National Action Programme (NAP)

For
Combating Land Degradation
in Sri Lanka an

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 National Action Programme for Combating Land
Degradation in Sri Lanka
Contributions
Members of the Advisory Committee
Mr. Thosapala Hewage1
Mr. A.H.N.Jayasekara2
Mr. W.R.M.S. Wickramasinghe3
Mr. I.H.K.Mahanama45
, tlB B A R Y
Mr. Gamini Gam age M^lstry v**'™'*2*1*
N.Uurat Resources.
Coordinator
Mrs. Tharangani Wickramasinghe6
Consultation
Mrs. M.A. Kumaradasa7
Mr. Henry Gamage8
Dr. A.W. Mohottala9
Dr. Percy Silva10
Financial Assistance
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Sri Lanka
Environment Action 1 Project (EA1P)

1Secretary, Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources

2Additional Secretary, Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources
3 Additional Secretary, Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources
4 Director (Natural Resources), Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources
5 Director (Biodiversity), Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources
6Assistant Director (Natural Resources), Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources
7 Director (Policy Planning), Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources
8 Consultant,
9 Consultant,
10 Consultant,
I
 NATIONAL ACTION PROGRAMME FOR COMBATING LAND
DEGRADATION IN SRI LANKA

CONTENTS

Page No

List of Figures V
List of Tables VI
List of Annexes VII
Abbreviations and Acronyms VIII

01. Introduction 1

02. Country Background 2

2.1 Physiography 2

2.2 Climate 4

2.3 Natural Resources 7

2.3.1 Land Resources 7

2.3.2 Soil Resources 7
2.3.3 Water Resources 9
2.3.4 Forests 9
2.3.5 Wild Life Resources 12
2.3.6 Bio diversity 12

2.4 Agriculture 14

2.5 Energy 17

2.6 Population and Poverty 18

3.0 Environment 21

3.1 Significant Environmental Issues 21

3.2 Land Degradation,Forest Degradation and Droughts 27

 3.2.1 Land degradation 27
3.2.2 Forest degradation 40
3.2.3 Drought 43

4.0 Measures to Combat Land Degradation and Mitigate

the Effects of Drought 44

4.1 Policy, Strategy and Legislative Provisions 44

4.1.1 Constitutional Obligations and Provisions 45

4.1.2 Policies and Strategies Formulated 46

4.1.3 Legislative Framework 48

4.2 Technologies 51

4.2.1 Technologies for Controlling Land Degradation 51

4.2.2 Technologies for Restoring Degraded Forests 58

4.2.3 Technologies for Mitigating the Effects of Drought 60

4.3 Planning, Institutional Framework and Programmes 64

4.3.1 Planning 64

4.3.2 Institutional Framework 66

4.3.2.1. National Level 66

4.3.2.2. Regional Level 69

4.3.2.3. Local Level 70

 5.0 National Action Programme 72

5.1 Process and Participation 72

5.2 Goals and Objectives 73

5.3 Approach and Strategy 74

5.4 The Programmes 75

5.4.1 Main Programmes 75

5.4.2 Supportive Programmes 94

6.0 Proposed Projects 104

7.0 Programme Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation 115

7.1 Implementation Arrangements 115

7.2 Monitoring and Evaluation 144

Bibliography 149

IV
 LI ST OF F I GU R E S

Page

Fig. l Rel i ef and Drainage 3

Fi g. 2 Average Annual Rai nfal l 5

Fig.3 % of Land Area Af f ect ed by Dr ought -

Yala & Maha 6

Fi g. 4 Soils 8

Fig.5 Drainage - River Basins 10

Fig.6 Forests 11

Fig.7 Di s t r i but i on of Po p u l a t i o n 19

Fig.8 Typi cal Site of Soil erosi on in the Hill Count ry 23

Fig.9 Stream Polluted with Waste 24

F i g . 10 Sri L a n k a ’s Rich Ecos yst ems 26

F i g . 11 Coastal Erosion 28

F i g . 12 Abandoned Chena Land 37

F i g . 13 Soil Erosion on Steep Slopes 38

Fig.MLandslides 39

F i g . 15 Gem Deposits 41

V
 LI ST OF TABLES

Page

Number of Rain Water Storage Tanks

Construct ed in Each District by Different Agencies 64

2. Pr oposed projects 106

3. Main Programmes, Recommended Actions and

Pr oposed Implementing Agencies 116

Vi
 LI ST OF ANNEXES
ti
Page

1. Annex I - Proposed Impl ement i ng Agencies for

Recommended Actions 146

2. Annex II - List of Position Papers Prepared 147

3. Annex III - The Bibliography 149

VII
 A B B R E V I A T I O N S AND A CR ON Y MS

CARP Council for Agricultural Research Policy

CBOO Community Based Organizations
CEA Central Environmental Authority
CEPOM Committee on Environment Policy and Management
CHPB Centre for Housing Planning and Building
CIEDP Committee on Integrating Environment and
Development
DAD Department of Agrarian Development
DAPH Department of Animal Production and Health
DCS Department of Census and Statistics
DOA Department of Agriculture
DOI Department of Irrigation
DOM Department of Meteorology
DS Divisional Secretaries
DSS Department of Social Services
DWLC Department of Wild Life Conservation
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
El A Environmental Impact Assessment
FD Forest Department
GLASOD Global Assessment of Soil Degradation
GNP Gross National Product
GSMB Geological Survey and Mines Bureau
LC Land Commi ssi oners Department
LUP Land Use policy
LUPPD Land Use Policy Planning Division
MASL Mahaweii Authority of Sri Lanka
MOAL Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock
MOE Ministry of Environment
MOF Ministry of Finance
MOIND Ministry of Industries
MOI Ministry of Irrigation
MOL Ministry of Lands
MOS Ministry of Samurdhi
MSS Ministry of Social Services
NDMC National Disaster Management Centre
NEAP National Environmental Action Plan
NGOO Non Government Organizations
NPPD National Physical Planning Department
NRMC Natural Resources Management Centre of the DOA
PC Provincial Councils
PDA Provincial Department of Agriculture
PDAPH Provincial Dept, of Animal Production & Health
PGRC Plant Genetic Resources Centre of the DOA
PLC Plantation Companies
SALT Sloping Agricultural Land Technology
SD Survey Department
UDA Urban Development Authority
UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification

VIII
UNI V Universities
WMP Watershed Management Policy
WRA Water Resources Authority
WRB Water Resources Board

IX
 IN T R O D U C T IO N

The Un i t e d Na t i o n s C o n v e n t i o n to C o m b a t D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ( U N C C D ) ,
d e f i n e s land d e g r a d a t i o n as t he r e d u c t i o n or l oss o f t he b i o l o g i c a l or
e c o n o m i c p r o d u c t i v i t y and c o m p l e x i t y o f r ai n fed c r o p l a n d , i r r i g a t e d
c r o p l a n d , or r ange , pa s t ur e , f or es t and w o o d l a n d s r e s u l t i n g fr om l and
uses or from a pr o c e s s or a combination of processes, including
p r o c e s s e s a r i s i ng from hu ma n a c t i v i t i e s and h a b i t a t i o n p a t t e r n s suc h as
soil e r o s i on, d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f the p h y s i c a l , c h e m i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l or
e c o n o m i c p r o p e r t i e s o f soil and l ong t er m l oss o f n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n .

Land D e g r a d a t i o n has e me r g e d as a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m in Sri Lanka . The

p o p u l a t i o n has be e n e x p a n d i n g r a p i d l y and t hi s has led to an i n c r e a s e d
d e m a n d for land for e c o n o m i c p u r p o s e s and s o c i a l services. ; The
d e ma n d s from v a r i ous users suc h as a g r i c u l t u r e , i n d u s t r y , t r a n s p o r t
and s e t t l e m e n t s have set up p r e s s u r e s on the l and, and t h e s e in t ur n
have i n e v i t a b l y r e s u l t e d in the m i s u s e and d e g r a d a t i o n o f l and in ma n y
areas. E v i d e n c e o f t his d e g r a d a t i o n can be s e en in h e a v y soi l l oses;
h i g h s e d i me n t yi el ds; d e c l i n e in soil f e r t i l i t y, s a l i n i z a t i o n and the
m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l l and.

The g o v e r n m e n t has been keen to a d d r e s s t hi s p r o b l e m and se ver a l

m e a s u r e s h a v e b e e n a dopt e d o v e r t he p a s t few d e c a d e s to c o n t r o l land
d e g r a d a t i o n . H o w e v e r t hes e ha ve onl y had a l i m i t e d i m p a c t and this is
r e f l e c t e d in the spr e a d o f s e t t l e m e n t s i nt o e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y f r agi l e
areas ; eroded uplands; l ow and unreliable crop yields, and other
o f f s i t e e f f e c t s o f soil e r os i on suc h as s e d i m e n t a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r s and
f l oods. The s e t r e n d s need to be r e v e r s e d e ar l y; i f n ot t he r e c o u l d be
s e r i o u s e c o n o m i c and soci al c o n s e q u e n c e s .

The Convention to c o mb a t Desertification is being implemented

t h r o u g h n a t i o n a l a c t i o n p r o g r a m m e s . As a p a r t y to the c o n v e n t i o n Sri
Lanka is expected~r4<> p r e p a r e and i mp l e m e n t a National Act i on

1
Programme ( NA P ) to identify t he f ac t or s contributing to land
degradation and practical measures necessary to c o mb a t land
d e g r a d a t i o n . T h i s d o c u m e n t has be e n p r e p a r e d to ful f i l l t his need. It is
divided i nto t wo part s . Pa r t I present the country background;
s i g n i f i c a n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s s ue s , the st ate o f land d e g r a d a t i o n and its
c a u s e s and, c o n s e q u e n c e s ; and m e a s u r e s a dopt e d up to dat e to c o mb a t
land degradation and to mitigate the eff e ct s o f dr ought . Part II
presents t he N a t i o n a l Action Programme for i mp l e m e n t a t i o n . It is
h o p e d that t he i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the Na t i o n a l A c t i o n P r o g r a m m e wi l l
l ead to the p r e v e n t i o n and r e v e r s a l o f land d e g r a d a t i o n .

2.0 CO UNTRY BA C K G RO UND

Sri L a n k a covering an a r e a o f about 65, 610 s qua r e kilometers is

located between 6 and 10°N latitude and b e t w e e n 80 and 82 °E
l o n g i t u d e . The i s l a n d has a m a x i mu m l e n g t h o f a bout 435 km and a
m a x i m u m w i d t h o f a b o u t 240 k m.

Sri La n k a has a coastline of about 1600km, a continental shelf

e s t i m a t e d at 31, 2 5 0 km and h o l d s s o v e r e i g n r i g h t s wi t h r e s p e c t to the
n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s bot h l i vi ng and non - l i vi ng o f t he wa t e r s s u p e r j a c e n t
to the sea be d and o f t he sea bed and s u b s o i l in t he Ex c l u s i v e
E c o n o m i c Zone ( EEZ) o f Sri L a n k a e x t e n d i n g to a d i s t a n c e o f 200
n a u t i c a l mi l es from the m e a n sea level.

2.1 PH Y SIO G R A PH Y

P h y s i o g r a p h i c a l l y , t he i s l a n d c o m p r i s e s a m o u n t a i n o u s area s i t uat ed in
t he sou t h - c e n t r e and a s u r r o u n d i n g i n t e r m e d i a t e z o n e of upl and
r i d g e s and va l l e y s at a l o w e r e l e v a t i o n (Fig. 1).

2
Source: Arjuna's Atlas

3
 Next to the intermediate z one lies gently sloping l o wl a n d s . Th e
central hi ll c o u n t r y r i s i ng to an e l e v a t i o n of approximately 2500
me t e r s above sea level, is t he s o u r c e o f the m a j o r r i v e r s o f t he
c ount r y.

2.2 CLIM ATE

Sri La n k a ha s a hot and h u mi d climate wi t h wa r m and humid

c o n d i t i o n s b e i n g f ound over most pa r t s o f the i s l a n d t h r o u g h o u t t he
year.

Th er e are f our r a i n f a l l seasons i.e. First I nt e r m o n s o o n ( M a r c h -

Apr i l ) ; South-West monsoon (May-September); Second Inter
monsoon (October to November); and t he North-East Monsoon
( D e c e mb e r - F e b r u a r y ) . The d e p e n d a b i l i t y o f t he r a i n f a l l v a r i e s wi t h
s e as o n s wi t h the S o u t h - We s t m o n s o o n r a i n f a l l b e i n g c o m p a r a t i v e l y
mor e r e l i a b l e t han t he r ai nf a l l in the o t h e r t hr ee s e a s o n s . The l east
r e l i a b l e are the No r t h - East m o n s o o n rai ns .

The r a i n f a l l in t he c o u n t r y is u n e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d v a r y i n g from l ess

than 1000mm o v e r a small r e g i o n in t he semi - ari d pa r t s o f the No r t h -
West and S o u t h - E a s t o f the i s l a nd to o v e r 5 0 0 0 m m on the w i n d w a r d
sl opes o f t he hi l l c o u n t r y (Fi g 2 ) . The s e a s o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n is also very
une ven. The We t Z o n e e x p e r i e n c e s a f a i r l y wel l d i s t r i b u t e d r a i n f a l l
t h r o u g h o u t t he y e a r wi t h shor t dry s p e l l s fr om F e b r u a r y to Ma r c h and
Au g u s t to S e p t e m b e r whi l e the Dr y Z o n e e x p e r i e n c e s a d i s t i n c t bi-
modal r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n with t wo dry p e r i o d s from F e b r u a r y to M a r c h
and Jul y to S e p t e m b e r .

Most o f the d i s t r i c t s in Sri L a n k a are a f f e c t e d by d r o u g h t s ( Fi g3 ) .

H o w e v e r d r o u g h t s are more c o m m o n (a) in t he dry and i n t e r m e d i a t e

4
Fig. 2

KANKESANTNURAI
AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL
• JAFFNA
1961-1990

mllllm*t*rs

> -5 0 0 0
4000 - 5000
• MULLAITIVU
3000 - 4000
2000 - 3000
1500 - 2000
MANNAR
1000-1500
500-1000
• VAVUNIYA

TRINCOMALEE

S&
ANURADMAPURA ' kantalai

)f l
MAHA ILLUPPALLAMA

• PUTTALAM • MINNERIYA

BATTICALOA

CHILAW
• MAHA OYA
KURUNEGALA MATALE
• • ; k.
KANDY
AMPARA
NEGOMBO . KEGALLE

BIBILE* H

COLOMBO i
PO TTUVI^

RATMALANA

KALUTARA •

TANAMALWILA
YALA

HAMBANTOTA
GALLE •
TANGALLE

\ » atara

5
90

80

70

60

1896 1903 1910 1917 1924 1931 1938 1945 1952 1959 1966 1973 1980 1987 1994 2001
Years
F i g. P e r c e n t a g e of L a n d A r e a A f f e c t e d by D r o u g h t
D u r i n g the Y A L A S E A S O N

90 ------

80

7 0 -------

60

1 896 1903 1 91 0 1917 1924 1 931 1938 1945 1952 1959 1966 1973 1980 1987 1994 2001
Years
Fi g. P e r c e n t a g e of L a n d A r e a A f f e c t e d by D r o u g h t
D u r i n g t he M A H A S E A S O N

6
z o n e s t han in the Wet Zone and (b) in the Yal a s e a s on t han in the
Ma ha s eas on.

The s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n in t e m p e r a t u r e in Sri L a n k a is m i n i m a l . In the

c o a s t a l a r e as be l ow 180 m in e l e v a t i o n , the me a n a nnua l t e m p e r a t u r e
v a r i e s from 26 . 0 ° c to 28. 0°c and in t he hill c o u n t r y a b o v e 1500m. it
varies from 15.0°c to 19. 0°c. Higher temperatures are generally
e x p e r i e n c e d in t he n o r t h e r n , nor t h c e n t r a l and e a s t e r n r e g i o n s o f the
c o u n t r y and va ry on the a v e r a g e b e t w e e n 33 °c and 34°c.

2.3 NATUR AL RESO U RCES

2.3.1 Land R esou rces

Sri Lanka has a t ot al area o f about 6.5 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s o f w h i c h 96

percent comprise land and the b a l a n c e 4 p e r c e n t wa t er . N e a r l y 80
p e r c e n t o f t hi s area comes u n d e r some form o f s t a t e c o n t r o l . A r ou g h
" l and b a l a n c e sheet " p r e p a r e d in 1995 i n d i c a t e d that a l i t t l e ove r 40
p e r c e n t o f t he land area was used, wh i l e a n o t h e r 11 p e r c e n t r e m a i n
s p a r s e l y us e d or u n u t i l i z e d. Fo r e s t and c a t c h m e n t areas c o v e r e d 3 1
percent and s t r e a ms and their reservations, reservoirs and
infrastructure facilities covered another 9 percent. The balance 9
percent comprised steep l ands , barren l ands , lands ove r 1500m,
ma r s h e s and m a n g r o v e s .

2 .3 .2 S oil R eso u rces

Sri L a n k a has a wi de v a r i e t y o f soi l s f a l l i ng i nt o 14 Gr e at Soil G r o u p s

( F i g . 4). The s e p e r m i t the c u l t i v a t i o n o f a n u m b e r o f crops i n c l u d i n g
c e r e a l s , p u l s e s , v e g e t a b l e s , frui t crops, c ot t o n , t o b a c c o , tea, r u b b e r ,
c o c o n u t c o f f e e , c ocoa , c i n n a m o n , p e p p e r , and c l ove s . A l t h o u g h a wi de
v a r i e t y o f c r o p s can be gr own, mo s t o f the soi l s ha ve to be c a r ef u l l y

7
Fig. 4

SOILS
LEGEND

Soils of ths Dry Zoos and SamFDry Intsrmsdtats Zona

■1 Radckah Brown Earth* and tow Humic Otar So#* irr*.*a*ng terror

■1 Non Calcic Brown Soft* and Low Humic Olay Boat u ro a m g terro
Scut* on Ok) Aluvtam. undutaang terror
R * d » r Brown Earths and immatur* Brown Loam*. nmnQ and h*y terras
R*d-Y*tow Latosote. ganoy jnduwng terror

<>h BENOAl Catoc Rad Yaltow Latoaot*. »«» terra*

Grumoaoia Hal terran
So*oc*z*d Sdonatz. Sotenchaa* and Soda on meant martna calcarsoua tadm att
MhMal son* of vartaete tedura and dramags; ft* terror ** '*rT*ir
Ragoaoi* on racani baach and dun* sand*. Sat terrain
Bandana Son* undulating to ro#*g terrain

Soils of ths Wat Zona sod Sam*-Wat Intsrmsdtets Zoos

Bad-Yadow Podzoac Soft* and Mountain Ragoaote. Mountelnou*
BadYaOow Podzoac So#* ttaapty Sasaciad. N#y and rofling terrain
Bad-v*iow Podzoac Son* w«r itrongfy mosted auSaofl and Low Humic Olay aoa*
undutainq terrain
Bad-vatow Podzoac Sea* wtf> soft or hard laterite.rote^Q and unoulaang wrrten
Rad-Yaaow Podzoac So# war promrr.ani At or **rry^xom*ar* At horizon* and
Bud-Yaiow Podzoic Soa* «Sh dark B honzon. Nay and roiang terrain

mm Rsdtetft Brown Latoaolc So#*, dteMrtad hSy and roSng terra*

Immakira Brown Loams, dteaseted. h % and roterq terrain
Bog and Mait-oog So#* flat terrain

m Latosois and Ragoaote on old rad and yalow sand* 1st tert**>

. 21 Muvial So#* of vartebte taxfc*a and droroga; ftat terror

Mlacallanaoua land unKa

CSJ Eroatonai ramnants tteap rock tend and vanoua Shoaote

QiDiAN OCEAN

SCALE 1 : 1,660,000
10 20 30 40 50 60 km

8
m a n a g e d . They are hi ghl y e r o d i b l e and s p e c i a l c o n s e r v a t i o n m e a s u r e s
are n e e d e d for s u s t a i n e d p r od u c t i o n .

2.3.3 W ater R esou rces

Sri L a n k a ' s w a t e r r e s o u r c e s c o m p r i s e bot h s u r f a c e wa t e r and g r o u n d

wat er . S u r f a c e wa t e r is p r i m a r i l y d e t e r m i n e d by the Ce n t r a l Ma s s i f ,
wh i c h i n t e r c e p t s the m o i s t u r e l ad e n m o n s o o n wi nds. Surface water
from the u p p e r wa t e r s h e d s are t r a n s p o r t e d by 103 na t u r a l r i ve r b a s i n s
c o v e r i n g 90 p e r c e n t o f the i s l a nd (Fig. 5). Ri v e r s o r i g i n a t i n g in the
w e t t e r pa r t s o f t he hill c o u n t r y are p e r e n n i a l w h i l e t he m a j o r i t y o f
t h o s e in the Dry Zone are s e a s o n a l .

The g r o u n d wa t e r r e s o u r c e s in the c o u n t r y also v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y from

r e g i o n to r e g i o n . Gr o u n d wa t e r p o t e n t i a l is h i g h e s t in the n o r t h e r n and
nor t h - w e s t e r n pa rt s o f t he c o u n t r y , wh i c h c o n t a i n h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e
a q u i f e r s . In o t h e r areas the g r ou n d wa t e r p o t e n t i a l is mode s t . R e g i o n a l
aquifers underlie 1-2 percent o f the land in areas underlain by
q u a r t z i t e s or c r y s t a l l i n e l i m e s t o n e b a n d s ; e l s e w h e r e g r ou n d wa t e r is to
be f o u n d in f i s s u r e s and c r a c k s and w e a t h e r e d m a t e r i a l wh i c h are re -
c h a r g e d from r a i nf a l l i n f i l t r a t i o n .

2 .3 .4 F o rest R eso u rces

The c l i m a t e o f Sri Lanka f a v o r s f or es t g r o w t h and at one t i me the

c o u n t r y wa s ri ch in t r o p i c a l f or e s t s . Ove r the ye a r s , a pa rt o f this
f or est cover has been lost due to the spread of agriculture and
settlements ( bot h l ega l l y and i l l e g a l l y ) and h e n c e the f or es t c o v e r
t o d a y a m o u n t s to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2.1 m i l l i o n ha r e p r e s e n t i n g 32 p e r c e n t
o f the land area ( F i g . 6). O f this e x t e n t 2.04 m i l l i o n ha are n a t u r a l
forests and 0.72 mi l l i o n ha, f or es t plantations. Approximately 85
percent of the na t u r a l forests are concentrated in the Dry and
I n t e r m e d i a t e Zones.
9
Fig. 5

10
Fig. 6
Source : Arjuna's Atlas
 Sri L a n k a st i ll has a v a r i e t y o f f o r e s t t y p e s . T h e m o n t a n e f o r e s t s , s u b -
montane f or e s t s and the lowland rainforests represent t he major
n a t u r a l f or es t t y p e s in the We t Z o n e w h i l e t he d r y a n d i n t e r m e d i a t e
z o n e s have mos t o f the dry and m o n s o o n f o r e s t , r i v e r i n e dr y f o r e s t s ,
mangroves and sparse f or e s t s . Large - scale felling and chena
c u l t i v a t i o n has d e g r a d e d t he f or e s t c o v e r in t he Dr y Z o n e and h e n c e a
substantial portion of what remains today comprise s c r ub or low
jungle.

2 .3 .5 W ild life R eso u rces

Sri L a n k a has a wi de v a r i e t y o f m a m m a l s , b i r d s and a m p h i b i a n s s o m e

o f w h o m are e n d e m i c and o t h e r s n o n - e n d e m i c . M o s t o f t he e n d e m i c
s p e c i e s are c o n f i n e d to the W e t Z one .

A g r e a t e r p a r t o f the w i l d l i f e in t he c o u n t r y is to be f ou n d in p r o t e c t e d
a r e as c o v e r i n g an e xt e nt o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 , 5 0 0 ha. T h e s e i n c l u d e
St r i c t Nature Reserves, Nature Reserves, National Parks a nd
S a n c t u a r i e s . Some o f t hes e a r e a s are s t r i c t l y p r o t e c t e d w h i l e a l i m i t e d
amount o f human activities are permitted in others. Most o f t he
wildlife reserves are confined to t he Dr y Zone and amongst t he
r e s e r v e s N a t i o n a l Pa r k s are t he m o s t i m p o r t a n t as t h e y c a r r y a g r e a t e r
p a r t o f w i l d l i f e in t he c o u n t r y .

2 .3 .6 B io D iv e r sity
»
Sri L a n k a wi t h its r i ch b i o l o g i c a l d i v e r s i t y is c o n s i d e r e d to be on e o f
* the bio d i v e r s i t y " h o t s p o t s " in t he wo r l d .

D e s p i t e its s mal l si ze t he i s l a n d ha s a r i ch e c o s y s t e m d i v e r s i t y b e c a u s e
o f its v a r i e d t o p o g r a p h y and c l i m a t e . A m o n g t he t e r r e s t r i a l e c o s y s t e m s
are forests varying from we t evergreen forest (both lowland a nd
m o n t a n e ) to dry t ho r n f o r e s t s ; g r a s s l a n d s ; and a c o m p l e x n e t w o r k o f
12
r i v e r s , w e t l a n d s and f r e s h w a t e r b o d i e s . The s e , a l o n g wi t h the c oast a l
and m a r i n e e c o s y s t e m s s u c h as s ea - grass beds, cora l r e e f s , e st uar i es
a n d l a g o o n s , and a s s o c i a t e d m a n g r o v e s w a m p s , c o n s t i t u t e the na t u r a l
e c o s y s t e m s in the c o u n t r y . In a d d i t i o n , t he r e are also n u m e r o u s man -
m a d e e c o s y s t e m s r e l a t e d to a g r i c u l t u r e and i r r i g a t i o n . The range o f
e c o s y s t e m s f o u n d in the c o u n t r y are g r o u p e d i nto f our ba s i c h a b i t at
classes: forest, inland we tlands, a g r i c u l t u r a l l ands , and coast al and
m a r i n e s y s t e m s . The e c o s y s t e m d i v e r s i t y has r e s u l t e d in hi gh speci es
diversity particularly in respect of mammals, bi r d s , r ept i l e s,
amphibians, freshwater fishes and several groups of invertebrate
f a u n a . A s i m i l a r hi gh d i v e r s i t y is to be f ou n d a m o n g f l o we r i n g pl ant s,
f e r n s and f e r n a l l i e s , m o s s e s , l i v e r w o r t s , l i c h e n s , a l ga e and fungi.

The i s l a n d a l s o has a v e r y h i g h e n d e m i s m a mo n g its f a u n a and flora.

Among t he different vertebrate gr o u p s t he highest proportion of
e n d e m i c s p e c i e s has b e e n r e c o r d e d a mo n g a m p h i b i a n s (65 pe rcent ) ,
r e p t i l e s (52 p e r c e n t ) , and f r e s h w a t e r f i s he s (41 p e r c e n t ) , whi l e among
t he i n v e r t e b r a t e g r o u p s t he h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f e n d e m i c s has been
r e c o r d e d a m o n g c r a b s ( 100 p e r c e n t ) and land m o l l u s c s (76 pe rcent ) .
A m o n g t he f l o r a 28 p e r c e n t o f t he f l o w e r i n g pl a n t s p e c i e s and about 17
p e r c e n t o f t he fern s p e c i e s are e n d e m i c to Sri Lanka.

The i s l a n d ' s b i o d i v e r s i t y is b e i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y t h r e a t e n e d t h r o u g h the

increase in population and human activities. Pressures are be i n g
exerted through the destruction of habitats due to s e d i me n t a t i o n
a r i s i n g fr om soil e r o s i o n and f i l l i n g of l and for d e v e l o p m e n t , s e l ec t i v e
ex pi o i t a t i o n of commercially important species, unsustainable
collection of biological r e s o u r c e s . for subsistence needs, and the
introduction of alien invasive species either intentionally or
accidentally.

13
 2.4 A G R I C U LT U R E

A g r i c u l t u r e pl a ys a d o m i n a n t r ol e in t he Sri L a n k a n e c o n o m y . In 2 0 0 1 ,
the a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r c o n t r i b u t e d 16 p e r c e n t to t he G r o s s N a t i o n a l
P r o d u c t ( GNP) and a c c o u n t e d for 19 p e r c e n t o f t he t o t a l m e r c h a n d i s e
e x p o r t s . It also e m p l o y s d i r e c t l y m o r e t h a n o n e t h i r d o f t he l a b o u r
f or ce; p r o v i d e s inputs for t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l processing industry a nd
«
s u p p l i e s a l arge share o f d o m e s t i c food r e q u i r e m e n t s .

The a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r has t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n v i e w e d in t e r m s o f t wo
s u b - s e c t o r s , the p l a n t a t i o n s e c t o r w i t h t ea, r u b b e r and c o c o n u t s as t he
m a j o r c r o p s and t he food c rop s e c t o r w i t h p a d d y as t he d o m i n a n t c r o p .
The p l a n t a t i o n sector generates most o f t he export earnings from
a g r i c u l t u r e wh i l e t he n o n - p l a n t a t i o n s e c t o r g e n e r a t e s m o s t o f t h e f o o d
n e e d e d by the l ocal p o p u l a t i o n .

Ou t s i d e t he a r e as c o mi n g u n d e r p l a n t a t i o n s and f o o d c r o p s t h e r e are
o t h e r t r ee c r o p s suc h as c o c o a , c o f f e e , s p i c e s and c a s h e w . The f o o d
c r op s e c t o r or the domestic agricultural sector provides t he c h i e f
m e a n s o f s u s t e n a n c e to the m a j o r i t y o f t he r ur a l p o p u l a t i o n . Within
t his s e c t or , p a d d y , o t h e r f i el d c r o p s i n c l u d i n g g r a i n l e g u m e s , c o a r s e
g r a i n s , oil s e e ds and c o n d i m e n t s and f r u i t s and v e g e t a b l e s are t he m a i n
commodities produced. O f t h e s e p a d d y is t he m o s t i m p o r t a n t .

Pa d d y is the c h i e f crop w i t h i n the d o m e s t i c a g r i c u l t u r a l , s e c t o r . In

2001 it c o n t r i b u t e d 2.3 p e r c e n t t o w a r d s the GNP and a c c o u n t e d f or
n e a r l y 15 p e r c e n t o f t he c o n t r i b u t i o n m a d e by t he a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r
t o w a r d s t he GNP. It also p r o v i d e s e m p l o y m e n t to a b o u t 10 p e r c e n t o f
the t ot a l p o p u l a t i o n and a c c o u n t s for 45 p e r c e n t and 40 p e r c e n t o f t he
per c a p i t a c a l o r i e s and p r o t e i n s r e s p e c t i v e l y in t he Sri L a n k a n d i e t .
Paddy is cultivated throughout t he island, but is relatively more
i m p o r t a n t in t he Dr y Zone t h a n in t h e o t h e r a r e a s . It is g r o w n b o t h

14
u n d e r i r r i g a t i o n and r ai n fed c o n d i t i o n s . N e a r l y 70 p e r c e n t o f the area
t h a t has b e e n b r o u g h t u n d e r p a d d y c u l t i v a t i o n .

T e a w h i c h is t he m a j o r e x p o r t c rop is g r o wn on a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 0 , 0 0 0
ha o f l and r e p r e s e n t i n g 3 p e r c e n t o f t he t ot a l l and area. In 2001 it
contributed 1.2 5 p e r c e n t o f the GNP and accounted for ne ar l y 8
p e r c e n t o f t he c o n t r i b u t i o n m a d e by t he a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r to the GNP.
«
In t he s a me y e a r it a l s o a c c o u n t e d for 14 p e r c e n t o f the c o u n t r y ’s t otal
e x p o r t e a r n i n g s and 74 p e r c e n t the e x p o r t e a r n i n g s from a g r i c u l t u r e .
T h i s m a d e t ea the s e c o n d l a r g e s t e a r n e r o f f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e in the
country behind textiles and garments. Tea is found at elevations
r a n g i n g f r om 100 m e t e r s a b o v e sea l evel to wel l o v e r 2, 000 met er s
a b o v e s ea l eve l . C u l t i v a t i o n t a k e s p l ac e b o t h on l ar ge e s t a t e s and
smallholdings.

R u b b e r , a n o t h e r o f t he m a j o r e x p o r t c rops is g r ow n on a p p r o x i m a t e l y
1 7 1 , 0 0 0 ha r e p r e s e n t i n g 2.5 p e r c e n t o f the land area. In 2001 it
contributed nearly 0. 4 percent to the GNP and accounted for 2.3
p e r c e n t o f t he c o n t r i b u t i o n m a d e by t he a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r t o wa r ds the
GNP. In t he s a me y e a r it al so a c c o u n t e d for a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.5 p e r c e n t
o f t he t o t a l e x p o r t e a r n i n g s and 2.5 p e r c e n t o f the e x p o r t ear ni n g s
f r o m a g r i c u l t u r e . R u b b e r is g r ow n in t he Wet and I n t e r m e d i a t e Zones
on l and v a r y i n g fr om flat to ve ry s t e ep e l e v a t i o n s r a n g i n g from sea
l e v e l to 300 m e t e r s a b o v e s ea l eve l . P r o d u c t i o n t a k e s p l ac e bot h on
s m a l l h o l d i n g s and e s t a t e s .

Coconut, the third major export crop is g r ow n on approximately

4 4 0 , 0 0 0 ha r e p r e s e n t i n g n e a r l y 7.0 p e r c e n t o f t he t ot al land area. In
2001 it c o n t r i b u t e d a l m o s t 1.1 p e r c e n t t o w a r d s the GNP and a c c oun t e d
for a little over 6.5 percent of t he contribution ma de by the
agricultural sector towards the GNP. In t he s a me year coconut
products contributed n e a r l y 9 p e r c e n t t o w a r d s the c o u n t r y ’s export
e a r n i n g s fr om a g r i c u l t u r e . C o c o n u t is g r ow n in all o f the d i s t r i c t s , but

15
the ( bul k 64 p e r c e n t ) is to be f ound in t he d i s t r i c t s o f G a m p a h a ,
K u r u n e g a l a and P u t t a l a m c o n s t i t u t i n g w h a t is c o m m o n l y r e f e r r e d to as
the “ C o c o n u t T r i a n g l e ” . A l i t t l e o v e r 10 p e r c e n t o f t he area u n d e r
c o c o n u t , c o m p r i s e s s c at t er e d t r e e s ; the b a l a n c e is g r ow n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y
bot h on s m a l l h o l d i n g s and e s t a t e s .

E x p o r t a g r i c u l t u r a l crops c o n s i s t m a i n l y o f b e v e r a g e c r o p s such as
c o f f e e and c ocoa, spi c es such as c i n a m m o n , p e p p e r , c a r d a m o m s , c l o v e s
and n u t me g and ot her a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s suc h as c a s h e w. The
e xt e nt u nde r c u l t i v a t i o n is r e l a t i v e l y s ma l l and a m o u n t e d to onl y
117, 664 ha in 1999 r e p r e s e n t i n g 1.8 p e r c e n t o f t he l and area. Yet , in
the same year, they contributed 7 percent towards the value, o f
a g r i c u l t u r a l e x por t s from t he c o u n t r y and 43 p e r c e n t t o w a r d s the va l u e
of o t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l export s.

The o t h e r fi el d crop sect or i n c l u d e s l eg u m e s such as g r e e n gr am, b l a c k

gram, cow pe a and soya b e a n s ; c e r e a l s such as k u r a k k a n and m a i z e ;
t u b e r s such as po t a t o e s ; and c o n d i m e n t s suc h as, c h i l l i e s and o n i o n s .
L e g u me s and c er ea l s are g e n e r a l l y c u l t i v a t e d u n d e r r a i n f e d c o n d i t i o n s
in h o m e g a r d e n s and u n i r r i g a t e d u p l a n d s whi l e t he h i g h v a l u e crops are
u s u a l l y gr own u n d e r i r r i g a t i o n p a r t l y in p a d d y f i e l d s and p a r t l y on
uplands.

V e g e t a b l e s have t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n d i v i d e d i nto t wo b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s ,
i.e. l ow c o u n t r y v e g e t a b l e s and up c o u n t r y v e g e t a b l e s . The f o r m e r are
g r o wn in the low- c o u n t r y and t he mi d- c o u n t r y as s e a s o n a l c r ops b o t h
d u r i n g the Ma ha and Yal a s e a s o n s . Up c o u n t r y v e g e t a b l e s are g e n e r a l l y
g r o wn in the mi d- c o u n t r y and t he hi ll - co u n t r y . S o me up c o u n t r y
v a r i e t i e s h o w e v e r are grown on a l i m i t e d s c a l e in t h e T o w c o u n t r y .

16
2.5 ENERGY

Sri Lanka depends on t hr e e p r i ma r y energy sour c es i.e. hydro -

electricity, petroleum and b i o ma s s . In 1996, hydro - electricity
a c c o u n t e d for 780 t h o u s a n d t o n n e s o f Oil E q u i v a l e n t (TOE); (11. 4
percent) petroleum and c r u d e oil p r oduc t s for 2169 t h o u s a n d TOE
(31. 5 p e r c e n t ) ; and b i o m a s s for 3930 t h o u s a n d TOE (57.1 pe rc ent ) .
The use o f r e n e w a b l e e n e r g y s o u r c e s such as wi nd p o w e r and sol ar
electricity for commercial purposes is ve ry l i mi t e d and al most
negligible.

Hy d r o - e l e c t r i c i t y is g e n e r a t e d by s e ver a l hydro s t a t i o n s w h o s e n u mb e r
has i n c r e a s e d o v e r t he pa s t few d e c a d e s t h r o u g h the c o m m i s s i o n i n g o f
new hy d r o p o w e r s t a t i o n s . Yet o f the t otal d e ma n d o f e l e c t r i c i t y o f
6481 m i l l i o n uni t s in 1999 o n l y a b o u t 3500 m i l l i o n uni ts we r e suppl i ed
by h y d r o - p o w e r s t a t i o n s . The b a l a n c e had to be p r o v i d e d by t he r ma l
power stations.

P e t r o l e u m oil p r o d u c t s are s u p p l i e d ei t her t h r o u g h t he l ocal r e f i n e r y or

through the direct i mp o r t s o f r e f i n e d p r oduc t s . The m a j o r use o f
petroleum products is the transport s e c t or (59 percent). This is
f o l l o w e d by the i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r (22 p e r c e n t ) ; the e l e c t r i c i t y s e ct or
(15 percent); and household, c o mm e r c i a l and ot her se ct or ' s (4
percent).

The d e m a n d for b i o m a s s wh i c h is the most w i d e l yJ us e d sour ce o f *

p r i ma r y e n e r g y in Sri La n k a is s h a r e d by the d o m e s t i c , c o m m e r c i a l and
industrial sectors. The domestic sect or de p e n d s primarily on fuel »
wood, coconut residues, paddy h us k and saw d us t wh i l e smal l
m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s such as b a k e r i e s and tile and b r i c k ma k i n g
and the c o m m e r c i a l s e c t o r d e p e n d m a i n l y on fuel wood.

17
A l ar ge e xt e nt o f f or es t land in the Dry Z o n e is d e g r a d e d and has to be
re-forested in or de r to prevent further degradation. It has be en
suggested t hat some of t hes e areas be provided wi t h "cover" by
introducing energy plantations. Estimates indicate that fuel wo o d
plantations on approximately one - third of t he degraded area
a m o u n t i n g to 0.5 mi l l i on ha c oul d p r o v i d e 10 m i l l i o n t o n n e s o f fuel
wo o d per ye ar which is e q u i v a l e n t to 3.8 million tonnes o f oil.
A p p a r e n t l y t hi s q u a n t i t y o f fuel w o o d c o u l d g e n e r a t e mor e e n e r g y t h a t
wh a t is be i n g s u p p l i e d by oil at pr e s e n t .

2.6 PO PU L A T IO N S AND PO VERTY

2.6.1 P o p u la tio n

A c c o r d i n g to the Ce ns us o f P o p u l a t i o n and H o u s i n g t a ke n in 2001 the

e n u m e r a t e d p o p u l a t i o n in Sri L a n k a o t h e r t han in t he N o r t h e r n and
Eastern Provinces amounted to approximately 16.9 million. The
p r o j e c t e d p o p u l a t i o n for the wh o l e i s l a n d wa s 18.7 m i l l i o n p e r s o n s .
The a v e r a g e a n n u a l gr owt h rat e o f p o p u l a t i o n for the 20 ye ar p e r i o d
from 1981 - 2001 was 1.2 p e r c e n t A c c o r d i n g to t he s t a n d a r d p r o j e c t i o n
the p o p u l a t i o n is e x p e c t e d to i n c r e a s e up to 22. 4 m i l l i o n in 2020.

The p o p u l a t i o n is u n e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d a c r o s s t he c o u n t r y , w i t h n e a r l y
60 p e r c e n t b e i n g c o n c e n t r a t e d in t he Wet Z o n e (Fig. 7). W i t h i n t he
Wet Zone n e a r l y 50 p e r c e n t o f t he p o p u l a t i o n is c o n c e n t r a t e d in t he
We s t e r n P r o v i n c e c o mp r i s i n g t he d i s t r i c t s o f C o l o m b o , G a m p a h a and
Ka l u t a r a.

Sri L a n k a is one o f t he most d e n s e l y - p o p u l a t e d c o u n t r i e s in t he S o u t h

As i a n R e g i o n . Wi t h an a v e r a g e d e n s i t y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 300 p e r s o n s
per square kilometer, the country ranks behind Bangladesh and
Ma l d i v e s . R e g i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s h o w e v e r are q u i t e m a r k e d wi t h the Wet
Zone h a v i n g h i g h e r d e n s i t i e s than t he Dr y Z o n e . The d e n s i t i e s v a r y
Fig. 7

19
 from a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3550 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e k i l o m e t e r in t he C o l o m b o
D i s t r i c t in t he Wet Zone to 4 1 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e k i l o m e t e r in the
V a v u n i y a D i s t r i c t in the Dry Zone.

A l ar ge part o f the c o u n t r y ’s p o p u l a t i o n l ive in rur al a r e as and a part

in u r b a n a re as . A c c o r d i n g to the C e n s u s o f 20 0 1 , the r ur a l p o p u l a t i o n
in the e n u m e r a t e d areas a mo u n t e d to 85 p e r c e n t and the u r b a n to 14.6
*
p e r c e n t . T h e s e f i g u r e s h o w e v e r m a y not p r e s e n t t he c o r r e c t p i c t u r e
# b e c a u s e t he C e n s u s d e f i n e d t he u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n as t ho s e p e r s o n s
l i v i n g w i t h i n Mu n i c i p a l C o u n c i l a r e as and U r b a n C o u n c i l a r e a s . The
p r o p o r t i o n o f u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n s h o u l d be h i g h e r b e c a u s e u r b a n i z a t i o n
has s p r e a d to t he p e r i p h e r i e s o f m u n i c i p a l and u r b a n c o u n c i l areas .
F u r t h e r m o r e t h e r e are a l arge n u m b e r o f s m a l l u r b a n c e n t r e s s c a t t e r e d
t h r o u g h o u t the c o u n t r y , whi c h a c c o r d i n g to the C e n s u s d e f i n i t i o n falls
w i t h i n the r ural sect or. A s t udy u n d e r t a k e n by the N a t i o n a l P h y s i c a l
P l a n n i n g D e p a r t m e n t ( NP PD) to a s c e r t a i n t he u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n in t he
c o u n t r y t a k i n g i nto c o n s i d e r a t i o n all a r e a s t h a t has b e c o m e u r b a n i z e d
e s t i m a t e d t he u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n to be 44. 5 p e r c e n t in 2001. A c c o r d i n g
to the s a me s t u d y the ur ban p o p u l a t i o n in t he c o u n t r y is e x p e c t e d to
i n c r e a s e to 65 p e r c e n t by t he year 2030.

2 .6 .2 P overty

The i n c i d e n c e o f p o v e r t y in Sri L a n k a is hi gh. In 1996, t he p o p u l a t i o n

was e s t i m a t e d at 17.5 mi l l i on. O f t hi s n u m b e r o n e - f i f t h to o n e - t h i r d
was c o n s i d e r e d to be poor d e p e n d i n g on t h e use o f a l o w e r p o v e r t y l i ne
o f Rs. 860/ = p e r pers on per m o n t h or a u p p e r p o v e r t y l i ne o f Rs.
% 1032/ = p e r p e r s o n per mo n t h to m e a s u r e c o n s u m p t i o n p o v e r t y . It is
l i ke l y that the ma j o r i t y o f t hos e l i v i n g b e l o w the l o w e r p o v e r t y l i n e
s u f f e r from c h r o n i c (or l ong t e r m) p o v e r t y w h i l e t ho s e f a l l i n g w i t h i n
the l o we r and t he hi gher p o v e r t y l i ne s are v u l n e r a b l e to t r a n s i t o r y ( or
s h o r t t e r m) p o v e r t y . The s u r v e y on H o u s e h o l d I n c o m e and E x p e n d i t u r e
c o n d u c t e d by t he De p a r t m e n t o f C e n s u s and S t a t i s t i c s ( DCS ) in 1995 /

20
 96 s e e ms to s u g g e s t t hat at any gi ven t ime a r o u n d 25 p e r c e n t o f the
p o p u l a t i o n is a f f e c t e d by l o n g - t e r m pove rt y, wh i l e a r o u n d 40 pe r c e n t
is a f f e c t e d by c o m b i n e d c h r o n i c and t r a n s i t o r y p o v e r t y .

The-majority o f t he p o o r h o u s e h o l d s are to be f ound in the rural

sector. The DCS s u r v e y i n d i c a t e s that 88 p e r c e n t o f t hos e • fal l i ng
b e l o w the p o v e r t y l ine r e s i d e in rural areas as a g a i n s t 8 p e r c e n t in
u r b an , a r e as and 4 p e r c e n t in e s t a t e areas. Fr om a s e c t o r a l poi nt o f
v i e w t he h i g h e s t l eve l s o f p o v e r t y are to be f ou n d in mi n i n g and
q u a r r y i n g (59 p e r c e n t ) and a g r i c u l t u r e (51 p e r c e n t ) . Fr om o c c u p a t i o n a l
,p o i n t o f vi ew farmers ha v e the hi ghes t incidence of poverty (52
. pe r c ent ) .

F r o m a r e g i o n a l p o i n t o f vi ew t he i n c i d e n c e o f p o v e r t y is l owe s t in the
W e s t e r n P r o v i n c e wh e r e the p r o p o r t i o n b e l o w t he l o w e r p o v e r t y line
and t he h i g h e r p o v e r t y l ine is 14 p e r c e n t and 23 p e r c e n t r es p e c t i v e l y .
The p r o p o r t i o n s are h i g h e s t in the Uva P r o v i n c e w h e r e 37 p e r c e n t are
belo.w the l o we r p o v e r t y l ine and 55 p e r c e nt b e l o w t he h i g h e r p o v e r t y
line.

3.0 E N V IR O N M E N T

3.1 S IG N IF IC A N T EN V IR O N M EN TA L ISSU E S

Although Sri L a n k a ’s environment is presently considered to be

comparatively healthy, n e v e r t h e l e s s it is b e i n g s e v e r e l y t h r e a t e n e d
because of t he demands being pl aced by a rapidly increasing
p o p u l a t i o n . The c o u n t r y f ac es a n u mb e r o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s and
o f t h e s e five ha ve b e e n i d e n t i f i e d in the St a t e o f t he E n v i r o n m e n t
R e p o r t o f Sri L a n k a , 2001 as t he key e n v i r o n m e n t a l i ss u e s viz. land
d e g r a d a t i o n by soil e r o s i o n , wa s t e d i s pos a l , p o l l u t i o n o f i nl a n d wa t e r s ,
loss o f bi o d i v e r s i t y and d e p l e t i o n of c o a s t a l r e s o u r c e s . The ot her

21
i ssues i nc l u d e air p o l l u t i o n by i n d u s t r i a l and v e h i c u l a r e m i s s i o n s ,
i nd u s t r i a l p o l l u t i o n , d e p l e t i o n o f forest c over , f l o o d i n g and l a n d s l i d e s .

(a) L a n d D e g r a d a t i o n by Soil E r o s i o n .

It has b e e n e s t i m a t e d that n e a r l y one - t hi rd o f the land in t he c o u n t r y

is s u b j e c t e d to soil e ros i on, the p r o p o r t i o n e r o d e d r a n g i n g from less
t han 10 p e r c e n t in some d i s t r i c t s to o v e r 50 p e r c e n t in ot her s . M u c h o f
the e r o s i o n has been t a k i n g p l ac e in the hi ll c o u n t r y , the p r o b l e m
b e i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y s e ver e in the mid c o u n t r y w h e r e s l op i n g l a nds ha ve
b e e n gi ven ove r to the c u l t i v a t i o n o f h i g h l y e r o s i v e t e m p o r a r y c r o p s
such as vegetables, potatoes and t o b a c c o , seedling tea and chena
c u l t i v a t i o n (Fig. 8). Soil e r o s i o n h o w e v e r is not c o n f i n e d to t he hi ll
c o u n t r y . It is also c o n s i d e r e d a t h r e a t to a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n in t he
Dr y Zone.

(b) W a s t e D i s p o s a l

M a n a g e m e n t o f l i qui d and soil wa s t e has e me r g e d as a c r i t i c a l p r o b l e m

in the l a r g e r u r b a n areas and a r o u n d i n d u s t r i a l si t es. C h a n g i n g life
st yl es and consumption patterns has led to an increase in w a s t e
g e n e r a t i o n and it is e s t i m a t e d t hat t his w o u l d c o n t i n u e to i n c r e a s e at a
g r o w t h r at e o f 1.2 p e r c e n t per a nnum. The r a p i d e c o n o m i c c h a n g e s t h at
ha v e b e e n t a k i n g p l ac e in r ec e n t years h o w e v e r h a v e not be e n m a t c h e d
by i n v e s t m e n t s in urban infrastructure facilities, e s p e c i a l l y in t he
a r e as o f ur ban sol i d wa s t e m a n a g e m e n t . Muc h o f t he wa s t e is d i s p o s e d
by open d u m p i n g in low - l yi ng areas and t hi s has led to a d v e r s e
i mp a c t s such as the r e d u c t i o n in fl ood d e t e n t i o n a re as , p o l l u t i o n o f
wetland habitats, pollution of surface and ground wa t e r and t he
c r e a t i o n o f e n v i r o n m e n t s that p r o m o t e i n s e c t and m o s q u i t o b r e e d i n g
(Fi g. 9).

22
23
24
(c) P o l l u t i o n of I n l a n d W a t e r s

P o l l u t i o n o f i nl a nd wat er s t a ke p l ac e p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h a g r i c u l t u r a l
p r a c t i c e s , i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and u r b a n i z a t i o n . In a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s the
w i d e s p r e a d and e n h a n c e d use o f agro - c h e m i c a l s and f e r t i l i z e r s has
led to the d i s c h a r g e o f d o m e s t i c wa s t e info w a t e r w a y s . In i n d u s t r i a l
areas m a j o r e f f l u e n t g e n e r a t i n g i n d u s t r i e s such as t e x t i l e d y e i n g and
b l e a c h i n g , food p r o c e s s i n g l e a t h e r t a n n i n g and me t a l f i n i s h i n g , r e l e a s e
i n d u s t r i a l e f f l u e n t s into s u r f a c e and s t a g n a n t w a t e r s . The p r e s s u r e s
c r e a t e d by t h e s e t hree s o u r c e s h a v e led to e u t r o p h i c a t i o n and b l o o m i n g
in s t a g n a n t wa t e r bodi es ; n i t r a t e p o l l u t i o n in g r ou n d wa t e r ; s p r e a d o f
d i s e a s e due to or g a n i c p o l l u t i o n ; r e d u c t i o n o f l and va l u e s near wa t e r
ways and g e ne r a l e c o n o mi c l os s e s to the c o u n t r y . The e s t i m a t e d c l e a n
- up c ost s o f t he p o l l u t i o n are c o n s i d e r e d to be s u b s t a i n t i a l .

(d) L oss of B io d iv e r s ity

P r e s s u r e s are be i n g p l a c e d on Sri L a n k a ' s r i ch b i o d i v e r s i t y by the

increasing d e ma n d for l and for urban cultural and industrial
d e v e l o p m e n t and the c o n s e q u e n t r e d u c t i o n o f e x t e n t s u n d e r n a t u r a l
f or es t ecosystems, removal of materials/species fr om the wi l d ,
c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n i n v a s i v e e x o t i c / d o m e s t i c s p e c i e s and i n d i g e n o u s
s p e c i e s , l ack o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s c i e n t i f i c m a n a g e m e n t , p o l l u t i o n ,
u n d e r v a l u a t i o n o f b i o d i v e r s i t y , the l ack o f a w a r e n e s s and the a b s e n c e
o f i n t e r - i n s t i t u t i o n a l c o o r d i n a t i o n wi t h r e g a r d to b i o d i v e r s i t y . T h e s e
p r e s s u r e s have led to the l os s and d e g r a d a t i o n o f n a t u r a l e c o s y s t e m s ,
l oss o f s p e c i e s and l oss o f g e n e t i c m a t e r i a l (Fi g. 10). Ove r 30 s p e c i e s
o f f er ns and o v e r 50 s p e c i e s o f f l o w e r i n g p l a n t s , i n c l u d i n g 13 s p e c i e s
of orchids are suspected of be i n g extinct, while extinct animals
i n c l u d e Ga u r and Comb D u c k and 13 s p e c i e s o f s na ke s . F u r t h e r m o r e
over 480 f l o we r i n g pl ant species and 90 fern species ha ve be en
a s s i g n e d t h r e a t e n e d st at us and a mo n g a n i m a l s a b o u t 75 p e r c e n t o f

25
Fig. 10 S ri L a n k a ’s Eco Systems

26
V e r t e b r a t e g r o u p s and about 50- 100 p e r c e n t i n v e r t e b r a t e g r o u p s are
c o n s i d e r e d to be u n d e r t hreat.

(e) D e p l e t i o n o f C o a s t a l R e s o u r c e s

Sri Lanka has a c o a s t l i n e o f 1585 km and the c o a s t a l z one is d e f i n e d as

a 2km wi de b a nd of ocean and an a d j o i n i n g st ri p o f l and e x t e n d i n g 300
me t e r s i nl a nd. Wi t h i n this z one e c o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s o f bot h land and
m a r i t i me e n v i r o n m e n t s are i n t e r l i n k e d and are i n f l u e n c e d by h u m a n
a c t i v i t i e s . The z one c o n t a i n s 32 p e r c e n t o f t he t ot a l p o p u l a t i o n , 90
p e r c e n t o f the i nd u s t r i a l uni ts and 80 p e r c e n t o f t o u r i s t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e .
The pressures created by t he expanding population and human
a c t i v i t i e s have led to the d e g r a d a t i o n and d e s t r u c t i o n o f m a n g r o v e and
coral r e e f e c o s y s t e m s ; e x p a n s i o n o f non - l i v i n g r e s o u r c e e x p l o i t a t i o n
such as e x p r e s s i v e sand mi ni ng, r e d u c t i o n . i n t he fi sh st ock; e r o s i o n o f
co as t a l a r e as s a l i n i z a t i o n o f p a d d y land and w a t e r p o l l u t i o n (Fig. 11).

3.2 LAND DE GR AD A TI ON , FOREST D E G R A D A T I O N AND

D RO UG HT S

3.2.1 Land Degradati on

3.2.1.1 T y p e s of L a n d D e g r a d a t i o n

In Sri La n k a , m a j o r c o n t r i b u t o r s to l and d e g r a d a t i o n are soil e r o s i o n

and soil fertility degradation. Ove r exploitation o f g r ou n d wa t e r ,
salinization, wa t e r l oggi ng and wa t e r p o l l u t i o n are also b e c o m i n g
i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t o r s to l and d e g r a d t i o n . A c c o r d i n g to the Gl o b a l
A s s e s s m e n t o f Soil D e g r a d a t i o n ( G L A S O D ) , a b o u t 50 p e r c e n t o f l and
in Sri La n k a is de gr a de d. The area a f f e c t e d by soil f er t i l i t y d e c l i n e is
61 p e r c e n t o f t he t otal a g r i c u l t u r a l land.

27
Fig. 11 Coastal Erosion

28
 (a) So il E r o s i o n

Soil e r o s i o n is a common p r o b l e m in t he e n t i r e c o u n t r y but it is m o r e

p r o n o u n c e d in t he u p p e r w a t e r s h e d a r e as o f t he hi ll c o u n t r y . A c c o r d i n g
to r ec e n t e s t i m a t e s , the area a f f e c t e d by soi l e r o s i o n in Sri L a n k a is
n e a r l y 33 p e r c e n t . A di s t r i c t wi s e b r e a k down , s ho ws a va s t d i f f e r e n c e
in the extent o f land a f f e c t e d b y soil erosion, wi t h the Colombo
h

d i s t r i c t r e p o r t i n g the l owest a r e a o f 2.3 p e r c e n t and the N u w a r a - E l i y a

, d i s t r i c t r e p o r t i n g the h i g h e s t a r e a o f 58 p e r c e n t . The mos t v u l n e r a b l e
d i s t r i c t s are t ho s e in whi ch a h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f l and is u s e d for
c u l t i v a t i o n o f tea, t oba c c o, m a r k e t g a r d e n s , and a n n u a l c r o p s . Soi l
e r o s i o n is also s e ver e in the r a i n f e d h i g h l a n d s in t he Dr y Z o n e w h e r e
c h e n a c u l t i v a t i o n is p r e d o m i n a n t .

H u m a n a c t i v i t i e s such as c u l t i v a t i o n o f st eep s l o p e s , d e f o r e s t a t i o n ,
b u r n i n g o f n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n , c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r o a d s and b u i l d i n g s h a v e
been responsible for the major share of soil erosion. Reservoir
s e d i m e n t a t i o n has a l r e a dy r e d u c e d r e s e r v o i r c a p a c i t y o f s o me o f o u r
m a j o r r e s e r v o i r s . Hi gh s e d i m e n t yi e l d fr om p o o r l y m a n a g e d m a r k e t
g a r d e n s is t he ma i n source o f s e d i me n t .

(b) Soil F e r t i l i t y D e c lin e

N e a r l y 1.6 m i l l i o n ha o f a g r i c u l t u r a l l and in Sri L a n k a is a f f e c t e d by

soil f e r t i l i t y d e c l i n e . Soil f e r t i l i t y d e c l i n e is c a u s e d by soi l e r o s i o n
and e x c e s s i v e up t ake o f n u t r i e n t s by c r ops . D e c l i n i n g crop y i e l d s h a v e
been reported during the last t wo decades due to soil fertility
* d e g r a d a t i o n . S t u d i e s have s h o w n t h a t in t he c a s e o f t ea, the l oss o f 1
cm o f t o p s o i l cover is a s s o c i a t e d with a decline in yield o f 44
k g / h a / y r , w h i l e in the case o f r u b b e r t he d e c l i n e in y i e l d c o u l d be
n e a r l y 174 k g / h a / y r .

29
T h o u g h the soi l f e r t i l i t y d e c l i n e due to e x c e s s i v e u p t a k e o f n u t r i e n t s
by c r o p s can be c o r r e c t e d to s ome e xt e nt by a p p l i c a t i o n of ext r a
f e r t i l i z e r the soil f e r t i l i t y d e c l i n e due to loss o f s u r f a c e soil cannot be
r e n e w e d e as i l y. It is u s u a l l y c o s t l y and will r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a b l e time
and eff or t .

(c) .Salinization and W ater Logging

A c c o r d i n g to G L A S O D e s t i m a t e s , t he land d e g r a d a t i o n due to s a l i n i t y
is in the r e g i o n o f 2 p e r c e n t ( 4 7 , 0 0 0 ha) o f t he t ot a l a g r i c u l t u r a l land
a r e a in Sri L a n k a c o m p a r e d to 15 p e r c e n t in P a k i s t a n and 55 p e r c e n t in
Iran: A m a j o r p r o p o r t i o n o f t he area is a f f e c t e d by c o a s t a l s a l i n i t y
(seawater intrusion). The a r e a a f f e c t e d by i n l a n d s a l i n i t y is qui t e
i n s i g n i f i c a n t . It is o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d with use o f p o o r q u a l i t y i r r i g a t i o n
wa t e r , poor drainage and water l oggi ng. I nl a n d salinity is mor e
p r o n o u n c e d in H a m b a n t o t a D i s t r i c t e s p e c i a l l y w h e n r i v e r s flow at low
d i s c h a r g e level.

A l t h o u g h s a l i n i t y wa s e x p e c t e d to eme r ge as a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m in
m a j o r i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t s , t hi s has not h a p p e n e d , a p p a r e n t l y b e c a u s e o f
t he s l op i n g t o p o g r a p h y and h i g h i n t e n s i t y s e a s o n a l r a i n f a l l , whi ch tend
to f l ush out sa l t s a c c u m u l a t e d in the t opsoi l .

Salinity occurs in c o a s t a l a r e a s ma i n l y due to s e a w a t e r i nt r us i on.

Seawater intrusion into inland areas through river o ut l e t s has
i n c r e a s e d o v e r the pa s t few d e c a d e s due to t he l o w e r i n g o f r i ve r wa t er
l evel s . The l o w e r i n g o f w a t e r l evel s oc c ur s e i t h e r due to r e d u c e d
r a i n f a l l or s t o r a g e o f w a t e r by m a j o r r es e r v o i r s in the u p s t r e a m areas.

(d) E x c essiv e G r o u n d W a t e r E x t r a c t i o n

Th er e are a few i m p o r t a n t g r o u n d wa t er s o u r c e s in Sri Lanka. The

Ka r s t i c g r o u n d w a t e r r e s o u r c e found in the l i me s t o n e belt in the

30
J a f f n a P e n i n s u l a has been e x p l o i t e d for a g r i c u l t u r e for ove r 100 y e a r s .
In t his a qui f e r , a s ha l l ow lens o f fresh wa t e r is f ound to fl oat o v e r t he
s a l i n e wat er. T h e r e f o r e , p u m p i n g has to be done at a s u s t a i n a b l e r a t e
to p r e v e n t s a l i ne wa t er e n t e r i n g i nto t he wel l. H o w e v e r , due to o v e r
p u m p i n g some wel l s have d e v e l o p e d hi gh s a l i n i t y r a t e s in t he p a s t . It
is also r e p o r t e d that t here is w i d e s p r e a d c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f g r ou n d w a t e r
due to agro c he mi c a l leaching and c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f w a t e r by pi t
l at r i nes.

A n o t h e r s our c e o f gr ound w a t e r is in t he No r t h W e s t e r n P r o v i n c e
s a n d y coas t a l belt , where fresh w a t e r is found a few m e t e r s be l o w the
s u r f a c e in the s a ndy aqui f er . As the fresh r a i n w a t e r is s t or e d in t he
form o f t hi n l ens, side by si de wi t h s e a w a t e r its e x p l o i t a t i o n has to be
d o n e very c a r e f u l l y . The i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e d e v e l o p e d in t he a r e a
ove r the last few de ca des has c a u s e d s e v e r a l p r o b l e m s due to ov e r
e x p l o i t a t i o n o f gr ound wa t er and o v e r use o f agro c h e m i c a l s .

G r o u n d wa t e r in the sap r ock a r e a in the No r t h Ce n t r a l and S o u t h e r n

0
P r o v i n c e s have been e xposed to i n d i s c r i m i n a t e use o v e r the pa s t two
d e c a d e s . A c c o r d i n g to the e s t i m a t e s m a d e by r e s e a r c h e r s , onl y 25
percent o f t otal a v ai l a bl e ground water in the sap r ock zone are
a v a i l a b l e for a b s t r a c t i o n . Fi f t y p e r c e n t o f t he t ot a l s t o r a g e n e e d s to be
kept as a b u f f e r r e s e r v e to m i n i m i z e e n v i r o n m e n t a l h a z a r d s . D e p e n d i n g
on the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f gr ound wa t e r , the a v e r a g e farm si ze per a gr o-
well wo u l d be a bout 0.4 ha wi t h 50 p e r c e n t o f wa t e r a p p l i c a t i o n
e f f i c i e n c y . He nce for s u s t a i n a b l e e x t r a c t i o n , t he r e can o n l y be one
well per 16 ha in p o t e nt i a l g r o u n d w a t e r areas. H o w e v e r , t he n u m b e r
of we l l s c o n s t r u c t e d in cert ai n areas has s u r p a s s e d the a bove t h r e s h o l d
level t h r e a t e n i n g the s u s t a i n a b i l i t y o f use o f t his i m p o r t a n t n a t u r a l
r es o u r ce .

31
(e) W a t e r P o l l u t i o n

L e a c h i n g o f e x c e s s a g r o - c h e m i c a l s i nto s t r e ams and wat er b o d i e s has

i n c r e a s e d the l evel o f c h e m i c a l s u b s t a n c e s in wat er. In i n t e n s i v e l y
c u l t i v a t e d a re as such as K a l p i t i y a and Nu w a r a Eliya, ni t r a t e l evels in
ground water and spring wa t e r are in e xcess of Worl d Heal t h
O r g a n i z a t i o n ( WHO) s t a n d a r d s . D u mp i n g o f ga r ba ge into wa t e r bodi es
and disposal of household affluent into st e ams are also ma j o r
c o n t r i b u t o r y f a c t o r s for w a t e r p o l l u t i o n .

Onl y 32 p e r c e n t o f t he p o p u l a t i o n is p r o v i d e d wi t h p i p e - b o r n e wat er
s u p p l y in Sri Lanka . The res t de pends on sur f a c e wa t e r or gr ound
water for t h e i r domestic wa t e r suppl y. The qua l i t y o f wa t e r used
through such sources is o f t e n s ub j e c t e d to hi gh pollution due to
u n f a v o r a b l e h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n s . In urban areas t here is hi gh or ga ni c
pollution o f wa t e r due to disposal of household affluent and in
i n d u s t r i a l a re as t h e r e is p o l l u t i o n o f sur f a c e and ground wa t e r due to
i n d u s t r i a l a f f l u e n t . In m a j o r a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e as wa t er is c o n t a m i n a t e d
b e c a u s e o f t he hi gh use o f f e r t i l i z e r s and p e s t i c i d e s . In some o f the
intensively cultivated a re as far mers use ve ry high quantities of
f e r t i l i z e r very of t en in e x c e s s o f the d o s a g e r e c o m m e n d e d by the
D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e ( DOA) . In o r d e r to o v e r c o m e this s i t u a t i o n
f a r me r s are b e i n g a d v i s e d to a ppl y f e r t i l i z e r based on a soil test o f
t h ei r cropland. Furthermore, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is
promoted in agricultural areas to r e duc e the consumption of
agrochemicals.

3.2.1.2 C a u s e s of L a n d D e g r a d a t i o n

Ca u s e s o f land d e g r a d a t i o n can be di v i d e d into two c a t e g o r i e s i.e;

u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e s and d i r e c t causes.

32
(a) U n d e r l y i n g C a u se s

(1) L a c k o f a w a r e n e s s on l a n d d e g r a d a t i o n

A l t h o u g h the na t ur e o f the p r o b l e m is wel l u n d e r s t o o d , the p o v e r t y

s t r i c k e n - r e s o u r c e poor f a r me r s who c u l t i v a t e f r agi l e soi l s on t he hi ll
slopes and exploit ground wa t e r in t he plains do not properly
r e c o g n i z e its h a z a r d o u s e f f e c t s .

(2) H i g h d e m a n d f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d

Due to the l ack o f a l t e r n a t i v e i n c o m e g e n e r a t i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s in o t h e r

sectors in r ur a l areas people tend to exploit marginal l and for
a g r i c u l t u r e . C r e a t i o n o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s in off- f arm e m p l o y m e n t c o u l d
p r o b a b l y r e d u c e the p r e s s u r e on land.

(3) In s e c u rity of te n u re

Lar g e n u m b e r s o f p e opl e who use l a n d w i t h o u t a p r o p e r t i t l e o f t e n do

not t a k e any i n t e r e s t in p r o t e c t i n g the soi l due to t he u n c e r t a i n t y o f
t he o w n e r s h i p . At the same t i me ma n y land p a r c e l s are too s mal l to
ma k e an investment on soil conservation. Despite t his, l an d
fragmentation is c o n t i n u i n g due to increasing population in r u r a l
areas. The tenurial constraints have to be removed by providing
p e r m a n e n t t i t l e to t hos e l a n d s , whi c h are s u i t a b l e for c u l t i v a t i o n .
P e o p l e l i v i n g on f r agi l e l a n ds h a v e to be p r o v i d e d wi t h a l t e r n a t e l a n d
or s u i t a b l e off- farm e m p l o y m e n t .

(4) D r o u g h t a n d u n c e r t a i n t y o f r a i n f a l l

P o v e r t y s t r i c k e n f a r me r s in r ai n fed areas o f t e n do not ha ve f i n a n c i a l

or o t h e r m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s to face d r o u g h t s and u n c e r t a i n r ai nf a l l .

33
Lack o f r e s o u r c e s has led to i n c r e a s e d p o v e r t y and m a l n u t r i t i o n and
f u r t h e r land d e g r a d a t i o n .

(5) P o l i c y f a i l u r e s

Va r i o u s t ype s o f l and u s e r s have m i s u s e d the l and, as t her e is no Land

Us e Pol i cy. For e x a m p l e the c u l t i v a t i o n o f t o b a c c o and p o t a t o e s on
s t e ep s l ope s has led to r a p i d land d e g r a d a t i o n . He n c e l and r i ght s , crop
insurance, r ur a l credit, and t he p r o t e c t i o n of critical a r e as ne eds
urgent attention of t he policy ma k e r s and related government
o r g a n i z a t i o n s d e a l i n g wi t h t h e s e s ubj e c t s .

(6) I n s u f f i c i e n t g o v e r n m e n t c o m m i t m e n t to m i t i g a t e l a n d
degradation

Th er e is l i m i t e d g o v e r n m e n t c o m m i t m e n t to c o n s e r v e and i mp r o v e the
p r o d u c t i v i t y o f l and. I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f land c o n s e r v a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s is
g e n e r a l l y c o n f i n e d to a few s ma l l donor funded p r o j e c t s . Oft en, the
p r o c e s s i n i t i a t e d by the p r o j e c t s coul d not be e x t e n d e d to ot her areas
a f t e r the p r o j e c t p e r i o d due to t he n o n - a v a i l a b i l i t y o f f unds and the
d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f i n c e n t i v e s of f e r e d to the e x t e n s i o n s t a f f and the
f ar me r s .

(7) L a c k o f a g o v e r n m e n t m e c h a n i s m to p r o v i d e i n c e n t i v e s

The r e s o u r c e p o o r f a r m e r s n e e d to be c o m p e n s a t e d for a ddi t i ona l

l a b o u r and i n v e s t m e n t that has to be i n c u r r e d in soil c o n s e r v a t i o n .
Perhaps t he conservation measures that the up stream farmers
i mp l e m e n t al so b e n e f i t t he d o w n st r e am b e n e f i c i a r i e s who make use o f
i r r i g a t i o n wa t e r and h y d r o p o w e r . Hence, it is n e c e s s a r y to pr ovi de
some i n c e n t i v e s to e n c o u r a g e l and users to u n d e r t a k e soi l c o n s e r v a t i o n
me a s u r e s . The do wn st r e a m u s e r s shoul d also b e a r p a r t o f t his cost.
Therefore, it is n e c e s s a r y to e s t a b l i s h the p r o p o s e d E n v i r o n m e n t a l

34
F u n d and t he Soil C o n s e r v a t i o n Fund to p r o v i d e n e c e s s a r y a s s i s t a n c e
to the land users.

(8) I n a d e q u a t e c a p a c i t y of g o v e r n m e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s to i m p l e m e n t
a s y s t e m a t i c p r o g r a m m e on c o n s e r v a t i o n

The government organizations entrusted wi t h t he responsibility of

m a n a g i n g l and do not have a d e q u a t e c a p a c i t y to i m p l e m e n t a n a t i o n a l
p r o g r a m m e or e n f o r c e the l aws to c o m b a t land d e g r a d a t i o n due to a
shortage of physical and h u m a n resources. Therefore, institutional
c a p a c i t y b u i l d i n g has e m e r g e d as a p r i o r i t y area.

(b) D ir e c t C a u s e s

In addition to underlying causes t her e are direct causes o f l an d

degradation. The more i m p o r t a n t o f t he d i r e c t c a u s e s are o u t l i n e d
b e l o w.

(1) Loss of forest cover

O v e r t he last c ent ur y, the c o u n t r y has lost mos t o f its v a l u a b l e f o r e s t

cover. At p r e s e n t t he area u n d e r the f or es t c o v e r is l ess t han 22
p e r c e n t . Los s o f forest c o v e r e x p o s e s t he soil to d i r e c t i mp a c t o f r a i n ,
wi n d and s u n s h i n e . Soils on s t e ep s l o p e s as we l l as soi l s wi t h p o o r soi l
s t r u c t u r e are m o s t v u l n e r a b l e to e r o s i o n due to t he r e m o v a l o f f o r e s t
cover .

(2) C hena cultivation

C h e n a or s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n , w h i c h c o v e r s n e a r l y 1.2 m i l l i o n ha o f
land t h r o u g h o u t the c ount r y, p r o d u c e a bout 80 p e r c e n t o f t he r a i n f e d
gr ai ns . C h e n a c u l t i v a t i o n is k n o w n for its d e v a s t a t i n g e f f e c t s on the
environment and l oss of agricultural productivity, because

35
r e m o v a l o f forest c o v e r w i t h o u t c o n s e r v a t i o n efforts l ea ds to soil
e r o s i o n and soil f e r t i l i t y d e g r a d a t i o n (Fig* 12). As n e a r l y 0.25 mi l l i on
families depend on chena cultivation for t h e i r livelihood, gr e a t e r
attention needs to be pa i d to d e v e l o p suitable f or ms o f rain fed
f a r mi n g .

(3) C u l t i v a t i o n o f s t e e p s l o p e s w i t h o u t p r o p e r soil c o n s e r v a t i o n
measures

Lan d o v e r 60 p e r c e n t sl ope is g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d u n s u i t a b l e for

a g r i c u l t u r a l purposes* H o w e v e r , a large e xt e nt o f l and e x c e e d i n g this
l i mi t has be e n u t i l i z e d by p e o p l e for c u l t i v a t i o n o f c r ops suc h as tea,
tobacco, vegetable, and po t a t o in t he hill c o u n t r y . Soi l e r os i on on
t h e s e st eep s l o p e s is very h i g h p a r t i c u l a r l y in a re as wi t h f r agi l e soi l s
and hi gh r a i n f a l l e r o s i v i t y (Fig* 13). Onl y l evel b e n c h t e r r a c e s c oul d
be recommended for suc h land but t hese are ve ry e x p e n s i v e to
c o n s t r u c t . Suc h land s h o u l d be i d e a l l y left for f or e s t r y and r e c r e a t i o n .

(4) L a n d s l i d e s

A c c o r d i n g to the N a t i o n a l B u i l d i n g Re s e a r c h O r g a n i z a t i o n (NBRO) ,
about 125, 000 ha of land in the hill c o u n t r y are v u l n e r a b l e to
l a n d s l i d e s (Fi g. 14). A l t h o u g h l a n d s l i d e s oc cur due to v a r i o u s r e a s on s ,
soil e r o s i o n is one o f the mai n r e a s o n s for the o c c u r r e n c e o f l a nds l i d e s
in the hill country. Landslides frequently occur during the rai ny
s e a s o n in a r e as wi t h steep^ s l o p e s and high r a i n f a l l . H u m a n a ct i vi t i es
such as d e f o r e s t a t i o n and poor land uses have c o n t r i b u t e d to the
i n c r e a s e d i n c i d e n c e o f l a n d s l i d e s . There has be e n a m a r k e d i ncr e as e in
the o c c u r r e n c e o f l a n d s l i d e s in r ec e n t years. It was r e p o r t e d that there
we r e o n l y 34 c a s e s of l a n d s l i d e s p r i or to 1980; b e t w e e n 1980 and 1991
the n u m b e r i n c r e a s e d to 171.

36
37
Fig. 13 Soil E rosion on Steep Slopes

38
Fig. 14 Landslides
■a

39
(5) E x p o s u r e o f b u i l d i n g s i t e s a n d r o a d c u t t i n g s

E x p o s u r e o f soil in c o n s t r u c t i o n si t es such as r o a d s and b u i l d i n g s has

been a m a j o r c a u s e for silt t r a n s p o r t and s e d i m e n t a t i o n .In s o me a r e a s
s e d i me n t load from c o n s t r u c t i o n si t es has be e n m u c h h i g h e r t h a n t he
s e d i me n t load c o mi n g from a g r i c u l t u r a l areas.

(6) G e m m i n i n g / C l a y m i n i n g

Gem m i n e s and b o r r o w pits c o n s t r u c t e d in t he p r o c e s s o f b r i c k m a k i n g

have b e c o m e a s e r i o u s e n v i r o n m e n t p r o b l e m in t he Wet Zone ( F i g . 15).
Thes e have b e c o m e b r e e d i n g g r o u n d s for m o s q u i t o e s . T h o u g h t h e r e are
laws to c o n t r o l t his m e n a c e t hey are not i m p l e m e n t e d p r o p e r l y . Gem
mi n e r s are c o m p e l l e d by law to fill ba c k the gem pi t s w h e n t h e y are
not in use, but t here is no legislation to control borrow pits
c o n s t r u c t e d for br i ck maki ng. It is wo r t h e x a m i n i n g w h e t h e r s o me o f
t hese b o r r o w pi t s c oul d be c o n v e r t e d to f i s h p o n d s .

3.2.2 D e f o r e st at i o n and D e g r a da t i o n of Forests

The n a t u r a l f or es t c o v e r in t he c o u n t r y w h i c h s t o o d at 80 p e r c e n t o f
the land area unt i l the turn o f the c e n t u r y ha d d w i n d l e d to less t h an
22. 4 p e r c e n t by 1 9 9 9 . The a v e r a g e a n n u a l r a t e o f d e f o r e s t a t i o n b e t w e e n
1956 and 1992 has been ove r 3 6 , 0 0 0 h a . A p a r t o f t he f or es t has been
c l e a r e d l e g a l l y for a g r i c u l t u r a l and land s e t t l e m e n t s c h e m e s and o t h e r
d e v e l o p m e n t p r o j e c t s and a pa rt i l l e g a l l y for c h e n a c u l t i v a t i o n and for
a g r i c u l t u r e and s e t t l e m e n t by e n c r o a c h e r s . D e s p i t e e f f o r t s ma de by the
g o v e r n m e n t to s a f e g u a r d the r e m a i n i n g n a t u r a l f or e s t s , d e f o r e s t a t i o n
and d e g r a d a t i o n c o n t i n u e to be t h r e a t s . The d e p l e t i o n has been t aki n g
p l ac e in d i f f e r e n t ways:

40
Fig. 15

41
Encroachm ents on Forest Reserves and Proposed Reserves
a d m in is tr a te d by the F o rest D e p a r t m e n t (FD):
A c c o r d i n g to the C o n s e r v a t o r o f F o r e s t s (CF) , t her e h a v e
been n e a r l y 6000 c a s e s ' o f e n c r o a c h m e n t s on f or es t lands
between 1995 and 1999. The e x t e n t s t ak e n o v e r by t h e s e
e n c r o a c h e r s a m o u n t e d to a l mo s t 2000 ha.

(1) E n c r o a c h m e n t s on t h e O t h e r S t a t e F o r e s t s :
Ac ut e land hu n g e r and the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f st at e o wn e d ,l an d
dr i ve p e o p l e to e n c r o a c h on O t h e r St a t e F o r e s t s . A c c o r d i n g to
the Land C o m m i s s i o n e r s ' Department ( L CD) approximately
13,000 e n c r o a c h m e n t s ha ve be e n r e g u l a r i z e d in d i f f e r e n t p a r t s
o f t he c o u n t r y b e t w e e n 1994 and 1998.

(2) I l l i c i t f e l l i n g of t r e e s i n f o r e s t s :
A l t h o u g h a pe r mi t is r e q u i r e d to o b t a i n t i m b e r from f o r e s t s ,
i l l i ci t f e l l i ng o f t r e e s a p p a r e n t l y t a k e s p l a c e all t he t i me.
A c c o r d i n g to the CF n e a r l y 7000 c a s e s o f i l l i c i t f e l l i n g o f
t rees was r e p o r t e d b e t w e e n 1995 and 1999.

(3) U t i l i z a t i o n of forest lands for public developm ent

program m es:
The d e m a n d for l and for d i f f e r e n t g o v e r n m e n t p r o g r a m m e s
such as h o us i ng s c h e m e s , i n d u s t r i a l p a r k s and e s t a t e s and
a g r i c u l t u r a l s e t t l e m e n t s c h e m e s ha ve b e e n met by e x c i s i n g
l ands from forests. The c o n t i n u i n g d e f o r e s t a t i o n d e s p i t e the
efforts be i ng made to control the problem has severe
i mp l i c a t i o n s for the e n v i r o n m e n t , the w e l f a r e o f t he r ur al
s e c t or and the e c o n o m y o f t he c o u n t r y .

In 1994, 7 p e r c e n t o f the l and a r e a in the c o u n t r y wa s c o v e r e d wi t h

s p a r s e f or es t s , wh i c h c o m p r i s e d o p e n f o r e s t and s c r u b s , r e g e n e r a t i n g
c h e n a and s a v a n n a s . N e a r l y 95 p e r c e n t o f t h e s e f or e s t s w e r e in t he Dr y

42
and I n t e r m e d i a t e Z o n e s . W i t h i n this area a l mos t 85 p e r c e n t o f the
e x t e n t u n d e r s p a r s e f o r e s t s wa s c o n s i d e r e d to be d e g r a d e d l ar ge l y
b e c a u s e o f c h e n a c u l t i v a t i o n , i l l i c i t c ut t i n g o f t rees and c l e a r i n g of
l and i l l e g a l l y for s e t t l e m e n t p u r p o s e s .

3.2.3 D ro ug h t

S y s t e m a t i c and l ong- t e r m m o n i t o r i n g o f the m e t e o r o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s

f or m an e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t he p r o b l e m and st at us o f
d r o u g h t s . In Sri L a n k a r e c o r d i n g o f m e t e o r o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s in an
o r g a n i z e d m a n n e r wa s s t a r t e d in 1860s . The o b s e r v a t i o n s t hus c o l l e c t e d
are a v a i l a b l e wi t h t he D e p a r t m e n t of M e t e o r o l o g y ( DO M) , whi c h is
r e s p o n s i b l e for p r o v i d i n g m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s e r v i c e s in t he count r y. The
present observation network comprises 22 Meteorological Sur f a c e
Observation Stations (which conduct three-hourly observations on
rainfall, temperature, pressure, wi nd etc, ) 36 Agro-meteorological
S t a t i o n s , 4 U p p e r A i r S t a t i o n s , one Sa t el l i t e Pi c t u r e R e c e i v i n g S t a t i o n
and one C y c l o n e D e t e c t i o n R a d a r St at i on. Apa r t from t h e s e t her e are
n e a r l y 400 r ai n g a u g e s s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t t he c ount r y.

T r e n d s and c o n d i t i o n s o f d r o u g h t in Sri L a n k a can be wel l u n d e r s t o o d

b y a n a l y z i n g the l o n g r e c o r d s o f data ( e x t e n d i n g to ove r 100 year s)
a v a i l a b l e wi t h t he DOM. A c c o r d i n g to a r a i n f a l l a n a l y s i s c a r r i e d out
u n d e r Wo r l d M e t e o r o l o g i c a l O r g a n i z a t i o n / Uni t e d Na t i o n D e v e l o p m e n t
P r o g r a m m e W M O / U N D P p r o j e c t in 1970s to c o v e r the p e r i o d 1876 to
1971 and l a t e r e x t e n d e d by the DO M to c o v e r the p e r i o d 1876 to 2001,
it has b e e n found t hat d u r i n g t hi s peri od at least one di s t r i c t was
a f f e c t e d by d r o u g h t in t he “ Y a l a ” ( Apri l to Au g u s t ) dur i ng 90 s e as ons.
D u r i n g the s a me p e r i o d the “ M a h a ” ( S e p t e m b e r to Ma r c h ) wa s a f f e c t e d
by d r o u g h t d u r i n g 59 s e a s o n s . F u r t h e r it has be e n found that e xce pt for
Ga l l e , M a t a r a and Ma t ale d i s t r i c t s whe r e p r o b a b i l i t y o f dr ought in
“ Y a l a ” and “ M a h a ” are e qua l ( o n c e in 5-10 years), all t he o t h e r

43
 d i s t r i c t s are mo r e l i k e l y to be a f f e c t e d by d r o u g h t in “ Y a l a ” t h a n in
“M a h a ” .

During the “Y ala” season s ome o f t he districts in t he Dr y Zone

( Ma n n a r , J a f f n a , P o l o n n a r u w a ) e x p e r i e n c e d r o u g h t s on an a v e r a g e o f
once in 2-3 year s. D i s t r i c t s s u c h as P u t t a l a m , K i l i n o c h c h i , M u l l a i t i v u ,
V a v u n i y a , A n u r a d h a p u r a , T r i n c o m a l e e , B a t t i c a l o a and H a m b a n t o t a are
It

p r o n e to d r o u g h t d u r i n g “ Y a l a ” on an a v e r a g e o f onc e in 3-4 y e a r s .
- The B a d u l l a , A m p a r a , Ku r u n e g a l a _ and M o n a r a g a l a d i s t r i c t s are l i k e l y
to be a f f e c t e d by “ Y a l a ” d r o u g h t on an a v e r a g e o f o n c e i n 4-5 y e a r s . In
the case o f “ M a h a ” s e a s o n , t he f r e q u e n c y o f d r o u g h t s in d i s t r i c t s
w h i c h are m o s t s u s c e p t i b l e ( J a f f n a , K i l i n o c h c h i , M u l l a i t i v u , V a v u n i y a ,
B a t t i c a l o a and H a m b a n t o t a ) is o n l y o n c e in 4-5 y e a r s .

The m a i n c a u s e for t h e n o n - o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e s e a s o n a l r a i n f a l l is t he
a n o m a l o u s c h a n g e s in the g l o b a l c i r c u l a t i o n p a t t e r n du e to v a r i o u s
c h a n g e s t h a t t a ke p l a c e in t h e r e g i o n or o u t s i d e t he r e g i o n . El N i n o
Southern Oscillation wh i c h occurs o n c e in few years is on e such
s i t u a t i o n w h i c h d i s t u r b t h e g e n e r a l c i r c u l a t i o n p a t t e r n a n d in m o s t
c a s e s r e s u l t i n g in l ess r a i n f a l l in Sri L a n k a

4.0 MEASURES TO COMBAT LAND DEGRADATION

AND MI TI GATE THE E F F E C T S OF D R O U G H T

4.1 P OL ICY, S T R A T E G Y AND L E G I S L A T I V E

> P R O V I S I O NS

* The g o v e r n m e n t ’s c o n c e r n t o w a r d s e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s s u e s in g e n e r a l a nd
p a r t i c u l a r l y on l and d e g r a d a t i o n ha s l ed to v a r i o u s p o l i c y i n i t i a t i v e s ,
strategies, and legislation being developed to de a l with issues
p e r t a i n i n g to l and m a n a g e m e n t . On t he w h o l e t h e r e are a l ar g e n u m b e r
o f p o l i c i e s , s t r a t e g i e s and l a w s to p r o v i d e t he b a s i s for i m p l e m e n t i n g

44
t he p o l i c y i n i t i a t i v e s on l and m a n a g e m e n t . H o w e v e r , land d e g r a d a t i o n
c o n t i n u e s on a l a r g e s c a l e , d e s p i t e t hes e i n i t i a t i v e s .

4.1.1 C o n s t i t u t i o n a l O b l i g a t i o n s and Provi si ons

The fi rm c o m m i t m e n t o f t he s t a t e for e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s e r v a t i o n is
s h o w n in t he 1978 C o n s t i t u t i o n o f the D e m o c r a t i c S o c i a l i s t Re pub l i c
o f Sri L a n k a , t h r o u g h A r t i c l e 27 (14), w h i c h d e c r e e s ; “ t he st ate shall
p r o t e c t , p r e s e r v e and i m p r o v e t he e n v i r o n m e n t for t he b e n e f i t o f the
c o m m u n i t y . ” A r t i c l e 2 8 f al so s t a t e s , “ the e x e r c i s e and e n g a g e m e n t o f
r i g h t s and f r e e d o m is i n s e p a r a b l e from t he p e r f o r m a n c e o f dut i es and
obligations, and accordingly, it is the d u t y o f e v e r y p e r s o n in Sri
L a n k a to p r o t e c t n a t u r e and c o n s e r v e its r i c h e s ” . T h e s e p r ov i s i o n s
h o w e v e r , are n o t s t a t e d in t he c h a p t e r on f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t s , and are
not l e g a l l y b i n d i n g .

The r ol e o f t he St a t e in m e e t i n g t he o b j e c t i v e s is s pe l t out in Se c t i on 8
o f the N a t i o n a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l Ac t ( NEA) o f 1980 and t he a genda for
sustainable development is clearly outlined in t he Na t i onal
E n v i r o n m e n t a l A c t i o n Pl a n ( N E A P ) p r e p a r e d e v e r y fi ve ye ar s.

The 13th A m e n d m e n t to t he Constitution of Sri Lanka in 1987

introduced t he Provincial Councils as a new l evel of governance
between t he Central Government and l ocal level. Si n c e then, the
Government policy has been to decentralize and devolve man y
functions held by t he Central Government to t he Provinces. The
*
P r o v i n c i a l C o u n c i l s h a v e b e e n e m p o w e r e d wi t h l e g i s l a t i v e powe r s over
several areas including the environment, and for handling intra­ ¥

p r o v i n c i a l p r o j e c t s in a r e a s s u c h as i r r i g a t i o n , l and d e v e l o p m e n t and
agriculture.

45
 4.1.2 Pol ici es and S tra te gi es F o r m u l a t e d

The land p o l i c y o f the c o u n t r y ha s b e e n e x a m i n e d by s u c c e s s i v e , L a n d

C o m m i s s i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d in 1927, 1955, and 1985. H o w e v e r , on e o f t h e
very first to discuss land related issues and propose action f or
r e s o l v i n g t h e m is the N a t i o n a l C o n s e r v a t i o n S t r a t e g y o f 1988. Th e
strategy recommended that a separate national organization be
e s t a b l i s h e d for land use p l a n n i n g , t he a d o p t i o n o f r e m e d i a l m e a s u r e s
to c o n t r o l soi l e r o s i o n and t he r e p l a c e m e n t o f t he Soi l C o n s e r v a t i o n
Act by a “ Land use, soil and w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n A c t ” . The N a t i o n a l
Agriculture, F o o d and N u t r i t i o n S t r a t e g y o f 1984, N a t i o n a l Policy
Framework- M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e , Lands and Forestry of 1995,
National Forestry Policy of 1995, National Wildlife Conservation
P o l i c y o f 2000, and t he N a t i o n a l P h y s i c a l P l a n n i n g P o l i c y o f 2 0 0 2 are
al so i m p o r t a n t , as t hey p r o v i d e d i r e c t i o n and r e c o m m e n d m e a s u r e s
t o w a r d s r e s t o r i n g d e g r a d e d l a n d and t he m e a n s for i n c r e a s i n g l an d
productivity through efficient utilization of land resources. The
National Agricultural Policy and Strategy Framework, 2001- 2005
t h o u g h not d i r e c t l y l i n k e d to l a n d d e g r a d a t i o n , intends to set t he
a g e n d a and s t r a t e g i c d i r e c t i o n , for t he d e v e l o p m e n t o f t he f oo d and
a g r i c u l t u r e s e c t o r for a f i v e - y e a r p e r i o d .

In a d d i t i o n to t h e s e i n i t i a t i v e s , t h e r e are m a n y d r a f t p o l i c i e s r e l a t i n g
to e n v i r o n m e n t and land use that would assist in c o m b a t i n g land
degradation i ss u e s in the c o u n t r y . Among these policies the draft
National Environmental Policy (NEP) o f 2002 t he draft Land Use
P o l i c y ( LUP) o f 2002 and t he d r a f t W a t e r s h e d M a n a g e m e n t P o l i c y o f
2001 are considered important in t he context of resolving l an d
d e g r a d a t i o n i ss u e s in the c o u n t r y .

The draft NEP i nt e nds to provide direction and guidance for

/ environment and na t u r a l resources management in t he country. It
r e c o g n i z e s t he i m p o r t a n c e o f l a n d as a means of sustaining other

46
n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and t he p e o p l e . The p o l i c y s t a t e m e n t on l and st ates
t h a t “ l a n d r e s o u r c e s wi l l be m a n a g e d to m a i n t a i n and e n h a n c e t hei r
quality, productivity and l ife supporting capacity to p r o t e c t t hei r
a b i l i t y to s u p p o r t a v a r i e t y o f l a n d use o p t i o n s ” .

D e s p i t e m a n y i n i t i a t i v e s , t he a b s e n c e o f a c o h e r e n t L a n d Use P ol i c y
ha s b e e n c i t e d as a m a j o r o b s t a c l e to e f f e c t i v e l and m a n a g e m e n t . A
d r a f t p o l i c y is n o w in p l a c e , w h i c h d e c l a r e s t hat l and b e l o n g s to the
p e o p l e and t h a t the r o l e o f t he s t a t e wi l l be t hat o f a f ac i l i t a t o r . The
policy emphasizes t he need for an integrated approach to land
m a n a g e m e n t . The p o l i c y is q u i t e c o m p r e h e n s i v e and w h e n i m p l e m e n t e d
would have a great impact on land r e s o u r c e s m a n a g e m e n t and in
r e s o l v i n g l and d e g r a d a t i o n p r o b l e m s in the c ount r y.

A d r a f t W a t e r s h e d M a n a g e m e n t P o l i c y ( 20 0 2 ) , w h i c h a d d r e s s e s among
o t h e r a s p e c t s soi l e r o s i o n in h i l l y a r e a s , a d v o c a t e s the r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f
a l r e a d y d e g r a d e d l and in t he u p p e r w a t e r s h e d s t h r o u g h c o n s e r v a t i o n
f a r m i n g and t h e a d o p t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e soil c o n s e r v a t i o n me a s u r e s
w i t h p e o p l e ’s p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

The p o l i c i e s and s t r a t e g i e s w e r e i n t e n d e d to deal wi t h i ss u e s r e l a t i n g

to l and d e g r a d a t i o n , s o m e d i r e c t l y and o t h e r s i n d i r e c t l y . Ho we v e r , one
common weakness in many o f t hes e initiatives was the del ay in
i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e m . By t h e t i me t h e y wer e i m p l e m e n t e d the e nvi s a g e d
r e s u l t s we r e o n l y p a r t l y e f f e c t i v e . F u r t h e r m o r e s ome o f t hes e pol i c i es
w e r e not i m p l e m e n t e d at all due to v a r i o u s r e a s o n s , suc h as the n o n ­
a v a i l a b i l i t y o f l e ga l i n s t r u m e n t s , r e s o u r c e s etc. Mo s t o f t hes e pol i c i e s
al so lacked some essential elements specifically required for
c o m b a t i n g l and d e g r a d a t i o n . Some e c o n o m i c p o l i c i e s ha ve also had
detrimental effects. F o r e x a m p l e the i n c e n t i v e s for c o n s e r v a t i o n o f
private lands are meager, and t he r e are pervasive subsidies (e.g.
f e r t i l i z e r s u b s i d i e s ) t h a t p r o m o t e land e x p l o i t a t i o n and p o l l u t i o n .

47
In a d d i t i o n , t he p o l i c y f o l l o w e d by s u c c e s s i v e g o v e r n m e n t s in r e s p e c t
o f e n c r o a c h m e n t has also ha d a n e g a t i v e i m p a c t on l and m a n a g e m e n t in
the c o u n t r y . A l t h o u g h e n c r o a c h m e n t is an o f f e n c e and t he e n c r o a c h e r
has to be e v i c t e d , r e g u l a r i z a t i o n o f e n c r o a c h m e n t s ha s t a k e n p l a c e
from t i me to t i me. This policy has only encouraged more
encroachments on environmentally sensitive land, contributing to
i n c r e a s e d l a n d d e g r a d a t i o n in t he c o u n t r y . T h e r e is a n e e d for a c l e a r
p o l i t i c a l c o m m i t m e n t to a d d r e s s t he i s s u e , in l i ne w i t h o t h e r p o l i c i e s
and l aws on l and m a n a g e m e n t .

4.1.3 L eg i s l a t i v e F r a m e w o r k

At p r e s e n t t h e r e is no one s i n g l e s t a t u e p e r t a i n i n g to t he m a n a g e m e n t
o f l a n d in t he c o u n t r y . L e g a l p r o v i s i o n s p e r t a i n i n g to t h e p r o t e c t i o n
and s u s t a i n a b l e u t i l i z a t i o n o f l and r e s o u r c e s are c o n t a i n e d in a b o u t 13
m a j o r e n a c t m e n t s and t hes e are e n f o r c e d b y a n u m b e r o f a g e n c i e s .

The p r o b l e m o f soil e r o s i o n ha s b e e n a d d r e s s e d p a r t l y by i n c o r p o r a t i n g
e n v i r o n m e n t a l s a f e g u a r d s in l e g i s l a t i v e e n a c t m e n t p e r t a i n i n g to l an d
and w a t e r r e s o u r c e s m a n a g e m e n t and p a r t l y by i n t r o d u c i n g l e g i s l a t i o n
d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s t he p r e v e n t i o n or m i t i g a t i o n o f s o i l e r o s i o n . The
m a n a g e m e n t , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d a l i e n a t i o n o f l and t h a t c o m e u n d e r t he
c o n t r o l o f the St a t e are m a i n l y g o v e r n e d by t h e L a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
O r d i n a n c e o f 1935, t he S t a t e L a n d s O r d i n a n c e o f 1947 and t he L a n d
Gr a n t s ( s p e c i a l P r o v i s i o n s ) Ac t o f 1979. Al l t h e s e e n a c t m e n t s c o n t a i n
provisions to a d d r e s s soil erosion i ss u e s . These Ac t s al so c o n t a i n
p r o v i s i o n for the p r o t e c t i o n o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s e n s i t i v e a r e a s s u c h as
d i s p o s i t i o n o f land o v e r 1500 m e t e r s , p r o t e c t i o n o f c o n s e r v a t i o n a r e a s ,
preservation of reservoirs, and t he p r e v e n t i o n o f e n c r o a c h m e n t s on
St at e l and.

The m a j o r l egal p r o v i s i o n to c o m b a t l and d e g r a d a t i o n wa s i n t r o d u c e d

by the Soi l C o n s e r v a t i o n Act ( SC A ) o f 1951, w h i c h wa s d e s i g n e d to

48
“make provision for t he conservation of soil resources, for the
p r e v e n t i o n or m i t i g a t i o n o f soi l e r o s i o n and for t he p r o t e c t i o n of land
a g a i n s t d a m a g e by f l o o d s and d r o u g h t ” . H o w e v e r , due to i n s t i t u t i o n a l
and functional deficiencies t he Act could not be effectively
implemented and after fifty years it was amended in 1996 wi t h
p r o v i s i o n for t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a Soil C o n s e r v a t i o n Boar d and a
Soil Conservation Fund. Thi s Boar d is expected to coordinate
a c t i v i t i e s ; r e s e a r c h and p r o g r a m m e s to p r e v e n t soi l e r o s i o n on bot h
agricultural and non-agricultural l ands and to rehabilitate already
degraded l ands . However, the Bo a r d l acks representation from the
p r i v a t e and the p l a n t a t i o n s e c t o r s and t hi s is c o n s i d e r e d a d e f i c i e n c y
in the e f f e c t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t he Board. The r e g u l a t i o n s to i mpl e me n t
t he a m e n d m e n t s h a v e n o w b e i n g d r a f t e d .

In a d d i t i o n to the a b o v e Ac t s , t he W a t e r R e s o u r c e s Boa r d Act of 1964,

t he A g r a r i a n S e r v i c e s Act o f 1979, and t he M a h a w e l i A u t h o r i t y o f Sri
L a n k a Ac t o f 1979, can al so be c o n s i d e r e d as i m p o r t a n t pi eces o f
legislation to assist in t he prevention o f land degradation in the
country.

E n v i r o n m e n t a l m a n a g e m e n t on p u b l i c l ands has g e n e r a l l y been weak.

H o w e v e r , E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t A s s e s s m e n t ( EIA) i n t r o d u c e d by the
g o v e r n m e n t c o v e r s s ome a s p e c t s o f pub l i c land m a n a g e m e n t . E I A ’s are
r e q u i r e d for t he r e m o v a l o f f o r e s t c o v e r for c o n v e r s i o n to ot her land
uses on e x t e n t s o f l and o f o v e r 1 h e c t a r e s , c l e a r i n g o f l and areas o v e r
50 h e c t a r e s , c o n v e r s i o n o f w e t l a n d s of mor e t han 4 h e c t a r e s ; and the
e x t r a c t i o n o f t i m b e r on l a n d s o v e r 5 h e c t a r e s . In a d d i t i o n , any pr oj ec t s
not l i s t e d u n d e r t he EIA r e g u l a t i o n s , but l o c a t e d w i t h i n 100 met er s o f
a n y f o r e s t r e s e r v e , or w i l d l i f e s a n c t u a r y r e q u i r e s a p p r o v a l under the
N E A and is s u b j e c t to an EI A. E I A' s also c o v e r o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l
issues such as soil erosion and wa t e r pollution. Although t hese
r e g u l a t i o n s do not a d d r e s s the i s s u e as a wh o l e , t h e y n e v e r t h e l e s s
con tribute to wa rds m in im izi n g land degradation.

49
I

The p r o t e c t i o n o f f or es t s and e n s u r i n g an a d e q u a t e t ree c o v e r are

i mp o r t a n t a s p e c t s in the p r e v e n t i o n o f l and d e g r a d a t i o n . The F o r e s t
O r d i n a n c e o f 1907, the F a u n a and F l o r a P r o t e c t i o n O r d i n a n c e o f 1937,
and the Na t i o n a l He r i t a ge W i l d e r n e s s Act o f 1988 ha ve been e n a c t e d to
meet t h e s e p u r p o s e s . A l t h o u g h t he f or es t c o v e r has been d i m i n i s h i n g
wi t h the i n c r e a s e o f p o p u l a t i o n , Sri L a n k a has n o n e t h e l e s s be e n able to
sl ow d o wn t he d e p l e t i o n o f f o r e s t in r ec e n t y e a r s .

D e s p i t e t he ma n y laws to p r e v e n t l and d e g r a d a t i o n , a g r i c u l t u r a l l and is

b e i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y d e g r a d e d due in p a r t to t he i n a b i l i t y to e f f e c t i v e l y
i mp l e m e n t t he l aws as e n v i s a g e d . T h e r e is no s h a r e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to
i mp l e m e n t t hes e laws and the l ack of co-ordination a mo n g the
d i f f e r e n t a g e n c i e s is oft en c i t ed as one ma i n f a c t o r h i n d e r i n g p r o p e r
land m a n a g e m e n t in the c o u n t r y . The l ack o f c a p a c i t y and r e s o u r c e s
for i m p l e m e n t a t i o n are also m a j o r c o n t r i b u t o r y f a c t or s .

It is wel l u n d e r s t o o d that l aws a l one c a n n o t r e s o l v e t he p r o b l e m s . It is

i m p o r t a n t that all pa rt i es c o n c e r n e d are e d u c a t e d and a w a r e n e s s is
c r e a t e d , so t hat t hey can e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r i b u t e in d e a l i n g w i t h the
i s s u e s c o n c e r n e d . The c o m m a n d and c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h a d o p t e d in t he s e
l aws are o u t d a t e d and not a p p l i c a b l e in t he p r e s e n t day c o n t e x t . In fact
t his approach has not been v e r y s u c c e s s f u l . Wha t is r e q u i r e d for
s u c c e s s f u l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n is a c t i v e s t a k e h o l d e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

50
4.2 TECHNOLOGIES

4.2.1 T e c h n o l o g i e s for Co ntrol li ng Land D e g r ad at i o n

4.2.1.1 Traditional Technologies

(a) W a t e r h a r v e s t i n g b y v i l l a g e t a n k s y s t e m s in t h e d r y z o n e

The v i l l a g e t a n k s y s t e m in t he dry zone o f Sri L a n k a is a uni qu e

s y s t e m o f w a t e r h a r v e s t i n g and soi l c o n s e r v a t i o n . V i l l a g e t a nks are a
s e r i es of s ma l l reservoirs bui l t by making embankments acr oss
r i v u l e t s , wh i c h are e i t h e r p e r e n n i a l or n o n - p e r e n n i a l s t r e a ms . Thi s is
c o m m o n l y r e f e r r e d to as t he m i n o r tank c a s c a d e s y s t e m. Due to t hei r
g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n the s y s t e m has t he c a p a c i t y to c a t c h spill wa t er
from u p s t r e a m r e s e r v o i r s in a d d i t i o n to the r u n - o f f c o l l e c t e d from its
w a t e r s h e d area. The a n c i e n t r ul e r s made it m a n d a t o r y by l aw for each
f a r m e r to gi ve hi s l a b o u r free to de -s i l t t he t ank bed and use the silt to
me n d t he t ank bund. The c a s c a d e t ank s y s t e m also e n r i c h e d the gr ound
w a t e r l eve l s in t he v i c i n i t y o f the tank whe r e the v i l l a g e is l oc a t e d and
t hi s b e c a me a sustainable s our c e of water for t he v i l l a g e r s . The
watershed wa s composed of protected forests, wh e r e people wer e
a l l o w e d to h a r v e s t o n l y f i r e wo o d . This pa rt o f t he w a t e r s h e d was
r e s e r v e d for soil and w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n .

(b ) C u l t i v a t i o n o f t r e e s p e c i e s in r i v e r a n d s t r e a m b a n k s

Se v e r a l species o f trees such as A r e c a n u t (A r e c a c a t e c h u ), Kitul

( Ca r y o t a u r e n s ), B a m b o o (B a m b u s a v u l g a r i s ), K u m b u k ( Te r mi nal i a
a r j u n a ) ha ve be e n g r ow n a l ong the s t r e a m b a n k s to c o n s e r v e the
s t r e a m ba nks . T h e s e t r e e s p r o d u c e d t i m b e r and f i r e wo o d r e q u i r e d by
the v i l l a g e r s . S y s t e m a t i c h a r v e s t i n g o f t h e s e t r ee s p e c i e s also p r o v i d e d
s u s t a i n a b l e p r o t e c t i o n to the land and y i e l d e d some u s e f ul pr o d u c t s .

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T h e s e t ree s p e c i e s wer e a l s o u s e d as h e d g e s to p r o t e c t s t e e p s l o p e s
from soi l e ros i on.

(c) S t o n e b u n d s a n d log b a r r i e r s

St o n e b u n d s and log b a r r i e r s h a v e b e e n t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e d by p e o p l e to
p r o t e c t h i g h l a n d c rop areas f r om soi l e r o s i o n .

(d) H e d g e r o w s

P a w a t t a (P o v e t t a i n d i c a ), and P i l a ( T e p h r o s i a p u r p u r e a ) h a v e b e e n
used intensively in J a f f n a Peninsula to protect the home gardens
a g a i n s t w i n d e r o s i o n . In t h e wet z o n e t h e s e t r e e s p e c i e s are u s e d in
f e n c e s for soil c o n s e r v a t i o n and for p r o t e c t i o n f r om w i l d a n i m a l s .
S a v a n d a r a ( V e t i v ar i a z i a n i o d e s ) a nd, s e r a ( C y m b o p o g o n c i t r a t u s ) are
g r o w n as h e d g e r o w s to p r o t e c t soi l f r om s h e e t e r o s i o n .

(e) K a n d y a n Home Gardens

T h e s e are also c a l l e d K a n d y a n F o r e s t G a r d e n s . In t h e s e h o m e g a r d e n s
a v a r i e t y o f t r e e s i n c l u d i n g f r ui t t r e e s , j a k , c o f f e e , a r e c a n u t , K i t u l ,
n u t me g , p e p p e r c o c o a , c o f f e e , b a n a n a , r o o t c r o p s o f d i f f e r e n t h e i g h t s
( c a n o p y l a ye r s ) are a l l o w e d to g r o w u n d e r n a t u r a l competition for
s u n l i g h t . Due to n a t u r a l c o m p e t i t i o n for l i g h t t h e t r e e s e v e n t u a l l y f o r m
a c a n o p y s t r u c t u r e t hat m a x i m i z e s t he u t i l i z a t i o n o f s u n l i g h t a n d l a n d
and m i n i m i z e s soi l e r o s i o n . The J a k (A r t o c a r p u s i n t e g r i f o l i a ), K i t u l
( C a r y o t a u r e n s ), A r e c a n u t , and o t h e r t al l t r e e s for m t he u p p e r c a n o p y ,
the n u t me g , p e p p e r , c o f f e e , b a n a n a f or m t h e m i d d l e c a n o p y a n d t he
s h r u b s , and r o o t c r o p s form t he l o w e r c a n o p y .

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(f) U se of P a l m y r a l e a f f e n c e s

P a l m y r a l e a v e s are u s e d for f e n c i n g o f h o m e g a r d e n s in J a f f na to
p r o v i d e p r o t e c t i o n f r om wi n d .

(g) T e r r a c e d p a d d y f ie ld s

Leve l t e r r a c e s c o n s t r u c t e d on s t e e p hill s l o p e s is a m e c h a n i c a l soil

c o n s e r v a t i o n m e a s u r e a d o p t e d in Sri Lanka for a l ong p e r i o d , wi t h the
t e r r a c e d p a d d y f i e l d s in t he hi ll c o u n t r y a r e a go i n g ba c k to the p e r i o d
b e f o r e 161 B. C. The c o n t o u r c a n a l s t a k i n g o f f from a d j o i n i n g st r e ams
provided irrigation water for these l evel paddy fields. The wat er
d i v e r t e d not o n l y me t t he w a t e r r e q u i r e m e n t o f c r o p s but also ens ur ed
t he p e r e n n i a l f l ow o f s t r e a m s and r i vers. T e r r a c e d p a d d y fi el ds also
t r ap t he s e d i m e n t c a r r i e d wi t h t he sur f a c e fl ow t h e r e b y i mp r o v i n g the
soi l f e r t i l i t y .

(h) Use of Bio f e r t i l i z e r

Us e o f b i o - f e r t i l i z e r has b e e n a t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e f o l l o w e d by ma n y
r u r a l f a r m e r s to i n c r e a s e t he soi l f e r t i l i t y , soil a g g r e g a t e st abi l i t y,
w a t e r i n f i l t r a t i o n and soi l w a t e r h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y . Thi s is p r o b a b l y the
m o s t e n v i r o n m e n t a l f r i e n d l y , c o s t - e f f e c t i v e and l ow cost sys t em that
can be a d o p t e d by l o c a l c o m m u n i t i e s .

4.2.1.2 New T e c h n o lo g ie s

(a) M e c h a n ic a l M e a s u r e s

M e c h a n i c a l m e a s u r e s act as b a r r i e r s to o v e r l a n d flow o f wa t e r and

r e d u c e the v e l o c i t y o f t he flow to a , n o n - e r o s i v e l evel . This all ows
m u c h o f t he w a t e r to i n f i l t r a t e i nt o the soi l . M e c h a n i c a l m e a s u r e s such

53
as c o n t o u r platforms l evel bench terraces, s t one terraces, contour
d r a i n s and c o n t o u r b u n d s h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y p r a c t i c e d in t e a , a nd
r u b b e r p l a n t a t i o n s for the p a s t f o u r d e c a d e s . The m e c h a n i c a l m e a s u r e s
a d a p t e d in the Low C o u n t r y Dr y Z o n e a r e a s c o n s i s t s o f c o n t o u r e a r t h
b u n d s , g r a d e d or l e ve l b e n c h t e r r a c e s a n d l o c k and spi l l dr a i ns . In t he
Low Country Wet Zone, stone terraces and l ock and s pi l l drains
perform wel l. In t he hill country (Wet and Inter-mediate Zones),
c o n t o u r s t one t e r r a c e s , and c o n t o u r d r a i n s are p e r f o r m i n g we l l .

(1) T e r r a c i n g

T e r r a c i n g is p r o b a b l y the o l d e s t s y s t e m o f s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n a d o p t e d in
Sri L a n k a . On h i l l y s l o p e s w h e r e an a b u n d a n t s u p p l y o f w a t e r is
available fr om s p r i n g s and streams people ha ve l e v e l e d l and i nt o
narrow strips along the contour to facilitate irrigation water
a p p l i c a t i o n . T h e s e are r e f e r r e d to as c o n t o u r t e r r a c e s . The w i d t h o f t he
t er r a c e d e p e n d s on the s t e e p n e s s o f t he s l o p e a n d t h e d e p t h o f t he soil.
S u c l r ' l e v e l e d t e r r a c e s have b e e n u t i l i z e d to g r o w i r r i g a t e d ri ce . In
r ec e n t t i m e s t e r r a c i n g has b e e n a d o p t e d e v e n for t he c u l t i v a t i o n o f
h i g h l a n d c r o p s and t ree c rops.

(2) S t o n e w a l l s

Wh e r e s t o n e is f ound in a b u n d a n c e , e r e c t i o n o f n a r r o w s t r i ps o f st one
wa l l s a c r o s s t he s l ope has s e r v e d as a g o o d soi l c o n s e r v a t i o n m e a s u r e .
The s t o n e w a l l s g e n e r a l l y h a v e a width" o f 50 cm and a h e i g h t o f a b o u t
45 cm a b o v e the g r o u n d on t he u p p e r si de o f the wa l l . The wal l is;
constructed on a foundation, which is at least 15 cm deep. The
d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t wo st one w a l l s is d e p e n d e n t on the s l ope o f t he
land. On t he a v e r a g e t h e y are c o n s t r u c t e d at a spacing: o f a bout 5-10
met er s .

54
(3) L o c k a n d s p i l l d r a i n s

Lo ck and s pi l l d r a i n s are so n a m e d b e c a u s e t he r e is a b l o c k o f eart h

r e t a i n e d e v e r y 4-5 m e t e r s w i t h i n t he drai n to c r e a t e a pool o f wa t er in
the d r ai n . W a t e r s t a r t s to fl ow f r o m one s e c t i o n to a n o t h e r onl y whe n
t hat s e c t i o n is full. T h e s e d r a i n s are c o n s t r u c t e d e i t h e r on the c ont ou r
or s l i g h t l y o f f t h e c o n t o u r wi t h a mi l d g r a d i e n t . The d r a i n is about 50
cm wi de and 60 cm de e p. The b l o c k s are a bout 45 cm l ong and few
c e n t i m e t e r s l o w e r t h a n t he d e p t h o f the dr ai n. The m a j o r a d v a n t a g e o f
a l ock and s pi l l d r a i n is its c a p a c i t y to al l ow mor e w a t e r i nt a ke into
t he soil.

The l ock and spi l l d r a i n s h a v e g e n e r a l l y b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d on sl opi n g

l and wh e r e s t o n e is not a v a i l a b l e on site for t he c o n s t r u c t i o n o f st one
wa l l s . H o w e v e r e v e n in p l a c e s w h e r e s t o n e s are a b u n d a n t l y avai l a bl e
l ock and spi l l d r a i n s are b e t t e r s ui t e d as t hey a l l o w mo r e wa t er into
t he soil. Thi s s y s t e m is not u s e d in areas p r o n e to l a n d sl i des , and on
l and wi t h hi gh s t o n i n e s s . It is m o r e p o p u l a r on g e n t l y s l opi ng land
wi t h deep soi l s.

(b) B io lo g ical M e a s u r e s

B i o l o g i c a l m e a s u r e s i n c l u d e s y s t e m s suc h as a v e n u e c r o p p i n g ( al l ey
c r o p p i n g ) , and S l o p i n g A g r i c u l t u r a l Land T e c h n o l o g y ( SALT) . These
m e a s u r e s h a v e b e e n a d o p t e d to m i t i g a t e soi l e r o s i o n and to i mpr ove
soil f e r t i l i t y . S e l e c t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e m e t h o d s has b e e n b a s e d on crop,
soi l , a g r o - e c o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s and e c o n o m i c v i a b i l i t y . The spa ci ng is
s i m i l a r to m e c h a n i c a l m e a s u r e s . *

55
 (1 ) A v e n u e C r o p p i n g

T r a d i t i o n a l l y p e o p l e have u s e d h e d g e r o w s a l o n g the b o u n d a r i e s o f l a n d
to ser ve t wo p u r p o s e s . Fi rst l y, to s e r ve as a b o u n d a r y d e m a r c a t i o n a nd
s e c o n d l y to p r o t e c t the land from e r o s i o n . T h e y h a v e g e n e r a l l y us e d
t ree s p e c i e s s u c h as Gl i r i c e d i a and P a w a t t a (A g a l a d a r a ) for t h e s e
purposes. The na me Agal a d a r a means t he t r ee t hat protects t he
p r ec i p i c e . The s c i e n t i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n o f h e d g e r o w s y s t e m wa s i n i t i a t e d
in t he early 1950s, as a conservation farming system at
Mahailluppallama Agricultural Research St a t i o n , and later t he
t e c h n o l o g y wa s a d o p t e d s u c c e s s f u l l y in f a r me r s fi el ds. The s y s t e m has
b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as Ave nue C r o p p i n g or Al l e y C r o p p i n g wh e r e c r o p s
wer e p l a n t e d b e t w e e n l e g u m i n o u s t rees p l a n t e d on the c ont our .

(2) S l o p i n g A g r i c u l t u r a l L a n d T e c h n o l o g y ( S A L T ) S y s t e m

Sl o p i n g A g r i c u l t u r a l Land T e c h n o l o g y ( SA L T ) wa s i n t r o d u c e d to Sri
La n k a in t he lat e e i g h t i e s .It is a s y s t e m s i m i l a r to A v e n u e C r o p p i n g
that has be e n r e c o m m e n d e d e s p e c i a l l y for s l o p i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l l ands .
H e d g e r o w s o f t r ee spe ci e s ( u s u a l l y l e g u m e s ) are e s t a b l i s h e d o n the
c o n t o u r in p l a c e o f st one wa l l s or l ock and spi l l d r a i ns . The s p a c i n g is
s i m i l a r to m e c h a n i c a l m e a s u r e s , wi t h h e d g e r o w s b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d as
s i ngl e r ows or as c l o s e l y s p a c e d d o u b l e r ows . The t ree s p e c i e s us e d
are G l i r i c e e d i a , P a wa t t a , Wi l d Sun F l o w e r , D e s m o d i u m , F l a m i n g i a ,
Erabadu etc. The l e gume s are u s u a l l y p r e f e r r e d as t h e y h a v e the
c a p a c i t y to e n r i c h soil by f i x a t i o n o f a t m o s p h e r i c n i t r o g e n a n d to
p r o d u c e mo r e o r g a n i c mat t er.

The s y s t e m n e e d s r e g u l a r m a i n t e n a n c e for it to be s u c c e s s f u l . C o s t is
much l ess t h a n m e c h a n i c a l soi l c o n s e r v a t i o n m e a s u r e s .

56
(c) A g r o n o m i c M e a s u r e s

A g r o n o m i c p r a c t i c e s p r o v i d e e f f e c t i v e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f soil n ut r i e n t s
and m o i s t u r e whe n a d o p t e d in c o n j u n c t i o n wi t h o t h e r m e c h a n i c a l and
b i o l o g i c a l soil c o n s e r v a t i o n m e a s u r e s . Most o f the a g r o n o m i c me a s ur e s
are p r a c t i c e d al ong wi t h n o r ma l c u l t i v a t i o n p r a c t i c e s , as t hey need
onl y little additional labour for t hei r successful implementation.
F u r t h e r m o r e t he t e c h n o l o g y is v e r y s i mpl e and e a s i l y p r a c t i c e d by any
f a r me r

(1) M u l c h i n g

M u l c h i n g is a p r a c t i c e w h e r e e i t h e r l ive or de a d p l a n t ma t e r i a l is
a p p l i e d as a soil c o v e r in b e t w e e n crops. The m u l c h so p l a c e d has the
c a p a c i t y to p r o t e c t soil s u r f a c e from r a i n d r o p s p l a s h and r et ard the
v e l o c i t y o f s u r f a c e r u n - o f f . It al so r e duc e s the e v a p o r a t i o n from the
soil surface and conserve moisture. La t e r t he plant mat eri al
d e c o m p o s e s and adds o r g a n i c m a t t e r and o t h e r soi l n u t r i e n t s to the
soil.

(2) S t r i p C r o p p i n g

U n d e r t his s y s t e m a l t e r n a t e s t r i ps o f c r o p s are e s t a b l i s h e d on the

c o n t o u r . Tal l and s h o r t c r ops are e s t a b l i s h e d in a l t e r n a t e st ri ps. As the
t al l c r o ps wi t h l e s s e r c a n o p y has the t e n d e n c y to e x p o s e soil for hi gh
e r o s i o n the shor t c a n o p y c r ops have t he c a p a c i t y to p r o t e c t t he soil
from s p l a s h e r o s i o n . Mu c h o f t he soil t hat is e r o d e d from the high
c a n o p y crop st ri p is r e t a i n e d in the short c a n o p y c rop strip. This
sys t e m does not demand too mu c h of additional labour from the
far mer.

57
(3 ) C o n t o u r P l a n t i n g

C o n t o u r p l a n t i n g has been w i d e l y a d o p t e d for p l a n t a t i o n c r o p s s u c h as

tea, r u b b e r and c oc onut . The s y s t e m was not a d o p t e d on tea p l a n t a t i o n s
in t he ear l y days, but has b e c o m e a c o m m o n p r a c t i c e now. P l a n t i n g o f
annual c rops on the contour has become mo r e popular wi t h the
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l m a c h i n e r y for l and p r e p a r a t i o n and o t h e r
agriculturaloperations.

(4) B i o - t e c h n o l o g y / B i o - f e r t i l i z e r

C h e m i c a l f e r t i l i z e r is g e n e r a l l y e x p e n s i v e to t he f ar me r . H o w e v e r the
use o f b i o - f e r t i l i z e r s whi c h are n a t u r a l fertilizers, wi t h m i c r o b i a l
inoculates, such as, bacteria, a l ga e and fungi individually or in
c o m b i n a t i o n are b e i n g - p r o m o t e d for t he c u l t i v a t i o n o f ri ce and o t he r
fi el d c rops.

4.2.2 T e ch no l og ie s for R e s t or in g De gr ade d Forests

A n u m b e r o f s t r a t e g i e s have be e n a d o p t e d o v e r t he ye a r s by the FD to
r e c o v e r v e g e t a t i o n on d e g r a d e d f o r e s t l ands . The s t r a t e g i e s fall into
three broad categories i.e. Natural regeneration, restoration and
replacement.

(a) N a t u r a l R e g e n e r a t i o n

U n d e r this s y s t e m the FD e n c o u r a g e s t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f h e r m i t a g e
f or es t s . Thi s is do n e by i s s u i n g p e r m i t s for s mal l e x t e n t s o f n a t u r a l
f or es t at a n o m i n a l fee to B u d d h i s t m o n k s to be d e v e l o p e d as c e n t r e s
of meditation.

58
(b) Restoration

Se v e r a l s i l v i c u l t u r a l s y s t e ms ha ve been a d o p t e d to r e s t o r e de gr a ded
f o r e s t s . The s e i n c l u d e :

(1) Selection system:

U n d e r t hi s s y s t e m t he r e is s e l e c t i v e r e m o v a l o f some o f the
p r o d u c t s such as w o o d , wi l d l i f e and frui t in o r d e r to al l ow
s ome t y p e o f n a t u r a l or i nduce d t r ee r e g e n e r a t i o n to occur
w i t h o u t f u r t h e r m a n i p u l a t i o n or e n r i c h m e n t .

(2) Line p lanting:

The method was initially practiced in t he Wet Zone
d e g r a d e d f or e s t s u s i n g M a h o g a n y and was l a t e r e x t e n d e d to
t he Dr y Zone for the r e s t o r a t i o n o f a b a n d o n e d chena lands
u s i n g l ocal s peci es.

(3) E n rich m en t planting:

D e s i r a b l e s p e c i e s are p l a n t e d in t he l o g g e d f or e s t s and in
t he ga ps p r o v i d e d by f a l l i ng t rees, l o g g i n g t r a c ks etc. to
p r o m o t e the d e v e l o p m e n t o f a s e l f - s u s t a i n e d mult i spe ci e s
forest .

(4) E s ta b lis h m e n t of F o re st G a rd e n s:
T h e s e are e s t a b l i s h e d by i s s u i n g p e r m i t s to t hos e who have
e n c r o a c h e d on f o r e s t e d land and d e v e l o p e d h ome ga rdens.
The occupants are gi v e n s e cur e title to t he land and
p e r m i t t e d to c u l t i v a t e t hei r l ands s u b j e c t e d to c e r t a i n land
use r e s t r i c t i o n s .

59
(c) R e p l a c e m e n t

The replacement a ppr oa c h, whi c h is the mos t popular, is the

c o n v e r s i o n o f s p e c i e s rich f or e s t s i nto s p e c i e s p o o r e c o s y s t e m s m a i n l y
through f or es t p l a n t a t i o n s . Un d e r t he “ T a u n g y a ” s y s t e m , n a t i v e or
e xot i c t ree s p e c i e s are p l a n t e d a l ong wi t h a nnua l crops . The fi el d is
a b a n d o n e d a f t e r 2 or 3 years and the p l a n t e d t r e e s p r o t e c t e d and the
pl ot a l l o w e d d e v e l o p i n g into a f or es t p l a n t a t i o n . The mos t p o p u l a r
sp e c i e s p l a n t e d are t eak, E y c a l y p t u s g r a n d i s , Pi ne and M a h o g a n y .

In the Wet Zone unde r p l a n t i n g is also do n e in r a i n f o r e s t areas . The

for est is p l a n t e d t wi ce. During t he i ni t i al phase a nurse crop is
i n t r o d u c e d and a ft e r a p r e s c r i b e d p e r i o d o t h e r r e c o m m e n d e d s p e c i e s
are i n t r o d u c e d d e p e n d i n g on site c o n d i t i o n s .

4.2.3 T ec hn ol og ie s for Mi t i gati ng the Effects of Drought

T e c h n o l o g i e s a d o p t e d for m i t i g a t i n g t he e f f e c t s o f d r o u g h t s fall i nto

t hr ee br oad c a t e g o r i e s :

(a) A g r o n o m i c m e a s u r e s

(1) The measures to mitigate the effects of droughts are taken

d e p e n d i n g on w h e t h e r the de f i c i t o f r a i n f a l l o c c u r s d u r i n g the e a r l y ,

m i d d l e or l a t t e r part o f the n o r ma l r a i n y s e a s o n . In the c a s e o f e a r l y

s e a s o n d r o u g h t , the m e a s u r e s a d o p t e d to m i t i g a t e the e f f e c t s i n c l u d e

t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n , c h a n g i n g to d r o u g h t t o l e r a n t c r ops and s e l e c t i o n o f

short-term varieties. The mid-season drought is g e n e r a l l y me t by

r e d u c i n g t he l e a f area or by a d o p t i n g m e a s u r e s like m u l c h i n g and

60
keeping the fi el d free o f we eds . To manage late s e a s o n dr o u g h t

p r i o r i t y is gi v e n to t he f l o w e r i n g and grai n f i l l i n g st age crops when

i s s u i n g l i mi t e d a v a i l a b l e wat er.

(2) I n c o r p o r a t i o n o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r and gr ee n m a n u r e in t he soil.

Thi s is p r a c t i c e d to i n c r e a s e the wa t e r h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y o f t he soil.

(b) Engineering m easures

(1) R o t a t i o n a l i s s u e o f i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r

Thi s is done a c c o r d i n g to a pre- d e t e r mi n e d p l a n by w h i c h wa t er is

i s s u e d to s e l e c t e d b l o c k s o f l and on a r o t a t i o n a l basi s.

(2) D r i p a n d s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n

Th e s e systems wh i c h ha ve hi gh wa t er application efficiency, are

g e n e r a l l y used in s i t u a t i o n s whe r e i r r i g a t i o n wa t e r is scar c e.

(3) D r y l a n d p r e p a r a t i o n

Thi s is u s u a l l y u n d e r t a k e n when f ar mers e x p e c t in a d e l a y in fi ll i ng of

s mal l t anks l e a d i n g to a d e l a y in the i s s ui ng o f wa t er . The p r o c e d u r e is

to p l o u g h the l and wi t h t he first rai n (in S e p t e m b e r ) so that the s owi ng

can be done wi t h s u b s e q u e n t ( Oc t o b e r ) rai ns.

61
(4 ) R a i n w a t e r h a r v e s t i n g

R a i n w a t e r h a r v e s t i n g p r a c t i c e s are p r e d o m i n a n t l y in e x i s t e n c e in the

Dry Zone wh e r e t he o t h e r w a t e r s u p p l y o p t i o n s are v e r y l i mi t e d . Pe o p l e

in the drought prone areas adopt number of different traditional

p r a c t i c e s for r ai n w a t e r h a r v e s t i n g .

(i) C o l l e c t i o n o f r a i n w a t e r f a l l i n g o n t h e r o o f s .

The r ai n wa t e r f a l l i n g on t he r o o f is d i r e c t e d to a t a n k or dug wel l

through a conveyance s y s t e m s u c h as r o o f g u t t e r s and do wn pi pes .

D e p e n d i n g on t he c a p a c i t y o f t he t a n k s s o m e m a n a g e to p r e s e r v e and

use the wa t e r t hus c o l l e c t e d e ve n up to 6 m o n t h s . D u r i n g dr y p e r i o d the

wa t e r is p r e s e r v e d for c o o k i n g and o t h e r b a s i c h y g i e n i c r e q u i r e m e n t s ,

but d u r i n g the r a i n y s e a s o n s t he s y s t e m is e x t e n d e d to b a t h i n g and

wa s h i n g .

In the case whe r e w a t e r is d i v e r t e d to dug w e l l s t he d e p t h o f t he we l l s

are l i mi t e d to 2 - 3 m, to e n s u r e t he b o t t o m o f t he we l l is a b o v e the

s h a l l o w g r o u n d w a t e r t a b l e to a v o i d s a l i n i t y i n t r u s i o n i nto the we l l s .

Wi t h i n c r e a s e d s t o r a g e this t ype o f s t o r a g e s y s t e m can p r o v i d e r e q u i r e d

w a t e r for a c o n s i d e r a b l e l e n g t h o f t ime.

( i i ) C o l l e c t i o n of r a i n w a t e r d i r e c t l y in to c o n t a i n e r s k e p t on a p l a t f o r m

In f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s in the N o r t h - W e s t e r n c o a s t a l r e g i o n o f the c o u n t r y ,

platforms are used for t he drying of fish. During rainy seasons

c o n t a i n e r s are kept on t h e s e p l a t f o r m s to c o l l e c t r ai n w a t e r for d a i l y

62
use. Compared to w a t e r collected from r oof s , the q u a l i t y o f wat er

c o l l e c t e d t h r o u g h t h i s s y s t e m is far be t t er .

(iii) C o l l e c t i o n o f r a i n w a t e r t h r o u g h a cloth'

Thi s is a b a s i c i n d i g e n o u s s y s t e m w h e r e in an o pe n area, a fai rl y large

p i e c e o f c l o t h is a t t a c h e d to f our p o l e s and p r o v i s i o n ma de for rain

w a t e r to d r a i n i nt o a c o n t a i n e r kept u n d e r n e a t h . The qua l i t y o f the

w a t e r so c o l l e c t e d is good.

St eps h a v e b e e n t a k e n t h r o u g h t he i n t e r v e n t i o n o f g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c i e s

and n o n - g o v e r n m e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n to i mp r o v e and p o p u l a r i z e r ai n wa t er

h a r v e s t i n g at d o m e s t i c l e ve l in v i l l a g e s in t he Dry and I n t e r m e d i a t e

Zo n e s . One s u c h p r o j e c t wa s i m p l e m e n t e d t h r o u g h the Co m mu n i t y

W a t e r S u p p l y and S a n i t a t i o n P r o j e c t ( C W S S P ) in B a d u l l a di s t r i c t in a

village called Dematawelihinna. In t hi s case f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e is

p r o v i d e d for t he v i l l a g e r s to c o n s t r u c t s t o r a g e t a nks and to i mp r o v e the

r o o f w a t e r c o n v e y a n c e s y s t e m . Thi s model p r o j e c t was ve ry s u c c e s s f u l

and w i t h i n few y e a r s it wa s e x t e n d e d to o t h e r d i s t r i c t s and more t han

5000 su c h uni t s ha s be e n c o n s t r u c t e d and are in use ( T a b l e 1). Si n c e

this p r o g r a m m e is p r o v e n to be ve ry s u c c e s s f u l it is p l a n n e d to e xpand

t his p r o g r a m m e as an U N C C D a c t i v i t y .

63
T a b l e 1: N u m b e r o f . r a i n wa t er s t o r a g e t a nks c o n s t r u c t e d in each d i s t r i c t by
different agencies.,

D istrict No. of storage tanks Financing agency

Ka n d y 85 NWSDB
Ba d u l l a 3500 CWS S P
Ma t ar a 50 CWSSP
Hambantota 600 SDA
Pu t t a l a m 04 L R WH F
Monaragala 400 SDA
Kurunegala 500 GTZ

( N W S D B - N a t i o n a l W ater Supplies and D ra in a g e Board. C W S S P - C o m m u n it y W ater

S u p p li e s and S a n it a t io n Project. S D A - S o u t h e r n D e v e l o p m e n t A u t h o r i t y . L R W H F -
Lanka R a in W ater H a rve sting Forum. G T Z - G erm an T e c hn ica l C oop eration)

(c) E a r l y w a r n i n g s

Though long-range we a t h e r forecast are still not possible due to

c o mp l e x i t y o f the p a r a m e t e r s i n v o l v e d in t he b e h a v i o u r o f the s e a s o n a l

circulation pattern and . the r a i n m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s , short range (24-

4 8h o u r s ) and medium r ange (3-1 Odays) forecasts with reasonable

a c c u r a c y are i s s u e d by the DOM. S t e p s n e e d to be t ak e n to i m p r o v e t he

monitoring and dat a processing facilities and the l ong r ange

f o r e c a s t i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s o f the DOM.

4.3. P L A N N I N G , I N S T I TU T I ON A L F R A M E W O R K AND
P R O G R AM M ES

4.3.1 P l an ni ng

The r e s p o n s e s o f the state in d e a l i n g wi t h l and d e g r a d a t i o n i s s u e s in

the c o u n t r y are r e f l e c t e d in t he p l a n s d e v e l o p e d to c o v e r a r e as such as
environment, f or e s t r y, biodiversity, coastal, water, agriculture and
d i s a s t e r m a n a g e m e n t . Thes e p l a n n i n g e x e r c i s e s have t r a n s l a t e d i nto
64
a c t i o n t he v a r i o u s p o l i c i e s p e r t a i n i n g to l and m a n a g e m e n t and ha ve
addressed land degradation i s s ue s in de t a i l . The Forestry Se c t o r
M a s t e r Pl an o f 1995 e m p h a s i z e s on forest m a n a g e m e n t , soi l and w a t e r
conservation, conservation of environmentally sensitive areas and
p e o p l e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n in f o r e s t r y d e v e l o p me n t a c t i v i t i e s . The Coa s t a l
Zone Management Pl a n of 1997 out l i ne s interventions to reduce
coastal erosion, minimize depletion and degradation of c oa s t a l
h a b i t a t s . The B i o d i v e r s i t y C o n s e r v a t i o n A c t i o n P l a n o f 1998 out l i n e s
the p r i n c i p l e s in b i o d i v e r s i t y conservation, and includes pr o p o s e d
a c t i o n in areas such as f or e s t s , we t l a n d s , c o a s t a l and m a r i n e areas and
a g r i c u l t u r a l s y s t e m s . The N a t i o n a l D i s a s t e r M a n a g e m e n t Ac t i o n Pl an
o f 1999 p r o v i d e s for e f f e c t i v e d i s a s t e r m a n a g e m e n t , w h i c h i ncl udes
p r e p a r e d n e s s , r e s p o n s e , and r e c o v e r y .

The first c o m p r e h e n s i v e p l a n to addre s s all e n v i r o n m e n t a l . c once rns

was t he NE AP w h i c h wa s fi rst p r e p a r e d in 1992 and has be e n up d a t e d
t wi c e si nc e t hen. The c u r r e n t upda t e , whi c h will c o v e r the pe ri od
2001-2006, gi ves priority a mo n g ot hers towards resolving land
degradation i s s ue s in t he country. It recommends legislative and
i n s t i t u t i o n a l s u p p o r t , and p r o v i n c i a l level i n t e r v e n t i o n s in r e s o l v i n g
land d e g r a d a t i o n .

A N a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h Pl a n was p r e p a r e d in 1988 wi t h the

intention of promoting agricultural sustainability and increasing
e f f i c i e n c y in f ood p r o d u c t i o n . Thi s was f o l l o w e d by a se cond pl an,
w h i c h c o v e r e d t he p e r i o d 2 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 8 . This pl an has p r o p o s e d ma ny
r e s e a r c h i n i t i a t i v e s t hat w o u l d p r o m o t e s u s t a i n a b l e a g r i c u l t u r e in the
country. In a d d i t i o n a N a t i o n a l Phys i c a l P l a n n i n g P o l i c y has been
p r e p a r e d and is a w a i t i n g g o v e r n m e n t approval .

A m a j o r d e f i c i e n c y in the p l a n n i n g e xe r c i s e s c a r r i e d out so far, is that

t hey h a v e not a d o p t e d an i n t e g r a t e d a pproa ch. All n a t u r a l r e s our c e s
s e c t o r s ha ve s t r o n g b i o l o g i c a l as wel l as s o c i o - e c o n o m i c l i nks , whi c h
need to be c o n s i d e r e d in l and m a n a g e m e n t . The r e c e n t ADB assi st ed
65
Technical Assistance Programme on Sustainable Natural Resources
Management and Development, emphasizes the ne e d to f ol l ow an
integrated approach in land r e s o u r c e s m a n a g e m e n t , has h i g h l i g h t e d
t his a s p e c t as a p r i o r i t y area

4.3.2 I ns ti t u t io na l Fra mewo rk

4.3.2.1. N atio n al Level

(a) Institutions

T h e r e are a host o f state a g e n c i e s i n v o l v e d in the m a n a g e m e n t o f s t at e

l ands . Pr i m a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for st at e land is v e s t e d wi t h t he Land
C o m m i s s i o n e r , who e x e r c i s e s p o w e r s , v e s t e d in hi m u n d e r the St at e
Lands Ordinance, the Land Development Ordinance, and t he Land
Settlement Or d i n a n c e . The powers of the functions of the Land
Commissioner are exercised through delegation, to t he Divisional
S e c r e t a r i e s and D i s t r i c t S e c r e t a r i e s .

The t ask of l and management is shared by a number of s t at e

i n s t i t u t i o n s and n o n - s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s i n c l u d i n g t he p r i v a t e s e c t o r and
n o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l a ge nc i e s . The mai n i n s t i t u t i o n s d e a l i n g wi t h land
are t he Land Commissioners Department, t he Land Settlement
D e p a r t m e n t and the Land R e f o r m C o m m i s s i o n . In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e are
a b o u t ni ne M i n i s t r i e s d e a l i n g wi t h m a t t e r s r e l a t e d to l and, wa t e r ,
forestry and agriculture. O f these three Ministries deal wi t h t he
s u b j e c t o f wa t er . At the p r o v i n c i a l l evel s e v e r a l a g e n c i e s deal wi t h
l and r el a t e d subjects while t hes e subjects are handled by t he
P r a d e s h i y a S a b h a s at the l o c a l l evel .

O t h e r key n a t i o n a l level i n s t i t u t i o n s that deal wi t h l and r e l a t e d i s s ue s

are the Department of Agriculture(DOA), Forest Department(FD),
D e p a r t m e n t o f Wi l dl i f e C o n s e r v a t i o n ( D W L C ) , C e n t r a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l
66
A u t h o r i t y ( CEA) , N a t i o n a l W a t e r Suppl y and D r a i n a g e Bo a r d ( NWDB) ,
Tea, R u b b e r and C o c o n u t R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e s , t he N a t u r a l Re s o u r c e s
Management Ce n t r e ( NR M C ) of the Department of Agriculture,
National Building Research Organization, Agrarian Se r v i c e s
D e p a r t m e n t , and the Land Us e Di vi s i on o f t he I r r i g a t i o n De p a r t me n t .
These institutions amongst other t hi ngs are involved in r e s e a r c h ,
development, and implementation of activities related to the
r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f d e g r a d e d l and. The publ i c has t he r i g h t to p a r t i c i p a t e
in e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e c i s i o n m a k i n g under t he NEA. H a v i n g r e c o g n i z e d
t hi s fact, a s e p a r a t e d i v i s i o n has been e s t a b l i s h e d in the Mi ni s t r y in
c h a r g e o f E n v i r o n m e n t and in the CEA.

The Land Use P o l i c y P l a n n i n g Di vi s i on ( L U P P D ) wa s e s t a b l i s h e d in

1979, to promote systematic land use planning in the countr y.
H o w e v e r , t he w i d e s p r e a d m i s u s e o f land, a c c e l e r a t e d l and d e g r a d a t i o n ,
D e f o r e s t a t i o n and the s l ow a d o p t i o n o f land us e p l a n n i n g seem to
i n d i c a t e t hat t he ear l y e f f o r t s to r educe land d e g r a d a t i o n ha ve not been
entirely successful.

There are a number of other institutions dealing wi t h land use

p l a n n i n g . The n e wl y c r e a t e d N a t i o n a l P h y s i c a l P l a n n i n g De p a r t m e n t is
e m p o w e r e d to c a r r y out land use p l an n i n g and z o n i n g t h r o u g h o u t the
c o u n t r y . The Ur b a n D e v e l o p m e n t Au t h o r i t y ( UDA) has the po we r to
e n g a g e in the p r e p a r a t i o n o f d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n s for a r e as de c l a r e d for
urban development under t he UDA Act. The National Di s a s t e r
M a n a g e m e n t Ce n t r e w i t h i n t he M i n i s t r y o f So c i a l S e r v i c e s has been
established to enable t he management of natural disasters more
efficiently.

U n i v e r s i t i e s u s u a l l y u n d e r t a k e t r a i n i n g . All o f the m a i n U n i v e r s i t i e s in
the country are involved in conducting education programmes in
n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s m a n a g e m e n t and r es e a r c h and c a p a c i t y b u i l d i n g to
deal wi t h i s s ue s r el a t e d to land m a n a g e m e n t in the c o u n t r y .

67
The C o u n c i l for A g r i c u l t u r a l Re s e a r c h P o l i c y ( C A R P ) f a c i l i t a t e s the
c o o r d i n a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h u n d e r t a k e n by v a r i o u s M i n i s t r i e s
and institutions and set s policies and priorities in this sphere.
However r es e a r c h st udi es on aspects related to l and degradation
*

f i n a n c e d by CARP are l imi ted.

C o-ordinating M echanisms

Most of the natural resources sectors have steering committees,

c o o r d i n a t i n g c o m m i t t e e s , a d v i s o r y b o d i e s or e x p e r t c o m m i t t e e s t hat
are i n t e n d e d to o b t a i n t ec h n i c a l i n p u t s and also t he p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f all
those concerned in land management activities. Suc h important
c o m m i t t e e s i n c l ude , the Fo r e s t r y S e c t o r S t e e r i n g C o m m i t t e e , N a t i o n a l
Committee for Or g a n i c Product Promotion, National Coordinating
C o m m i t t e e on Cl i ma t e Cha nge, and t he EIA C o o r d i n a t i n g C o m m i t t e e .

An i mp o r t a n t for um for p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s to d i s c u s s environmental

m a t t e r s and t ake d e c i s i ons to r e s o l v e suc h t he i ss u e s at local l evel is
t he P a r l i a m e n t a r y C o n s u l t a t i v e C o m m i t t e e on E n v i r o n m e n t c h a i r e d by
t he Hon M i n i s t r y in charge o f e n v i r o n m e n t . M e m b e r s o f the o p p o s i t i o n
are also i n c l u d e d in the c o mm i t t e e .

The C o m m i t t e e s on E n v i r o n m e n t P o l i c y and M a n a g e m e n t ( C E P O M )
established in 1999 is one o f the m a j o r c o o r d i n a t i n g m e c h a h i s m s ,
a i me d at integrating environment concerns i nto the development
a g e n d a at t he n a t i o n a l level. There, are six C E P O M and the CE P OM on
l and, c o v e r s a g r i c u l t u r e , m i n i n g and p l a n t a t i o n s as we l l . In a d d i t i o n
t he C o m m i t t e e on I nt e g r a t i n g E n v i r o n m e n t and D e v e l o p m e n t ( C I E DP ) ,
is m e a n t to assist the C E P O M s in i mp o r t a n t and c o mp l e x policy
d e c i s i o n s r e l a t e d to the e n v i r o n m e n t .

The N a t i o n a l Expe r t C o m m i t t e e on Land D e g r a d a t i o n and D r o u g h t was

set up to a d v i s e the g o v e r n m e n t on m a t t e r s r e l a t i n g to land d e g r a d a t i o n

68
and d r o u g h t s i n c l u d i n g , the i mp l e m e n t a t i o n o f t he UN C o n v e n t i o n to
C o mb a t D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . The c o mm i t t e e , w h i c h c o m p r i s e s o f e xpe r t s on
l and r e s o u r c e s , s t a t e s e c t o r o f f i c i a l s and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f NGOs, is
expected to provide guidance and direction in resolving land
d e g r a d a t i o n i ss u e s in a c o m p r e h e n s i v e manner. *

A m a j o r d r a w b a c k t o d a y is the lack o f c o o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n t hes e

c o m m i t t e e s . Thi s has i n e v i t a b l y l ed to d u p l i c a t i o n s and c o n t r a d i c t i o n s
in the d e c i s i o n s ma de and a c t i v i t i e s c a r r i e d out. The CEPOM and
CI EDP m e c h a n i s m s r e f e r r e d to above are e x p e c t e d to r e s o l v e t hese
i s s u e s and p r o v i d e a b a s i s for c o o r d i n a t i o n a mo n g the s e c t o r a ge nc i e s
concerned

4.3.2.2 R e g io n a l L e v el/ P r o v in c i a l Level

A l t h o u g h t her e are c o o r d i n a t i o n m e c h a n i s m s at t he n a t i o n a l l evel,

*
wh i c h are f a i r l y wel l e s t a b l i s h e d , there are no f o r m a l i z e d c o o r d i n a t i o n
m e c h a n i s m s b e t w e e n t he n a t i o n a l l evel a g e n c i e s and t he p r o v i n c i a l and
local l evel a g e n c i e s to d i s c u s s e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e l a t e d i ssues. Me e t i n g s
and d i s c u s s i o n s for t hi s p u r p o s e are held b e t w e e n the M i n i s t r i e s and
p r o v i n c i a l a g e n c i e s on m a t t e r s o f i nt e r es t from t ime to t i me d e p e n d i n g
on the u r g e n c y .

At , t he p r o v i n c i a l l evel t he r e are a large number of coordination

committees to deal wi t h subjects such as forestry, environment,
p l a n n i n g , and for m o n i t o r i n g p u r p o s e s . At the p r o v i n c i a l l evel t her e
are t he Provincial Planning Steering Committee (PPSC) and the
P r o v i n c i a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l C o m m i t t e e . At the d i s t r i c t l evel t here are
district l evel committees such as the District Law Enforcement
C o m m i t t e e ( DE L E C ) and the D i s t r i c t C o o r d i n a t i n g C o m m i t t e e (DCC).
At the Divisional Level there are the Divisional Coordinating
C o m m i t t e e (D1CC), D i v i s i o n a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l S t e e r i n g C o m m i t t e e and
the Divisional Timber Committee. In addition there are Local
Authority Level committees such as Environmental Protection
69
C o m m i t t e e ( EPC) , and the Local A u t h o r i t y P l a n n i n g C o m m i t t e e . I s s u e s
r e l a t i n g to a p a r t i c u l a r s ubj e ct are d i s c u s s e d at t h e s e m e e t i n g s and
they are u s u a l l y r e s o l v e d . I f mo r e c l a r i t y is n e e d e d on an i ssue , it is
g e n e r a l l y r e f e r r e d to t he n a t i ona l l evel a g e n c y c o n c e r n e d .

4 . 3 . 2 . 3 . L o c a l Le ve l

In o r d e r to obt a i n the m a x i mu m benefits of participation in soil

c o n s e r v a t i o n e f f or t s , it is n e c e s s a r y t hat all s t a k e h o l d e r s are i n v o l v e d
i
in t he p l a n n i n g o f such a c t i v i t i e s and in t h e i r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and
e v a l u a t i o n . Ove r the years e f f o r t s ha ve be e n m a d e by the g o v e r n m e n t
to p r o m o t e p a r t i c i p a t o r y p r o c e s s e s in l and m a n a g e m e n t . Mo s t o f the
p o l i c i e s f o r m u l a t e d and pl ans p r e p a r e d ha ve p a i d p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n
to t hi s factor as a mea ns of increasing performance, wh e n
implementing various conservation oriented activities.

C o m m u n i t y p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p o l i c y and p l a n n i n g a c t i v i t i e s has b e e n
v e r y m a r g i n a l to date. On the o t h e r h a nd c o m m u n i t i e s ha ve b e c o m e
i n c r e a s i n g l y i n v o l v e d in i m p l e m e n t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s . Thi s p r o c e s s was
i n i t i a t e d wi t h the Rural D e v e l o p m e n t S o c i e t i e s and N G O s l ike t he
Sarvodaya, whi c h organized communities to participate in the
d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s at v i l l a g e l evel . The a c t i v i t i e s c o v e r e d by t he
N G O ’s and C B O ’s have d i v e r s i f i e d o v e r the ye a r s . In r e c e n t ye ar s
n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t a s p e c t s ha ve also b e e n i n c l u d e d .

O p p o r t u n i t i e s for the NGOs and CBOs to get i n v o l v e d in the p l a n n i n g

and designing of projects and in implementing them ha ve be en
provided by projects funded by donor agencies. In r ec e n t ye ar s
c a p a c i t y b u i l d i n g in pr o j e c t p r e p a r a t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n has be en
u n d e r t a k e n and t his has e n a b l e d c o m m u n i t i e s to get i n v o l v e d in p r o j e c t
d e s i g n g u i d e d by g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s . In s o me i n s t a n c e s l e g i s l a t i o n
has al so be e n f o r mu l a t e d wi t h s t a k e h o l d e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n , in o r d e r to
e n s u r e e f f e c t i v e i mp l e m e n t a t i o n .

70
Na t i o n a l a g e n c i e s ha ve at all t imes p r o v i d e d support for c a p a c i t y
b u i l d i n g t h r o u g h t r a i n i n g , so that c o m m u n i t y g r o u p s coul d take over
t he a d d e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . Ma ny p r o j e c t s have al so p r o v i d e d t r a i n i n g
to c o m m u n i t y g r o u p s , NGOs and farmers.

The i n v o l v e m e n t o f s c h o o l s in e n v i r o n m e n t a l a c t i v i t i e s has i nc r e a s e d
o v e r the years. The E n v i r o n m e n t a l Br i g a d e s f o r m e d in s c hool s around
t he c o u n t r y are m a d e a wa r e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l probl em' s; p r o v i d e d wi t h
opportunities to carry out environmental projects and; made to *
p a r t i c i p a t e in c o m p e t i t i o n s ai med at i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r k n o w l e d g e on
environmental aspects. It is expected that capacity building and
awareness creation at a younger age will enhance their rol e in
e n v i r o n m e n t a l m a n a g e m e n t in t he future.
\ *"} / 1

Recently divisional E n v i r o n m e n t a l Of f i ce r s ha ve b e e n a p p o i n t e d to
e ac h D i v i s i o n a l S e c r e t a r i a t by the CEA. This is an i m p o r t a n t step in
l i n k i n g the l ocal level wi t h t he na t i onal l evel and also in ens ur i n g
environmental protection.

As a p a r t o f crop m a n a g e m e n t , the p r i v a t e s e c t o r has a dopt e d soil

conservation and i m p r o v e m e n t me a s u r e s , and some i n i t i a t i v e s have
be e n t aken in w a t e r s h e d p r o t e c t i o n and r e f o r e s t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s . The
C e y l o n T o b a c c o C o m p a n y for e x a mp l e has been v e r y s u c c e s s f u l in
p r o m o t i n g SALT a mo n g f a r m e r s i n v o l v e d in t o b a c c o c u l t i v a t i o n . This
has b e e n m a i n l y due to t he c o n t r o l e x e r c i s e d by t he c o m p a n y ove r the
crop p r o d u c e d .

Th er e are mo v e s to set up a n e t w o r k i n g wi t h the p r o v i n c e s that woul d

link up t he l ocal and c o m m u n i t y gr o u p s in e n v i r o n m e n t a l m a n a g e m e n t .
Thi s is e x p e c t e d to r e s o l v e t he i ssues o f c o o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n the
n a t i o n a l , p r o v i n c i a l and l ocal l evel a genci es. It al so r e p r e s e n t s a part
o f the e f f o r t s to d e v e l o p an e n v i r o n m e n t a l m a n a g e m e n t f r a m e wo r k for

71
 the provincial agencies, where t he roles, responsibilities and
jurisdiction o f t he agencies in environmental management can be
d e f i n e d and a g r e e d upon.

5.0 NAT IO NAL ACTION P R O G R A M M E

5.1 PRO CE SS AND P A R T I C I P A T I O N

t
Sri La n k a has s i g n e d and r a t i f i e d t he C o n v e n t i o n to C o m b a t Land
D e g r a d a t i o n ( U N C C D ) in 1995 and 1998 r e s p e c t i v e l y . The M i n i s t r y i n ­
c h a r g e o f the s u b j e c t o f E n v i r o n m e n t ( M i n i s t r y o f E n v i r o n m e n t and
N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s ) is t he n a t i o n a l f o c a l p o i n t o f the U N C C D and has a
responsibility to coordinate and formulate policies and facilitate
p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n to f u l f i l l t he r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t he C o n v e n t i o n .
A c c o r d i n g to the a r t i c l e 9, 10 & 11, e ac h c o n t r a c t i n g p a r t y s h o u l d
f o r m u l a t e the Na t i o n a l A c t i o n P r o g r a m m e to c o m b a t l and d e g r a d a t i o n
and to m i t i g a t e the e ff e ct o f d r o u g h t .

The process of formulating t he National Action Programme was

i n i t i a t e d by t h e t hen M i n i s t r y o f E n v i r o n m e n t and F o r e s t r y in 2000,
wi t h t he p r e p a r a t i o n o f a N a t i o n a l S t a t u s R e p o r t on Land D e g r a d a t i o n
( I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t he C o n v e n t i o n to C o m b a t D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n in Sri
Lanka-2000). Subsequently a National Experts Committee on La n d
D e g r a d a t i o n and Dr o u g h t ( NE C ) wa s a p p o i n t e d to a d v i s e t he M i n i s t r y
on m a t t e r s r e l a t i n g to l and d e g r a d a t i o n and d r o u g h t s in S r i L a n k a
i i n c l u d i n g t he i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e U N C C D . The NE C he l d s e v e r a l
meetings and one of t he issues discussed wa s t he process of
m

f o r m u l a t i n g t he NAP.

During the s e c o n d h a l f o f 2001 t he M i n i s t r y of Environment and

Forestry identified nearly 50 resource persons/experts drawn from
U n i v e r s i t i e s and o t h e r k e y D e p a r t m e n t s and I n s t i t u t i o n s to p r e p a r e a
s e r i e s o f p o s i t i o n p a p e r s on f i e l d s r e l a t e d to l and d e g r a d a t i o n and
72
droughts. The objective was to involve the participation o f more
e x p e r t s in t he N A P f o r m u l a t i o n p r o c e s s and to b u i l d up t he n e c e s s a r y
i n f o r m a t i o n b a s e . As a p r e l u d e to this a two- day w o r k s h o p was he l d in
D e c e m b e r 2001 to d i s c u s s t h e s t a t u s o f l and d e g r a d a t i o n and dr o u g h t
and to i d e n t i f y t he i ss u e s to be a d d r e s s e d in the NAP.

The s e c o n d N a t i o n a l S t a t u s R e p o r t on Land D e g r a d a t i o n was p r ep a r e d

in ear l y 2 0 0 2 and a o n e - da y w o r k s h o p was he l d in Ap r i l 2002 to
d i s c u s s and to r e c e i v e c o m m e n t s . The r e p o r t was f i n a l i z e d in June
2002.

After receiving fai r number o f position papers fr om the r e s o u r c e

p e r s o n s / e x p e r t s , a w o r k s h o p wa s hel d in J u n e 2002 to r e v i e w and to
e n t r u s t t he f o r m u l a t i o n o f t he NAP to a t e a m o f c o n s u l t a n t s . The
c o n s u l t a n t s c o m m e n c e d w o r k on the p r e p a r a t i o n o f the p l a n in Jul y
2002. The preliminary draft that has be e n prepared is ba s ed on
p o s i t i o n p a p e r s and v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n and s u g g e s t i o n s c o n t r i b u t e d
by a n u m b e r o f i n s t i t u t i o n s and i n d i v i d u a l s .

The p r e l i m i n a r y d r a f t wa s p r e s e n t e d to a gr oup o f e x p e r t s for t hei r

o b s e r v a t i o n s and c o m m e n t s at a w o r k s h o p hel d o n 14th Oc t o b e r 2002.
The r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s m a d e by t h e m h a v e b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d in the
r e v i s e d dr af t .

5.2 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

The goal o f t he NAP is t h e s u s t a i n a b l e m a n a g e m e n t o f land r e s o u r c e s

for the we l l b e i n g o f t he p e o p l e and the e c o n o my .

The o b j e c t i v e o f t he N A P is to r e d u c e l and d e g r a d a t i o n and mi t i g a t e

the e f f e c t o f d r o u g h t w i t h t he p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f a f f e c t e d c o m m u n i t i e s ,
P u b l i c S e c t o r A g e n c i e s , C B O ' s , NGOs , and the P r i v a t e Sector. Mor e
s p e c i f i c a l l y t he NAP wi l l:

73
 1. A d d r e s s all c auses o f l and d e g r a d a t i o n and d r o u g h t and
i d e n t i f y me a s ur e s to c o m b a t l and d e g r a d a t i o n and m i t i g a t e
t he i mp a c t of dr ought .

2. Formulate a programme of action adopting a holistic

a p p r o a c h for the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f p r o j e c t s and a c t i v i t i e s
m
to deal wi t h land d e g r a d a t i o n i ss u e s in t he c o u n t r y .

t
*

3. Ma k e necessary provision for d e a l i n g wi t h land r e l a t e d

socio-economic i s s ue s and poverty alleviation in the
c o u n t r y to u pl i f t the l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f t he p e o p l e and to
ensure environmental stability.

4. To provide a ba si s for soliciting necessary funds for

a d d r e s s i n g land d e g r a d a t i o n i ss u e s in the c o u n t r y .

5.3 APPROACH AND STRATEGY

1 Adopt an integrated management approach to t he

m a n a g e m e n t o f land r e s o u r c e s

2 In p l a c e o f the p r e s e n t “ c o m m a n d and c o n t r o l " a p p r o a c h in

t he management of land resources, promote active
s t a k e h o l d e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p l a n n i n g , i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and
m o n i t o r i n g and e v a l u a t i o n

3 Mainstream poverty alleviation i nt o the national

•
d e v e l o p m e n t a g e n d a r e l a t i v e to t he c o n s e r v a t i o n o f l an d
r e s o u r c e s and m i t i g a t i n g t he e f f e c t s o f d r ought .

74
 4 Empower sub-national level and l ocal l evel a genc i e s to
i mp l e m e n t NAP a c t i vi t i e s .

5.4 PROGRAMMES

The P r o g r a m m e s b e i n g p r o p o s e d unde r the Na t i o n a l A c t i o n P r ogr a mme

are b e i n g p r e s e n t e d u n d e r t wo mai n c a t e g o r i e s - i.e Ma i n p r o g r a m m e s
and S u p p o r t i v e P r o g r a m m e s . The mai n P r o g r a m m e s focus on some key
i s s u e s such as soil and w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n on d e g r a d e d lands; forest
d e c l i n e and f or es t d e g r a d a t i o n ; c o n s e r v a t i o n o f g r a s s l a n d s ; m i t i g a t i o n
o f t he e f f e c t s o f d r ou g h t s . The s u p p o r t i v e p r o g r a m m e s are e x p e c t e d to
c r e a t e an e n a b l i n g e n v i r o n m e n t for the e f f e c t i v e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the
ma i n programmes. These programmes wi l l promote sustainable
agriculture; provide alternate i nc ome generating opportunities;
s t r e n g t h e n the e x i s t i n g p o l i c y f r a m e wo r k ; r ev i e w land r e l a t e d laws;
e n h a n c e i n s t i t u t i o n a l c a p a c i t y ; p r o m o t e c a p a c i t y b u i l d i n g o f land users
and other s t a ke holders; promote data collection and i n f o r ma t i o n
s h a r i n g ; d e v e l o p and t r a n s f e r a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g i e s and pr omot e
e d u c a t i o n and r ai s e p u b l i c a w a r e n e s s on e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s s ue s .

5.4.1 Main Pro g ra mmes

5.4.1.1 Pro mo te the I n teg ra t ed M an a ge m en t o f Upper

Wa t e rs he ds

Th er e is w i d e s p r e a d land d e g r a d a t i o n due to h u m a n a c t i v i t i e s such as

cultivation of s t e ep s l ope s , deforestation, burning of nat ural
v e g e t a t i o n , c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r oa ds and b u i l di ngs . Land d e g r a d a t i o n has
not onl y r e d u c e d t he p r o d u c t i v i t y o f large e xt e nt o f a g r i c u l t u r a l land
but has also led to o f f site d a ma g e such as r e d u c e d r i v e r flows,
siltation of water bodies, increased incidence o f f l oods . and land
sl i des.

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Objective:

To p r o t e c t and c o n s e r v e w a t e r s h e d s to e n h a n c e w a t e r a v a i l a b i l i t y and
to i n c r e a s e the p r o d u c t i v i t y o f a g r i c u l t u r a l and f o r e s t l and and r e d u c e
downstream siltation.

Recom m ended Actions:

(a) D e v e l o p ma s t e r p l a n s to i n t e g r a t e c a t c h m e n t c o n s e r v a t i o n
p r a c t i c e s for i m p o r t a n t w a t e r s h e d s .

(b) Identify and t est ecologically viable and economically

s o u n d Land Use s y s t e m s .

(c) I d e n t i f y d e g r a d e d or d e g r a d a t i o n p r o n e a r e as and r e g u l a r i z e
or r e l o c a t e e n c r o a c h e r s and s e t t l e r s as t he c a s e ma y be.

(d) I d e n t i f y and d e m a r c a t e l a n d s l i d e p r o n e a r e a s and r e l o c a t e

o c c u p a n t s in such are as

(e) P r o m o t e on- farm and off- f arm soil and w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n

m e a s u r e s in c r i t i c a l w a t e r s h e d are as

(f) Promote and strengthen coordination a mo n g different

organizations dealing wi t h l and and water management
p r ac t i c e s .

(g) Promote participatory approaches to land resources

management.

(h) Finalize and implement the Land Us e Policy and t he

W a t e r s h e d M a n a g e m e n t Pol i cy.

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 (i) Expedite the implementation of t he Soil Conservation
( A m e n d m e n t ) Act and Soil C o n s e r v a t i o n F u n d t hr ough the
Soil C o n s e r v a t i o n Boa r d.

5. 4.1.2 Re h a b i l i t a t e Degraded Ag ri cul t u ra l Lands

Lan d d e g r a d a t i o n is wi de s p r e a d in Sri Lanka. The c u l t i v a t i o n o f crops

such as tea, tobacco, vegetable and other, annual crops on
environmentally fragile areas has contributed to extensive soil
d e g r a d a t i o n in t he hi ll c o u n t r y . Al r e a dy, a l ar ge e x t e n t o f land used
for t o b a c c o c u l t i v a t i o n a n d v e g e t a b l e f a r mi n g in t he mi d and hi ll
c o u n t r y has b e e n a b a n d o n e d due to soil e r o s i o n and a s e v e r e decl i ne in
soil f e r t i l i t y. A c o n c e r t e d e f f o r t to r e h a b i l i t a t e t h e s e l a n d s is r equi r e d.

Objective:

R e h a b i l i t a t e d e g r a d e d a g r i c u l t u r a l l ands by m o t i v a t i n g and m o b i l i z i n g
f a r m e r s to a d o p t c os t e f f e c t i v e m e a s u r e s to i mp r o v e soil fert i l i t y.

R ecom m ended Actions:

(a) U n d e r t a k e soil e r o s i o n ha z a r d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and ma ppi n g

o f d e g r a d e d l and and p r e p a r e land s u i t a b i l i t y maps .

(b) Promote proven low-cost soil improvement pr a c t i c e s ,

vegetative conservation techniques, agronomic practices
and agroforestry s y s t e ms in degraded areas t hr ough
d e m o n s t r a t i o n s and a w a r e n e s s c r e a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s .

(c) Conduct further research st udi es on soi l fertility

improvement measures, conservation farming pr a c t i c e s ,

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 h ome ga r d e n m o d e l s , and a g r o f o r e s t r y s y s t e m s i n c l u d i n g
l i v e s t oc k.
(d) P r o m o t e and i mp l e m e n t o r g a n i c f a r mi n g and o t h e r n u t r i e n t
m a n a g e m e n t p r o g r a m m e s in d e g r a d e d a g r i c u l t u r a l are as

(e) R e h a b i l i t a t e d e g r a d e d t ea l ands in t he u p c o u n t r y and mid

c o u n t r y i n t e r me d i a t e z o n e s and o t h e r f i el d c r ops in the Dr y
Zone and Mid C o u n t r y I n t e r m e d i a t e Zones .

(f) Introduce better irrigation management

p r a c t i c e s / t e c h n o l o g i e s to r e d u c e soil e r o s i o n .

(g) Provide i nc e n t i v e s through a revolving f und, improved

s eeds etc, and p r o m o t e f a r me r s s e l f hel p p r o g r a m m e s for
production and conservation through training and
demonstrations.

(h) Promote off-farm employment in order to reduce

e n c r o a c h m e n t i nto f r agi l e a re as by s u b s i s t e n c e f a r me r s .

5.4.1.3 Prot ecti on of Streams and Stream Banks

St r e a m reservations are environmentally sensitive a re as that ne ed

s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n . At p r e s e n t t h e r e is a s e r i o u s t h r e a t to wa t e r s o u r c e s
in t he hi ll country due to encroachments and misuse of s t r e am
reservations. The removal of vegetation, construction activities,
d i v e r s i o n o f p o l l u t e d d r a i n a g e wa t e r , d i v e r s i o n o f s e wa g e , d u m p i n g o f
g a r b a g e and c u l t i v a t i o n o f s e a s o n a l c r ops a l o n g s t r e a m b a n k s has led
to soi l e r o s i o n , wa t e r qua l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n and s e d i m e n t a t i o n .

Objective:

To m i n i m i z e st r e am bank e r o s i o n

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Recom m ended Actions:

(a) D e v e l o p a d a t a b a s e on st ream r e s e r v a t i o n s and de ma r c a t e

and declare t hes e reservations to prevent fur t her
encroachment.

(b) Wherever necessary, r e l oc a t e families residing in such

reservations by p r o v i d i n g t hem wi t h alternate land and
livelihood opportunities.

(c) S t r e n g t h e n i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f r e s t r i c t i o n s i m p o s e d on sand
mining.

(d) Implement l ow cost bioengineering measures such as

establishment of hedgerows and p e r m a n e n t multipurpose
t r ee species for community use through participatory
approaches

(e) A c q u i r e s t r e a m r e s e r v a t i o n s in p r i v a t e l a nds i f the land

us e r s do not a d h e r e to r e c o m m e n d e d p r a c t i c e s .

5 .4 .1.4 P rot ect Spri ngs and Water Spouts

T h o u s a n d s o f s mal l and l arge spr i ngs are f ound in the hi l l y areas.

Th er e are al so s p o u t s wh e r e w a t e r gushes out wi t h p r e s s u r e . Spr i ngs
are t he s o u r c e s o f wa t e r for s t r e a m s and ri vers and d r y i n g up of such
s p r i n g s r e s u l t s in r e d u c e d r i v e r fl ow. The land d e g r a d a t i o n in the hill
c o u n t r y has led to a r e d u c t i o n o f wa t e r flow in m a n y o f t h e s e spri ngs.

Objective:

To p r o v i d e p r o t e c t i o n for m a j o r s p r i n g s and wa t e r s pout s.

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R ecom m ended Actions:

(a) D e v e l o p a c o m p r e h e n s i v e d a t a b a s e on m a j o r s p r i n g s / w a t e r
s p o u t s and d e m a r c a t e and d e c l a r e t h e m as p r o t e c t e d are as .

(b) Conserve and p r o t e c t springs and w a t e r spout s through

participatory approaches

(c) Relocate fami l i es residing in hydrologically critical

reservations by p r o v i d i n g them wi t h alternate l and and
livelihood.

(d) I mp r o v e catchment management through appropriate

c o n s e r v a t i o n me a s u r e s

5.4.1.5 Conservat ion o f R e s e r v o i r Re se r va ti o ns

Soil e r o s i o n has not only r e s u l t e d in t he r e d u c t i o n o f soil f e r t i l i t y on

c h e n a l and and h o m e s t e a d s but has al so c a u s e d s e v e r e d a ma g e to the
r e s e r v o i r s due to si l t a t i on. It ha s be e n o b s e r v e d t hat t he s e d i m e n t a t i o n
o f the t a nks e n d a n g e r s t he l i v e l i h o o d o f t he e n t i r e v i l l a g e c o m m u n i t y
due to t he l oss o f s t or age c a p a c i t y and a d e c r e a s e in t he c u l t i v a b l e
e x t e n t . ' F a i l u r e to r e s t o r e t a n k e c o - s y s t e m s has led to t he c o n t i n u o u s
and accelerated si l t a t i on o f t a nks . T h e r e has al so be e n a l ack of
p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f the c o m m u n i t y in t he p l a n n i n g , d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g and
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f past r e h a b i l i t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s .

Objective:

To p r e v e n t soil erosi on in r e s e r v a t i o n s and t he s i l t a t i o n o f tank be d s

and to e n h a n c e soil and w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n t h r o u g h p a r t i c i p a t o r y t ank
eco-system management

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Recom m ended Actions:

(a) Ma p r e s e r v o i r r e s e r v a t i o n s and p r e p a r e m a n a g e m e n t pl ans

to r e s t o r e t ank eco- sys t ems.

(b) Enhance water conservation, r e duc e soi l erosion in the

reservations and i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t a n k c omman d
a r e a s wi t h the p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f the c o m m u n i t i e s .

(c) I n t r o d u c e i n c e n t i v e s to p r o mo t e s e l f hel p p r o g r a m m e s for

rehabi lit ati ng tank reservations.

(d) Take st e ps to e j e c t e n c r o a c h e r s from t ank r e s e r v a t i o n s .

5. 4. 1. 6 Rec laim Probl em Soils

T h o u s a n d s o f ha o f a g r i c u l t u r a l land in t he c o a s t a l a r e a s ha ve become
s a l i n e due to s e a w a t e r i n t r u s i o n or due to poor d r a i n a g e . As there is no
p r o g r a m m e to c o n t r o l t he s i t u a t i o n the p r o b l e m is b e i n g a g g r a v a t e d
dai l y. There are al so other soil problems caused by wa t e r
logging;acidity and the accumulation of t oxi c substances. Inl and
s a l i n i t y is al so d e v e l o p i n g in s ome o f the m a j o r i r r i g a t i o n pr o j e c t s .

O bjective:

I m p r o v e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f a g r i c u l t u r a l lands a f f e c t e d by w a t e r l ogging,
s a l i n i t y and a c i d i t y .

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Recom m ended A ctions:

(a) De v e l o p a c o m p r e h e n s i v e d a t a b a s e on a r e as wi t h p r o b l e m
soils.

(b) I d e n t i f y areas s u i t a b l e for h o u s i n g , i n f r a s t r u c t u r e etc. and

e n f o r c e laws r e l a t e d to land f i ll i ng.

(c) Conduct f ur t her research on methods of reclamation;

suitable crop varieties for t he r e c l a i me d ; areas and
m a n a g e m e n t pr a c t i c e s .

(d) D e m o n s t r a t e land and c rop m a n a g e m e n t t e c h n o l o g i e s for the

r e c l a m a t i o n o f p r o b l e m soi l s.

(e) R e c l a i m a g r i c u l t u r a l l and a l r e a dy a f f e c t e d by wa t e r l og g i n g ,
s a l i n i t y and a ci d i t y t h r o u g h p a r t i c i p a t o r y a p p r o a c h e s .

5.4.1.7. Promote S us ta in ab le Ground Water Ma na g e me n t

Ground wa t e r is an i m p o r t a n t natural r e s o u r c e t h a t is b e i n g over

e x p l o i t e d in c e r t a i n areas o f the c o u n t r y at p r e s e n t . The mai n r ea s o n
for su c h o v e r e x p l o i t a t i o n is t he l ack o f k n o w l e d g e and i n f o r m a t i o n on
the a v a i l a b i l i t y and e x i s t e n c e o f g r o u n d wa t er . In some c a s e s g r o u n d
wa t e r l e v e l s in a qui fers h a v e gone do wn to the l eve l s t hat a ff e ct the
existence o f na t ur a l v e g e t a t i o n . . In o t h e r a r e as they have become
saline. Furthermore, t he r e is no coordinated and comprehensive
p r o g r a m m e to c o n d u c t r e s e a r c h , s ur ve y and p r o m o t e g r o u n d wa t e r use.

Objectives:

Map and inventorize occurrence of ground water availability and

e s t a b l i s h safe l imi ts of e x t r a c t i o n o f a qui f e r s .

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Re com m e nde d Actions:

(a) De v e l o p a comprehensive database on gr ound wa t er

availability.

(b) E s t a b l i s h safe l i mi t s and g u i d e l i n e s for the e x t r a c t i o n o f

g r ou n d wat er.

(c) Strengthen the research and development capacity of

r e l e v a n t i n s t i t u t i o n s on ground wa t e r m a n a g e m e n t .

(d) Br i n g all a s p e c t s o f gr ound wa t e r m a n a g e m e n t under one

umbrella organization.

(e) Promoteawareness programmes on extraction and

s u s t a i n a b l e use o f g r ou n d water.

(f) Regulate ground wa t e r extraction and pr e ve n t

i n d i s c r i m i n a t e d e v e l o p m e n t o f we l l s , s p e c i a l l y in hard rock
areas.

(g) E n h a n c e wa t e r use e f f i c i e n c y in all s e c t or s .

5.4.1.8 Promote I ntegrat ed Bi odi versity Co ns ervat ion

The s o c i al and e c o n o m i c c o m p o n e n t s of the e n v i r o n m e n t very oft en

p r o g r e s s at the e x p e n s e o f the na t u r a l c o mp o n e n t . Wh e n it comes to*
rural f a r mi n g c o m m u n i t i e s it is d i f f i c u l t to c o n v i n c e the i m p o r t a n c e o f
c o n s e r v i n g the na t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t be ca use o f t h e i r s t r u g g l e to earn
t h ei r day to day l i vi ng. D e s t r o y i n g o f the na t ur a l e n v i r o n m e n t si mply
l eads to the d e g r a d a t i o n o f b i o d i v e r s i t y . It is i m p o r t a n t to c onser ve
b i o d i v e r s i t y for s u s t a i n a b l e a g r i c u l t u r e .

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Objective:

To p r o t e c t b i o d i v e r s i t y for e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s e r v a t i o n and p r o t e c t i o n

Recom m ended Actions:

(a) P r o m o t e in situ c o n s e r v a t i o n o f i n d i g e n o u s s p e c i e s

(b) D o c u m e n t i n d i g e n o u s k n o w l e d g e on land r ac es , and d i v e r s e

food and me d i c i n a l p l a n t s .

(c) Expand a wa r e n e s s programmers on bi o diversity

conservation

5.4.1.9 P r e v e n t the Dec li ne in the Forest Cover

The f o r e s t c o v e r has been d e c l i n i n g r a p i d l y fr om 44% in 1956 to

2 3 . 9 % in 1992 and 22. 4% in 1999. D e s p i t e the e f f o r t s b e i n g m a d e to
s a f e g u a r d the r e m a i n i n g n a t u r a l f o r e s t s d e f o r e s t a t i o n is c o n t i n u i n g due
m a i n l y t o^ e n c r o a c h me n t s .

Objective:

P r e v e n t e n c r o a c h m e n t on F o r e s t R e s e r v e s and P r o p o s e d For e s t
Reserves

Recommended Actions:

(a) U n d e r t a k e a c e n s u s o f e n c r o a c h m e n t s to a s s e s s the
m a g n i t u d e of t he p r o b l e m and u p d a t e t he da t a a nnual l y.

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 (b) C o m p l e t e the p r o c e s s o f i d e n t i f y i n g F o r e s t R e s e r v e s and
W i l d l i f e R e s e r v e s u n d e r ext reme e n c r o a c h m e n t pr es s ur e .

(c) E x t e n d the b o u n d a r y m a r k i n g e x e r c i s e to c o v e r all For est

R e s e r v e s (FR) and P r o p o s e d R e s e r v e s (PR).

(d) E x t e n d e n c r o a c h m e n t r e l a t e d p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the
F o r e s t D e p a r t m e n t to all FR and PR.

5 . 4 . 1 . 1 0 Res to re D eg ra de d Forests

In 1994 a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 . 0 % o f the c ou n t r y ' s l and area was c over ed

wi t h s pa r se forests nearly all of whi c h wer e in t he Dry and
I n t e r m e d i a t e Zones . W i t h i n t hi s area al most 85. 0% wa s c o n s i d e r e d to
be d e g r a d e d due to c h e n a c u l t i v a t i o n , i l l egal f e l l i n g o f t r e e s and the
c l e a r i n g o f land for s e t t l e m e n t p ur pos e s .

Objective:

Br i n g d e g r a d e d f or es t areas u n d e r p r od u c t i v e use.

R ecom m ended Actions:

(a) E s t a b l i s h f a r m e r w o o d l o t s on degra ded^ l ands .

(b) E x p a n d r e c o m m e n d e d agro - f or e s t r y s y s t e m s and Shor t

Ro t a t i o n C o p p i c e ( S . R . C . ) for t he p r o d u c t i v e use of the
l arge e xt e nt o f s p a r s e l y us e d and d e g r a d e d f o r e s t lands.

(c) Introduce environmental awareness amongst all

s t a k e h o l d e r s and c h i l d r e n on the val ue o f f o r e s t s .

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 (d) P r o v i d e l ong - t erm -t enure by l e a s i n g agro - f o r e s t r y a nd
w o o d l o t areas to f a r me rs for the r o t a t i o n age o f t he s p e c i e s
to be p l a n t e d .

(e) Explore the possibility o f expanding t he cultivation of

suitable ni t r o g e n fixing plants recommended by t he
D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e to r e s t o r e d e g r a d e d areas.

(f) E n s u r e g e n d e r e q u i t y w h e n p r o v i d i n g e x t e n s i o n and s u p p o r t
s e r v i c e s for agro f or e s t r y and w o o d l o t e s t a b l i s h m e n t .
i ' j

(g) -Promot e t he g r e a t e r i n v o l v e m e n t o f t he p r i v a t e s e c t o r in
t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and m a n a g e m e n t o f d e g r a d e d f or es t l a n d s .

5.4.1.11 Co n se rv e and I mp ro v e Gras sl ands

The g r a s s l a n d s p a r t i c u l a r l y in t he h i l l y c o u n t r y are u n d e r t h r e a t . In
some areas t he r e has been a tendency to cultivate potatoes or
vegetables without e f f e c t i n g soil c o n s e r v a t i o n m e a s u r e s l e a d i n g to
s e v er e soil e r o s i o n . In the Dr y Z o n e t oo m a n y g r a s s l a n d s have b e c o m e
i m p o v e r i s h e d . P a t a n a lands also go u n d e r fire each year s u b j e c t i n g t he
lands to s e v e r e e r o s i o n in the e ve nt o f r a i n s t o r m s .

Objective:

C o n s e r v e and i mp r o v e g r a s s l a n d s and e x p a n d the e x t e n t u n d e r p a s t u r e .

R e co m m e n d e d Actions:

(a) Prevent pernicious practices on grasslands such as t he

c u l t i v a t i o n o f t e m p o r a r y e r o s i v e c r ops and t he p r a c t i c e o f
s e t t i n g fire to p a t a n a s .

.86
 (b) P r o p a g a t e t he c u l t i v a t i o n o f gr a s s e s and t ree f odde r crops
wi t h a d e q u a t e m e a s u r e s a dopt e d to m i n i m i z e soi l eros i on.

(c) E s t a b l i s h fire b e l t s a r o u n d g r a s s l a n d s .

5 .4. 1. 12. Establi sh a Dro u gh t Early Wa rn in g System

It is possible to minimize t he a dver s e impacts of drought to a

considerable extent by making adjustments through a t i me l y and
a c c u r a t e D r o u g h t E a r l y W a r n i n g Syst em ( DE WS ) . The DEWS will
p r o v i d e w a r n i n g s not o n l y a b o u t f or t h c o m i n g w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s but
also a bout w a t e r and food s h o r t a g e s and the p o s s i b l e o u t b r e a k o f pest s
and d i s e a s e s .

Objective:

To m i n i m i z e t he a d v e r s e i m p a c t s o f dr ought t h r o u g h t i m e l y and b e t t e r
D r o u g h t E a r l y Wa r n i n g S y s t e m s .

R ecom m ended Actions:

(a) E s t a b l i s h and o p e r a t e a Dr o u g h t Ea r l y W a r n i n g Uni t in the

Department Meteorology.

(b) Establish a Drought Monitoring Committee comprising of

representatives fr om l ine agenc i e s.

(c) I m p r o v e the m e c h a n i s m for the d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f wa r n i n g s

and ot her r e l a t e d i n f o r ma t i o n .

(d) U t i l i z e t r a d i t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e on p e r c e i v i n g , p r e d i c t i n g , and
m a k i n g a d j u s t m e n t s to dr ought .

87
5.4.1.13 Strengthen Drought R e l i e f Systems

Go v e r n m e n t d e p a r t me n t s and a number of NGOs and CBOs are

r e n d e r i n g a c o m m e n d a b l e s e r v i c e d u r i n g d i s a s t e r s in p r o v i d i n g r e l i e f
to a f f e c t e d pa rt i es . H o w e v e r it has o f t e n be e n o b s e r v e d t hat t her e is a
l ong d el ay in t he pr oce s s . T h e r e are also i n s t a n c e s w h e r e v i c t i ms get
o m i t t e d e i t h e r due to the l ack o f r e s o u r c e s or w e a k n e s s e s in t he
p r o c e d u r e adopt ed.

Objective:

To r e d u c e the a dver s e e f f e c t s o f d r o u g h t on t he p e o p l e l i v i n g in
d r o u g h t pr one areas.

Recom m ended Actions:

(a) S t r e n g t h e n the e x i s t i n g N a t i o n a l D i s a s t e r M i t i g a t i o n Ce n t r e .

(b) I m p l e m e n t Na t i o n a l D i s a s t e r C o u n t e r M e a s u r e s Act.

(c) Provide f a r me rs in t he drought prone areas wi t h

o p p o r t u n i t i e s for a l t e r n a t i v e l i v e l i h o o d s .

(d) Promote wa t e r conservation practices and domestic

rainwater harvesting.

(e) Cr e a t e publ i c awareness t h r o u g h m e d i a on d r o u g h t s and

a d a p t a t i o n to d r o u g h t s .

(f) I m p r o v e the f a c i l i t i e s at t he r e s e a r c h c e n t e r s i n v o l v e d in
d e v e l o p i n g d r o u g h t r e s i s t a n t crop v a r i e t i e s and a p p r o p r i a t e
technologies.

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 (g) Establish an information e xc h a n g e programme wi t h
r e c o g n i z e d ari d zone a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a t i o n s in c o u n t r i e s such
as I ndi a.

5. 4,1.14 S tre ng th en Ra i nwa te r Harvesting systems.

Apa r t from s ome a r e a s in the s e mi - a r i d part s o f the n o r t h - we s t and

s o u t h - e a s t o f t he i s l a n d wh e r e annual r a i n f a l l is less t han 1000mm, the
r es t o f t he c o u n t r y r e c e i v e s mo r e than 1000mm wi t h some part s in the
hi ll country receiving an a nnua l r ai nf a l l o f mor e t han 5000mm.
H o w e v e r t he v a r i a b i l i t y o f r a i n f a l l bot h over space and t i me r e nde r s
some areas and s e a s o n s h i g h l y s u s c e p t i b l e to d r o ught s . The a dve r s e
e f f e c t s o f d r o u g h t c o u l d be m i t i g a t e d to a l arge e xt e nt by p r o m o t i n g
r a i n w a t e r h a r v e s t i n g at t he d o m e s t i c l evel as wel l as at the vi l l a g e
l evel s.

O bj ective:

To m i t i g a t e the e f f e c t s o f d r o u g h t on do me s t i c wa t e r s up p l i e s and
a g r i c u l t u r e by p r o m o t i n g r a i n w a t e r ha rv e s t i n g .

R ecom m ended Actions:

(a) P r o m o t e d o m e s t i c r a i n w a t e r h a r v e s t i n g p r ac t i c e s .

(b) I m p r o v e wa t e r s t o r a g e o f tanks and r e s e r v o i r s to e n h a n c e the

retention capacity.

5. 4. 1. 15. Pro mo te S u s t a i n a b l e Agri cul tural Practices

S u s t a i n a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s are e x p e c t e d to i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i v i t y
in c r o p s and at the s a me t i me ma i n t a i n the soil f e r t i l i t y by a d o p t i n g

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conservation measures and good f arm practices. The present
a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y p r o m o t e s i n i t i a t i v e s for i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y by
adoption of new technologies, for crop improvement, and for
intensification of agriculture. It also highlights t he need for
competitiveness in production and marketing by increasing
productivity, lowering production costs and by value addition to
agricultural production. Increasing productivity wood provide
o p p o r t u n i t y for i n v e s t i n g in a p p r o p r i a t e c o n s e r v a t i o n m e a s u r e s and
p r e v e n t d e g r a d a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l l and.

a) I n c r e a s e P r o d u c t i v i t y in A g r i c u l t u r e

A g r i c u l t u r e is not a t t r a c t i v e to m a n y f a r m e r s du e to l ow l e v e l s o f
p r o d u c t i v i t y . P r o d u c t i v i t y is l ow due to a n u m b e r o f f a c t o r s s u c h as
l oss o f soil f e r t i l i t y , hi gh c os t o f p r o d u c t i o n and, t he l ow p r i c e s
o f f e r e d to a g r i c u l t u r e p r o d u c e . One m a j o r r e a s o n for l ow p r o d u c t i v i t y
is the p o o r m a t c h i n g o f crops to l and s u i t a b i l i t y .

Objective:

E n h a n c i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y w h i l e r e d u c i n g l and d e g r a d a t i o n .

Recom m ended Actions :

(a) C a r r y out r e s e a r c h on t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y and a d a p t a b i l i t y o f

a g r i c u l t u r a l crops to d r o u g h t and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .
*

(b) M o n i t o r c h a n g e s in a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s a r i s i n g f r om c l i m a t i c
c h a n g e s and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n

(c) Encourage/ promote c o n se r va tio n farming pr actices.

90
 (d) I d e n t i f y s u i t a b l e i n d i g e n o u s and o t h e r v a r i e t i e s that enri ch
soi l and r e d u c e l and d e g r a d a t i o n .

(e) P r o v i d e i n c e n t i v e s to f a r m e r s for c o n s e r v i n g c o mme r c i a l

and p u b l i c l a n d s .

(f) E n s u r e t hat f a r m e r s us e land a c c o r d i n g to land s u i t a b i l i t y

classifications.

(g) P r o m o t e e f f i c i e n t m a n a g e m e n t o f i r r i g a t i o n wa t e r , t hrough
farmer participation and by employing new wa t er
conservation technologies/ practices suc h as micro
irrigation.

(h) Promote Yaya programme concept initiated by the

D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e in all m a j o r r i ce g r o w i n g areas.

(i) I m p r o v e f a r m e r s k n o w l e d g e and s ki l l s on c rop - l i ve st ock-

aquaculture integration

b) S tre n g th e n L a n d D e g ra d a tio n related A g ric u ltu ra l R esearch and

E xten sio n Services

There has be e n considerable a mo u n t of research on a r r e s t i ng soil

e r o s i o n , w h i c h is c o n s i d e r e d a ma j o r s o u r c e for l and d e g r a d a t i o n in the
c o u n t r y / 1 However, adapting such research especially in
e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s e n s i t i v e a r e a s in the c o u n t r y has been r a t h e r slow.

T h e w i t h d r a w a l o f g r a s s - r oot l evel e x t e n s i o n o f f i c e r s from the field

d u r i n g the l at e e i g h t i e s ha s had a n e g a t i v e i mp a c t in d i s s e m i n a t i n g
r e s e a r c h k n o w l e d g e a m o n g f ar me rs .

91
The a b s e n c e o f a pr oven i n t e g r a t e d a p p r o a c h in d e a l i n g wi t h l an d
d e g r a d a t i o n has also a g g r a v a t e d l and d e g r a d a t i o n in t h e ' c o u n t r y .

Objective:

Strengthen t he research capacity of t he DO A and t he extension

services of t he provincial departments of agriculture on l an d
degradation.

R ecom m ended Actions:

(a) C a r r y out more n e e d s b a s e d and l o c a t i o n s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h

so t hat a p p l i c a t i o n b e c o m e s mo r e e f f e c t i v e .

(b) Expand t he c urr e nt programme of station and adaptive

r e s e a r c h in or de r to t r a n s f e r t he k n o w l e d g e ba se to s ma l l
f a r me r s .

(c) P r o v i d e a d e q u a t e g o v e r n m e n t f u n d i n g for the c o n t i n u a t i o n

o f r e s e a r c h in i d e n t i f i e d p r i o r i t y a re as in t he A g r i c u l t u r e
R e s e a r c h Pl a n d e a l i n g wi t h e f f i c i e n t l and m a n a g e m e n t .

(d) Strengthen networking wi t h other l ocal and foreign

research organizations and institutions in carrying out
r e s e a r c h on c l i ma t e c h a n g e a s p e c t s .

5.4.1.16 Provi de Al t e r na ti ve I ncome Ge n e ra t in g

O p p or t un i ti es

It is w i d e l y a c c e p t e d t hat e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t i o n and p o v e r t y a r e
c l o s e l y l i n k e d and t hat land d e g r a d a t i o n is one m a i n e l e m e n t in t h i s
s c en a r i o . P e o p l e in r ur a l areas r el y on n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , m a i n l y o n
land for s u r v i v a l but do not ha ve t he a b i l i t y to i nv e s t on i m p r o v e m e n t s
92
to the resource base. Thi s l eads to the o v e r use and neglect of
r es o u r c e s . The h i g h d e m a n d for land also e n c o u r a g e s e n c r o a c h m e n t s in
e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s e n s i t i v e areas c a u s i n g s e v e r e d e g r a d a t i o n o f land.
He n ce , finding alternatives to r educe the p r e s s u r e on the nat ur al
r e s o u r c e s b a s e is an e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t in t he que s t to r e duc e p o v e r t y
and i mp r o v e e n v i r o n m e n t a l m a n a g e m e n t in the c ount r y.

a ) P r o m o t e A g r o - b a s e d I n d u s t r i e s in R u r a l A r e a s

Objective:

To r e d u c e t he p r e s s u r e on l and t h r o u g h t he i n t r o d u c t i o n o f o f f farm
employment opportunities.

R ecom m ended Actions:

(a) P r o m o t e and e s t a b l i s h a g r o - b a s e d and o t h e r i n d u s t r i e s in

rur al a r e as for e f f i c i e n t use of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s and for
g e n e r a t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l i ncome.

(b) Ma k e a v a i l a b l e a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y to the p o o r t hr ough

s ki l l s development programmes in order to e nc our a ge
s e t t i n g up o f e n t e r p r i s e s .

(c) P r o m o t e l i v e s t o c k f a r mi n g i n c l u d i n g p o u l t r y and small

ruminants.
b) M a i n s t r e a m P o v e r t y R e d u c t i o n P r o g r a m m e s i n t o t h e N a t i o n a l
Developm ent Agenda

Objectives:

En s u r e poverty reduction programmes are an integral part o f the

*
n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t a genda .

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R e c o m m e n d e d Actions:

(a) Ca r r y out in-depth studies on the relationship between

p o v e r t y and l and d e g r a d a t i o n and on r e m e d i a l m e a s u r e s to
be t aken to addre s s the i ssue.

(b) E n s u r e pove rt y a l l e v i a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s are in c o n s o n a n c e

wi t h the macro-economic policies adopted by the
G o v e r n m e n t , so that p o v e r t y r e d u c t i o n p r o g r a m m e s can be
h a r m o n i z e d wi t h s e c t o r a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s .

(c) M a i n t a i n an i n f o r ma t i o n ba se on the p o o r and m o n i t o r the

p o v e r t y r e d u c t i o n p r o g r a m m e s in a s y s t e m a t i c ma n n e r .

(d) Tar ge t p o o r e r s e g m e n t s o f the f a r me r s l i vi ng in c r i t i c a l

a re as as the main i n i t i a t i v e to c o mb a t land d e g r a d a t i o n .

5.4.2. SUPPORTI VE PRO GRAMME S

The mai n programmes outlined a bove are meant to combat land

degradation, arr e st forest d e c l i n e and d e g r a d a t i o n and m i t i g a t e the
e f f e c t s o f d r ou g h t s . Howe ve r , in vi ew o f t he c o m p l e x i t y and m a g n i t u d e
o f the p r o b l e m s t hes e p r o g r a m m e s by t h e m s e l v e s wi l l not be a bl e to
address all of the i ssues. They have to be supported by other
p r o g r a m m e s . Some o f the new p r o g r a m m e s that have to be in p l a c e are
o u t l i n e d be l ow;

5.4.2.1 Strengthen the Policy Fr am ewo rk

In the past e n v i r o n m e n t a l i ssues in g e n e r a l and land d e g r a d a t i o n in

p a r t i c u l a r ha ve be i n g a d d r e s s e d on a s e c t o r a l basi s. Ther e is a ne e d to
move away from t his a p p r o a c h and a d o p t a mor e i n t e g r a t e d a p p r o a c h

94
towards natural resources management. The problem has bei ng
a g g r a v a t e d b e c a u s e in the past , p o l i c i e s have f o c u s e d mo r e on growt h
r a t h e r t han on the n o t i o n o f s u s t a i n a b i l i t y .

a) A d o p t an I n t e g r a t e d A p p r o a c h to L a n d M a n a g e m e n t

Objectives:

En s u r e all s e c t o r a l p o l i c i e s are d i r e c t e d t o wa r d p r o m o t i n g i n t e g r a t e d
land r e s o u r c e s m a n a g e m e n t .

R ecom m ended Actions:

(a) De v e l o p and i mp l e m e n t a model community- wi de

p r o g r a m m e for i n t e g r a t e d r e s our c e m a n a g e m e n t .

(b) Evaluate all s e ct or a l pol i c i e s to identify gaps and

i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s that have a n e g a t i v e i mp a c t on i nt e gr a t e
land r e s o u r c e s m a n a g e m e n t

(c) Formulate policies and strategies to a ddr e s s land

degradation, drought, and measures to prevent future
desertification.

b) E n s u r e t h a t E n v i r o n m e n t a l C o n c e r n s a r e A d d r e s s e d in th e
F o r m u la tio n of E co n o m ic Policies

Objective:

Incorporate environmental concerns including c ost s i nto decision­

m a k i n g p e r t a i n i n g to l and r e s o u r c e s m a n a g e m e n t .

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Recom m ended Actions:

(a) R e v i e w e x i s t i n g m a c r o - e c o n o m i c p o l i c i e s and r e f o r m u l a t e
t h e m in o r d e r to i n t e r n a l i z e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n c e r n s .

(b) E n s u r e that E n v i r o n m e n t a l V a l u a t i o n is u s e d as a tool in

guiding decision-making.

(c) I n c l u d e c ost s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h soil l os s , f e r t i l i t y d e c l i n e and

s i l t a t i o n in n a t i o n a l a c c o u n t i n g e x e r c i s e s .

b) R eview C u r r e n t L a n d A lie n a tio n a n d E n c r o a c h m e n t

R e g u la riz a tio n Policies

Objective:

En s u r e t hat l and is not a l i e n a t e d in e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y f r a g i l e a re as a nd

that s e c u r e t i t l e is p r o v i d e d to t h o s e a d o p t i n g g o o d land m a n a g e m e n t
practices

R ecom m ended Actions:

(a) De v e l o p a comprehensive programme to p r e v e n t further

e n c r o a c h m e n t s in e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y f r a g i l e areas .

(b) F o r m u l a t e a land a l i e n a t i o n p o l i c y t h a t w o u l d d i s c o u r a g e
e n c r o a c h m e n t s on e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y f r a g i l e s t a t e l and.

(c) P r o v i d e l and t i t l i n g to e n c r o a c h e r s in a re as t h a t are n o t

e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y f r a g i l e to e n a b l e t h e m to h a v e a c c e s s to
credit, i nput s , etc, t hat would facilitate efficient land
management *

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d) I n t r o d u c e E c o n o m i c I n s t r u m e n t s to M i n i m i s e L a n d D e g r a d a t i o n

Objective:

To p r o v i d e n e c e s s a r y i n c e n t i v e s and d i s i n c e n t i v e s to l and users in

o r d e r to p r o m o t e e f f i c i e n t l and m a n a g e m e n t and m i n i m i s e land
degradation.

R ecom m ended Action:

(a) I n t r o d u c e a comprehensive package of e conomi c

i n s t r u m e n t s in t he for m o f f i n a n c i a l i n p u t s such as loans;
s u b s i d i e s and t a x e s for p r o m o t i n g l and c o n s e r v a t i o n .

5. 4.2.2 Re vi e w Land Rel at ed Laws

The p r e s e n c e o f a l ar g e n u m b e r o f land r e l a t e d laws do not pr ovi de a

s o u n d b a s i s for e f f i c i e n t l and m a n a g e m e n t . D e s p i t e t he l arge n u mb e r
o f l aws, l and d e g r a d a t i o n c o n t i n u o u s u n a b a t e d . The mai n r eason for
t hi s is t h a t t h e s e l aws we r e d e v e l o p e d for d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t i v e s and not
e f f e c t i v e l y to a d d r e s s l and d e g r a d a t i o n i s s ue s in the c ount r y. Hence,
t h e r e is a ne e d to r e v i e w the e x i s t i n g r e l a t e d laws and r e g u l a t i o n s and
d e v e l o p an a p p r o p r i a t e l egal f r a m e w o r k to a d d r e s s land d e g r a d a t i o n ,
d r o u g h t and o t h e r i s s u e s in a c o m p r e h e n s i v e ma nne r .

Objective:

To d e v e l o p a l egal f r a m e w o r k to s u p p o r t p o l i c y i n i t i a t i v e s and to
p r o v i d e an e n a b l i n g e n v i r o n m e n t for e f f e c t i v e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f land
management programmes.

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Recom m ended Actions:

(a) R e v i e w all e x i s t i n g l and r e l a t e d l aws and r e g u l a t i o n s a nd

assess l egal impact on land degradation and suggest
necessary changes.

(b) Explore t he possibility of developing an “umbrella

f r a m e w o r k ” law to de a l with land related issues in a
c o h e s i v e ma nne r .

5.4.2.3 Enh a nc e I n s t i t u t i o n a l C a p a c i t y

Institutions play a vital r ol e in supporting t he implementation of

p o l i c y i n i t i a t i v e s and legal s e r v i c e s . S i n c e l a n d is a c r o s s c u t t i n g a r e a
it c a n n o t be d e a l t wi t h by a s i n g l e i n s t i t u t i o n or a few i n s t i t u t i o n s
al one. The l ar ge n u m b e r o f i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t are in e x i s t e n c e at p r e s e n t ,
n e e d s to be s t r e n g t h e n e d to d e a l w i t h l a n d d e g r a d a t i o n i s s u e s m o r e
effectively. At the same time steps should be t ak e n to promote
c o o r d i n a t i o n a mo n g t he i n s t i t u t i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h l and m a n a g e m e n t .

Objective:

E s t a b l i s h e f f e c t i v e l and c o o r d i n a t i o n m e c h a n i s m s a n d s t r e n g t h e n t he
capacity o f institutions managing land resources.

R ecom m ended Actions:

(a) ‘ S t r e n g t h e n Institutions mandated to undertake land use

p l a n n i n g so that l a n d us e m a p p i n g can be u n d e r t a k e n and
t he r e q u i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n for i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e L a n d Use
Policy generated.

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 (b) Strengthen t he capacity of all institutions e ngage d in
r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t on l and r e s o u r c e s m a n a g e m e n t .

(c) A l l o c a t e r e s o u r c e s to u n d e r t a k e p r i o r i t y r e s e a r c h on land
m a n a g e m e n t in e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y f r a g i l e areas.

(d) E s t a b l i s h a L a n d S e c r e t a r i a t (or apex b o d y ) to deal wi t h

l and r e l a t e d i s s u e s , to p r o v i d e t e c h n i c a l g u i d a n c e and to
ensure that l and management is gi v e n priority in the
s e c t o r a l p r o g r a m m e s / p r o j e c t s i mp l e m e n t e d .

(e) The W a t e r s h e d M a n a g e m e n t Gr o u p s i n i t i a t e d by the PLMC

can be e x p a n d e d to o t h e r areas to gi ve r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to
C o m m u n i t y G r o u p s in c o - o r d i n a t i o n wi t h l o c a l / p r o v i n c i a l
a u t h o r i t i e s to f a c i l i t a t e w a t e r s h e d m a n a g e m e n t act i vi t i e s .

5 .4 .2 .4 P r o m o t e C a p a c i t y B ui l di ng of Land Users and Other

Stakeholders

It is i m p o r t a n t to bui Id t e c h n i c a l kn o w how and ski 11 s o f land users for

implementing l and management programmes effectively and
e f f i c i e n t l y . C a p a c i t y b u i l d i n g m u s t be c a r r i e d ou t at v a r i o u s l evel s,
w i t h d u e e m p h a s i s on t he f a r m e r c o m m u n i t y .

Objective:

I d e n t i f y and d e v e l o p a m o n g s t l and owne r s and s t a k e h o l d e r s ne c e s s a r y

knowledge arid technical skills r eq u i r e d for dealing with land
m a n a g e m e n t i s s u e s in t he c o u n t r y .

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R e com m e nd e d Actions:

(a) Formulate a programme to t r ai n l and managers, and

o f f i c i a l s o f r e s e a r c h and o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s d e a l i n g wi t h
land m a n a g e m e n t .

(b) P r o m o t e good l and m a n a g e m e n t a mo n g p r i v a t e l and o w n e r s

t h r o u g h the p r o v i s i o n o f g u i d e l i n e s .

(c) S u p p o r t i mp r o v e d n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s
t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n and t r a i n i n g to e n a b l e land m a n a g e r s and
r ur a l c o m m u n i t i e s to a d o p t new and i n n o v a t i v e m a n a g e m e n t
approaches.
(d) Provide far mers wi t h for mal and informal training and
o b t a i n a c o n t i n u o u s f e e d b a c k to e n a b l e t he m o d i f i c a t i o n o f
m a n a g e m e n t p r ac t i c e s .

(e) I d e n t i f y and s u p p o r t l e a d e r s and “ c h a m p i o n s ” , who can

demonstrate the benefits of better l and management to
m o t i v a t e ot her l and i ssues.

(f) Network ski l ls in leadership development so as to

e n c o u r a g e p a r t i c i p a t o r y and p a r t n e r s h i p a p p r o a c h e s in l an d
management.

(g) Bu i l d t he c a p a c i t y o f p r o v i n c i a l o f f i c i a l s in o r d e r to o b t a i n
their a c t i ve participation of provincial officials in
e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e c i s i o n - ma k i n g .

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5.4.2.5. Devel op and Tr an sf er Appropri ate Tech no lo gi es

As Land D e g r a d a t i o n b e c o m e mo r e acut e, t her e are m a n y e me r g i n g new

t e c h n o l o g i e s in t he wo r l d to deal wi t h the s i t u a t i o n in a s ys t e mat i c
manner.

He n c e f a r m e r s s h o u l d have q u i c k access to such new t e c h n o l o g i e s and

t h e i r fi el d p r o b l e m s ne e d to be fed back to t he r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e s for
f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n t e r v e n t i o n s . R e p l i c a b l e m o d e l s o f c o n s e r v a t i o n and
f a r mi n g systems ha ve to be t a ke n to the f a r me r s t h r o u g h va r i ou s
channels suc h as demonstrations, t r ai ni ng, and participatory pi l ot
t es t i n g .

Objective:

To i mp r o v e the c a p a c i t y o f land users in m a n a g e m e n t o f t hei r land

m a i n t a i n i n g h i g h e r l evel o f P r o d u c t i o n

R ecom m ended Actions:

(a) Tes t and identify suitable conservation and land

m a n a g e m e n t t e c h n o l o g i e s for d i f f e r e n t land t ypes .

(b) C a r r y out s t u d i e s to i d e n t i f y p o t e n t i a l d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n areas.

(c) D e v e l o p a p p r o p r i a t e m o d e l s o f land m a n a g e m e n t for

p o t e n t i a l d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n areas

(d) D e m o n s t r a t e t h e s e m o d e l s wi t h a c t i ve f a r me r p a r t i c i p a t i o n
so t hat land us e r s c o u l d choose the t e c h n o l o g i e s that are
mos t a c c e p t a b l e .

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 (e) P r e p a r e g u i d e l i n e s and m a n u a l s on land c o n s e r v a t i o n and
l and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y .

(f) Us e me d i a and o t h e r c h a n n e l s to c r e a t e a w a r e n e s s and to

e d u c a t e and de ve l op n e c e s s a r y s k i l l s a mo n g s t l and user s.

5.4.2.6. Promote Data Col lect ion and I nf or ma ti on Sha ri ng

I n f o r ma t i o n is an essent i al i nput to the e f f e c t i v e use o f l and r e s o u r c e s

and t h e s u s t a i n a b l e m a n a g e m e n t o f t he e n v i r o n m e n t . A p a r t o f t h i s
i n f o r m a t i o n has been g e n e r a t e d but a gr ea t deal mo r e r e m a i n s to be
c o l l e c t e d . Even the i n f o r ma t i o n g e n e r a t e d is not at t he level o f d e t a i l
and accuracy required. Furthermore, t he collation, analyses and
s h a r i n g o f i n f o r ma t i o n has also been p o o r and the i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t is
a v a i l a b l e is oft en not easi l y a c c e s s i b l e d e c i s i o n m a k e r s at d i f f e r e n t
l evel s.

At p r e s e n t da t a c o l l e c t i o n is h a m p e r e d by the s e v e r a l institutions
c o l l e c t i n g i n f o r ma t i o n and the low l evel o f c o o r d i n a t i o n a mo n g s t t he m.
The a b s e n c e o f c o o r d i n a t i o n has of t en made it d i f f i c u l t to a gr e e on a
common terminology, common classification systems and in
d e v e l o p i n g a p p r o p r i a t e m e c h a n i s m s for e x c h a n g i n g data. F u r t h e r m o r e
t her e is no c e n t r a l p l ac e for s t o r i n g land r e s o u r c e s i n f o r m a t i o n ; n o r is
t her e mechanism by which stakeholders can access the required
i n f o r ma t i o n .

Objective:

To c o l l e c t the dat a ne ede d for t he e f f e c t i v e use o f the land r e s o u r c e s ;

p r o m o t e c o o r d i n a t i o n a mo n g s t i n s t i t u t i o n s c o l l e c t i n g and s t ore t he d a t a
in a m a n n e r in w h i c h all s t a k e h o l d e r s can a c c e s s t h e dat a.

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R e com m e nd e d Actions:

(a) I d e n t i f y the d a t a that ne eds to be c o l l e c t e d for mana gi n g

l and resources, e s t a b l i s h a Land Resources I n f o r ma t i o n
System as a ba s i s for decision-making and de ve l op a
m e c h a n i s m for e x c h a n g i n g data.

(b) Ma k e the information a v ai l a bl e to all institutions with

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s r e l a t i n g to land.

5. 4. 2. 7. Pro mo te Educat ion and Raise / Public Awar enes s on

E nv i r o n m e n t a l Issues

C h a n g i n g the b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s o f land users is one i m p o r t a n t e l ement

in the d r a f t N a t i o n a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l Pol i cy. In o r d e r to a c h i e v e this,
comprehensive education and a wa r e n e s s programmes shoul d be
i n i t i a t e d a i me d at d i f f e r e n t t a r g e t groups.

Objective:

Cr e a t e mas s a w a r e n e s s on land d e g r a d a t i o n and its i m p a c t s e s pe c i a l l y

a mo n g s c hool and u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s and v u l n e r a b l e c o m m u n i t i e s on
e n v i r o n m e n t a l i ssues.

R ecom m ended Actions:

(a) I n c o r p o r a t e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i nto all nat ur al

resources management projects, through whi ch
c o o r d i n a t i o n , c o n s u l t a t i v e and d i s s e m i n a t i o n p r o c e s s e s can
be f a c i l i t a t e d .

(b) I n c o r p o r a t e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i ssues and c o n c e r n s into school

and u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l a .
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 (c) De v e l o p p r o g r a m m e s to a d d r e s s t a r g e t g r o u p s in s p e c i f i c
a r e as and c r e a t e a w a r e n e s s on c r i t i c a l i s s ue s such as t he
e x t r a c t i o n o f g r o u n d wa t e r and the v a l ue o f f or es t s .

(d) S t r e n g t h e n the e x i s t i n g e x t e n s i o n and p r o m o t i o n d i v i s i o n s

o f na t u r a l r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t a g e n c i e s to deal wi t h l and
d e g r a d a t i o n i s s ue s in a mo r e c o h e r e n t ma n n e r .

(e) P r e p a r e ma n u a l s and h a n d o u t s p e r t a i n i n g to the e f f i c i e n t

use o f l and r e s o u r c e s .

(f) Strengthen on going awareness programmes using

e l e c t r o n i c pri nt and vi s ua l medi a.

6.0. P ROPOSED PROJECTS

The t h r u s t o f t he a c t i o n . p l a n is t o w a r d s a d d r e s s i n g the b u r n i n g i s s u e s
r e l a t i n g to land d e g r a d a t i o n , w h i c h r e q u i r e s i m m e d i a t e a t t e n t i o n o f all
s t a k e h o l d e r s c o n c e r n e d . In o r d e r to a d d r e s s t h e s e i ss u e s in a c o h e r e n t
m a n n e r t he a ct i on pl a n is p r e s e n t e d b a s e d on ma i n p r o g r a m m e s and
supporting programmes.

The s e c t i o n on p r o j e c t s is a i m e d at f a c i l i t a t i n g t he i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f
the recommendations ma de in the action plan to combat l an d
d e g r a d a t i o n in the count r y. It is e x p e c t e d t hat t he p r o p o s e d p r o j e c t s
would facilitate donor assistance towards implementing t hem. Th e
p r o j e c t s ha ve be i ng s e l e c t e d b a s e d on the p r i o r i t y a r e a s i d e n t i f i e d
w i t h i n t he p r o g r a m m e r s and r e c o m m e n d e d a c t i v i t i e s . It is e x p e c t e d
t hat the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f p r o j e c t s w o u l d c r e a t e a s t r o n g ba s i s for
a d d r e s s i n g l and d e g r a d a t i o n i s s ue s as a whol e.

The p r o j e c t s are p r e s e n t e d u n d e r each p r o g r a m m e i d e n t i f i e d in t he

a c t i o n pl an. Ba s e d on the p r o j e c t cone ept, it is n e c e s s a r y to w o r k out
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the d e t a i l s o f cost o f t he a c t i v i t i e s to be c a r r i e d out u n d e r the pr oj e c t
and also the t i mi n g . Thi s h o w e v e r shoul d be b a s e d on mo r e de t a i l e d
a n a l y s i s . Si n c e l and d e g r a d a t i o n is a vast and c o m p l e x i ssue, it is
necessary that all stakeholders are involved in its planning and
implementation.

The p r o p o s e d p r o j e c t s for each o f the p r o g r a m m e s are gi v e n in Tabl e 2

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T a b l e 2- P r o p o s e d P r o j e c t s

Programme Proposed Projects

5.4.1.1. P r o m o t e the I. Prepare watershed development

Integrated Management Master Plans for important

of U p p e r W a t e r s h e d s watersheds

II. Identify and test ecologically

viable and economically sound

l a n d use s y s t e m s .

III. P r o m o t e o n - f a r m and o f f - f a r m soi l

and water conservation measures

in c r i t i c a l w a t e r s h e d areas .

5 . 4. 1. 2 R e h a b i l i t a t e I. Undertake soi l erosion hazard

Degraded Agricultural classification and mapping of

Lands degraded l and including l an d

s u i t a b i l i t y ma p s .

II. Identify and evaluate various

conservation farming systems

i n c l u d i n g l i v e s t o c k , agro f o r e s t r y

and home garden models and

demonstrate their value for l an d

rehabilitation.

III. Promote and implement organic

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 f a r mi ng and other soil nutrient

management programmes in the

mid c o u n t r y i n t e r m e d i a t e zone and

in the l ow c o u n t r y dr y zone.

5.4.1.3 P r o te c tio n of I. Demarcate and conserve st ream

Streams and S tream bank r e s e r v a t i o n s

Banks II. A pilot project to d e mo n s t r a t e

participatory management

a p p r o a c h e s o f st at e o wne d st ream

ba nks

5.4.1.4 P r o te c ti n g S p r in g s I Map, d e m a r c a t e and de c l a r e ma j o r

and W ater Spouts s pr i ngs and spouts as Pr ot e c t e d

Areas.

II. Implement catchment management

through parti cipa tory approaches.

5.4.1.5 C o n s e r v a t io n of I. Map reservoir reservations and

Reservoir R eservations prepare management pl ans to

r e s t o r e t ank e c o - s y s t e m s

II. Implement management pl ans

through parti cipa tory approaches.

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5 . 4. 1. 6 R e c l a i m P r o b l e m I. Develop a comprehensive database

Soils on p r o b l e m soils (water logging,

salinity, acidity).

II. Conduct farmer participatory

programmes for land

reclamation/management.

III. Enforce l aws related to land

filling.

5.4.1.7Promote I P r e p a r e an i n v e n t o r y o f g r o u n d w a t e r

Sustainable Ground resources wi t h guidelines for saf e

Water Management limits of extraction.

II S t r e n g t h e n r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t 1

capacity of institutions dealing with

ground water management

5.4.1.8 P r o m o t e I. Promote conservation of

Integrated Biodiversity indigenous agricultural germplasm

Conservation in ge ne banks and botanical

gardens.

II. Identify important components of

b i o d i v e r s i t y and i n t r o d u c e t h e m in

home gardens and tank e c o sy s t e m s

III. Study t he changes in form and

c o n t e n t o v e r t i me o f v e g e t a t i o n in

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 d r o u g h t p r o n e areas.

5.4.1.9 Prevent the I. Map and classify Encroachments

Decline in the Forest in all f o r e s t e d a r e as si nce the last

Cover cut off dat e for regularization

( 1 5 th J une 1995) in o r d e r to r ev i e w

and p r e v e n t e n c r o a c h m e n t s .

5.4.1.1 O R esto re Degraded I. E s t a b l i s h a g r o - f o r e s t r y sys t e ms on

Forests d e g r a d e d f or es t l ands.

II. E s t a b l i s h S. R. C. e n e r g y p l a n t a t i o n

b a s e d p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n p r o j e c t s in

s e l e c t e d areas.

III. De v e l o p and i mp l e m e n t feat ur e

programmes on the value of

f o r e s t s t h r o u g h t he mas s medi a i.e

Pr i nt Me d i a , and e l e c t r o n i c med i a

5.4.1.11 Conserve and I. De v e l o p an information ba se on

Im prove G rasslands and grasslands. Information s houl d

Patana Lands i nc l u d e the d i s t r i b u t i o n , t ype and

qu a l i t y , t h r e a t s and t he po t e n t i a l

for i m p r o v e m e n t o f the gr as ses.

II. Prepare a comprehensive

management pl an for conserving

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 grasslands. '

5.4.1.12 Establish a I. Enhance t he monitoring and

Drought Early Warning weather forecasting capabilities o f

System the D e p a r t m e n t o f M e t e o r o l o g y .

II. Conduct a st udy on t he

c o n t r i b u t i o n o f l and use p r a c t i c e s

to d sertification in 3 selected

a r e as - i.e Dr y Z o n e Hi l l Co u n t r y ,

N. W. Dr y Z o n e and S.E. Dr y Zone.

5.4.1.13 Strengthen 1. Establish and m a n a g e a Drought

D r o u g h t Relief Systems Relief Fund or a Drought

I n s u r a n c e S c h e me .

5.4.1.14 S t r e n g t h e n I. Develop and disseminate new

Rainwater Harvesting technologies for rainwater

Systems harvesting.

II. Tr a i n masons and t e c h n i c i a n s to

construct rain water storage tanks

in the r ural a r e a s o f t he Dr y Zone.

5.4.1.15 P r o m o t e I. Establish location specific and

Sustainable Agriculture integrated location specific

development programme

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 II. De ve l op a c l i ma t e change and

desertification-monitoring

P r o g r a m m e to m o n i t o r c h a n g e s in

a g r i c u l t u r a l areas .

III. De vel op a r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m m e and

strategies on adaptative and

v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f a g r i c u l t u r a l crops

to d r o u g h t and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n .

IV. Pr omot e district wi se land

suitability classification and

de vel op appropriate f ar mi n g

model s.

5.4.1.16Provide I. I de nt i f y and p r o v i d e suppor t for

Alternative Income s e t t i ng up suitable agro- ba s e d

Generating industries t hat wi l l pr o v i d e off

Opportunities farm employment for farmers

operating in environmentally

fragi l e areas.

II. De vel op p r o c e d u r e s to e nsure that

poverty reduction strategies that

r educe dependency on land are

incorporated into t he sect or al

d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n n i n g pr oce ss .
'

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Supportive programmes

5.4.2.1. S t r e n g t h e n the I. Develop a pilot project to

policy f r a m e w o r k i n t r o d u c e e c o n o m i c i n s t r u m e n t s in

s e l e c t e d u p p e r w a t e r s h e d a r e a s to

a r r e s t soil e r o s i o n

II. Formulate a l and alienation

pol i cy.

5.4.2.2. Review L a n d I. Review existing l aws related to

Related Laws i( land resources and prepare an

“ u m b r e l l a l a w ” for t he p u r p o s e o f

effective land resources

management

5.4.2.3. E n h a n c e I. Establish a Secretariat in t he

Institutional Capacity Ministry of Lands to coordinate

l a nd r e l a t e d m a t t e r s .

5 . 4. 2. 4 Promote I. De v e l o p pi l ot projects to t r ai n

Capacity Building u n i v e r s i t y a c a d e m i c s and f a r me r s

of L a n d Us ers and jointly in order to share

O ther Stakeholders k n o w l e d g e and e x p e r i e n c e

II. Provide training and develop

112
 g u i d e l i n e s in land m a n a g e m e n t for

pr i vat e l a n d o w n e r s .

III. Carry out special training for

p r o v i n c i a l and l ocal l evel o f f i c e r s

in planning and implementing

na t ur a l resources management

pr o j e c t and a c t i v i t i e s .

5.4.2.5. D evelop and I. De vel op a model technology

Transfer A ppropriate t r a n s f e r p r o j e c t i n v o l v i n g farmers

Technologies and experts for facilitating

participatory t ec h n o l o g y

d e v e l o p me n t and t e s t i n g for land

m a n a g e m e n t in c o n s e r v a t i o n areas.

5.4.2.6 P r o m o te D ata I. Identify potential desertification

Collection and areas.

Inform ation Sharing II. E s t a bl i s h a l and i nf o r ma t i o n

system.

5.4.2.7. P r o m o te I. De ve l op a comprehensive

E ducation and Raise/ a wa r e n e s s and education

P u b l i c A w a r e n e s s on p r o g r a m m e to s e n s i t i s e t he gener al

E n v iro n m e n ta l Issues publ i c and t a r g e t g r o u p s in good

land m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s

113
II D e v e l o p an i m p l e m e n t a f e a t u r e

pro gra m m e via mass m e d i a to

e x p o s e b o t h g o o d and b a d l a n d

management practices in t he

country

114
7.0. P R O G R A M M E I M P L E M E N T A T I O N , MONI TO RI NG
AND E V A L U A T I O N

The A c t i o n P l a n wi l l i d e n t i f y c l e a r l y the rol e and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f

the various partners in implementing the activities c onc e r ne d .
H o w e v e r , t he i m p l e m e n t a t i o n m u s t be m o n i t o r e d and e v a l u a t e d from
t i me to time by a body mandated to do so, so that i ssues in
implementation can be discussed and remedial measures t aken to
e n s u r e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t he a c t i v i t i e s c ar r i ed out.

7.1 I M P L E M E N T A T I O N A R R A N G E M E N T S

The M i n i s t r y o f E n v i r o n m e n t and Na t u r a l R e s o u r c e s ( M / E & N R ) will be

the f o c a l p o i n t for e n s u r i n g t h a t t he A c t i o n Pl a n is i m p l e m e n t e d as
envisaged. Implementation of t he programmes and act i vi t i e s
recommended in section 5 o f t he pl an, wo u l d involve the act i ve
p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f all s t a k e h o l d e r s c o n c e r n e d at t he N a t i o n a l , P r o v i n c i a l ,
L o c a l and C o m m u n i t y l e v e l s and w o u l d i n v o l v e p o l i c y m a k e r s , pr i va t e
sector, communities, farmers, N G O ’s and C B O ’s. Proposed
i m p l e m e n t i n g a g e n c i e s f o r t he r e c o m m e n d e d p r o g r a m m e s and a ct i ons
are r e v i e w in T a b l e 3

115
T a b l e 3- Mai n P r o g r a m m e s , R e c o m m e n d e d A c t i o n s and P r o p o s e d
Implementing Agencies
\

Proposed
Main Programme Recommended Actions Implementing
Agency

5 .4 .1 .1 . P r o m o t e t he (a) Develop master plans MOE,

Integrated Management MO A L
to integrate catchment
of U p p e r W a t e r s h e d s
c o n s e r v a t i o n p r a c t i c e s for
important watersheds.

(b) Identify and test

MO AL ,
ecologically viable and DOA
economically sound l and
use s ys t e m

(c) Identify degraded or

MOE, SD,
degradation prone areas
LC, FD,
and r e g u l a r i z e or r e l o c a t e LUPPD
MOL
encroachers and settlers
as the c a s e ma y be.

(d) I d e n t i f y and d e m a r c a t e NBRO,

UNI V,
l a n d s l i d e p r o n e a r e a s and
NDMC,
relocate occupants in GS MB,
CHPB
such are as

(e) P r o m o t e on - f a r m and
DOA,
o f f - f a r m soil and w a t e r MASL,
N G O O , PC,
c o n s e r v a t i o n m e a s u r e s in
C BOO
critical watershed areas

116
 (f) P r o mo t e and MOE,
MOAL,
strengthen coordination
MOL, MOI,
a mo n g different PC
organizations de al i ng
wi t h land and wa t er
management practices.

(g) Promote a
MOA,
p a r t i c i p a t o r y a p p r o a c h to DOA,
NRMC,
land resources
FD, MOL,
management. PC, NGOO,
CBOO

(h) F i n a l i z e and i mp l e m e n t
MOL,
t he Land Use Pol i cy and
LUPPD
the Watershed
M a n a g e m e n t Pol i cy.

(i) Ex p e d i t e the
MOAL,
i mp l e m e n t a t i o n of the DOA, MOF
Soil Conservation
(Amendment) Act and
Soil Conservation Fu n d
t hr o u g h t he Soil
C o n s e r v a t i o n Board.

(a) U n d e r t a k e soi l e r o s i o n
5.4.1.2 R e h a b i l i t a t e MOAL,
Degraded A gricultural ha z a r d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and DOA/
Lands NRMC,
ma p p i n g o f d e g r a d e d l and
MO L, ( L UP
and prepare l and PD), MASL
s u i t a b i l i t y maps.

(b) P r o mo t e proven l ow-

DOA,
FD,MASL
117
 cost soil improvement PC
,NGOO,
practices, vegetative
C B OO
conservation techniques,
agronomic practices and
agroforestry systems in
degraded a r e as through
demonstrations and
awareness creation
programmes.

(c) Conduct f ur t her MO AL ,

DOA,
research studies on soil
DAPH,
fertility improvement UNIV
measures, conservation
farming practices, h o me
garden models, and
agro f o r e s t r y systems
including livestock.

(d) Promote and

D O A, PC,
implement organic PLC,
NBOO,
farming and other
CBOO
nutrient management
programmes in degraded
agricultural areas

(e) Rehabilitate degraded

MO P , PLC
t ea lands in the
upcountry and mi d
country intermediate
zones and other fi el d
c r o p s in t he dr y z one and
mid country intermediate

118
 zones.

(f) Introduce better MOI, DOI

DOA, PDA,
irrigation management
DAD, PC
practices/technologies to
r e d u c e soil erosi on.

(g) Pr ovi de i nc e nt i ve s
MOAL,
t h r o u g h a r e v o l v i n g fund, MA S L
MOF,
i mp r o v e d seeds etc, and
DOA,
p r o m o t e f ar mers s e l f help DAD, PC
programmes for
production and
conservation t hr o u g h
training and
d e mo n s t r a t i o n s .

(h) P r o mo t e off-farm
MO I ND, &
e mp l o y m e n t in or der to o t he r
relevant
r e duc e e n c r o a c h m e n t into
Mi n i s t r i e s
fragi l e areas by
s u b s i s t e n c e farmers.

5.4.1.3 P r o te c ti o n of
(a) De ve l op a data base on
Stream s and Stream SD,
Banks st r e am reservations and L UPPD,
FD,
demarcate and declare
DWLC ,
t hese reservations to DOI,
GS MB , C E
prevent further
A
encroachment.

(b) Wherever necessary, SD,

LUPP D,
r e l oc a t e fami l i e s r es i d i n g
FD,
in such reservations by DWLC,
CEA, DOI
119
 providing t hem wi t h
alternate l and and
livelihood opportunities.

(c) Strengthen
GS MB,
implementation on
DSS
restrictions imposed on
sa nd m i n i n g .

(d) Implement l ow cost

DOA,
bioengineering measures NRMC,
MASL , FD
s u c h as e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f
h e d g e r o w s and p e r m a n e n t
m ultipurpose tree species
for community use
through participatory
approach

(e) Acquire stream SD, MOL,

DOA,
reservations in private
NRMC
l a nds i f t he l and u s e r s do
not adhere to
recommended practices.

5 . 4. 1. 4 P r o t e c t S p r i n g s (a) Develop a SD,

and W a te r Spouts LUPPD,
comprehensive data ba s e
DI, FD, PC
on major springs/ water
s p o u t s and d e m a r c a t e and
d e c l a r e t h e m as p r o t e c t e d
are as .

(b) C o n s e r v e and p r o t e c t
PC
s p r i n g s and w a t e r s p o u t s

120
 through participatory
approaches

(c) Relocate families

SD,
r e s i d i n g in h y d r o l o g i c a l l y LUPPD,
DOI, FD,
critical reservations by
PC
providing them wi t h
alternate land and
livelihood.

(d) Improve catchment

FD, MASL,
management through
PC
appropriate conservation
measures

5.4.1.5 C o n s e r v a t i o n of
(a) Map reservoir
Reservoir Reservations MOI, DOI
reservations and prepare MASL
management plans to
r e s t o r e t ank eco- s y s t e m s .

(b) Enhance water DI, MOI,

DOA, CEA,
conservation, r e d u c e soil
PC
erosion in the
r e s e r v a t i o n s and i n c r e a s e
productivity of t ank
command areas wi t h the
participation of the
communities.

(c) Introduce i n c e n t i v e s to
MOL, PC
promote self hel p
programmes for
rehabilitating t ank

121
 reservation.

(d) Take steps to ej e ct MOL, SD,

D O l , LC
encroachers f r om t ank
reservations

5.4.1.6 R e c l a i m (a) Develop a MO A L ,

P r o b l e m Soi l s DOA,
comprehensive database
MO E ,
on a r e a s wi t h p r o b l e m LUPPD,
CEA
soi l s.

(b) Identify areas suitable

Al l
for h o u s i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e relevant
department
etc. and e n f o r c e l aws
s and
r e l a t e d to land f i l l i ng. provincial
Councils

(c) Conduct f ur t h e r DOA,

UNIV
research on methods of
r e c l a m a t i o n ; s u i t a b l e crop
varieties for the
reclaimed a re as ; and
management practices.

(d) Demonstrate land and

D O A, PC
crop management
technologies for t he
reclamation of problem
soi l s.

(e) Reclaim agricultural

DOA, DI,
l a nd a l r e a d y a f f e c t e d by D A D, PC
, water logging, salinity
and acidity through
_________________________________
122
 participatory approaches

5.4.1.7 P ro m o te (a) Develop a WRB, DOI,

Sustainable G round MOI
comprehensive database
W ater M anagem ent
on g r o u n d w a t e r
availability.

(b) Establish safe l i mi t s

WRA
and guidelines for t he
extraction of ground
wa t e r . .

(c) S t r e n g t h e n t he
DI, WRB,
r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t
DOA
capacity of relevant , NRMC,
UNIV
i n s t i t u t i o n s on g r o u n d
water management.

(d) Br i n g all a s p e c t s o f
DI, WRB,
g r o u n d wa t e r m a n a g e m e n t
WRA
u n d e r one u m b r e l l a
organization.

(e) Promote awareness

DOA,
p r o g r a m m e s on WRB,
WRA
e x t r a c t i o n and s u s t a i n a b l e
use o f g r o u n d wat er.

(f) Regulate ground water WRA,

DOI , PC
extraction and prevent
indiscriminate
development of we l l s ,
specially in hard rock

123
 I

areas.

(g) Enhance water use All

relevant
e f f i c i e n c y in all s e c t o r s .
Department
s and
Private
Organizati
ons
5.4.1.8 Promote
(a) P r o m o t e in si t u
Integrated Biodiversity DOA,
Conservation conservation of P G R C , FD
indigenous species

(b) Document indigenous

DOA,
k n o w l e d g e on l and r a c e s PGRC,
and d i v e r s e food and
medicinal plants.

(c) Expand awareness MOE,

PGRC
p r o g r a m m e s on bi o
diversity conservation

5.4.1.9 Prevent the Decline in (a) Undertake a census of SD, FD,

the Forest Cover DWLC
environment, to access
t he magnitude of t he
problem and update t he
data annually.

(b) Complete t he process SD, FD,

DWLC
of identifying Forest
Reserves and Wildlife
Reserves under extreme
encroachment pressure.

(c) Extend t he boundary SD, F D ,

DWLC
124
 m a r k i n g e x e r c i s e to c o v e r
all For e st R e s e r v e s (FR)
and Proposed Reserves
( PR) .

FD
(d) Extend encroachment
related policy
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the
F o r e s t D e p a r t m e n t to all
FR and PR.

5.4.1.10 Restore Degraded

(a) Establish f a r me r
Forests FD
woodlots on degraded
l ands.

(b) Expand recommended

FD, DOA
a gro - forestry systems
and S hor t Rotation
C o p p i c e ( S . R . C . ) for the
productive use of the
l ar ge extent of sparsely
used and d e g r a d e d f or e s t
l ands.

(c) Introduce
MOE, FD
environmental awareness
a mo n g s t all stakeholders
and c h i l d r e n on the va l u e
o f forests.

(d) Provide l ong - t erm

MOL, SD,
t e n u r e by l e a s i n g agro - LUPPD

125
 forestry and woodlot
a re as to f a r me r s for the
rotation age of the
s p e c i e s to be p l a n t e d .

(e) E x p l o r e the p o s s i b i l i t y
FD, DOA,
of expanding the MOI
cultivation of suitable
nitrogen fixing plants
recommended by the
Department of
Agriculture to restore
d e g r a d e d areas .

(f) Ensure gender e qui t y FD

when providing extension
and support services for
agro f o r e s t r y and w o o d l o t
establishment.

(g) Promote the greater FD, N G O O ,

C BOO
involvement of t he
private sector in the
rehabilitation and
management of degraded
f o r e s t l ands .

5.4.1.11 C onserve
a) P r e v e n t p e r n i c i o u s p r a c t i c e s
Im prove G rasslands PC, DSS
P atana L ands on grasslands such as t he
cultivation of temporary
erosive crops and t he
practice of setting fire to
patanas.

126
 b) P r o p a g a t e the c u l t i v a t i o n o f MOA, PC
grasses and t r ee f od d e r
c r ops wi t h adequate
' measures adopted to
m i n i m i z e soil e r o s i o n .

c) E s t a b l i s h fire be l t s. FD, PC

5.4.1.12 E stablish a D rought

E a rly W arning System
a) E s t a b l i s h and o p e r a t e a DOM
Dr o u g h t Ear l y W a r n i n g Uni t e
in t he D e p a r t m e n t o f Met eoro]

b) E s t a b l i s h a D r ou g h t
DOM
Monitoring Committee
Comprising
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f r om line
a genci es.

c) I mp r o v e the m e c h a n i s m for DOM

the d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f wa r n i n g s
and ot her r e l a t e d
i nf o r ma t i o n .

d) U t i l i z e t r a d i t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e DOM,
DOA, DOl
on p e r c e i v i n g , p r e d i c t i n g ,
and ma k i n g a d j u s t m e n t s to
dr ought .

5.4.1.13 S trengthen D rought

a) St r e n g t h e n the e x i s t i n g
R elief Systems DSS,
Na t i o n a l D i s a s t e r M i t i g a t i o n NDMC
Ce nt re.

127
 b) I m p l e m e n t N a t i o n a l
MSS
Disaster Counter Measures
Act.

c) P r o v i d e farmers in t he
MOI.MOS,
drought prone a re as wi t h
DOA, PC
opportunities for alternative
livelihoods.

d) P r o m o t e water conservation
D O A, PC
practices and domestic
rainwater harvesting.

e) Cr e a t e public awareness
DOM, DOA
through media on droughts
and a d a p t a t i o n to d r o u g h t s .

f) I m p r o v e the f a c i l i t i e s at t he
DOA
r e s e a r c h c e n t r e s i n v o l v e d in
developing drought resistant
c rop v a r i e t i e s , a n d a p p r o p r i a t e
technologies.

g) E s t a b l i s h an i n f o r m a t i o n
DOA
e x c h a n g e p r o g r a m m e wi t h
r e c o g n i z e d a ri d z o n e
a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a t i o n s in
c o u n t r i e s s u c h as Indi a.

a) P r o m o t e d o m e s t i c rainwater
5.4.1.14 Strengthen Rainwater DS S , NGO
Harvesting Systems harvesting practices,

b) I m p r o v e w a t e r s t o r a g e
D A D , DOI
128
 o f tanks and r e s e r v o i r s to
e n h a n c e the r e t e n t i o n
c apa ci t y.

.4.1.15 Prom ote a) C a r r y out r e s e a r c h on the DOA

Sustainable
v u l n e r a b i l i t y and
A griculture
adaptability of agricultural
c r o p s to d r o u g h t and
desertification.

b) Mo n i t o r changes in DOA, PDA

agricultural areas arising
fr om c l i ma t i c changes and
desertification

c) E n c o u r a g e / p r o m o t e
DOA, PDA
c o n s e r v a t i o n f a r mi n g
pr a c t i c e s .

d) I de n t i f y s u i t a b l e i n d i g e n o u s
DOA, PDA
and ot her varieties t hat
e n r i c h soil and r e d u c e l and
degradation.

e) P r o v i d e incentives to
MOF,
f a r me r s for conserving
MOE,
commercial and public DOA,
PDO A
l ands.

f) E n s u r e that f a r me r s use land

a c c o r d i n g to f ol l ow land D O A , P DA
suitability classifications.

129
 g) P r o m o t e e f f i c i e n t DOA, D O I ,
DAD
management o f irrigation
water, through farmer
p a r t i c i p a t i o n and by
e m p l o y i n g new w a t e r
conservation technologies/
p r a c t i c e s suc h as m i c r o
irrigation.

h) P r o m o t e Ya y a programme
DOA,
concept initiated by t he MO A L ,
PDA
D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e in
all m a j o r r i ce g r o w i n g areas.

i) I m p r o v e f a r m e r s ’ k n o w l e d g e
and s k i l l s on c r o p - l i v e s t o c k -
MO A L ,
acquaculture integration. D O A, PDA,
PDAPH

5-4.1.16 Provide Alternative

Income generating
Opportunities

a) Promote Agro-based
Industries in Rural Areas a) P r o m o t e and e s t a b l i s h a g r o - MOA,
D O A, MOI ,
b a s e d and o t h e r i n d u s t r i e s in PC

r ur a l a r e as for e f f i c i e n t use

o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s and

for g e n e r a t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l

income.

b) M a k e a v a i l a b l e a p p r o p r i a t e Samurdhi,
MOA,PC
130
LIBRARY
M inistry of £
Natural Resources
 t e c h n o l o g y to t he po o r

t h r o u g h ski l ls d e v e l o p m e n t

p r o g r a m m e s in o r d e r to

e n c o u r a g e s e t t i ng up

enterprises.

c) P r o m o t e l i v e s t o c k f a r m i n g MOAL,
DAPH
( m e d i u m - scal e) i n v o l v e d in

p o u l t r y and small r u m i n a n t s .

c) M a i n s t r e a m (a) C a r r y out i n- dept h s t u d i e s MOS

Poverty
Reduction on t he r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
P r o g ra m m e s into
the N ational p o v e r t y and land d e g r a d a t i o n
Developm ent
Agenda and r e m e d i a l m e a s u r e s to be

t a k e n to a ddress the i ssues,

(b) E n s u r e p o v e r t y a l l e v i a t i o n MOS, MSS,

PC
p r o g r a m m e s are in c o n s o n a n c e

wi t h t he macro e c o n o m i c

p o l i c i e s adapt ed by the

g o v e r n m e n t , so that p o v e r t y

r e d u c t i o n p r o g r a m m e s can be

h a r m o n i z e d wi t h s e c t o r a l

development programmes

131
 (c) Maintain an MOS, MSS,
DSS
information ba se on the po o r
and monitor the poverty
reduction programmes in a
s y s t e m a t i c ma n n e r .

(d) Target poorer segments MOS,

DOA,
of t he farmers living in
M ASL,PC
critical a r e as as t he main
initiative to combat l and
degradation.

5.4.2. Supporti ve
Programmes
5.4.2.1. S t r e n g h t h e n
the policy fre m e w o rk

a) A d o p t a n
Integrated (a) Promote and establish
A p p r o a c h to MOL
agro-based and other
Land
M anagement industries in r ur a l are as
f or efficient use of
a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s and
for generation of
a d d i t i o n a l i n c o me .

(b) Ma k e available
MOL
a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y to
t he poor through skills

132
 development programmes
in or der to encourage
s e t t i ng up o f e n t e r p r i s e s .

(c) Pr omot e livestock MOL,

MOAL , MO
f a r mi ng (medium-scale)
E
including poultry and
small r umi na nt s .

b) E n s u r e t h a t
Environm ental
Concerns are (a) Revi ew existing MOE,
A d d r e s s e d in th e macro-economic policies CE A,FD,
F o r m u l a t i o n of MOAL
E conom ic Policies and r e f o r m u l a t e t hem in
or de r to internalize
e n v i r o n m e n t a l c onc e r ns .

(b) Ensure t hat MOE,

Environmental Va l u a t i o n CEA, FD,
MOAL
is used as a tool in
gu i d i n g d e c i s i o n - ma k i n g .

(c) I ncl ude cost s

MOE
a s s o c i a t e d wi t h soil loss
f er t i l i t y decline and
si l t a t i on in national
accounting exercises.
(c) Review
C urrent Land
(a) De ve l op a
Alienation and MOL, LC,
Encroachm ent comprehensive SD
Regularization
programme to prevent
Policies
furt her e n c r o a c h m e n t s in
environmentally fr agi l e
133
 areas.

(b) Formulate a l and

M O L , LC
alienation policy t hat
would discourage
encroachments on
environmentally f r a gi l e
st at e land.

(c) P r o v i d e l and t i t l i n g to
M O L , LC
e n c r o a c h e r s in a r e a s t hat
are not environmentally
f r agi l e to e n a b l e t h e m to
have access to c r e di t ,
inputs, etc, that would
facilitate efficient land
management

(d) Introduce
Economic
I n s t r u m e n t s to (a) Introduce a
DOA,
M inim ise Land
comprehensive package of MOL,
D egradation
CEA, MOE
economic instruments in
the form of financial
inputs s uc h as l oans;
subsidies and taxes for
promoting l and
conservation.

5.4.2.2 Review Land

R elated Laws (a) Review all existing MOL
l and related l aws and
regulations and assess
l e ga l i mp a c t on land
degradation and suggest

134
 necessary changes.

(b) E x p l o r e the p o s s i b i l i t y MOL

of developing an
“umbrella framework”
l aw to deal wi t h land
related i s s ue s in a
c o h e s i v e ma nne r .

5.4.2.3.E n h an ce
(a) Strengthen Institutions
Institutional Capacity MOL, MOI,
mandated to undertake MOA,
MOE
l a n d use p l a n n i n g so t hat
l and use m a p p i n g can be
undertaken and t he
required information for
implementing the Land
Us e Pol i cy g e n e r a t e d .

(b) Strengthen the MOA,

MOE,
capacity of all
DOA,
institutions engaged in NRMC,
MOL
r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t
on l and resources
management.

(c) Al l o c a t e resources to
MOF,
undertake priority MOA,
MOL
research on l and
management in
environmentally fragile
are as .

(d) Establish a Land MOL

135
 S e c r e t a r i a t ( or a pe x b o d y )
to deal wi t h l and r e l a t e d
issues, to provide
t e c h n i c a l g u i d a n c e a n d to
ensure t hat l and
management is given
priority in t he sectoral
programmes/projects
implemented.

(e) The Watershed MOE, MOL

Management Groups
initiated by t he PLMC
c a n be e x p a n d e d to o t h e r
areas to gi ve
responsibility to
C o m m u n i t y G r o u p s in c o ­
ordination with
local/provincial
authorities to facilitate
watershed management
activities.

5.4.2.4.Prom ote
C a p a c i ty B u ild in g of (a) Formulate a M O L , LC,
L and Users and O th e r LUPPD
programme to t r a i n l a nd
Stakeholders
m a n a g e r s , and o f f i c i a l s o f
research and other
institutions dealing with
land m anagement.

(b) Promote good l and

MOE,
management among MOA,
MOL, DOA
136
 private l and owners
t h r o u g h the p r o v i s i o n o f
guidelines.

(c) Support improved MOE,

MOA,
natural resource
DOA, MOL
management practices
through education and
training to enable l and
managers and rural
c o m m u n i t i e s to a d o p t ne w
and innovative
management approaches.

(d) Provide f a r me r s wi t h
MOE,
f or ma l and i n f o r ma l MOL,
MOA, PC
training and obtain a
continuous feedback to
enable t he modification
of management practices.

(e) Identify and support MOE,

MOL,
l e a d e r s and “ c h a m p i o n s ” ,
MOA, PC
who can d e m o n s t r a t e the
benefits of better land
management to motivate
o t h e r l and i s s ue s .

(f) Network ski l l s in

MOE,
leadership development MOL,
MOA
so as to encourage
participatory and

137
 p a r t n e r s h i p a p p r o a c h e s in
land m a n a g e m e n t .

(g) Bu i l d t he capacity of
MO E ,
provincial officials in MOL, PC
order to obtain t hei r
active participation of
provincial officials in
environmental decision­
ma k i n g .

5.4.2.5. Develop and Transfer

(a) Tes t and identify
Appropriate Technologies DOA
s u i t a b l e c o n s e r v a t i o n and
l and management
t e c h n o l o g i e s for d i f f e r e n t
l and t ypes.

(b) Carry out studies to

DOA,
identify potential NRMC,
DOM
d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n are as .

(c) Develop appropriate

MO E ,
m o d e l s o f l and MO A , DOA
m a n a g e m e n t for p o t e n t i a l
de sertification areas

(d) D e m o n s t r a t e t he s e D O A, PDA
m o d e l s wi t h a c t i v e f a r me r
p a r t i c i p a t i o n so t hat land
us e r s c o u l d c h o o s e the
t e c h n o l o g i e s t hat are mos t
acceptable.

138
 (e) P r e p a r e g u i d e l i n e s and DOA,
LUPPD
m a n u a l s on land
c o n s e r v a t i o n and land
rehabilitation technology.

(f) Use medi a and ot her

MOE,
c h a n n e l s to creat e MOAL,
DOA, PDA
a wa r e n e s s and to e duc a t e
and de vel op n e c e s s a r y
ski l l s a mo n g s t land users.

5.4.2.6. P r o m o te D ata
(a) I de nt i f y the dat a t hat
Collection and MOL,
Inform ation Sharing ne eds to be c o l l e c t e d for L UPPD,
LC
m a n a g i n g l and r e s o u r c e s ,
establish a Land
Resources I n f o r ma t i o n
Sys t em as a ba si s for
decision-making and
d e ve l op a m e c h a n i s m for
e x c h a n g i n g data.

(b) Ma ke the information

MOL,
available to all LUPPD,
LC
institutions wi t h
responsibilities relating
to land.

(a) Incorporate
5.4.2.7. P r o m o t e MOE,
E ducation and Raise / environmental MOL,
P u b l i c A w a r e n e s s on MOA
communication into all
E n v iro n m e n ta l Issues
na t u r a l resources
management projects,
through whi c h

139
 coordination, consultative
and dissemination
processes can be
facilitated.

(b) Incorporate
environmental i s s u e s a nd MOE,
UNIV
c o n c e r n s i nt o s c h o o l and
university curricula.

(c) Develop . programmes

MOE,
to address target groups
MOA,
in specific areas and MOAL,
MOL
create awareness on
c r i t i c a l i s s u e s s uc h as t he
extraction of ground
water and t he value of
forests.

(d) S t r e n g t h e n t he e x i s t i n g
MOE,
extension and promotion M O A L , PC
divisions of natural
resource management
a g e n c i e s to d e a l wi t h l and
degradation issues in a
more coherent manner.

(e) Prepare manuals a nd

LUPPD,
h a n d o u t s p e r t a i n i n g to t he DOA
efficient use of l and
resources.

(f) Strengthen on going MOE,

DOA,
140
awareness programmes L UPP D
u s i n g e l e c t r o n i c pr i nt and
v i s u a l medi a.

141
7.1.1 Nati onal C o o r d i n a t i n g Body

The M/E&NR wi l l be responsible for providing leadership in

environmental management and ensure that t he various partners
c o n c e r n e d i mp l e m e n t e n v i r o n m e n t and n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e p o l i c i e s . The
Ministry wi l l have t he responsibility of ensuring that education;
t r a i n i n g , a w a r e n e s s and c a p a c i t y b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m m e s are c a r r i e d out
as p l a n n e d . The M i n i s t r y w o u l d c o o r d i n a t e s u c h a c t i v i t i e s w i t h t he
n e c e s s a r y g u i d a n c e and d i r e c t i o n f r om a N a t i o n a l S t e e r i n g C o m m i t t e e
on Land M a n a g e m e n t (NSCLM) set up w i t h representatives o f all
s t a k e h o l d e r s c o n c e r n e d . Thi s b o d y wi l l m o n i t o r t he i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f
the p l a n on a p e r i o d i c basi s.

The S e c r e t a r y , M / E & N R wi l l c h a i r t h i s c o m m i t t e e and w o u l d i n c l u d e

s e n i o r o f f i c i a l s from l ine a g e n c i e s , p r i v a t e s e c t o r , N G O s , and e x p e r t s
in the a r e a c o n c e r n e d . D e c i s i o n s t a k e n at t he l oc a l l e ve l c o o r d i n a t i n g
c o m m i t t e e s and t he E x p e r t s C o m m i t t e e on L a n d wi l l a l s o be t a k e n up
for d i s c u s s i o n .

7.1.2 Local Level C oo rd i n a t i o n

Local l evel coordination is very important, as t he actual

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n wi l l t ake p l a c e at t h a t l e ve l . To e n s u r e c o o r d i n a t i o n
and the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , the d u t i e s o f t h e D i s t r i c t L e v e l E n v i r o n m e n t a l
C o m m i t t e e ( D L E C ) wi l l be e x p a n d e d to c o v e r l and a s p e c t s as wel l.
This committee wi l l c o m p r i s e officials from related agencies, and
CBOs. A s u b - c o m m i t t e e wi l l be a p p o i n t e d to de a l w i t h t h i s s u b j e c t in
det ai l and m o n i t o r the a c t i v i t i e s a n d r e p o r t to t he D L E C . The S u b ­
c o m m i t t e e wi l l be c h a i r e d by D i s t r i c t L a n d O f f i c e r a n d w o u l d c o n s i s t
o f f or es t and w i l d l i f e o f f i c i a l s and t he D i s t r i c t E n v i r o n m e n t a l O f f i c e r s
in t he area. A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t he M / E & N R wi l l a l s o a t t e n d t hes e

142
meetings in order to assess t he situation and assist in any
impleme ntation issues

7.1.3 T e c h n i c a l A d v i s o r y Group

The E x p e r t ’ s C o m m i t t e e on L a n d D e g r a d a t i o n and D r o u g h t s (ECLDD)

wi l l include representatives f r om universities; research institutions
and scientists related to land and related natural r es o u r c e s . This
c o m m i t t e e w o u l d p r o v i d e a d v i c e on t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s to the NS CLM to
f a c i l i t a t e p o l i c y d e v e l o p m e n t and d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g . The ECL wi l l be
c o n v e n e d by t he M / E & N R .

7.1.4. P r o g r a m m e M a n a g e m e n t and I m p l e m e n t i n g Agencies

The N a t u r a l Resources Management Division o f t he M / E & N R will

p r o v i d e g u i d a n c e to t he a g e n c i e s , CBOs etc for t he d e v e l o p m e n t o f
projects for i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . N e c e s s a r y f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e wi l l be
provided once t he projects are prioritized and donor assistance
s o l i c i t e d . A s s i s t a n c e to p r e p a r e p r o j e c t p r o p o s a l s wi l l also be p r o v i d e d
as p a r t o f c a p a c i t y b u i l d i n g .

Mo s t o f the a c t i v i t i e s u n d e r t he p r o j e c t s wi l l be c o m b i n e d /to the

ongoing-field activities, so as to enhance their i mp a c t s . Ensuring
s u s t a i n a b i l i t y wi l l b e t he m a i n o b j e c t i v e in all a c t i v i t i e s i mp l e me n t e d .
Awareness and capacity building will go hand in ha n d wi t h the
activities implemented.

A d a t a b a s e wi l l be e s t a b l i s h e d in or de r to d o c u m e n t and r e por t on t he
w o r k c o n c e r n e d and al so to d i s s e m i n a t e i n f o r m a t i o n to all c o n c e r n e d .
A n e w s l e t t e r wi l l be us e d for t h i s p u r p o s e . C o m p u t e r s wi l l be p r o v i d e d
at s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n s w h e r e m o s t a c t i v i t i e s are l o c a t e d and dat a will be
s t o r e d and r e v i e w e d for b e t t e r l a n d m a n a g e m e n t

143
7.1.5 S t a ke h ol de r s P a r t i c i p a t i o n

Effective stakeholder participation is t he key to successful

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t he p r o g r a m m e s p r o p o s e d in t he A c t i o n Pl a n. The
v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s in the p l a n wi l l ha ve to be i m p l e m e n t e d by t h e
p l a n t a t i o n c o m p a n i e s m a n a g i n g t ea, r u b b e r and c o c o n u t , o t h e r p r i v a t e
sector . companies engaged in agricultural production, farmers,
h o u s e h o l d s , c o m m u n i t y g r o u p s , C B O s etc.

7.2 M O N I T O R I N G AND E V A L U A T I O N

M o n i t o r i n g will be d one at v a r i o u s l e ve l s and i n t e r v a l s in o r d e r to

g e n e r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n and to a s s e s s p r o g r e s s and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t he
a c t i v i t i e s i m p l e m e n t e d . The d e t a i l s o f the i n f o r m a t i o n c o l l e c t e d wi l l
v a r y b e t w e e n t he l evel s . At the n a t i o n a l l e ve l m o n i t o r i n g wi l l be d o n e
on a q u a r t e r l y b a s i s and t he i n f o r m a t i o n c o l l e c t e d wi l l be at a m a c r o
l evel. At t he l oca l l eve l d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n wi l l be c o l l e c t e d as p a r t
o f the m o n i t o r i n g p r o c e s s on a m o n t h l y b a s i s . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n wi l l be
analyzed and summarized and submitted to the national l eve l
i n s t i t u t i o n s for a s s e s s i n g t he p e r f o r m a n c e o f t he wo r k . At t he f i e l d
level mor e detailed information would be collected for research
purposes that can be used for f i el d level interventions a nd
i m p r o v e m e n t s in l and.

The M/E&NR has a well-established monitoring system, which

m o n i t o r s p r o g r e s s in det a i l on a q u a r t e r l y b a s i s . The p r o g r e s s r e v i e w
meetings held review the progress of activities, projects etc a nd
d i s c u s s i s s ue s and r e m e d i a l m e a s u r e s .

A p r e r e q u i s i t e for t he m o n i t o r i n g s y s t e m on l a n d d e g r a d a t i o n is t h e
development of a database, which should be linked to a l and
m a n a g e m e n t i n f o r m a t i o n s ys t e m. Lac k o f d a t a on d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f

144
l and d e g r a d a t i o n , m a g n i t u d e , a s s o c i a t e d s o c i o - e c o n o m i c f a c t o r s etc is
c o m m o n i s s u e s h a m p e r i n g c o h e s i v e l and m a n a g e m e n t d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g .

145
 ANNEX I

P R O P O S E D I M P L E M E N T I N G A G E N C I E S F OR R E C O M M E N D E D A C T I O N S

Central Environment Aut horit y CEA

Centre for Housi ng Planning and Bui l di ng CHPB
Depart ment of Agrarian Devel opment DAD
Depart ment of Agr i cul t ur e DOA
Depart ment of Agrarian Devel opment DAD
Depart ment of Animal Pr oduct i on and Health DAPH
Depart ment of Irrigation DOI
Depart ment of Met eorol ogy DOM
Depart ment of Social Services DSS
Depart ment of Wild Life Conser vat i on DWLC
Divisional Secret ar i es DSS
Forest Depar t ment FD
Geological Survey and Mines Bureau GSMB
Internat i onal Union for the Conser vat i on of Nat ure IUCN
Land Commi ssi oners Depar t ment LCD
Land Use Pol i cy Planning Division LUPPD
Mahawel i Aut hori t y of Sri Lanka MASL
Minist ry of Agri cul t ure and Li vest ock MOAL
Ministry of Educat i on MOED
Ministry of Envi ronment MOE
Ministry of Finance MOF
Ministry of Industries. MOIND
Ministry of I r ri gat i on MOI
Ministry of Lands / MOL
Ministry of Samurdhi MOS
Ministry of Social Services MSS
National Di sast er Management Cent re NDMC
National Physical Planni ng Depar t ment NPPD
Natural Resources Management Cent re o f the DOA NRMC
Non Government Organi zat i ons NGOO
Community Based Or gani zat i ons CBOO
Plant Genetic Resources Centre of the DOA PGRC
Pl ant at i on Compani es PLC
Provinci al Counci ls PC
Provinci al Depar t ment of Agr i cul t ur e PDA
Provinci al Depart ment of Animal P r o d u c t i o n & Heal t h PDAPH
Survey Depart ment SD
Uni versities UNIV
Water Res our ces Authorit y WRA
Water Resources Board WRB

146
 A N N E X II

L I S T OF P O S I T I O N PAPERS P R E P A R E D

Present Status and Impacts of Soil Erosion in the Up Country of Sri Lanka
Dr. H. B. N a y a k e k o r a l a

Pr esent Status and Impact of Soil Erosion in the Mi d- Count r y Area

M r . H e n r y Gantage

Pr esent Status and Impacts of Soil Erosion in the Low Country Dry Zone
Dr . P. B. D h a r m a s e n a

Present Status o f Economi c Losses of soil Erosion (On Site and Off Site)
Dr . B . M. S . Ba t a g o d a

Present Status and Impacts of Sedi ment at i on in Dry Zone Cascaded Tank
Systems
Dr. P.B. D h a r m a s e n a

“A G RO F O RE S T R Y ” As a Pot e nt i a l Tool to Combat Land Degradation in

Arid and Dry Zones of Sri Lanka
Dr. D. K. N. G. P u s h p a k u m a r a

“A G RO F O RE S T R Y ” A Pot ent i al Tool to Rehabi l i t at e Degraded Land

Caused by Soil Erosion in Mid and Up Country Area of Sri Lanka
Dr . S. P. Ni s s h a n k a

I nt egr at ed Pl a nt - Ani mal Agr o- f or e st r y System to Cont rol land degradation

in arid and Dry - Z o n e s of Sri Lanka
Dr . L . P . S i l v a & Dr. V. p. J a y a w a r d e n a

Conser vat i on and Sus t a i na bl e Use of Tradit ional Crop Vari eties in Dry and
Arid Zones of Sri Lanka
Mr . S. Va h ee s a n

Role of Pr omot i ng Expor t Agr i cul t ur e Crop Based Cropping Systems to

Combat Land Degr adat i on in Sri Lanka
Mr . A. P. H e e n k e n d e & Mr . I . H . M . H . B . H e r a t h

An Ass ess ment of Sa l i na i z at i on Status of Major I r ri gat i on Schemes

( Except Mahawel i Syst ems) in Southern Dry Zone of Sri Lanka
M r . M . A . R o o n a g e & Mr. T . M . J . B a n d a r a

An As s ess ment of Sa l i ni z a t i on Status of Soils in Mahawel i Systems

Mr. K.M.A. Ke nda raga ma

An Ass ess ment of Sa l i ni z a t i on Status of soils in the North central dry zone
Except Mahawel i Areas
M r . K. M. A. K e n d a r a g a m a

Present Status of Rain Water Harvest i ng in Dry zone of Sri Lanka

M r . G. J a y a s i n g h e
• Present Status of Water Requi r ement for Co n s e r v a t i o n of
Wildlife in the Dry and Arid Zones o f Sri Lanka
Dr. C h a n o a B a m b a r a d e n i y a and Mr. Aj i t h de Si l va

• Status of Ground Water ext r act i on in the Dry and Arid Zones of Sri Lanka
Mr . He n r y Carnage

• Impacts of Unsust ai nabl e Agr i c ul t ur e on Qual i t y of Gr o u n d wa t e r with

Special Reference to Kalpitiya Peni ns ul a
Dr. D . S . P . K u r u p p u a r a c h c h i

• Impact of Fert i l i zat i on on the Quality of wat er and Soil in Upco u n t r y

Dr. K. A. N a n d a s e n a
• Effect of Land Ti tling in the Cont rol of Land De g r a d a t i o n
Ms. C h a n d i ma W i c k r a m a s i n g h e

• Roles of Government , Pri vat e Sector and NGOs and Pr es e nt Status o f

Communi t y Based Resources Mana ge ment to Combat Land d e gr a dat i on
Ms. M. A. K u m a r a d a s a

• Poli cies Pert ai ni ng to Land Degr ada t i on

Dr. Pe r c y Si l va

• Land Rel ated Legisl at i on to Combat Land De g r a d a t i o n

Dr. Per cy Si l va

• Trends and Condi t i ons of Drought

Mr. N . A . A m a r a d a s a

• Present Status of Animal Breedi ng Pr ograms for Dry and Arid Zones
Dr. L. P. Si l va & Dr. C . M. B . D e m a t a w e w a

• An Assessment of Economic losses o f Dr ought s

Dr. B. M. S . B a t a g o d a

• Mi t i gat i on of Impacts of Nat ur al Di s as t er s on Land Degr ada t i on

Mr. N . M. S . I . A r a m b e p o l a & Mr. R . M. S . B a n d a r a

• Soil Fert i l i t y Status of Soils in Dry and Arid Regi ons of Sri Lanka
Dr. K. A. N a n d a s e n a

• Present Status of Soil De gr ada t i on in Sri Lanka

Dr. K. A. N a n d a s e n a

• Present Status of Research on Land De g r a d a t i o n and Drought

Mr. I. D i s s a n a y a k e

• Gui del i nes for Drought Poli cy, Dr ought Pr e p a r e d n e s s Plan and Early
Warning Systems for Mi t i gat i ng the Impacts o f Dr ought in Sri Lanka
Dr. B . V . R . P u n y a w a r d e n a

• Veget at i on Recovery in Degraded Lands in Sri Lanka

Attempts, Problems and res ear ch Needs from a
Si l vi cul t ur al and Agronomic Pe r s pe ct i ve
Dr. D . K . N . G P u s h p a k u m a r a

148
 ANN EX III

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