Voltmeter circuit

Im = full scale deflec3on current of the movement (Ifsd)

Rm = internal resistance of the movement
RS = mul3plier resistance
V = full range voltage of the instrument

Current in series;
Is = I m
From the Ohm’s Law;
V = Im (Rs + Rm )
= ImRs + ImRm
Rs = V/Im - Rm
Multirange Voltmeter
In the multirange voltmeter, it consist of a deflecting instrument, several multiplier
resistors, and a rotary switch.
There are two types of Multirange voltmeter circuit;
1. multirange voltmeter using switched multiplier resistor
Formula for calculate the voltage (V1,V2,V3);

V1= I(Rm + R1)

6
 V2 = I(Rm + R2)
V3 = I(Rm + R3

Figure 4: switched multiplier resistor

1. Multirange voltmeter using series-connected multiplier resistors.

Formula for calculate the voltages ( V1,V2,V3);

V1 = I(Rm +R1)
V2 = I(Rm + R1 + R2)
V3 = I(Rm + R1 + R2 + R3)

Figure 5: series-connected multiplier resistors

7
Ammeter

Figure 6: Analog Ammeter

The ammeter is an instrument for measuring the electric current in amperes in a
branch of an electric circuit. It must be placed in series with the measured branch,
and must have very low resistance to avoid significant alteration of the current that is
needed to measure. The pointer deflection is directly proportional to the current
flowing in the coil. The ammeter is also used the principle of d’Arsonval meter
movement with slight modification.

Figure 7: construction of dc ammeter

8
 Figure 8: dc ammeter circuit

For calculation;

Vm = ImRm
Vsh = IshRsh
ImRm = IshRsh
I = Ish + Im
Ish = I - Im
Rsh = ImRm/(I – Im)

Shunt Resistance

The smaller value of shunt resistance are used , the larger the shunt current
and the total meter current than the levels calculated because current will flow at the
less resistance.

Swamping Resistance

The swamping resistance is usually three times that of coil thereby reducing a
possible error. In the PMMC instrument, it used the small cooper wire. When the
temperature is changes, the resistance of the wire will change too. The heating effect
of the coil can cause the value of resistance is change. Its mean have error happen.
To minimize the error, the swamping resistance is used. Swamping resistance made
of manganin or constantan is connected in series with the coil. The manganin and
constantan is used as swamping resistance because it have resistance temperature
coefficient very close to zero.

9
 Figure 9: swamping resistance

Multirange DC Ammeter

In the multirange DC Ammeter, it have a rotary switched that can select any one of
several shunt having the different resistance values. Make – before – break- switch
must be used. The instrument is not left without a shunt in parallel with it even for a
brief instant. Besides, the resistance of the instrument would affect the current flowing
in the circuit.

Figure 10:multirange ammeter using switched shunts

Based on figure 10 : formula for calculation of current, I;

When the rotary switch at terminal B

Is = Vs/Rs =Vm/Rs1

10
When the rotary switch at terminal D

Is = Vs/Rs =Vm/Rs1

ohmmeters
To understand how analog ohmmeters work, consider a simple ohmmeter circuit
shown in Figure 11. This circuit features a 12 V source (battery) and an analog
movement component with a 500 Ω movement resistance (meter resistance or internal
resistance) and a full rating of 1 mA

Figure 11: Simple ohmmeter circuit with the two test leads apart.
When the ohmmeter’s two test leads are apart, there is no current flow through the
circuit. As a result, it could be said that the ohmmeter measures an infinite
resistance, which is indicated by the pointer’s deflection toward the extreme left of
the scale. Now when the two test leads are directly connected, there will be
maximum current flowing through the circuit (see Figure 12).

11
 Figure 12: Simple ohmmeter circuit when two test leads are connected
It could be said that the ohmmeter measures zero resistance, which is indicated by
the pointer’s deflection toward the right side of the scale. As a result, this circuit will
experience an electric current of 24 mA, as shown in the equation below.

This electric current value (24 mA) is far above the rating of this meter (1 mA) and
will likely damage the meter. To solve this challenge and limit the current in thecircuit
to 1 mA, add resistance (in series) to the meter’s circuit, as shown below.

Figure 13: Series-type ohmmeter circuit.

The required series resistance value that will limit the circuit current to 1 mA can be
determined by calculating the total resistance of this new circuit and subtracting the
meter’s internal resistance, as shown below:

12
Now that the ideal resistance has been calculated, this circuit could serve as an
ohmmeter. However, one challenge still exists: the ohmmeter cannot accurately
measure the resistance values of different components placed between its test
leads. Instead, it only gives resistance values when the test leads are shorted or
open. This challenge can be solved by calibrating the ohmmeter circuit.

Calibrating the circuit

To calibrate this circuit, engineers will have to determine the resistance value
between the test leads that will cause quarter-scale, half-scale and three-quarter
scale deflections of the pointer. Since the full-scale rating current is 1 mA, the
current flowing through the circuit during a quarter-scale deflection must be 0.25
mA. Therefore the total resistance for this circuit will be 48 kΩ, and a component
with a resistance of 36 kΩ will cause quarter-scale deflection of the pointer, as
shown below

13
The amount of resistance that will cause a half-scale deflection of the circuit is 12
kΩ, as shown below:

Finally, the resistance value that will cause a three-quarter scale deflection of the
pointer can be determined as follows:

Finally, the resistance value that will cause a three-quarter scale deflection of the
pointer can be determined as follows:

14
Therefore, the ohmmeter scale for this particular scenario is shown in Figure 14
below.

Figure 14: Calibrated ohmmeter scale

However, keep in mind that this scale is nonlinear and often has poor accuracy.
Therefore, multirange ohmmeters with mid-scale resistances are often desirable for
measuring resistance values. Multirange ohmmeters are usually designed using
meter mechanism shunts.

Shunt-type ohmmeter

Figure 15 shows a typical circuit for a shunt-type ohmmeter. In this circuit, the
unknown resistance (Rx) is connected in parallel across the meter component
through the test leads.

15
 Figure 15: Shunt-type ohmmeter

If the terminals of the test leads are shorted (i.e., Rx = 0), it causes all the current
to be shunted away from the meter mechanism. This causes the meter mechanism
to deflect toward the left of the scale to indicate 0 resistance. In contrast, high Rx
values allow higher currents through the meter, causing the meter’s pointer to
deflect to the right.

Notice how the scale of shunt-type ohmmeters is quite different from the series-type
ohmmeters previously explained. For instance, full-scale deflection measures very
high resistance in the shunt-type ohmmeter. In contrast, a pointer’s full-scale
deflection in the series-type ohmmeters indicates zero resistance.

Shunt ohmmeters are ideal for measuring low resistance values (in the range of 5 to
400 Ω).

Limitations of analog meters

a) They are suitable for direct current only.
b) Variation of magnet strength with time.
c) The magnetic field will be decrease when the instrument fall.
d) The reading will not accurate when the instrument near with other magnet.
e) Measurement Errors of the Instrument:
1. Frictional error,
the value measured change cause the instruments to have friction when
the component moving
2. Magnetic decay,

16
- magnetic field will decrease when the instrument fall or in hot environment.
3. Thermo electric error,
4. Temperature error. (systematic error)
- temperature is the main problem because the coil in the PMMC instrument
is very small. when the temperature change, the temperature of the coil will
change and cause the value of resistance change

17
Unit 2 Digital Multimeter

Figure 16: Digital Multimeter

A multi-meter (MM) is a voltmeter, an amimeter, and an ohmmeter combined into a
single device. They are used to measure potential in volts, current in amps, and
resistance in ohms. Multi-meters are connected in parallel (series) when measuring
voltage between (current through) two nodes. Multi-meters are also used to identify
electronic and electrical problems. Advanced versions of such instruments have
additional features, such as diode and IC testing modes, etc. These tests check to see
if a diode or an IC is good or bad. Digital multi-meters (DMM) have already replaced
analog meters.

18
Unit 3 Function Generator

Figure 17- Function Generator

Function generators play a pivotal role in electronics by producing a diverse array of

electrical signals. These versatile instruments mimic real-world signals, enabling
testing, simulation, experimentation, and calibration across a wide range of
applications.
Key Features:
• Waveform Diversity: Generate various waveforms, including
sine, square, triangle, and sawtooth waves, as well as more complex patterns.
• Frequency Agility: Adjust signal frequencies over a wide range, from ultra-low
hertz to megahertz or even gigahertz.
• Amplitude Control: Modify signal amplitude (voltage level), tailoring signal
strength to specific needs.
• Offset Capabilities: Introduce DC offsets to elevate signals above zero
volts, essential for certain applications.
• Modulation Options: Advanced models offer modulation features to blend
multiple signals, creating complex waveforms for advanced testing.
Applications :
• Circuit Testing: Inject signals to simulate real-world conditions and evaluate
circuit behavior under various scenarios.

19
• Signal Generation: Create specific waveforms for applications like audio
testing, signal processing, and communication systems.
• Educational Demonstrations: Visualize electrical concepts and explore circuit
behavior in academic settings.
• Instrument Calibration: Provide precise reference signals to ensure accuracy of
other measurement tools.

20
Unit 4 Oscilloscope

The oscilloscope is a device for drawing calibrated graphs of voltage vs time very
quickly and conveniently. This instrument is obviously useful for the design and repair
of circuits in which voltages and currents are changing with time. The oscilloscope is
an extremely versatile instrument. It can be used to measure both steady and time-
dependent voltages, frequency, time duration, phase difference, and harmonic
distortion. Some oscilloscopes automatically test transistors, perform spectral analysis,
integrate, differentiate, sum, subtract, filter, and store electrical signals.

Figure 18- Oscilloscope

The heart of the oscilloscope is a cathode ray tube or CRT. Looking at the face of the
instrument, you are viewing the screen that the electron beam strikes. Electronic
circuits in the scope apply voltages to one set of deflection plates to sweep the beam
across the screen from left to right at a constant rate, thereby providing the time axis.
Other circuits amplify or attenuate the input signal as needed, and apply voltages to
the other set of deflection plates to move the beam vertically, providing the voltage
axis. Controls are provided to select the time and voltage scales needed for any given
situation. At the end of each sweep, the beam is shut off and the horizontal deflection
voltage is reset so the beam would start at the left edge of the screen again. Since a
scope is usually used to plot a rapidly changing quantity, one sweep and therefore
one plot may last only a few microseconds. If the phenomenon we are studying can
be made repetitive, we can repeat the sweep sequence many times to get a display
suitable for a more leisurely examination. A special circuit, called a trigger circuit,
examines the incoming voltage signal and starts the sweep at the same point in the

21
repetitive cycle for each new sweep. This results in a visually steady display of the
input. Several controls are provided to set the trigger as needed.
Oscilloscopes can be classified as analog and digital types. In contrast to an analog
oscilloscope, where changes in voltage is shown on the screen as they occur and has
no storage, Digital oscilloscope voltage is shown on the screen as a waveform and it
can be stored. a digital oscilloscope uses an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to
convert the measured voltage into digital information. It acquires the waveform as a
series of samples, and stores these samples until it accumulates enough samples to
describe a waveform. The digital oscilloscope then reassembles the waveform for
display on the screen

Figure 19- Analog oscilloscopes trace signals, while digital oscilloscopes samples
signals and construct displays.
The digital oscilloscope takes an input signal, store them and then display it on the
screen. The digital oscilloscope has advanced features of storage, triggering and
measurement. Also, it displays the signal visually as well as numerically.
Digital oscilloscopes can further be divided into 4 types namely:
• Digital storage oscilloscopes (DSO)
• Digital phosphor oscilloscopes (DPO)
• Mixed signal oscilloscopes (MSO)
• Digital sampling oscilloscopes

22
 Figure 20- Working principle of basic digital oscilloscope

The oscilloscope has a myriad of controls which fortunately can be considered in

several independent groups.
• The cathode ray tube display screen: At the left side of the instrument,
the CRT screen is divided into a one- centimeter grid, ruled on the inside surface
of the tube. Each solid line is one division for the horizontal and vertical
deflection. The dotted lines are provided for pulse rise-time measurements.
Moving across the panel, we come to the power switch and the CRT controls.
The trace rotation and probe adjust are used only when repairing the
instrument. The intensity control should be set to give a visible trace, but
excessive brightness will defocus the spot and may damage the screen. Both
the intensity and focus may need to be adjusted when the sweep rate is
changed drastically. The beam finder is provided as an aid to setting the scope.
When pushed, it reduces the deflection voltages enough that the beam will
always appear on the screen. The position controls are then used to center the
spot, and you should obtain a display suitable for final adjustments when the
beam finder button is released.
• D.C. and A.C. Coupling: Sometimes a time-dependent signal of interest is
superimposed on a steady (or D.C.) voltage. One can use the vertical position
knob to shift the ground (or zerovolt level for a given channel) in order to view
the variable (or A.C.) part of the signal. However, in order to view the A.C. part
of the signal with optimal resolution it is often necessary to filter out the D.C.
This is done using the A.C. coupling setting selected from the channel menu
for the appropriate channel.

23
• Channel Menu: The default settings assume you are connecting a signal to
the scope using an attenuating probe that reduces the signal by a factor of 10.
By telling the scope what attenuation you are using, the display is simply scaled
to reflect the voltage without attenuation.
• Triggering: The white arrow on the top middle of the display indicates the
trigger time and the yellow arrow on the right indicates the present trigger level
or voltage. Activate the trigger menu be pressing the TRIG MENU button to
view these settings and see how they might be changed.

24
Unit 5 NIDA Trainer with Card

The NIDA trainer, along with its accompanying experiment cards, is a versatile and
effective tool for technical education in various fields, particularly electronics and
avionics.

Figure 21- Nida Trainer, model 130ST

There are two main components to consider:

1. NIDA Trainer:

● Model 130ST Trainer: This is a popular three-position platform used for hands-
on performance-based technical training. It can be used for basic electronics to
advanced avionics and supports both legacy and "Fast Track" experiment cards.
● Other trainer models: NIDA offers other trainer models like the Model 110ST
and Model 120ST, each with varying capabilities and functionalities.

2. Experiment Cards

● Various topics: NIDA offers a wide range of experiment cards, each focusing
on a specific topic or system like DC circuits, AC circuits, avionics,
CAN(controller area network) buses, and more.
● Customization options: You can purchase experiment/test cards individually or
as sets, allowing you to tailor the training program to your specific needs.

25
 ● Interactive learning: The cards often come with accompanying courseware that
provides theoretical background and practical instructions for conducting
experiments.

Benefits of using NIDA trainer with cards:

● Hands-on learning: The NIDA trainer and cards provide a platform for students
to gain practical experience with circuits, systems, and troubleshooting
techniques.
● Visual representation: The cards often include schematics and diagrams that
help students visualize the concepts they are learning.
● Modular design: The modular design of the trainer and cards allows for
curriculum development and delivery flexibility.
● Effective troubleshooting: The NIDA trainer includes features like non-
destructive faulting and student protection, making it ideal for practicing
troubleshooting skills in a safe environment.

In conclusion, the NIDA trainer with cards is a valuable tool for educators and students
alike. It provides a comprehensive and engaging learning experience that can help
students develop the skills and knowledge they need to succeed in technical fields
such as maintenance technicians.

26
Unit 6 Bonding Tester

A bond tester is a scientific instrument used to measure the mechanical strength of

bonds, evaluate bond strength distributions or determine compliance with specified
bond strength requirements of the applicable acquisition document .

Figure 22- Bonding Tester

Typically, a load is applied to a bond by a hook or shear tool, where after a force
measurement is taken and the failure mode of the tested sample is recorded. More
often than not bond tests are destructive and samples are scrapped after testing. In
aerospace and medical applications, nondestructive testing is common, whereby the
bond is loaded up to a point to reveal no acceptable bonds while avoiding damage to
acceptable bonds. Electrical and thermal bonds are such an integral part of electronic
and semiconductor construction that they may often be taken for granted. Modern
electronic assembly methods employ a myriad of bonding processes, each one a vital
step in the manufacture of the final product. A typical consumer product such as a
laptop computer may contain hundreds of thousands of bonds yet if one fails it will
probably result in a system breakdown. For an automatic test PC controlled moving
table allows any number of bonds to be tested automatically from a stored program.
Results can be analyzed and output immediately or exported in a number of data base
formats for subsequent analysis as desired. Powerful extended capabilities enable
measurements such as force/time or force/distance curves to be made and deliver
more data about the quality of the bond tested. The most common test types
performed on a bond tester are the wire pull test, which generally puts an upward
force on a gold/aluminum/silver/copper wire, and the die shear test, which generally
comprises loading a die from the side. When equipped with tweezers, bond testers

27
may also perform cold bump pull tests. During such a test, a solder ball down to 50
µm in diameter is reform it to the shape something like a mushroom and then pulled
off the surface. Modern bond testers can perform a wide variety of tests with high
precision, because automation eliminates human influence on the measurement.

28
Unit 7 Electrodynamometer

An electrodynamometer or simply Dynamometer wattmeter is an instrument that is

universally used for the measurement of DC as well as AC electric power. It works on
the principle of dynamometer i.e. a mechanical force acts between two current
carrying conductors. Electrodynamometer can be used for measurement of AC as well
as DC power. They have uniform scale and by proper design, high accuracy can be
obtained.
The electrodynamometer wattmeter has a fixed coil divided into two parts and is
connected in series with the load and caries the load current (I1). The moving coil is
connected across the load through a series multiplier resistance (R) and carries a
current (I2) proportional to the load voltage. The fixed coil is called as Current Coil
and the moving coil is called as Potential Coil. The controlling torque is provided by
two spiral springs. Air friction damping is provided in electrodynamometer wattmeter.
A pointer is attached with the moving coil.

Figure 23- Electrodynamometer

Working Principle of Electrodynamometer:

When an electrodynamometer wattmeter is connected in the circuit to measure the

electric power, the current coil carries the load current and the potential coil carries a
current proportional to the load voltage. Because of the current in the two coils, a
mechanical force acts between them due to which the moving coil (potential coil)
moves and hence the pointer attached to it. The pointer comes to rest at a position

29
where the deflecting torque and controlling torque become equal. When the current
is reversed in the circuit, the reversal of current takes place in both the current coil
and potential coil so that the direction of the deflecting torque remains unchanged.
Hence, the electrodynamometer wattmeter can be used for the measurement of DC
as well as AC power.

30
Conclusion
The intricacies of modern electrical systems demand a precise and well-orchestrated
approach. This paper has explored the essential tools that for electrical diagnoses,
optimizing, and ensuring the reliable operation of these systems. From the
foundational measurements of multimeters and the in-depth analyses of oscilloscopes
to the specialized capabilities of instruments like the NIDA Trainer and Megger, we
have delved into the diverse arsenal of electrical test equipment.
A well-versed knowledge on electrical testing is not merely about solving problems;
it's about preventing them. By equipping professionals with the means to diagnose,
predict, and optimize, we provide an environment where electrical systems operate
with unfailing reliability across a multitude of applications.

31