UNIT-5

LASERS
Characteristics of Lasers, Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission of
Radiation, Meta-stable State, Population Inversion, Lasing Action, Einstein’s
Coefficients and Relation between them and significance, Ruby Laser,
Helium-Neon Laser, Semiconductor Diode Laser, Applications of Lasers.

LASER – Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

Characteristics of LASER:
LASER when compared with any conventional light (Sun light or tube light etc.) Laser
possesses few outstanding characteristics. They are
1). Monochromaticity
2). Directionality
3). Intensity
4). Coherence.
1). Monochromaticity:
The light emitted from a laser is more monochromatic.
Due to Stimulated emission, the light emitted by a laser is more monochromatic than that of
any conventional monochromatic source(Ex: Sodium lamp).
2). Directionality:
 Lasers emit light that is highly directional, i.e., laser light is emitted as a relatively
narrow beam in a specific direction.
 The directionality of a laser beam has been expressed in terms of divergence.
 To obtain high directionality there should be low divergence.
 For a Laser, the beam spread is less than 0.01mm for every 1 meter but for ordinary
light is 0.5m for every 1 meter.
3). Intensity:
The laser light is more intense than conventional light.
The number of photons coming out from a laser per second per unit area is given by

4). Coherence:
Laser radiation has high degree of coherence.
Coherence is expressed in terms of ordering of light field i.e., amplitude and phase.
Coherence is of two types
Temporal Coherence and Spatial Coherence:
Temporal Coherence:
The amplitude and phase at a point on a wave with respect to another point on the same wave
is said to be the temporal coherence(time related).
Spatial Coherence:
 The amplitude and phase at on a wave with respect to another point on a second wave then the
waves are said to be spatially coherence.
ATOMIC EXCITATION AND ENERGY STATES:
When light interacts with matter three types of atomic mechanisms takes place in a
material
i) Stimulated Absorption ii) Spontaneous Emission and iii) Stimulated Emission

Stimulated Absorption:
In absorption, suitable amount of energy is absorbed by the atoms of the ground state and get
excited to the higher energy states.

Spontaneous emission:
In spontaneous emission, the excited atom comes back by itself to the lower energy state.
In the process a photon of energy h is emitted.

Important features of spontaneous emission:

(i) It is very difficult to control this process from outside.
(ii) It is essentially probabilistic in nature.
(iii) The emitted photons moves at random and will not follow any phase relations.
(iv) The light emitted in this process is incoherent and non-monochromatic.
(v) The intensity of light decreases rapidly with distance from the source.
(vi)This process proposed by Neil's Bohr.
Stimulated emission:
In stimulated emission, with the influence of suitable energy impetus, excited atom is
triggered to the lower energy state, with the release of same energy of incident photon energy
Stimulated emission process.
Important features of stimulated emission:
(i) The process of stimulated emission can be controlled from outside.
(ii) The emitted photon and incident photon have same direction, phase, frequency and plane of
polarization.
(iii) The light produced during stimulated emission is perfectly coherent and monochromatic.
(iv) Proposed by Einstein’s.

Einstein’s Coefficients and Relation Between them:

Einstein’s coefficients are mathematical quantities which are a measure of the probability of
absorption or emission of light by an atom or molecules.
Consider two energy levels of an atomic system E1 and E2 respectively such that E2 > E1.
 Let N1 and N2 be the number of atoms per unit volume present at the levels E1 and E2
respectively and energy density radiation is E2-E1= nhv=ρ(v).

Stimulated Absorption:
Stimulated Absorption rate is proportional to incident energy density ρ(v) of the radiation and
the number of atoms N1 present in the atomic system.
Therefore, N1P12 α ρ(v) N1
N1P12 = B12ρ(v) N1 ---------(1)
Where B12 is Einstein’s Coefficient of Absorption., and its represent the property of energy
states.
Spontaneous Emission:
Spontaneous Emission rate is proportional to the number of atoms N2 present in excited state.
Therefore, (N2P21)Spont α N2
(N2P21)Spont= A21N2 --------(2)
Where A21 is Einstein’s Coefficient of Spontaneous Emission and its represent the
property of energy states.
Stimulated Emission:
Stimulated Emission rate is proportional to Stimulated energy density ρ(v) of the radiation and
the number of atoms N2 present in the excited state.
Therefore, (N2P21)Stimu α ρ(v) N2
(N2P21)Stimu= B21ρ(v) N2 ------(3)
Where B21 is Einstein’s Coefficient of Stimulated Emission and it’s represent the property
of energy states and is known as.
The total transition probability of atoms from state2 to state1 can be written as
N2P21= (N2P21)Spont + (N2P21)Stimu
N2P21 = A21N2 + B21ρ(v) N2 ------(4)
At equilibrium temperature, the number of transitions from state1 to state2 (Upward transition)
will be equal to the number of transitions from state2 to state1 (Downward transition).
Therefore, N1P12= N2P21 , From eqns. (1) & (4)
According to Boltzmann's distribution law, the distribution of atoms among the energy levels E1
and E2 at thermal equilibrium temperature T is given by
N1= N0exp(-E1/KT) & N2= N0exp(-E2/KT)
where N0 is population in the ground state and
K is Boltzmann’s constant.
Therefore, N1/N2=exp (E2-E1)/KT=exp(hv/KT) ----(6)
Substituting eqn. (6) in eqn. (5) we get

Conclusions:
1). From equation (10), (A21/B21)αv3 i.e., the ratio of Einstein’s Coefficients of Spontaneous
emission to stimulated emission is directly proportional to cube of the frequency of incident
photon.
2) The rate of spontaneous emission increases rapidly with the energy difference between two
states.
3). From equation (9), B12=B21, i.e., thermodynamically, it was proved by Einstein’s that the
probability of stimulated emission and absorption are equal.
Note: The equation shows ratio of spontaneous Emission Rate to stimulated emission rate.
  When hν>>kT, the spontaneous emission rate predominates stimulated emission.
 When hν<<kT, the stimulated emission rate predominates spontaneous emission.
Life time:
The duration of time spent by an atom in the excited state is known as life time of that energy
state.
For example, the life time for hydrogen atom is 10-8 sec.
Population:
The number of atoms per unit volume in an energy level is known as population of that energy
level. According to Boltzmann relation we have
N= No Exp{-E/kT}
E2>E1 and N1>N2, i.e., the population of lower energy level is more.
Population Inversion:
The stage of making the population of the higher energy level to be greater than the population
of the lower energy level is known as population Inversion. i.e., E2>E1 and N1<N2.
Meta-stable state:
The excited state of an atom or other system with a longer life time than the other excited states
is known as meta stable state.
Pumping:
“The process of sending the atoms from lower energy state to higher energy state by supplying
the suitable energy is called pumping”.
In several ways pumping can be done. Most commonly used pumping methods are
1). Optical Pumping,
2). Direct Electron Excitation or Electric Discharge,
3). In-elastic atom-atom Collision and
4). Chemical Reaction.
(1) Optical Pumping:
In optical pumping, a light source (suitable photons) is used to supply luminous energy. Most
often this energy is given in the form of short flashes of light.
Ex: Xenon flash lamp in Ruby Laser.
(2 )Electric Discharge:
In this method of pumping direct electron excitation occurs through an electric discharge.
 This method is preferred in gaseous ion lasers. An electric current flowing through the gas
excites the atoms to the excited levels from where they are dropped to the metastable upper laser
level leading to population inversion.
Ex: He-Ne Laser.
(3) Inelastic Collisions Between Atoms:
 In an important class of lasers, pumping by electrical discharge provides the initial
excitation which raises one type of atoms to their excited states.
 These atoms collide in-elastically with another atoms and provide them enough energy to
excite them to the higher energy level and thus help in population inversion. This type of
pumping occurs in CO2 laser.
(4) Chemical Reaction:
In chemical lasers, radiations come out of a chemical reaction, without any need of other energy
source.
Three level Laser system:

If the collection of atoms is intensely pumped (a large number of atoms are excited) through
stimulated absorption to the highest energy level E 2. With intense pumping from E0 to E2,
because of rapid decay to E1 (meta-stable state where has longer life time), it is possible to bring
non-equilibrium distribution of atoms where E 1 more populated than E0 (N1N2) and laser
transition takes place between E0 and E1.
Four level laser system:

Lasing Action:
In stimulated emission, the emitted photon travels in the same direction as that of incident
photon(as shown in fig.). These two photons again stimulate two more photons. As a result four
photons are released. In a similar way a chain reaction or avalanche effect is produced. This
phenomenon is known as Lasing Action.
So, a monochromatic, intense and coherent beam having the same frequency as that of incident
beam is obtained. This is called Laser beam. This is the principle of working of a Laser.

Block Diagram of a Laser System:

The Block diagram of Laser System contains three components.

Source of Energy(Pump):
It is an external source which supplies energy to obtain population inversion. The pump can be
optical, electrical or thermal. In Ruby Laser, we use optical pumping and in He -Ne Laser, we
use electric discharge pumping.
Active Medium:
It is a medium in which meta-stable state is present. In meta-stable state, only the population
inversion takes place. It can be a Solid, Liquid, Gas or Semiconductor.
Optical or Resonant Cavity:
It consists of a pair of plane or spherical mirrors having common principal axis. The reflection
coefficient of one of the mirrors is very near to 1 and that of the other is kept less than 1. The
resonator is basically a feed-back device, that directs the photons back and forth through the laser
medium.
VARIOUS TYPES OF LASERS ARE NOW IN OPERATION WHICH CAN BE
BROADLY CLASSIFIED INTO:
 SOLID STATE LASERS
Ex: Ruby Laser & Nd:YAG
 LIQUID AND DYE LASERS
Ex: Europium Chelate
 GASEOUS LASERS
Ex: He-Ne, CO2 lasers etc…
 SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS
Ex: GaAs
 RUBY LASER
• A ruby laser is a solid-state laser that uses a synthetic ruby crystal as its gain medium.
• It was the first type of laser invented, and was first operated by Theodore H. Maiman in
1960 .
Construction:
• The active laser medium (laser gain/amplification medium) is a synthetic cylindrical ruby
rod.
• Ruby is made up of Al2O3 which is doped with 0.05% weight of Cr 2O3 and whose length
is few centimeters and diameter is 0.5cm.
• The end faces of the rod are silvered in such a way that one end face becomes fully
reflecting while other end is partially reflecting, so that the two ends will act as optical
cavity.

• A xenon lamp is rolled over ruby rod and is used for pumping ions to excited state.
• Chromium atoms absorb green and blue light and emit or reflect only red light.

Working
• An energy diagram illustrating the operation principle of a ruby laser as shown in figure.
• The chromium ions have three energy levels.
 • The pumping light from the flash lamp is absorbed by Cr 3+ ions, raising them from the
ground state E0 to the excited state E2.
• The desired Population inversion is achieved in between E 0 and E1.
• The photons are allowed to pass back and forth millions of times in the active medium
with the help of mirrors at the ends.
• When the condition for laser action is satisfied, an intense pulse of light of the
wavelength 694.3nm or 6943Ao.
• It is a Pulsed Laser.
Applications of Ruby Lasers
1. Distance measurement using ‘pulse echo’ technique.
2. Holography
3. Atmospheric ranging, scattering measurement.
4. Trimming resistors
5. Drilling high quality holes
6. Target designators and range finders in military applications etc.
7. Ruby lasers were used extensively in tattoo and hair removal

He-Ne LASER (Ali Javan in 1961)

 A helium-neon laser, usually called a He-Ne laser, is a type of small gas laser. He-Ne
lasers have many industrial and scientific uses, and are often used in laboratory
demonstrations of optics.
 He-Ne laser is a four-level laser.
 Its usual operation wavelength is 632.8 nm, in the red portion of the visible spectrum.
 It operates in Continuous Working (CW) mode.
Construction
• The Helium-Neon laser system consists of a gas discharge tube of length 80cm and
diameter of 1cm.
• The tube is made up of quartz and is filled with a mixture of Neon under a pressure of
0.1mm Hg and Helium under the pressure of 1mm of Hg.
• The ratio of He-Ne mixture is about 10:1 ie., the number of Helium atoms are greater
than Neon atoms.
• The output power from these lasers depends upon the length of the discharge tube and the
pressure of gas mixture.
• The energy or pump source of the laser is provided by an electrical discharge of around
1000 volts. A current of 5 to 100 mA is typical for CW operation.
 • The optical cavity of the laser typically consists of a plane, high-reflecting mirror at one
end of the laser tube, and a concave output coupler mirror of approximately 1%
transmission at the other end.
Working
• When a discharge is passed through the gaseous mixture electrons are accelerated down
the tube these accelerated electrons collide with the helium atoms and excite them to
higher energy levels.

This process is given by the reaction equation:

He* + Ne → He + Ne* + ΔE
Where (*) represents an excited state, and ΔE is the small energy difference between the
energy states of the two atoms, of the order of 0.05 eV.
• Since these levels are meta stable energy levels helium atoms spend sufficiently long
time.
• The metastable state of the helium atoms cannot return to ground state by spontaneous
emission. However, they can return to ground state by transferring their energy to the
lower energy state (Ne1)of the neon atoms.
• Then neon atoms are excited to the higher energy levels Ne4 & Ne6 and helium atoms are
de excited to the ground state Ne1.
• Since Ne6 & Ne4 are meta stable states, population inversion takes place at these levels.
• The stimulated emission takes place between Ne6 to Ne3 gives a laser light of wave
length 6328A0.
• The stimulated emission between Ne6 and Ne5 gives a laser light wave length of 3.39µm.
• Another stimulated emission between Ne4 to Ne3 gives a laser light wave length of
1.15µm.
• The neon atoms undergo spontaneous emission from Ne3 to Ne2 and Ne5 to Ne2.
• Finally the neon atoms are returned to the ground state Ne1 from Ne2 by non- radiative
diffusion and collision process.
• After arriving the ground state, once again the neon atoms are raised to Ne6 & Ne4 by
excited helium atoms thus we can get continuous output from He-Ne laser.
• But some optical elements placed insides the laser system are used to absorb the infrared
laser wave lengths 3.39µm and1.15µm.
• Hence the output of He-Ne laser contains only a single wave length of 6328A0 and the
output power is about few milliwatts
Applications of He – Ne Lasers
1. All inter- ferometric experiments
 2. Metrological applications
3. Bar code reading
4. Image processing
5. Holography
Semiconductor Laser:
A semiconductor diode laser is specially fabricated p-n junction device, which emits coherent
light when it is forward biased. R.N Hall and his coworkers made the first semiconductor laser in
1962.
It is made from Gallium arsenide (GaAs) direct band gap semiconductor, which operated at low
temperatures and emitted light in the near IR region.
Now, p-n junction lasers are made to emit light almost anywhere in the spectrum from UV to
IR. Diode lasers are remarkably small in size(0.1mm long) and they have high efficiency of the
order of 40%.

Fig. P–N Junction under forward biased resulting injection and recombination Of charge
carriers
Output Wave length: GaAlAs:750-900nm,.GaAsP:1100-1600nm..
Principle:
 The energy band structure of a semiconductor consists of a valence band and a
conduction band separated by an energy gap, E g
 The conduction band contains electrons and the valence band contains holes and
electrons.
 When an electron from the conduction band jumps into a hole in the valence band, the
excess energy, Eg is given output in the form of photon.
 Thus, the electron – hole recombination is the basic mechanism responsible for emission
of light.
 The wavelength of emitted light depends upon the energy band gap of the material.
Eg = hv = hc/λ
λ = hc/Eg
 Semiconductors having a suitable value of E g emit light in the optical region.
Note:
 The chief advantage of a diode laser is that that it is portable. Because of the rapid advances in
semiconductor technology, diode lasers are mass produced for use in optical fiber
communications, in CD players, CD-ROM drivers, optical reading, high speed laser printing etc
wide variety of applications.
Types of semiconductor diode lasers:
 Homo-junction means that a p – n junction is formed by a single crystalline materials
such that the basic material has been the same on both sides of the junction.
Ex: GaAs
 Hetero-junction means that the material on one side of the junction differs from that on
the other side of the junction.
Ex:- Hetero junction having GaAs on one side and GaAlAs on the other side.
Draw backs of homo – junction lasers:
 Threshold current density is very large
 Only pulsed mode output is obtained.
 Laser output has large beam divergence.
 Poor coherence and poor stability.
 Electromagnetic field confinement is poor
Advantages of Hetero-junction laser:
 Low threshold current density.
 Output is continuous
 High output power.
 Narrow beam, high coherence, high monochromaticity
 Long life time of the device.
 Highly stable.
Applications of LASERS:
1. Communication
2. Computers
3. Industry
4. Scientific Research
5. Military operation
6. Medicine
Lasers in communication and Atmospheric science:
1. More amount data can be sent because of large band width.
2. More channels
3. Signals cannot be trapped
4. Highly directional, hence greater potential use in space crafts and submarines.
5. Lidars (Light detection and ranging) to study about atmospheric features, i.e. to measure
atmospheric pollutants, Ozone concentration, water vapor concentration.
Lasers in computers:
1. In LAN, data transfer from one computer to other for short time.
2. During reading and recording the data on CD’s
Lasers in Industry:
1. Blast holes in hard materials like diamond, hard stell etc.
2. Source as intense heat
3. To measure distance to making maps by surveyors
 4. To cut teeth saws, drill in surgical needle, guide bulldozers
5. In welding: Purity of the material is not altered.
Lasers in Scientific Research:
1. To separate isotopes of uranium.
2. To create plasma, this may help the scientists to control nuclear fusion reaction.
3. To create 3D-photography called holography.
4. Recording and reconstruction of hologram to data storage.
5. Holography in optical signal processing.
6. To produce some chemical reactions
7. To produce monomers to polymers
8. Internal structure of the microorganisms and cells are studied accurately.
Lasers in Military applications:
1. To target enemy air plane or ship, to determine its distance.
2. To destroy enemy aircraft and missile.
3. As war weapon.
4. To find the velocity of moving object.
5. Target is judged from the strength and spectral distribution of bounced signal.
Lasers in Medicine:
1. To remove diseased body tissues.
2. Retinal detachment by eye specialist.
3. To instantly weld injured muscles, ligaments without use of the heat.
4. Argon and CO2 lasers are used in liver and lungs treatment.
5. To elimination of moles and tumors on skin tissues.
6. In the treatment of Glaucoma.
7. Argon lasers in – Neuro surgery, Ophthalmology, general surgery, dermatology,
gynecology.
8. He-Ne Lasers- Diagnostic applications.
9. Ruby lasers – Ophthalmology, dermotology.

Fiber Optics
Introduction, Principle of Optical Fiber, Acceptance Angle and
Acceptance Cone, Numerical Aperture, Types of Optical Fibers, Step index
and graded index Fibers Attenuation in Optical Fibers. Applications: Optical
Fiber communication system, Fiber Optic Sensors, Medical Endoscopy.
Introduction
‘Fiber Optics is a technology related to transportation of optical energy(light energy) in
guiding media specifically glass fibers’.
Optical fiber is a long thin transparent dielectric material which carries EM waves of
visible and IR frequencies with negligible loss of energy from one end to the other end of the
fiber by means of TIR.
NOTE: Glass or Plastic is used as Dielectric material.
Optical fibers works as Wave guides in optical television signals, digital data to transmit
voice television signals from one end to the other end of the fiber.
It has become popular because of the following reasons:
 1). Higher information carrying capacity.
2). Light in weight, small in size, low cost.
3). No hazards of short circuits and can safely used in explosive environments.
4). No possibility of internal noise and cross talk generation.
5). Using an optical fiber, 15,000 independent speeches can be sent simultaneously where as
using a pair of copper wires, only 48 independent speech signals can be sent.
Construction of Optical fiber:
The optical fiber mainly consists of the following three parts.
i) Core ii) Cladding iii) Silicon coating iv) Buffer Jacket v) Strength members and vi)
Outer jacket.

i) Core: A typical glass fiber consists of a central core of thickness 50µm surrounded by a
cladding.
ii) Cladding: Cladding is of a glass of slightly lower refractive index than core’s refractive
index, which is overall diameter of 125 to 200µm. Both the core and cladding are made
of same glass (SiO2) and to put refractive index of cladding lower than refractive index of
core by addition of some impurities like Boron, Phosphorus and Germanium.
iii) Silicon coating: It is provided between buffer jacket and cladding to improve the quality
of transmission of light.
iv) Buffer jacket: Buffer jacket over the optical fiber is made of plastic and protects the
fiber from moisture and abrasion.
v) Strength members: In order to prosvide necessary toughness and tensile strength a
layer of strength member (Kelvar material) is arranged surroundings the buffer jacket.
vi) Outer jacket: Finally the fiber cable is covered by black poly urethane outer jacket.
Because of this arrangement, fiber cable will not be damaged during hard pulling,
bending, stretching or rolling through the fiber is made up of brittle glass.
Principle of Optical Fiber:
 Optical fiber works on the principle of TIR. Once light ray enters into core ,it
propagates by means of multiple TIR’ s at core-cladding interface.
 Total internal reflection at the fiber wall can occur only if the following two conditions
are met.
i) The refractive index of the core material ‘n1 ’ must be slightly higher than that of the
cladding ‘n2’ surrounding it. (n1>n2)
ii) At the core-cladding interface, the angle of incidence ‘ɵi’ must be greater than critical
angle ‘ɵc’ . (ɵi > ɵc )
Acceptance Angle:
The maximum angle of incidence at the end face of an Optical fiber for which the light ray
can be propagated along Core-Cladding interface is known as maximum Acceptance angle. It is
also called Acceptance cone half angle.
Acceptance Cone:
Rotating the Acceptance angle about the fiber axis describes the Acceptance Cone of the
fiber.
Light launched at the fiber end within this Acceptance Cone alone will be accepted and
propagated to the other end of the fiber by total internal reflection.

Numerical Aperture:
The light gathering capacity of an optical fiber is known as Numerical Aperture and it is
proportional to Acceptance Angle.
It is numerically equal to sine of minimum Acceptance Angle.
The ratio between the differences in RI’s of Core and Cladding to that of RI of core is called the
fractional change.

TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBER

 On the basis of variation of RI of core, the optical fibers are mainly classified into
following types. i.e.,
1.Step Index fiber 2.Graded Index fiber
 Based on Mode of propagation,
the fibers are further divided into Single Mode and Multi Mode.
 Based on the nature of material used, the optical fibers are mainly classified into
following types. i.e.,
i) All glass fibers ( glass core with glass cladding) ii) All plastic fibers( plastic core
with plastic cladding) iii) Glass core with plastic cladding fibers and iv) Polymer – clad –
silica fibers (PCS) fibers
Mode:
Light launched at one end of the fiber within the acceptance cone alone propagates through
the fiber by total internal reflection. But not all the light within the acceptance cone propagates
but only specified directions are allowed which satisfy conditions for constructive interference.
The rays travelling in these specified directions are called modes.

Single mode optical fibers:

 In this mode, only one mode of propagation is possible.
 The fibers have smaller core diameter.
 The difference between refractive indices of core and cladding is also very small.
 Here, no degradation of signal during travelling through the fibers. Therefore, more
suitable for communication.
 Single mode optical fibers are costly because the fabrication method is very difficult and
Joining of two fibers is not that easy.
  The process of launching of light into fibers is also very difficult.

The condition for single mode operation is given by the ‘V’ number

Where
a = radius of the core
n1= refractive index of the core.
NA = numerical aperture
λ = wavelength of the light travelling through the fiber.
Multi mode optical fibers:
 In this mode, many modes of propagation is possible.
 These fibers have larger core diameter.
 The difference between refractive indices of core and cladding is large.
 Due to multimode transmission dispersion is large. Hence, these are less suitable for
communication.
 Multi mode optical fibers are not costly because the fabrication method is less difficult.
 The process of launching of light into fibers is easy.
 Joining of two fibers is easy.

The condition for multi mode operation is given by the ‘N’ number

Where
D = diameter of the core of the fiber
n1= refractive index of the core.
NA = numerical aperture
λ = wavelength of the light travelling through the fiber.
Step index fibers:
 The refractive index of the core medium is uniform throughout and undergoes an abrupt
change at the interface of the core and cladding.
 Since the index profile is in the form of a step, these fibers are called step index fibers.
 The diameter of the core is about 50 – 200µm for multimode and 8 – 10µm for single
mode fibers.
 The transmitted optical signal is in the form of meridional rays.
 The shape of the propagation appears in a zig – zag manner.
 In the optical fiber communication system, information is transmitted in the form of
pulses.
 The rays making larger angles with the fiber axis travel longer distance where as the rays
making shorter angles with the fiber axis travel shorter distance.
Intermodal dispersion: The optical power in the pulsed wave distribution over the mode of
light through the fiber decreases during the propagation; these changes are known as intermodal
dispersion.

 Due to this, optical signals get broadened as they travel through the fiber. This
phenomenon of pulses broadening is called as dispersion.
 This imposes limitation on the separation between pulses there by reducing the
transmission rate and capacity.
 The amount of dispersion made by a ray travelling through ‘L’ units of distance is given
by

Where c is velocity of light

Note:
 Attenuation is more for multimode step index fibers but for single mode is less.
 Numerical aperture is more for multimode but less for single mode step index fibers.
Graded index fibers:
 The refractive index of the core medium is made to vary parabolic manner such that the
maximum refractive index present at the center of the core and minimum at core –
cladding interface.
  Refractive index gradually falls with increase of radius and at the core – cladding
interface matches with the refractive index of the cladding.
 The variation of refractive index of the core(n) with radius(x) measured from the center
of the core is given by

Where p is the grading profile index number.

 The transmitted optical signals are in the form of skew or helical rays.

Transmission of signal in graded index fibers:

 The transmitted optical signals is in the form of skew or helical rays.
 According to Snell’s law, a ray entered into the fiber bends towards the fiber axis as
refractive index of the core lowers.
 The velocity of light is inversely proportional to the refractive index.
 Consider a signal pulse travelling through graded index fiber in two different paths 1 & 2.
 The pulse 1 travelling along the axis of fiber with shorter distance and with low velocity
through a medium of higher refractive index.
 The other pulse 2, travelling away from the axis undergo refraction and bend. Though it
travel longer distance with high velocity along the path possessing relatively lesser
refractive index.
 This will keep the signal in the output without any distortion.
 Thus the problem of inter modal dispersion can be overcome by using graded index fiber.
 Attenuation and numerical aperture is less in graded index fibers.
Note: Let NSI be the number of modes excited in step index fiber and NGI be the number of
modes excited in graded index fiber, both having similar core and cladding diameters, then
NGI=NSI/2
Attenuation in optical fibers:
Attenuation is defined as the reduction in the signal strength or power when it is
transmitted (or guided) through an optical fiber.
Attenuation loss is generally measured in terms of the decibel (dB), which is a logarithmic
unit.
The decibel loss of optical power in a fiber is given as
 Loss in optical power = -10 log(Pout/Pin) dB
Where Pout = power emerging out of the fiber
Pin = power launched into the fiber
The loss per kilometer (or dB/km) is a standard unit for describing attenuation loss in all fiber
designs
Loss/km = -(10/L) log (Pout/Pin) dB/km
Where L is the length of the fiber tested
While transmitting the signals through the optical fibers, some energy will be lost due to few
reasons. The major losses are
I) Transmission losses and II) Distortion losses
I) Transmission losses:
The mechanism of attenuation during transmission broadly classified into two categories.
i) Absorption losses
ii) Scattering losses
i). Absorption losses:
Core material of a fiber absorbs few wavelengths as optical pulses or wavelengths pass through
it. Absorption of light is caused by the following three different mechanisms. These are
Ultraviolet absorption, Infrared absorption and Ion resonance absorption.
In pure fused silica, Ultraviolet absorption around 0.14µm results in ionization of valence
electrons into conduction band.
Absorption of Infrared photon by atoms within the glass molecules results in increase of random
mechanical vibrations and hence heating. Absorption peaks corresponding to silicon at 3.2, 3.8
and 4.4µm.
OH- ions are present in the material due to trapping of water molecules during manufacturing.
These ions absorb energy at peaks of 0.95, 1.25 and 1.39µm.

ii). Scattering losses:

Scattering is another parameter for optical attenuation. Such losses in glass arise due to
microscopic variation in material density, random variation in refractive index, and structural in
homogeneities or defects occurring during fiber manufacturing. These inhomogenities act as
reflecting and refracting facts to scatter a small portion of light through the core into cladding
contributing for the losses. This type of scattering is known as Rayleigh scattering.
iii). Distortion or Bending losses:
The distortion of the fiber from the ideal straight line configuration may also result in losses in
fibers. Tight bends cause some of the light not to be internally reflected but to propagate into the
cladding and be lost.

Applications of Optical Fiber:

Optical fiber Communication System:
An efficient optical fiber communication system requires high information carrying capacity
such as voice signals, video signals over long distances with a minimum number of repeaters. It
essentially consists of following parts.
1.Encoder 2. Transmitter 3.Wave guide
4.Receiver 5.Decoder
1.Encoder: It converts electric signal corresponding to analog information such as voice,
figures, objects etc into a binary data. This binary data comes out in the form of stream of
electrical pulses.
2.TRANSMITTER: It mainly consists of drive circuit and a light source. Drive circuit supplies
the electric pulses to the light source from the encoder.
NOTE: LED or diode laser is used as light source and it converts electrical signals are injected
into optical signals. These optical signals are injected into wave guide.
3.Wave Guide: It carries the information through the desired distance in the form of optical
signal.
4.Receiver: It consists of photo detector, amplifier, signal restorer.
Photo Detector: It converts optical signal into electrical signal. This signal may become
weak since it travels through very long distance.
Amplifier: Such weak signal from photo detector is amplified. This is allowed into signal
restorer.
Signal Restorer: The function of signal restorer is to put the signals In order which are
received from wave guide subsequently from photo detector.
5.Decoder: Finally, signals will be decoded and sent in the original form.