THE INFLUENCE OF WORKING MEMORY ON

SECOND LANGUAGE PROCESSING OUTCOMES

OF LANGUAGE LEARNERS

PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION: A MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL

Volume: 16
Issue 6
Pages: 615-627
Document ID: 2024PEMJ1485
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.10523183
Manuscript Accepted: 12-18-2023
Psych Educ, 2024, 16(6): 615-627, Document ID:2024PEMJ1485, doi:10.5281/zenodo.10523183, ISSN 2822-4353
Research Article

The Influence of Working Memory on Second Language Processing

Outcomes of Language Learners
Shan Ralph R. Mateo*
For affiliations and correspondence, see the last page.
Abstract
This study was conducted to determine which domains of working memory significantly influence the
second language processing outcomes of grade 10 language learners. The study employed a quantitative,
non-experimental method employing causal effect to describe existing characters. Mean, Pearson r, and
Multiple Regression Analysis were the statistical tools used to determine the level, relationship, and
influence of each variable. The respondents comprised 332 grade 10 students from the main secondary
schools from the four districts in the Division of Compostela Valley, Province of Compostela Valley in
random selection, 125 from School A, 77 from School B, 88 from School C and 42 from School D for the
school-year 2018-2019. The findings of the study revealed a high level of working memory in terms of
planning, problem-solving, reasoning, and first language comprehension. This study also revealed that the
level of second language processing outcomes was high in terms of second language comprehension and
second language production. The correlation between the two variables of the study revealed a significant
relationship between working memory and second language processing outcomes of language learners.
Lastly, the study revealed that all the domains of working memory: planning, problem-solving, reasoning,
and first language comprehension, significantly influence second language processing outcomes of
language learners.

Keywords: working memory, second language processing outcomes, language learners, Philippines

Introduction
Second language learning in most South African schools has been in a crisis for a long time and has been the hotbed
of socio-political currents for many years. Much school learning is based on second-hand experience conveyed with
the second language in the instruction, and learners switch from mother tongue (first language) instruction to English
medium as the second language of instruction in Grade 5 classrooms. It was found that most Grade 5 learners in
Cape Town are not ready to learn up to ten subjects through the medium of English, and thus produce low results in
language processing using the second language. Based on the findings, the whole learning situation from Grade 1 to
Grade 4 is too limited to prepare children for the range of language processing skills they will need from Grade 5
onwards. The quality of instruction using English as a second language remains poor in many countries since students
got low results in second language comprehension and production. In fact, some students in African primary schools
do not perform much better on basic literacy and numeracy tests than children who do not attend school (Cummins,
2014).

Working memory is of great interest in the field of language processing in second language learning and acquisition.
It is demonstrated that working memory contributes independently to the linguistic knowledge of students in
language processing outcomes and that working memory plays an important role in second language comprehension
and production. Working memory is where language processing takes place. Significant working memory storage is
very useful in language comprehension and production processes. In language comprehension, working memory
becomes the place where the understanding of concepts of thought is based on the lexicon. In language production,
working memory becomes the place where the pronunciations of the words are put in linear order based on the
syntactic and semantic relations in the intended utterance before the construction of a motor program that produces
the utterance (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Baddeley & Logie, 1999 as cited by Friso-van den Bos et al., 2013).
Poor working memory makes it hard for second language learners to use the information they get in formal schooling
and real-life situations. Oftentimes, the overloading of instructions the learners get from school is considered a
problem for comprehension and production in the second language of the learners. Furthermore, even if the
instruction is given in a very simple manner, second language learners find it difficult to process the information
because of poor working memory which results also in poor language comprehension and production. Low results
in verbal and communication skills of students on National Standardized Tests result from low second language
comprehension and production in a second language. In addition, students may suffer low self-esteem in learning to
use a second language because of the difficulty the learner has encountered (Gathercole et. al., 2012).
The researcher has not come across a study establishing the influence of working memory on the second language
processing outcomes of language learners in the local setting. However, there was a study on the national and
international setting among Junior High School students on second language learning.

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Research Article

The study, therefore, fills the gap in the literature on the variables involved. Further, the secondary schools in District
1 of Compostela Valley consider the issues mentioned above as the same problem experienced by the schools in
achieving success in the student’s academic development on language processing outcomes using the second
language. It is in this context that the researcher is interested in determining if there is an influence and what the
influences of the working memory on second language processing outcomes on Grade 10 language learners
Research Questions
This study is conducted to determine what domain in the working memory significantly influences second
language processing outcomes of language learners. More specifically, the study seeks to achieve the following
objectives:

1. What is the level of working memory of the respondents through a range of complex cognitive processes in
terms of:
1.1 Planning;
1.3 Problem Solving;
1.3 Reasoning; and
1.4. First Language Comprehension?
2. What is the level of second language processing outcomes of the respondents in terms of:
2.1 Language Comprehension; and
2.2 language production?
3. What is the significant relationship between the working memory and the second language processing outcomes
of language learners?
4. What domain in the working memory significantly influences second language processing outcomes of language
learners?

Methodology
Research Design

This study used the quantitative non-experimental research design using causal effect focusing on the present
condition of the situations, that existed at the time of the study. This study also explored the relationship and described
the causes of a particular phenomenon. Furthermore, this causal effect design utilized correlation research and
regression analysis which generally measure if a relationship existed and find out the strength of such relationship
between variables being studied. In correlation research, it involves collecting data to find out the relationship exists
between two or more quantifiable variables (Garrett et. al., 2011).

Moreover, regression analysis was employed as the focus of the study which includes establishing a model and
analyzing several variables in which the relationship was described that involves a dependent variable and one or
more independent variables. In simple terms, in the analysis, a statistical tool was used in the quantitative approach
to examine the nature of relationships among variables (Dudovskiy, 2018). This descriptive survey dealt with
quantitative data about the influence of working memory on the second language processing outcomes of language
learners. The quantitative aspect was an appropriate schedule for gathering the data designed for the target
respondents who answered the questions on the questionnaire.

Participants/Respondents

The respondents of this research were the Grade 10 Junior Secondary School learners from the regular class in the
Division of Compostela Valley District 1 who were selected using stratified random sampling. The numbers of
respondents were determined by using Slovin’s Formula. There were 332 respondents in the study. 125 students were
from School A, 77 students from School B, 88 students from School C, and 42 students from School D. Grade 10
students in the regular class of the above-mentioned schools answered the adapted and modified survey
questionnaire. The respondents must be grade 10 and a bonafide student of the selected schools for the school year
2018-2019. Students who are not grade 10 and not bona fide students of the selected schools are not allowed to
participate in the survey. The respondents/participants can withdraw if they feel threatened by the conduct of the
study.

Instrument of the Study

An adapted-modified questionnaire was used in gathering data. The instrument was pilot-tested to a group not part
of the identified respondents of the study. The items in the instrument were then subjected to the reliability test for
interval consistency of items using Cronbach Alpha (Appendix F).

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Research Article

In evaluating the influence of working memory, it was composed of the following variables: problem-solving,
planning, reasoning, and first language comprehension. The five orderable gradations with their respective range
and descriptions were considered:

The Likert scale was employed in describing the influence of working memory on second language processing
outcomes of language learners. It required individual respondents to check in a box in reply to an assigned number
of items regarding problem-solving, planning, reasoning, and first language comprehension. Usually, the number
they get from the rating scale was treated directly as measurements by calculating its mean or any arithmetic
operations.

The average result for the internal validation of the survey questionnaire by the panel of internal validators was 4.45
with a descriptive equivalent of very good while the average result for the external validation by the panel of external
validators was 5.00 with a descriptive equivalent of excellent. The Cronbach’s Alpha of the independent variable
was 0.906 meaning it has a very good internal consistency while the dependent variable has a good internal
consistency with a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.899.

Procedure

After the approval of the panel members, the researcher underwent the following steps and procedures in gathering
data for the study. Firstly, the researcher asked permission to conduct the study. Primarily, the researcher obtained
an endorsement letter from the Dean of the Professional Schools, Dr. Ionne A. Avelino. Then, the researcher
forwarded the letter of permission to conduct the study to the Division Superintendent of the Division of Compostela
Valley. Upon approval, the researcher provided a copy to the School Principals of School A, School B, School C,
and School D. Upon the approval to conduct the study, the researcher asked for the list of the Grade 10 students from
the Guidance Counselor of the said schools.
After this, the researcher computed the number of respondents using Slovin’s Formula. Afterward, the researcher
requested assistance and made some appointments with the class advisers of the respondents for the distribution of
the questionnaire. Before the distribution of the survey questionnaire, the researcher elaborated first on the rationale
of such activity for the students to fully understand its purpose. The respondents were given one hour to answer the
questionnaires. Also, the researcher spent time with the respondents during the administration. Questionnaires were
retrieved after the allotted time given to the respondents was up. Finally, the researcher gathered, checked, and
tabulated the scores of the respondents upon the approval of the validators, the panel members, and the adviser.

Ethical Considerations
Some considerable ethical issues and concerns have specific ramifications for this quantitative inquest. Such issues
and concerns may arise primarily from the methodology involved in this study. The ethical contests that are pertinent
to this research concern the issues of the right to conduct the study, confidentiality, and anonymity.

The researcher observed and followed full ethical standards in the conduct of the study following the study protocol
assessments and standardized criteria, particularly in managing the population and data such as, but not limited to:

Voluntary participation. The Grade 10 students of the selected school were given the free will to participate without
any form of consequence penalty or loss of benefits. Therefore, the purpose and the benefits of the study were
described and presented to the participating school. Then, the rights of the respondents to contribute to the body of
knowledge were carefully considered and adhered to.

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Research Article

Privacy and confidentiality. The researcher kept private and with utmost confidentiality the respondents’ personal
information that was required in the study.

Informed consent process. The research questionnaires were free of technical terms which made it easier for the
respondents to understand. It gave the respondents a clear view of the benefits they may get after the conduct of this
study. The research questionnaire was administered with the consent of the school principal.

Recruitment. The distribution of the respondents showed how the respondents were disseminated. Furthermore, the
data collection procedures indicated, as well as how the questionnaire was administered, and the manner of
respondents that was involved in the study.

Risks. The study did not involve in high risks of situations that the respondents may experience in physical,
psychological, or socio-economic concerns. The study just involved their field of motivation toward learning.

Benefits. The result of the study would benefit DepEd officials of Compostela Valley Division, Junior High School
principals, and more importantly the Junior High School teachers in terms of acquiring information as to the level of
working memory that could influence the second language processing outcomes of the Grade 10 language learners.

Plagiarism. The study had no trace or evidence of misrepresentation of someone else's work as his own. The study
will undergo a plagiarism detector like Grammarly or Turnitin software.
Fabrication. The study had no trace or evidence of intentional misrepresentation of what had been done. No making
up of data and results, or purposefully putting forward conclusions that were not accurate.

Falsification. The study had no trace of purposefully misrepresenting the work that fit a model or theoretical
expectation and had no evidence of over-claiming or exaggeration.

Conflict of Interest (COI). The study had no trace of conflict of interest for example the disclosure of COI which
was a set of conditions in which professional judgment concerning primary interest such as participants’ welfare or
the validity of the research tends to be influenced by a secondary interest such as financial or academic gains or
recognitions.

Authorship. The researcher of the study was a graduate of Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in English. The
researcher of the study underwent a series of revisions of the paper as to the recommendations that were made by his
adviser. The study also followed the standards of the University of Mindanao Ethics Review Committee for the
guidelines of ethical consideration. After their approval, the study underwent pilot testing and the data collected were
interpreted for the consistency of the research questionnaire.

Results and Discussion

This section presents the results, the analysis, and the interpretation of the findings of the study. The data are
presented both in tabular and textual forms. All the inferential results were analyzed and interpreted at a 0.05 level
of significance. The analysis, interpretation, and findings of data gathered from the respondents were presented in
this section. The topics discussed in this study were the level of working memory of the respondents through a range
of complex cognitive processes, the level of second language processing outcomes of the respondents, the
significance of the relationship between the working memory and the second language processing outcomes of the
language learners and the regression analysis on the influence of the domains of working memory to the second
language processing outcomes of the language learners.

The standard deviation was used to determine the error on unknown samples. It can be noted that the standard
deviation ranged from 0.58 to 0.71 which is less than 1.0 as the typical standard deviation for the 5-point Likert scale
(Wittnik & Bayer, 1994). This means that the ratings in the accomplished questionnaires are close to the mean,
indicating the consistency of responses among the respondents.

Level of Working Memory

One of the variables used in this study was working memory, whose measures included planning, problem-solving,
reasoning, and first language comprehension. Presented in Table 1 is the summary of the level of working memory
of Grade 10 students of the four main secondary schools from the four districts in the Division of Compostela Valley
in terms of planning, problem-solving, reasoning, and first language comprehension. The general mean is 3.89 which
means that the working memory of the students is high. This implies that working memory is often observed among
learners. Among the four indicators, the indicator with 4.01 highest mean is First Language Comprehension, followed
by Problem-Solving with a mean of 3.97. Next, is the Planning with the mean of 3.88 and the indicator with the least
mean is Reasoning, with the mean of 3.70, in which all of the indicators are described as high.
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Table 1. Level of Working Memory of the Grade 10 Language Learners

The total mean of Students’ Working Memory is 3.89, with a descriptive equivalent of high. This means that the
level of students’ working memory is often observed among students.

As reflected in Table 1.1, it shows that learners put things in order in accomplishing daily activities by looking into
specific details in a very simple way and developing specific plans of how to accomplish a certain daily task have an
equal mean of 4.03, which is described as high. The second highest mean was learners' organized information for
developing and implementing specific plans to accomplish the task with 3.90, which is also described as high.
Subsequently, learners change plans so that improvement and adjustments can be made for further actions with the
mean of 3.78, which is described as high. Lastly, learners synthesize certain information from a variety of available
sources when making major decisions has the lowest mean of 3.68, which is described as high.

In Appended Table 1.2, it was reflected that learners think of possible ways to figure out exactly what the problem
is and try to get all the facts before trying to solve a problem with the highest mean of 4.03, which is described as
high. The second highest mean is that learners select a solution and think about it before they put it into action with
a mean of 4.00, which is also described as high. Subsequently, learners look ahead and try to prevent problems before
they happen to avoid conflicts with people around them with a mean of 3.93, which is described as high. Then,
learners look at the results of each possible solution and compare how it affects all the people involved has a mean
of 3.92, which is described as high. The last one is that learners determine what caused a problem and do the first
thing that comes into their head to look at the likely results for each possible solution of the problem with the mean
of 3.90, which is described as high.

In Appended Table 1.3, it was reflected that learners develop exact definitions of concepts among all the available
necessary information and ideas has the highest mean of 3.81, which is described as high. The second highest mean
is learners' search for counterexamples to test an argument or explanations for verification of two or more sides of a
certain issue with a mean of 3.80, which is described as high. Next, learners break down problems into simpler ones
by identifying most of the variables involved in the problem with a mean of 3.72, which is described as high.
Subsequently, learners find alternative explanations of formulated concepts and ideas through first-hand observations
has a mean of 3.71, which is described as high. Followed by learners interpreting graphs and other symbolic
statements into words and vice versa for a simpler comprehension with a mean of 3.49 which is described as high.

Lastly, as stated in Table 1.4, was reflected that learners easily communicate with other people using the vernacular
language (Bisaya dialect) with the highest mean of 4.10, which is described as high. Next learners grasp the main
idea of the reading material while reading and listening in vernacular language (Bisaya dialect) with the second
highest mean of 4.08, which is described as high. Subsequently, learners express well an organized idea in the
communication process using the vernacular language (Bisaya dialect) with a mean of 3.99, which is described as
high. Then, learners easily extract the main idea of the whole passage from its title or subtitles when the topic is
explained in the vernacular language (Bisaya dialect) with a mean of 3.96, which is described as high. Lastly, learners
find learning new information fun and worthwhile if it is written in vernacular language (Bisaya dialect) with a mean
of 3.80, which is described as high.

Level of Second Language Processing Outcomes of Language Learners

Table 2 shows the level of Language Processing Outcomes of Language Learners of the Grade 10 students of the
four main secondary schools from the four districts in the Division of Compostela Valley in terms of Second
Language Comprehension and Second Language Production. Between the two indicators, Language Comprehension
has a higher mean of 4.07, while Language Production has a lesser mean of 3.83. Language Comprehension has a
descriptive equivalent of high. This means that second language comprehension is often observed among Grade 10
language learners as well as second language production is also often observed among Grade 10 language learners.

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Table 2. Level of Second Language Processing Outcomes of Language Learners

In the Appended Table 2.1, it shows that learners use dictionaries when coming across new words in English to better
comprehend the idea of the reading or listening material with a mean of 4.33, which is described as very high. This
means that second language processing outcomes are always used among learners. The second highest mean is that
the learners figure out the definition of new words in context by looking at their literal meaning and how the word is
used in the sentence with a mean of 4.12, which is described as high. Next, the learners understand the idea of reading
and listening to text from keywords to grasp the general meaning of the whole reading and listening material with a
mean of 4.03, which is described as high. Subsequently, learners become aware of the grammatical structure of
sentences to understand better their denotative and connotative meaning with a mean of 3.98, which is described as
high. Lastly, learners interpret the author’s intention in reading and listening to texts to further understand the concept
with a mean of 3.98, which is described as high.
In Appended Table 2.2, it was reflected that learners make the message simple by avoiding certain language
structures or topics when they encounter some language difficulty while communicating in English with the highest
mean of 3.97, which is described as high. The second highest mean is that learners use simplified grammar in the
belief that the receiver of the message will be able to construct the grammatical meaning of the message when they
have difficulties in English grammatical knowledge with the mean of 3.90, which is described as high. Nest is that
learners express lexical, grammatical, and conceptual misunderstandings either verbally or nonverbally when
communicating using the English language with the mean of 3.81, which is described as high. Subsequently, learners
substitute the original message with a new one when they are unable to retrieve the appropriate words to communicate
their intended message with a mean of 3.80, which is described as high. Lastly, learners abandon the accomplishment
of a verbal plan when they cannot remember the appropriate English words to be used during the communication
with a mean of 3.64, which is also described as high.

Significant Relationship Between Levels of Working Memory and Second Language Processing Outcomes
Table 3 shows that all the indicators specifically connect working memory and suitable representation to specific
situations illustrating that there is a significant relationship between working memory and second language
processing outcomes of the language learners. The r-value for Planning and Second Language Processing Outcomes
is 0.633* with a p-value of 0.001 which shows a positive correlation at 0.4007. The r-value for Problem Solving and
Second Language Processing Outcomes is 0.638* with a p-value of 0.001 also shows a positive correlation of 0.4070.
The r-value for Reasoning and Second Language Processing Outcomes is 0.650* with a p-value of 0.001 also shows
a positive correlation of 0.4225. The r-value of First Language Comprehension and Second Language Processing
Outcomes is 0.565* with a p-value of 0.001 also shows a positive correlation of 0.3192.

Table 3. Significance of the Relationship of Domains of Working Memory to Second Language Processing Outcomes
of Language Learners

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The table shows that the domains Planning, Problem-Solving, Reasoning, and First Language Comprehension have
a probability level of 0.001 which is less than 0.05 level of significance, thus, the null hypotheses state that there is
no significant relationship between the working memory and the second language processing outcomes of the
language learners and that there is no domain in the working memory that significantly influences the second
language processing outcomes of the language learners were rejected. The r-squared of Reasoning has the most
significant relationship of 0.4225 to the Second Language Processing Outcomes and the Problem Solving has 0.4070,
Planning has 0.4007 and First Language Comprehension has 0.3192. Thus, the interdependence of the variables
shows that Planning, Problem Solving, Reasoning, and First Language Comprehension have a significant relationship
to the Second Language Processing Outcomes of the Language Learners.

Regression Analysis on the Influence of Working Memory on Second Language Processing Outcomes of
Language Learners

Presented in Table 4 is the regression analysis on the influence of the domains of working memory on the second
language processing outcomes of the language learners. The table shows the computed F-ratio of 106.987 and p-
value of 0.0001 which means that there is a significant relationship between working memory on the second language
processing outcomes of the language learners. The indicator Planning has a beta of 0.221* and a corresponding p-
value of 0.001 which means that there is a significant influence on the second language processing outcomes since
their probability is 0.001 which is lesser than the 0.05 level of significance. The indicator Problem Solving has a beta
of 0.223* and a corresponding p-value of 0.001 which means that there is a significant influence on the second
language processing outcomes since their probability is 0.001 which is lesser than the 0.05 level of significance. The
indicator Reasoning has a beta of 0.264* and a corresponding p-value of 0.001 which means that there is a significant
influence on the second language processing outcomes since their probability is 0.001 which is lesser than the 0.05
level of significance. The indicator First Language Comprehension has a beta of 0.182* and corresponding p-value
of 0.001 which means that there is a significant influence on the second language processing outcomes since their
probability is 0.001 which is lesser than the 0.05 level of significance.

Table 4. Regression Analysis of Planning, Problem Solving, Reasoning, First Language Comprehension, and Second
Language Processing Outcomes

Conclusion

Based on the results of the study, working memory highly influences second language processing outcomes of
language learners. The findings revealed that the working memory of the students in terms of planning, problem-
solving, reasoning, and first language comprehension is high. In addition, the second language processing outcomes
of language learners in terms of second language comprehension and second language production are also high.
Moreover, among the four indicators of working memory, it was found that all the domains (planning, problem-
solving, reasoning, and first language comprehension) have a significant contribution to the second language
processing outcomes of language learners.

Moreover, the researcher is not limited to the variables shown that influence second language processing outcomes
of the language learners because there are possibilities that there are still a lot of factors not in the study that might
influence the second language processing outcomes of the language learners. For this reason, students who performed
high in working memory performed high in second language processing outcomes.

Based on the findings and conclusion of the study, the researcher hereby recommends that English language teachers
keep on providing worthwhile and meaningful learning experiences to second language learners for them to
successfully sustain the development of their planning skills, problem-solving skills, reasoning skills, and first
language comprehension skills to comprehend and produce well in the second language processing. Teachers need
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to encourage students to participate in classroom activities and discussions that will help boost their confidence in
using English as a second language not only in classroom situations but also in the broader aspect of their lives.

Students must be given an equal opportunity to showcase their full potential which will help develop their conceptual
understandings in the accomplishment of a variety of working memory tasks. In addition, students must instill in
their minds the essential nature of proficiency in the second language in the communicative process.

The high level of second language processing outcomes of language learners is an indicator that students nowadays
have improved their use of the second language in many functional ways. The researcher recommends that this high
level of second language processing outcomes of the language will be improved to a very high level. Language
learners have absorbed it as one of the major factors towards personal and professional growth. Innovations in the
teaching-learning process applying the trends of the new technology are indeed a need to improve second language
processing outcomes from the high level to the very high level among the four main secondary schools from the four
districts in the Division of Compostela Valley that should be concretized for the aim of developing the overall second
language literacy of the language learners. Teachers must ensure effective communication skills and present
teaching-learning alternatives through worthwhile teaching-learning experiences like games, drills, and simulations
that make second language learning enjoyable.

The significant relationship between working memory and second language processing outcomes suggests that
working memory influences second language processing outcomes. Thus, the researcher encourages the
sustainability of the progress of effective communication skills in all classroom teaching-learning activities as part
of the non-threatening and worthwhile teaching-learning experiences like games, drills, and simulations embracing
the concept that second language learning is fun.

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Affiliations and Corresponding Information

Shan Ralph R. Mateo
San Miguel National High School
Department of Education - Philippines

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