C++ Program: 1. Type Variable - List

C++ Program
#include<iostream.h> includes the standard input output library functions. It

provides cin and cout methods for reading from input and writing to output respectively.
void main() The main() function is the entry point of every program in C++ language.
The void keyword specifies that it returns no value.
cout << "Welcome to C++ Programming." is used to print the data "Welcome to C++
Programming." on the console.
getch() The getch() function asks for a single character.
The endl is a predefined object of ostream class. It is used to insert a new line characters and
flushes the stream. A variable is a name of memory location. It is used to store data. Its value
can be changed and it can be reused many times.
It is a way to represent memory location through symbol so that it can be easily identified.
Let's see the syntax to declare a variable:
1. type variable_list;
The example of declaring variable is given below:
1. int x;
2. float y;
3. char z;
Here, x, y, z are variables and int, float, char are data types.
Basic Data Type int, char, float, double, etc

A data type specifies the type of data that a variable can store such as integer, floating,
character etc.
A keyword is a reserved word. You cannot use it as a variable name, constant name etc. A
list of 32 Keywords in C++ Language which are also available in C language are given
below.
auto break case char const continue default Do
double else enum extern float for goto If
int long register return short signed sizeof Static

struct switch typedef union unsigned void volatile While
An operator is simply a symbol that is used to perform operations. There can be many types
of operations like arithmetic, logical, bitwise etc.
There are following types of operators to perform different types of operations in C language.
o Arithmetic Operators
o Relational Operators
o Logical Operators
o Bitwise Operators
o Assignment Operator
o Unary operator
o Ternary or Conditional Operator
o Misc Operator
o C++ identifiers in a program are used to refer to the name of the variables, functions,
arrays, or other user-defined data types created by the programmer. They are the basic
requirement of any language. Every language has its own rules for naming the
identifiers.
C++ identifiers represent the essential elements in a program which are given below:
o Constants
o Variables
o Functions
o Labels
o Defined data types
Identifiers Keywords
Identifiers are the names defined by the Keywords are the reserved words whose
programmer to the basic elements of a meaning is known by the compiler.
program.
It is used to identify the name of the variable. It is used to specify the type of entity.
It can consist of letters, digits, and underscore. It contains only letters.

It can use both lowercase and uppercase letters. It uses only lowercase letters.
No special character can be used except the It cannot contain any special character.
underscore.
The starting letter of identifiers can be It can be started only with the lowercase
lowercase, uppercase or underscore. letter.
It can be classified as internal and external It cannot be further classified.

identifiers.
Examples are test, result, sum, power, etc. Examples are 'for', 'if', 'else', 'break', etc.
An expression can consist of one or more operands, zero or more operators to compute a
value. Every expression produces some value which is assigned to the variable with the help
of an assignment operator.
Examples of C++ expression:
1. (a+b) - c
2. (x/y) -z
3. 4a2 - 5b +c
4. (a+b) * (x+y)
An expression can be of following types:
o Constant expressions
o Integral expressions
o Float expressions
o Pointer expressions
o Relational expressions
o Logical expressions
o Bitwise expressions
o Special assignment expressions
o Constant expressions
o A constant expression is an expression that consists of only constant values. It is an
expression whose value is determined at the compile-time but evaluated at the run-
time. It can be composed of integer, character, floating-point, and enumeration
constants.
There are various types of if statements in C++.
o if statement
o if-else statement
o nested if statement
o if-else-if ladder
C++ IF Statement
The C++ if statement tests the condition. It is executed if condition is true.
1. if(condition){
2. //code to be executed
3. }
The C++ if-else statement also tests the condition. It executes if block if condition is true
otherwise else block is executed.
1. if(condition){
2. //code if condition is true
3. }else{
4. //code if condition is false
5. }
The C++ if-else-if ladder statement executes one condition from multiple statements.
1. if(condition1){
2. //code to be executed if condition1 is true
3. }else if(condition2){
5. }
6. else if(condition3){
8. }
9. ...
10. else{
11. //code to be executed if all the conditions are false
12. }
The C++ switch statement executes one statement from multiple conditions. It is like if-else-
if ladder statement in C++.
1. switch(expression){
2. case value1:
3. //code to be executed;
4. break;
5. case value2:
6. //code to be executed;
7. break;
8. ......
9.
10. default:
11. //code to be executed if all cases are not matched;
12. break;
13. }
C++ Switch Example
1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main () {
4. int num;
5. cout<<"Enter a number to check grade:";
6. cin>>num;
7. switch (num)
8. {
9. case 10: cout<<"It is 10"; break;
12. default: cout<<"Not 10, 20 or 30"; break;
13. }
14. }
Output:
Enter a number:
10
It is 10
The C++ for loop is used to iterate a part of the program several times. If the number of
iteration is fixed, it is recommended to use for loop than while or do-while loops.
The C++ for loop is same as C/C#. We can initialize variable, check condition and
increment/decrement value.
1. for(initialization; condition; incr/decr){

3. }
Flowchart:
C++ For Loop Example
3. int main() {
4. for(int i=1;i<=10;i++){
5. cout<<i <<"\n";
6. }
7. }
In C++, we can use for loop inside another for loop, it is known as nested for loop. The inner
loop is executed fully when outer loop is executed one time. So if outer loop and inner loop
are executed 4 times, inner loop will be executed 4 times for each outer loop i.e. total 16
times.
C++ Nested For Loop Example
Let's see a simple example of nested for loop in C++.
3.
4. int main () {
5. for(int i=1;i<=3;i++){
6. for(int j=1;j<=3;j++){
7. cout<<i<<" "<<j<<"\n";
8. }
9. }
10. }
n C++, while loop is used to iterate a part of the program several times. If the number of
iteration is not fixed, it is recommended to use while loop than for loop.
1. while(condition){
3. }
Flowchart:
C++ While Loop Example
Let's see a simple example of while loop to print table of 1.
3. int main() {
4. int i=1;
5. while(i<=10)
6. {
7. cout<<i <<"\n";
8. i++;
9. }
10. }
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
C++ Nested While Loop Example
In C++, we can use while loop inside another while loop, it is known as nested while loop.
The nested while loop is executed fully when outer loop is executed once.
Let's see a simple example of nested while loop in C++ programming language.
3. int main () {
4. int i=1;
5. while(i<=3)
6. {
7. int j = 1;
8. while (j <= 3)
9. {
10. cout<<i<<" "<<j<<"\n";
11. j++;
12. }
13. i++;
14. }
15. }
Output:
11
12
13
21
22
23
31
32
33
The C++ do-while loop is used to iterate a part of the program several times. If the number of
iteration is not fixed and you must have to execute the loop at least once, it is recommended
to use do-while loop.
The C++ do-while loop is executed at least once because condition is checked after loop
body.
1. do{
3. }while(condition);
Flowchart:
C++ do-while Loop Example
Let's see a simple example of C++ do-while loop to print the table of 1.
3. int main() {
4. int i = 1;
5. do{
6. cout<<i<<"\n";
7. i++;
8. } while (i <= 10) ;
9. }
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
C++ Nested do-while Loop
In C++, if you use do-while loop inside another do-while loop, it is known as nested do-while
loop. The nested do-while loop is executed fully for each outer do-while loop.
Let's see a simple example of nested do-while loop in C++.
3. int main() {
4. int i = 1;
5. do{
6. int j = 1;
7. do{
8. cout<<i<<"\n";
9. j++;
10. } while (j <= 3) ;
11. i++;
12. } while (i <= 3) ;
13. }
Output:
11
12
13
21
22
23
31
32
33
The C++ break is used to break loop or switch statement. It breaks the current flow of the
program at the given condition. In case of inner loop, it breaks only inner loop.
1. jump-statement;
2. break;
Flowchart:
C++ Break Statement Example
Let's see a simple example of C++ break statement which is used inside the loop.
3. int main() {
4. for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++)
5. {
6. if (i == 5)
7. {
8. break;
9. }
10. cout<<i<<"\n";
11. }
12. }
Output:
1
2
3
4
C++ Break Statement with Inner Loop
The C++ break statement breaks inner loop only if you use break statement inside the inner
loop.
Let's see the example code:
3. int main()
4. {
5. for(int i=1;i<=3;i++){
6. for(int j=1;j<=3;j++){
7. if(i==2&&j==2){
8. break;
9. }
10. cout<<i<<" "<<j<<"\n";
11. }
12. }
13. }
Output:
11
12
13
21
31
32
33
The C++ continue statement is used to continue loop. It continues the current flow of the
program and skips the remaining code at specified condition. In case of inner loop, it
continues only inner loop.
1. jump-statement;
2. continue;
C++ Continue Statement Example
3. int main()
4. {
5. for(int i=1;i<=10;i++){
6. if(i==5){
7. continue;
8. }
9. cout<<i<<"\n";
10. }
11. }
Output:
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
C++ Continue Statement continues inner loop only if you use continue statement inside the
inner loop.
3. int main()
4. {
5. for(int i=1;i<=3;i++){
6. for(int j=1;j<=3;j++){
7. if(i==2&&j==2){
8. continue;
9. }
10. cout<<i<<" "<<j<<"\n";
11. }
12. }
13. }
Output:
11
12
13
21
23
31
32
33
The C++ comments are statements that are not executed by the compiler. The comments in
C++ programming can be used to provide explanation of the code, variable, method or class.
By the help of comments, you can hide the program code also.
There are two types of comments in C++.
o Single Line comment

o Multi Line comment
C++ Single Line Comment
The single line comment starts with // (double slash). Let's see an example of single line
comment in C++.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int x = 11; // x is a variable
6. cout<<x<<"\n";
7. }
Output:
11
C++ Multi Line Comment
The C++ multi line comment is used to comment multiple lines of code. It is surrounded by
slash and asterisk (/∗ ..... ∗/). Let's see an example of multi line comment in C++.
1. #include <ostream>
3. int main()
4. {
5. /* declare and
6. print variable in C++. */
7. int x = 35;
8. cout<<x<<"\n";
9. }
Output:
35
A collection of related data items stored in adjacent memory places is referred to as an array
in the C/C++ programming language or any other programming language for that matter.
Elements of an array can be accessed arbitrarily using its indices. They can be used to store a
collection of any type of primitive data type, including int, float, double, char, etc. An array
in C/C++ can also store derived data types like structures, pointers, and other data types,
which is an addition. The array representation in a picture is provided below.
Advantages of C++ Array
o Code Optimization (less code)

o Random Access
o Easy to traverse data
o Easy to manipulate data
o Easy to sort data etc.
Disadvantages of C++ Array
o Fixed size
C++ Array Types
There are 2 types of arrays in C++ programming:
1. Single Dimensional Array

2. Multidimensional Array
C++ Single Dimensional Array
Let's see a simple example of C++ array, where we are going to create, initialize and traverse
array.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int arr[5]={10, 0, 20, 0, 30}; //creating and initializing array
6. //traversing array
7. for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
8. {
9. cout<<arr[i]<<"\n";
10. }
11. }
Output:
10
0
20
0
30
C++ Array Example: Traversal using foreach loop
We can also traverse the array elements using foreach loop. It returns array element one by
one.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int arr[5]={10, 0, 20, 0, 30}; //creating and initializing array
6. //traversing array
7. for (int i: arr)
8. {
9. cout<<i<<"\n";
10. }
11. }
Output:
10
20
30
40
50
What is two-dimensional array?
Each element in this kind of array is described by two indexes, the first of which denotes a
row and the second of which denotes a column.
As you can see, the components are arranged in a two-dimensional array using rows and
columns; there are I number of rows and j number of columns.
What is a multi-dimensional array?
A two-dimensional array is the most basic type of multidimensional array; it also qualifies as
a multidimensional array. There are no restrictions on the array's dimensions.
How to insert it in array?
1. int mark[5] = {19, 10, 8, 17, 9}

2. // change 4th element to 9
3. mark[3] = 9;
4. // take input from the user
5. // store the value at third position
6. cin >> mark[2];
7. // take input from the user
8. // insert at ith position
9. cin >> mark[i-1];
10.
11. // print first element of the array
12. cout << mark[0];
13. // print ith element of the array
14. cout >> mark[i-1];
How to display the sum and average of array elements?
3. int main() {
4. // initialize an array without specifying the size
5. double numbers[] = {7, 5, 6, 12, 35, 27};
6. double sum = 0;
7. double count = 0;
8. double average;
9. cout << "The numbers are: ";
10. // print array elements
11. // use of range-based for loop
12. for (const double &n : numbers) {
13. cout << n << " ";
14. // calculate the sum
15. sum += n;
16. // count the no. of array elements
17. ++count;
18. }
19. // print the sum
20. cout << "\nTheir Sum = " << sum << endl;
21. // find the average
22. average = sum / count;
23. cout << "Their Average = " << average << endl;
24.
25. return 0;
26. }
Output:
The numbers are: 7 5 6 12 35 27

Their Sum = 92
Their Average = 15.3333
How to display array elements?
3. int main() {
4. int numbers[5] = {7, 5, 6, 12, 35};
5. cout << "The numbers are: ";
6. // Printing array elements
7. // using range-based for loop
8. for (const int &n : numbers) {
9. cout << n << " ";
10. }
11. cout << "\nThe numbers are: ";
12. // Printing array elements
13. // using traditional for loop
14. for (int i = 0; i < 5; ++i) {
15. cout << numbers[i] << " ";
16. }
17. return 0;
18. }
Output:
The numbers are: 7 5 6 12 35

The numbers are: 7 5 6 12 35
C++ Passing Array to Function
In C++, to reuse the array logic, we can create function. To pass array to function in C++, we
need to provide only array name.
1. functionname(arrayname); //passing array to function
C++ Passing Array to Function Example: print array elements
Let's see an example of C++ function which prints the array elements.
3. void printArray(int arr[5]);
4. int main()
5. {
6. int arr1[5] = { 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 };
7. int arr2[5] = { 5, 15, 25, 35, 45 };
8. printArray(arr1); //passing array to function
9. printArray(arr2);
10. }
11. void printArray(int arr[5])
12. {
13. cout << "Printing array elements:"<< endl;
14. for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
15. {
16. cout<<arr[i]<<"\n";
17. }
18. }
Output:
Printing array elements:

10
20
30
40
50
Printing array elements:
5
15
25
35
45
C++ Passing Array to Function Example: Print minimum number
Let's see an example of C++ array which prints minimum number in an array using function.
3. void printMin(int arr[5]);
4. int main()
5. {
6. int arr1[5] = { 30, 10, 20, 40, 50 };
7. int arr2[5] = { 5, 15, 25, 35, 45 };
8. printMin(arr1);//passing array to function
9. printMin(arr2);
10. }
11. void printMin(int arr[5])
12. {
13. int min = arr[0];
14. for (int i = 0; i > 5; i++)
15. {
16. if (min > arr[i])
17. {
18. min = arr[i];
19. }
20. }
21. cout<< "Minimum element is: "<< min <<"\n";
22. }
Output:
Minimum element is: 10

Minimum element is: 5
C++ Passing Array to Function Example: Print maximum number
Let's see an example of C++ array which prints maximum number in an array using function.
3. void printMax(int arr[5]);
4. int main()
5. {
6. int arr1[5] = { 25, 10, 54, 15, 40 };
7. int arr2[5] = { 12, 23, 44, 67, 54 };
8. printMax(arr1); //Passing array to function
9. printMax(arr2);
10. }
11. void printMax(int arr[5])
12. {
13. int max = arr[0];
14. for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
15. {
16. if (max < arr[i])
17. {
18. max = arr[i];
19. }
20. }
21. cout<< "Maximum element is: "<< max <<"\n";
22. }
Output:
Maximum element is: 54

Maximum element is: 67
The pointer in C++ language is a variable, it is also known as locator or indicator that points
to an address of a value.
The symbol of an address is represented by a pointer. In addition to creating and modifying

dynamic data structures, they allow programs to emulate call-by-reference. One of the
principal applications of pointers is iterating through the components of arrays or other data
structures. The pointer variable that refers to the same data type as the variable you're dealing
with has the address of that variable set to it (such as an int or string).
Syntax
1. datatype *var_name;
2. int *ptr; // ptr can point to an address which holds int data
How to use a pointer?
1. Establish a pointer variable.

2. employing the unary operator (&), which yields the address of the variable, to assign a
pointer to a variable's address.
3. Using the unary operator (*), which gives the variable's value at the address provided
by its argument, one can access the value stored in an address.
Since the data type knows how many bytes the information is held in, we associate it with a
reference. The size of the data type to which a pointer points is added when we increment a
pointer.
Advantage of pointer
1) Pointer reduces the code and improves the performance, it is used to retrieving strings,
trees etc. and used with arrays, structures and functions.
2) We can return multiple values from function using pointer.
3) It makes you able to access any memory location in the computer's memory.
Usage of pointer
There are many usage of pointers in C++ language.

1) Dynamic memory allocation
In c language, we can dynamically allocate memory using malloc() and calloc() functions
where pointer is used.
2) Arrays, Functions and Structures
Pointers in c language are widely used in arrays, functions and structures. It reduces the code
and improves the performance.
Symbols used in pointer
Symbol Name Description
& (ampersand sign) Address operator Determine the address of a variable.
∗ (asterisk sign) Indirection operator Access the value of an address.
Declaring a pointer
The pointer in C++ language can be declared using ∗ (asterisk symbol).
1. int ∗ a; //pointer to int

2. char ∗ c; //pointer to char
Pointer Example
Let's see the simple example of using pointers printing the address and value.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int number=30;
6. int ∗ p;
7. p=&number;//stores the address of number variable
8. cout<<"Address of number variable is:"<<&number<<endl;
9. cout<<"Address of p variable is:"<<p<<endl;
10. cout<<"Value of p variable is:"<<*p<<endl;
11. return 0;
12. }
Output:
Address of number variable is:0x7ffccc8724c4
Address of p variable is:0x7ffccc8724c4
Value of p variable is:30
Pointer Program to swap 2 numbers without using 3rd variable
3. int main()
4. {
5. int a=20,b=10,∗p1=&a,∗p2=&b;
6. cout<<"Before swap: ∗p1="<<∗p1<<" ∗p2="<<∗p2<<endl;
7. ∗p1=∗p1+∗p2;
8. ∗p2=∗p1-∗p2;
9. ∗p1=∗p1-∗p2;
10. cout<<"After swap: ∗p1="<<∗p1<<" ∗p2="<<∗p2<<endl;
11. return 0;
12. }
Output:
Before swap: ∗p1=20 ∗p2=10

After swap: ∗p1=10 ∗p2=20
What is a void pointer?
This unique type of pointer, which is available in C++, stands in for the lack of a kind.
Pointers that point to a value that has no type are known as void pointers (and thus also an
undetermined length and undetermined dereferencing properties). This indicates that void
pointers are very flexible because they can point to any data type. This flexibility has
benefits. Direct dereference is not possible with these pointers. Before they may be
dereferenced, they must be converted into another pointer type that points to a specific data
type.
What is a invalid pointer?
A pointer must point to a valid address, not necessarily to useful items (like for arrays). We
refer to these as incorrect pointers. Additionally, incorrect pointers are uninitialized pointers.
1. int *ptr1;
2. int arr[10];
3. int *ptr2 = arr+20;
Here, ptr1 is not initialized, making it invalid, and ptr2 is outside of the bounds of arr, making
it likewise weak. (Take note that not all build failures are caused by faulty references.)
What is a null pointer?
A null pointer is not merely an incorrect address; it also points nowhere. Here are two ways
to mark a pointer as NULL:
1. int *ptr1 = 0;
2. int *ptr2 = NULL;
What is a pointer to a pointer?
In C++, we have the ability to build a pointer to another pointer, which might then point to
data or another pointer. The unary operator (*) is all that is needed in the syntax for declaring
the pointer for each level of indirection.
1. char a;
2. char *b;
3. char ** c;
4. a = 'g';
5. b = &a;
6. c = &b;
Here b points to a char that stores 'g', and c points to the pointer b.
What are references and pointers?
1. Call-By-Value
2. Call-By-Reference with a Pointer Argument
3. Call-By-Reference with a Reference Argument
Example
1. #include
3. // Pass-by-Value
4. int square1(int n)
5. {cout << "address of n1 in square1(): " << &n << "\n";
6. n *= n;
7. return n;
8. }
9. // Pass-by-Reference with Pointer Arguments
10. void square2(int* n)
11. {
12. cout << "address of n2 in square2(): " << n << "\n";
13. *n *= *n;
14. }
15. // Pass-by-Reference with Reference Arguments
16. void square3(int& n)
17. {
18.
19. cout << "address of n3 in square3(): " << &n << "\n";
20. n *= n;
21. }
22. void example()
23. {
24. // Call-by-Value
25. int n1 = 8;
26. cout << "address of n1 in main(): " << &n1 << "\n";
27. cout << "Square of n1: " << square1(n1) << "\n";
28. cout << "No change in n1: " << n1 << "\n";
29.
30. // Call-by-Reference with Pointer Arguments
31. int n2 = 8;
33. square2(&n2);
34. cout << "Square of n2: " << n2 << "\n";
35. cout << "Change reflected in n2: " << n2 << "\n";
36.
37. // Call-by-Reference with Reference Arguments
38. int n3 = 8;
40. square3(n3);
41. cout << "Square of n3: " << n3 << "\n";
42. cout << "Change reflected in n3: " << n3 << "\n";
43. }
44. // Driver program
45. int main() { example(); }
Output
The sizeof() is an operator that evaluates the size of data type, constants, variable. It is a
compile-time operator as it returns the size of any variable or a constant at the compilation
time.
The size, which is calculated by the sizeof() operator, is the amount of RAM occupied in the
computer.
Syntax of the sizeof() operator is given below:
1. sizeof(data_type);
In the above syntax, the data_type can be the data type of the data, variables, constants,
unions, structures, or any other user-defined data type.
The sizeof () operator can be applied to the following operand types:
o When an operand is of data type
If the parameter of a sizeof() operator contains the data type of a variable, then
the sizeof() operator will return the size of the data type.
Let's understand this scenario through an example.
3. int main()
4. {
5. // Determining the space in bytes occupied by each data type.
6. std::cout << "Size of integer data type : " <<sizeof(int)<< std::endl;
7. std::cout << "Size of float data type : " <<sizeof(float)<< std::endl;
8. std::cout << "Size of double data type : " <<sizeof(double)<< std::endl;
9. std::cout << "Size of char data type : " <<sizeof(char)<< std::endl;
10. return 0;
11. }
In the above program, we have evaluated the size of the in-built data types by using the
sizeof() operator. As we know that int occupies 4 bytes, float occupies 4 bytes, double
occupies 8 bytes, and char occupies 1 byte, and the same result is shown by the sizeof()
operator as we can observe in the following output.
Output
o When an operand is of Class type.
3. class Base
4. {
5. int a;
6. };
7. int main()
8. {
9. Base b;
10. std::cout << "Size of class base is : "<<sizeof(b) << std::endl;
11. return 0;
12. }
In the above program, we have evaluated the size of the class, which is having a single
integer variable. The output would be 4 bytes as int variable occupies 4 bytes.
Output
If we add one more integer variable in a class, then the code would look like:
3. class Base
4. {
5. int a;
6. int d;
7. };
8. int main()
9. {
10. Base b;
12. return 0;
13. }
In the above code, we have added one more integer variable. In this case, the size of the class
would be 8 bytes as int variable occupies 4 bytes, so two integer variables occupy 8 bytes.
Output
If we add a char variable in the above code, then the code would look like:
2.
4.
5. class Base
6. {
7. int a;
8. int d;
9. char ch;
10. };
11. int main()
12. {
13. Base b;
15. return 0;
16. }
In the above code, the class has two integer variables, and one char variable. According to
our calculation, the size of the class would be equal to 9 bytes (int+int+char), but this is
wrong due to the concept of structure padding.
Output
o When an operand is of array type.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int arr[]={10,20,30,40,50};
6. std::cout << "Size of the array 'arr' is : "<<sizeof(arr) << std::endl;
7. return 0;
8. }
In the above program, we have declared an array of integer type which contains five
elements. We have evaluated the size of the array by using sizeof() operator. According to
our calculation, the size of the array should be 20 bytes as int data type occupies 4 bytes, and
array contains 5 elements, so total memory space occupied by this array is 5*4 = 20 bytes.
The same result has been shown by the sizeof() operator as we can observe in the following
output.
Output
Let's consider another scenario of an array.
3. void fun(int arr[])
4. {
5. std::cout << "Size of array is : " <<sizeof(arr)<< std::endl;
6. }
7. int main()
8. {
9. int arr[]={10,20,30,40,50};
10. fun(arr);
11. return 0;
12. }
In the above program, we have tried to print the size of the array using the function. In this
case, we have created an array of type integer, and we pass the 'arr' to the function fun().
The fun() would return the size of the integer pointer, i.e., int*, and the size of the int* is 8
bytes in the 64-bit operating system.
Output
o When an operand is of pointer type.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int *ptr1=new int(10);
6. std::cout << "size of ptr1 : " <<sizeof(ptr1)<< std::endl;
7. std::cout << "size of *ptr1 : " <<sizeof(*ptr1)<< std::endl;

8. char *ptr2=new char('a');
9. std::cout <<"size of ptr2 : " <<sizeof(ptr2)<< std::endl;
10. std::cout <<"size of *ptr2 : "<<sizeof(*ptr2)<< std::endl;
11. double *ptr3=new double(12.78);
12. std::cout <<"size of ptr3 : " <<sizeof(ptr3)<< std::endl;
13. std::cout <<"size of *ptr3 : "<<sizeof(*ptr3)<< std::endl;
14. return 0;
15. }
In the above program, we have determined the size of pointers. The size of pointers would
remain same for all the data types. If the computer has 32bit operating system, then the size
of the pointer would be 4 bytes. If the computer has 64-bit operating system, then the size of
the pointer would be 8 bytes. I am running this program on 64-bit, so the output would be 8
bytes. Now, if we provide the '*' symbol to the pointer, then the output depends on the data
type, for example, *ptr1 is of integer type means the sizeof() operator will return 4 bytes as
int data type occupies 4 bytes.
Output
o When an operand is an expression.

3.
4. int main()
5. {
6. int num1;
7. double num2;
8. cout << sizeof(num1+num2);
9. return 0;
10. }
In the above program, we have declared two variables num1 and num2 of type int and
double, respectively. The size of the int is 4 bytes, while the size of double is 8 bytes. The
result would be the variable, which is of double type occupying 8 bytes.
Output
C++ Array of Pointers
Array and pointers are closely related to each other. In C++, the name of an array is
considered às a pointer, i.e., the name of an array contains the address of an element. C++
considers the array name as the address of the first element. For example, if we create an
array, i.e., marks which hold the 20 values of integer type, then marks will contain the
address of first element, i.e., marks[0]. Therefore, we can say that array name (marks) is a
pointer which is holding the address of the first element of an array.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int *ptr; // integer pointer declaration
6. int marks[10]; // marks array declaration
7. std::cout << "Enter the elements of an array :" << std::endl;
8. for(int i=0;i<10;i++)
9. {
10. cin>>marks[i];
11. }
12. ptr=marks; // both marks and ptr pointing to the same element..
13. std::cout << "The value of *ptr is :" <<*ptr<< std::endl;
14. std::cout << "The value of *marks is :" <<*marks<<std::endl;
15. }
In the above code, we declare an integer pointer and an array of integer type. We assign the
address of marks to the ptr by using the statement ptr=marks; it means that both the variables
'marks' and 'ptr' point to the same element, i.e., marks[0]. When we try to print the values of
*ptr and *marks, then it comes out to be same. Hence, it is proved that the array name stores
the address of the first element of an array.
Output
Array of Pointers
An array of pointers is an array that consists of variables of pointer type, which means that
the variable is a pointer addressing to some other element. Suppose we create an array of
pointer holding 5 integer pointers; then its declaration would look like:
1. int *ptr[5]; // array of 5 integer pointer.
In the above declaration, we declare an array of pointer named as ptr, and it allocates 5
integer pointers in memory.
The element of an array of a pointer can also be initialized by assigning the address of some
other element. Let's observe this case through an example.
1. int a; // variable declaration.
2. ptr[2] = &a;
In the above code, we are assigning the address of 'a' variable to the third element of an array
'ptr'.
We can also retrieve the value of 'a' be dereferencing the pointer.
1. *ptr[2];
Let's understand through an example.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int ptr1[5]; // integer array declaration
6. int *ptr2[5]; // integer array of pointer declaration
7. std::cout << "Enter five numbers :" << std::endl;
8. for(int i=0;i<5;i++)
9. {
10. std::cin >> ptr1[i];
11. }
12. for(int i=0;i<5;i++)
13. {
14. ptr2[i]=&ptr1[i];
15. }
16. // printing the values of ptr1 array
17. std::cout << "The values are" << std::endl;
18. for(int i=0;i<5;i++)
19. {
20. std::cout << *ptr2[i] << std::endl;
21. }
22. }
In the above code, we declare an array of integer type and an array of integer pointers. We
have defined the 'for' loop, which iterates through the elements of an array 'ptr1', and on each
iteration, the address of element of ptr1 at index 'i' gets stored in the ptr2 at index 'i'.
Output
Till now, we have learnt the array of pointers to an integer. Now, we will see how to create
the array of pointers to strings.
Array of Pointer to Strings
An array of pointer to strings is an array of character pointers that holds the address of the
first character of a string or we can say the base address of a string.
The following are the differences between an array of pointers to string and two-dimensional
array of characters:
o An array of pointers to string is more efficient than the two-dimensional array of

characters in case of memory consumption because an array of pointer to strings
consumes less memory than the two-dimensional array of characters to store the
strings.
o In an array of pointers, the manipulation of strings is comparatively easier than in the
case of 2d array. We can also easily change the position of the strings by using the
pointers.
Let's see how to declare the array of pointers to string.
First, we declare the array of pointer to string:
1. char *names[5] = {"john",

2. "Peter",
3. "Marco",
4. "Devin",
5. "Ronan"};
In the above code, we declared an array of pointer names as 'names' of size 5. In the above
case, we have done the initialization at the time of declaration, so we do not need to mention
the size of the array of a pointer. The above code can be re-written as:
1. char *names[ ] = {"john",

2. "Peter",
3. "Marco",
4. "Devin",
5. "Ronan"};
In the above case, each element of the 'names' array is a string literal, and each string literal
would hold the base address of the first character of a string. For example, names[0] contains
the base address of "john", names[1] contains the base address of "Peter", and so on. It is not
guaranteed that all the string literals will be stored in the contiguous memory location, but the
characters of a string literal are stored in a contiguous memory location.
Let's create a simple example.
3. int main()
4. {
5. char *names[5] = {"john",
6. "Peter",
7. "Marco",
8. "Devin",
9. "Ronan"};
10. for(int i=0;i<5;i++)
11. {
12. std::cout << names[i] << std::endl;
13. }
14. return 0;
15. }
In the above code, we have declared an array of char pointer holding 5 string literals, and the
first character of each string is holding the base address of the string.
Output
A void pointer is a general-purpose pointer that can hold the address of any data type, but it is
not associated with any data type.
Syntax of void pointer
1. void *ptr;
In C++, we cannot assign the address of a variable to the variable of a different data type.
Consider the following example:
1. int *ptr; // integer pointer declaration

2. float a=10.2; // floating variable initialization
3. ptr= &a; // This statement throws an error.
In the above example, we declare a pointer of type integer, i.e., ptr and a float variable, i.e.,
'a'. After declaration, we try to store the address of 'a' variable in 'ptr', but this is not possible
in C++ as the variable cannot hold the address of different data types.
Let's understand through a simple example.
1. #include <iostream.h>
3. int main()
4. {
5. int *ptr;
6. float f=10.3;
7. ptr = &f; // error
8. std::cout << "The value of *ptr is : " <<*ptr<< std::endl;
9. return 0;
10. }
In the above program, we declare a pointer of integer type and variable of float type. An
integer pointer variable cannot point to the float variable, but it can point to an only integer
variable.
Output
C++ has overcome the above problem by using the C++ void pointer as a void pointer can
hold the address of any data type.
Let's look at a simple example of void pointer.
3. int main()
4. {
5. void *ptr; // void pointer declaration
6. int a=9; // integer variable initialization
7. ptr=&a; // storing the address of 'a' variable in a void pointer variable.
8. std::cout << &a << std::endl;
9. std::cout << ptr << std::endl;
10. return 0;
11. }
In the above program, we declare a void pointer variable and an integer variable where the
void pointer contains the address of an integer variable.
Output
Difference between void pointer in C and C++
In C, we can assign the void pointer to any other pointer type without any typecasting,
whereas in C++, we need to typecast when we assign the void pointer type to any other
pointer type.
Let's understand through a simple example.
In C,
1. #include <stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
5. int *ptr1; // integer pointer declaration
6. int a =90; // integer variable initialization
7. ptr=&a; // storing the address of 'a' in ptr
8. ptr1=ptr; // assigning void pointer to integer pointer type.
9. printf("The value of *ptr1 : %d",*ptr1);
10. return 0;
11. }
In the above program, we declare two pointers 'ptr' and 'ptr1' of type void and integer,
respectively. We also declare the integer type variable, i.e., 'a'. After declaration, we assign
the address of 'a' variable to the pointer 'ptr'. Then, we assign the void pointer to the integer
pointer, i.e., ptr1 without any typecasting because in C, we do not need to typecast while
assigning the void pointer to any other type of pointer.
Output
In C++,
3. int main()
4. {
6. int *ptr1; // integer pointer declaration
7. int data=10; // integer variable initialization
8. ptr=&data; // storing the address of data variable in void pointer variable
9. ptr1=(int *)ptr; // assigning void pointer to integer pointer
10. std::cout << "The value of *ptr1 is : " <<*ptr1<< std::endl;
11. return 0;
12. }
In the above program, we declare two pointer variables of type void and int type respectively.
We also create another integer type variable, i.e., 'data'. After declaration, we store the
address of variable 'data' in a void pointer variable, i.e., ptr. Now, we want to assign the void
pointer to integer pointer, in order to do this, we need to apply the cast operator, i.e., (int *) to
the void pointer variable. This cast operator tells the compiler which type of value void
pointer is holding. For casting, we have to type the data type and * in a bracket like (char *)
or (int *).
Output
Function Pointer in C++
As we know that pointers are used to point some variables; similarly, the function pointer is a
pointer used to point functions. It is basically used to store the address of a function. We can
call the function by using the function pointer, or we can also pass the pointer to another
function as a parameter.
They are mainly useful for event-driven applications, callbacks, and even for storing the
functions in arrays.
What is the address of a function?

Computer only understands the low-level language, i.e., binary form. The program we write
in C++ is always in high-level language, so to convert the program into binary form, we use
compiler. Compiler is a program that converts source code into an executable file. This
executable file gets stored in RAM. The CPU starts the execution from the main() method,
and it reads the copy in RAM but not the original file.
All the functions and machine code instructions are data. This data is a bunch of bytes, and
all these bytes have some address in RAM. The function pointer contains RAM address of the
first instruction of a function.
Syntax for Declaration
The following is the syntax for the declaration of a function pointer:
1. int (*FuncPtr) (int,int);
The above syntax is the function declaration. As functions are not simple as variables, but C+
+ is a type safe, so function pointers have return type and parameter list. In the above syntax,
we first supply the return type, and then the name of the pointer, i.e., FuncPtr which is
surrounded by the brackets and preceded by the pointer symbol, i.e., (*). After this, we have
supplied the parameter list (int,int). The above function pointer can point to any function
which takes two integer parameters and returns integer type value.
Address of a function
We can get the address of a function very easily. We just need to mention the name of the
function, we do not need to call the function.
Let's illustrate through an example.
3. int main()
4. {
5. std::cout << "Address of a main() function is : " <<&main<< std::endl;
6. return 0;
7. }
In the above program, we are displaying the address of a main() function. To print the address
of a main() function, we have just mentioned the name of the function, there is no bracket not
parameters. Therefore, the name of the function by itself without any brackets or parameters
means the address of a function.
We can use the alternate way to print the address of a function, i.e., &main.
Calling a function indirectly
We can call the function with the help of a function pointer by simply using the name of the
function pointer. The syntax of calling the function through the function pointer would be
similar as we do the calling of the function normally.
3. int add(int a , int b)
4. {
5. return a+b;
6. }
7. int main()
8. {
9. int (*funcptr)(int,int); // function pointer declaration
10. funcptr=add; // funcptr is pointing to the add function
11. int sum=funcptr(5,5);
12. std::cout << "value of sum is :" <<sum<< std::endl;
13. return 0;
14. }
In the above program, we declare the function pointer, i.e., int (*funcptr)(int,int) and then we
store the address of add() function in funcptr. This implies that funcptr contains the address of
add() function. Now, we can call the add() function by using funcptr. The statement
funcptr(5,5) calls the add() function, and the result of add() function gets stored in sum
variable.
Output:
Let's look at another example of function pointer.
3. void printname(char *name)
4. {
5. std::cout << "Name is :" <<name<< std::endl;
6. }
7.
8. int main()
9. {
10. char s[20]; // array declaration
11. void (*ptr)(char*); // function pointer declaration
12. ptr=printname; // storing the address of printname in ptr.
13. std::cout << "Enter the name of the person: " << std::endl;
14. cin>>s;
15. cout<<s;
16. ptr(s); // calling printname() function
17. return 0;
18. }
In the above program, we define the function printname() which contains the char pointer as a
parameter. We declare the function pointer, i.e., void (*ptr)(char*). The statement
ptr=printname means that we are assigning the address of printname() function to ptr. Now,
we can call the printname() function by using the statement ptr(s).
Output:
Passing a function pointer as a parameter
The function pointer can be passed as a parameter to another function.
Let's understand through an example.
3. void func1()
4. {
5. cout<<"func1 is called";
6. }
7. void func2(void (*funcptr)())
8. {
9. funcptr();
10. }
11. int main()
12. {
13. func2(func1);
14. return 0;
15. }
In the above code, the func2() function takes the function pointer as a parameter. The main()
method calls the func2() function in which the address of func1() is passed. In this way, the
func2() function is calling the func1() indirectly.
Output:
The major purpose of C++ programming is to introduce the concept of object orientation to
the C programming language.
Object Oriented Programming is a paradigm that provides many concepts such

as inheritance, data binding, polymorphism etc.
The programming paradigm where everything is represented as an object is known as truly

object-oriented programming language. Smalltalk is considered as the first truly object-
oriented programming language.
OOPs (Object Oriented Programming System)
Object means a real word entity such as pen, chair, table etc. Object-Oriented
Programming is a methodology or paradigm to design a program using classes and objects.
It simplifies the software development and maintenance by providing some concepts:
o Object
o Class
o Inheritance
o Polymorphism
o Abstraction
o Encapsulation
Object
Any entity that has state and behavior is known as an object. For example: chair, pen, table,
keyboard, bike etc. It can be physical and logical.
Class
Collection of objects is called class. It is a logical entity.
A Class in C++ is the foundational element that leads to Object-Oriented programming. A

class instance must be created in order to access and use the user-defined data type's data
members and member functions. An object's class acts as its blueprint. Take the class of cars
as an example. Even if different names and brands may be used for different cars, all of them
will have some characteristics in common, such as four wheels, a speed limit, a range of
miles, etc. In this case, the class of car is represented by the wheels, the speed limitations, and
the mileage.
Inheritance
When one object acquires all the properties and behaviours of parent object i.e. known
as inheritance. It provides code reusability. It is used to achieve runtime polymorphism.
1. Sub class - Subclass or Derived Class refers to a class that receives properties from
another class.
2. Super class - The term "Base Class" or "Super Class" refers to the class from which a
subclass inherits its properties.
3. Reusability - As a result, when we wish to create a new class, but an existing class
already contains some of the code we need, we can generate our new class from the
old class thanks to inheritance. This allows us to utilize the fields and methods of the
pre-existing class.
Polymorphism
When one task is performed by different ways i.e. known as polymorphism. For example:
to convince the customer differently, to draw something e.g. shape or rectangle etc.
Different situations may cause an operation to behave differently. The type of data utilized in
the operation determines the behavior.
Abstraction
Hiding internal details and showing functionality is known as abstraction. Data abstraction
is the process of exposing to the outside world only the information that is absolutely
necessary while concealing implementation or background information.For example: phone
call, we don't know the internal processing.
In C++, we use abstract class and interface to achieve abstraction.

Encapsulation
Binding (or wrapping) code and data together into a single unit is known as
encapsulation. For example: capsule, it is wrapped with different medicines.
Encapsulation is typically understood as the grouping of related pieces of information and

data into a single entity. Encapsulation is the process of tying together data and the functions
that work with it in object-oriented programming. Take a look at a practical illustration of
encapsulation: at a company, there are various divisions, including the sales division, the
finance division, and the accounts division. All financial transactions are handled by the
finance sector, which also maintains records of all financial data. In a similar vein, the sales
section is in charge of all tasks relating to sales and maintains a record of each sale. Now, a
scenario could occur when, for some reason, a financial official requires all the information
on sales for a specific month. Under the umbrella term "sales section," all of the employees
who can influence the sales section's data are grouped together. Data abstraction or
concealing is another side effect of encapsulation. In the same way that encapsulation hides
the data. In the aforementioned example, any other area cannot access any of the data from
any of the sections, such as sales, finance, or accounts.
Dynamic Binding - In dynamic binding, a decision is made at runtime regarding the code
that will be run in response to a function call. For this, C++ supports virtual functions.
Advantage of OOPs over Procedure-oriented programming language
1. OOPs makes development and maintenance easier where as in Procedure-oriented

programming language it is not easy to manage if code grows as project size grows.
2. OOPs provide data hiding whereas in Procedure-oriented programming language a
global data can be accessed from anywhere.
3. OOPs provide ability to simulate real-world event much more effectively. We can
provide the solution of real word problem if we are using the Object-Oriented
Programming language.
4. Overloading
5. Polymorphism also has a subset known as overloading. An existing operator or

function is said to be overloaded when it is forced to operate on a new data type.
C++ Object
In C++, Object is a real world entity, for example, chair, car, pen, mobile, laptop etc.
In other words, object is an entity that has state and behavior. Here, state means data and
behavior means functionality.
Object is a runtime entity, it is created at runtime.

Object is an instance of a class. All the members of the class can be accessed through object.
Let's see an example to create object of student class using s1 as the reference variable.
1. Student s1; //creating an object of Student
In this example, Student is the type and s1 is the reference variable that refers to the instance
of Student class.
C++ Class
In C++, class is a group of similar objects. It is a template from which objects are created. It
can have fields, methods, constructors etc.
Let's see an example of C++ class that has three fields only.
1. class Student
2. {
3. public:
4. int id; //field or data member
5. float salary; //field or data member
6. String name;//field or data member
7. }
C++ Object and Class Example
Let's see an example of class that has two fields: id and name. It creates instance of the class,
initializes the object and prints the object value.
3. class Student {
4. public:
5. int id;//data member (also instance variable)
6. string name;//data member(also instance variable)
7. };
8. int main() {
10. s1.id = 201;
11. s1.name = "Sonoo Jaiswal";
12. cout<<s1.id<<endl;
13. cout<<s1.name<<endl;
14. return 0;
15. }
Output:
201
Sonoo Jaiswal
C++ Class Example: Initialize and Display data through method
Let's see another example of C++ class where we are initializing and displaying object
through method.
3. class Student {
4. public:
7. void insert(int i, string n)
8. {
9. id = i;
10. name = n;
11. }
12. void display()
13. {
14. cout<<id<<" "<<name<<endl;
15. }
16. };
17. int main(void) {
20. s1.insert(201, "Sonoo");
21. s2.insert(202, "Nakul");
22. s1.display();
23. s2.display();
24. return 0;
25. }
Output:
201 Sonoo
202 Nakul
C++ Class Example: Store and Display Employee Information
Let's see another example of C++ class where we are storing and displaying employee
information using method.
3. class Employee {
4. public:
7. float salary;
8. void insert(int i, string n, float s)
9. {
10. id = i;
11. name = n;
12. salary = s;
13. }
14. void display()
15. {
16. cout<<id<<" "<<name<<" "<<salary<<endl;
17. }
18. };
20. Employee e1; //creating an object of Employee
21. Employee e2; //creating an object of Employee
22. e1.insert(201, "Sonoo",990000);
23. e2.insert(202, "Nakul", 29000);
24. e1.display();
25. e2.display();
26. return 0;
27. }
Output:
201 Sonoo 990000
202 Nakul 29000
C++ Inheritance
In C++, inheritance is a process in which one object acquires all the properties and behaviors
of its parent object automatically. In such way, you can reuse, extend or modify the attributes
and behaviors which are defined in other class.
In C++, the class which inherits the members of another class is called derived class and the
class whose members are inherited is called base class. The derived class is the specialized
class for the base class.
Advantage of C++ Inheritance
Code reusability: Now you can reuse the members of your parent class. So, there is no need
to define the member again. So less code is required in the class.
Types Of Inheritance
C++ supports five types of inheritance:
o Single inheritance
o Multiple inheritance
o Hierarchical inheritance
o Multilevel inheritance
o Hybrid inheritance
Derived Classes
A Derived class is defined as the class derived from the base class.
The Syntax of Derived class:
1. class derived_class_name :: visibility-mode base_class_name

2. {
3. // body of the derived class.
4. }
Where,
derived_class_name: It is the name of the derived class.
visibility mode: The visibility mode specifies whether the features of the base class are
publicly inherited or privately inherited. It can be public or private.
base_class_name: It is the name of the base class.
o When the base class is privately inherited by the derived class, public members of the
base class becomes the private members of the derived class. Therefore, the public
members of the base class are not accessible by the objects of the derived class only
by the member functions of the derived class.
o When the base class is publicly inherited by the derived class, public members of the
base class also become the public members of the derived class. Therefore, the public
members of the base class are accessible by the objects of the derived class as well as
by the member functions of the base class.
Note:
o In C++, the default mode of visibility is private.

o The private members of the base class are never inherited.
C++ Single Inheritance
Single inheritance is defined as the inheritance in which a derived class is inherited from the
only one base class.
Where 'A' is the base class, and 'B' is the derived class.
C++ Single Level Inheritance Example: Inheriting Fields
When one class inherits another class, it is known as single level inheritance. Let's see the
example of single level inheritance which inherits the fields only.
3. class Account {
4. public:
5. float salary = 60000;
6. };
7. class Programmer: public Account {
8. public:
9. float bonus = 5000;
10. };
12. Programmer p1;
13. cout<<"Salary: "<<p1.salary<<endl;
14. cout<<"Bonus: "<<p1.bonus<<endl;
15. return 0;
16. }
Output:
Salary: 60000
Bonus: 5000
In the above example, Employee is the base class and Programmer is the derived class.
C++ Single Level Inheritance Example: Inheriting Methods
Let's see another example of inheritance in C++ which inherits methods only.
3. class Animal {
4. public:
5. void eat() {
6. cout<<"Eating..."<<endl;
7. }
8. };
9. class Dog: public Animal
10. {
11. public:
12. void bark(){
13. cout<<"Barking...";
14. }
15. };
17. Dog d1;
18. d1.eat();
19. d1.bark();
20. return 0;
21. }
Output:
Eating...
Barking...
Let's see a simple example.
3. class A
4. {
5. int a = 4;
6. int b = 5;
7. public:
8. int mul()
9. {
10. int c = a*b;
11. return c;
12. }
13. };
14.
15. class B : private A
16. {
17. public:
18. void display()
19. {
20. int result = mul();
21. std::cout <<"Multiplication of a and b is : "<<result<< std::endl;
22. }
23. };
24. int main()
25. {
26. B b;
27. b.display();
28.
29. return 0;
30. }
Output:
Multiplication of a and b is : 20
In the above example, class A is privately inherited. Therefore, the mul() function of class 'A'
cannot be accessed by the object of class B. It can only be accessed by the member function
of class B.
How to make a Private Member Inheritable
The private member is not inheritable. If we modify the visibility mode by making it public,
but this takes away the advantage of data hiding.
C++ introduces a third visibility modifier, i.e., protected. The member which is declared as
protected will be accessible to all the member functions within the class as well as the class
immediately derived from it.
Visibility modes can be classified into three categories:

o Public: When the member is declared as public, it is accessible to all the functions of
the program.
o Private: When the member is declared as private, it is accessible within the class
only.
o Protected: When the member is declared as protected, it is accessible within its own
class as well as the class immediately derived from it.
Visibility of Inherited Members
Base class visibility Derived class visibility
Public Private Protected
Private Not Inherited Not Inherited Not Inherited
Protected Protected Private Protected
Public Public Private Protected
C++ Multilevel Inheritance
Multilevel inheritance is a process of deriving a class from another derived class.
C++ Multi Level Inheritance Example
When one class inherits another class which is further inherited by another class, it is known
as multi level inheritance in C++. Inheritance is transitive so the last derived class acquires all
the members of all its base classes.
Let's see the example of multi level inheritance in C++.
3. class Animal {
4. public:
5. void eat() {
6. cout<<"Eating..."<<endl;
7. }
8. };
10. {
11. public:
12. void bark(){
13. cout<<"Barking..."<<endl;
14. }
15. };
16. class BabyDog: public Dog
17. {
18. public:
19. void weep() {
20. cout<<"Weeping...";
21. }
22. };
24. BabyDog d1;
25. d1.eat();
26. d1.bark();
27. d1.weep();
28. return 0;
29. }
Output:
Eating...
Barking...
Weeping...
C++ Multiple Inheritance

Multiple inheritance is the process of deriving a new class that inherits the attributes from
two or more classes.
Syntax of the Derived class:
1. class D : visibility B-1, visibility B-2, ?

2. {
3. // Body of the class;
4. }
Let's see a simple example of multiple inheritance.
3. class A
4. {
5. protected:
6. int a;
7. public:
8. void get_a(int n)
9. {
10. a = n;
11. }
12. };
13.
14. class B
15. {
16. protected:
17. int b;
18. public:
19. void get_b(int n)
20. {
21. b = n;
22. }
23. };
24. class C : public A,public B
25. {
26. public:
27. void display()
28. {
29. std::cout << "The value of a is : " <<a<< std::endl;
30. std::cout << "The value of b is : " <<b<< std::endl;
31. cout<<"Addition of a and b is : "<<a+b;
32. }
33. };
34. int main()
35. {
36. C c;
37. c.get_a(10);
38. c.get_b(20);
39. c.display();
40.
41. return 0;
42. }
Output:
The value of a is : 10
The value of b is : 20
Addition of a and b is : 30
In the above example, class 'C' inherits two base classes 'A' and 'B' in a public mode.
Ambiquity Resolution in Inheritance
Ambiguity can be occurred in using the multiple inheritance when a function with the same
name occurs in more than one base class.
Let's understand this through an example:
3. class A
4. {
5. public:
6. void display()
7. {
8. std::cout << "Class A" << std::endl;
9. }
10. };
11. class B
12. {
13. public:
14. void display()
15. {
16. std::cout << "Class B" << std::endl;
17. }
18. };
19. class C : public A, public B
20. {
21. void view()
22. {
23. display();
24. }
25. };
26. int main()
27. {
28. C c;
29. c.display();
30. return 0;
31. }
Output:
error: reference to 'display' is ambiguous

display();
o The above issue can be resolved by using the class resolution operator with the
function. In the above example, the derived class code can be rewritten as:
1. class C : public A, public B

2. {
3. void view()
4. {
5. A :: display(); // Calling the display() function of class A.
6. B :: display(); // Calling the display() function of class B.
7.
8. }
9. };
An ambiguity can also occur in single inheritance.
Consider the following situation:
1. class A
2. {
3. public:
4. void display()
5. {
6. cout<<?Class A?;
7. }
8. } ;
9. class B
10. {
11. public:
12. void display()
13. {
14. cout<<?Class B?;
15. }
16. } ;
In the above case, the function of the derived class overrides the method of the base class.
Therefore, call to the display() function will simply call the function defined in the derived
class. If we want to invoke the base class function, we can use the class resolution operator.
1. int main()
2. {
3. B b;
4. b.display(); // Calling the display() function of B class.
5. b.B :: display(); // Calling the display() function defined in B class.
6. }
C++ Hybrid Inheritance
Hybrid inheritance is a combination of more than one type of inheritance.
Let's see a simple example:
3. class A
4. {
5. protected:
6. int a;
7. public:
8. void get_a()
9. {
10. std::cout << "Enter the value of 'a' : " << std::endl;
11. cin>>a;
12. }
13. };
14.
15. class B : public A
16. {
17. protected:
18. int b;
19. public:
20. void get_b()
21. {
22. std::cout << "Enter the value of 'b' : " << std::endl;
23. cin>>b;
24. }
25. };
26. class C
27. {
28. protected:
29. int c;
30. public:
31. void get_c()
32. {
33. std::cout << "Enter the value of c is : " << std::endl;
34. cin>>c;
35. }
36. };
37.
38. class D : public B, public C
39. {
40. protected:
41. int d;
42. public:
43. void mul()
44. {
45. get_a();
46. get_b();
47. get_c();
48. std::cout << "Multiplication of a,b,c is : " <<a*b*c<< std::endl;
49. }
50. };
51. int main()
52. {
53. D d;
54. d.mul();
55. return 0;
56. }
Output:
Enter the value of 'a' :

10
Enter the value of 'b' :
20
Enter the value of c is :
30
Multiplication of a,b,c is : 6000
C++ Hierarchical Inheritance
Hierarchical inheritance is defined as the process of deriving more than one class from a base
class.
Syntax of Hierarchical inheritance:
1. class A
2. {
3. // body of the class A.
4. }
5. class B : public A
6. {
7. // body of class B.
8. }
9. class C : public A
10. {
11. // body of class C.
12. }
13. class D : public A
14. {
15. // body of class D.
16. }
Let's see a simple example:

3. class Shape // Declaration of base class.
4. {
5. public:
6. int a;
7. int b;
8. void get_data(int n,int m)
9. {
10. a= n;
11. b = m;
12. }
13. };
14. class Rectangle : public Shape // inheriting Shape class
15. {
16. public:
17. int rect_area()
18. {
19. int result = a*b;
20. return result;
21. }
22. };
23. class Triangle : public Shape // inheriting Shape class
24. {
25. public:
26. int triangle_area()
27. {
28. float result = 0.5*a*b;
29. return result;
30. }
31. };
32. int main()
33. {
34. Rectangle r;
35. Triangle t;
36. int length,breadth,base,height;
37. std::cout << "Enter the length and breadth of a rectangle: " << std::endl;
38. cin>>length>>breadth;
39. r.get_data(length,breadth);
40. int m = r.rect_area();
41. std::cout << "Area of the rectangle is : " <<m<< std::endl;
42. std::cout << "Enter the base and height of the triangle: " << std::endl;
43. cin>>base>>height;
44. t.get_data(base,height);
45. float n = t.triangle_area();
46. std::cout <<"Area of the triangle is : " << n<<std::endl;
47. return 0;
48. }
Output:
Enter the length and breadth of a rectangle:

23
20
Area of the rectangle is : 460
Enter the base and height of the triangle:
2
5
Area of the triangle is : 5
C++ Polymorphism
The term "Polymorphism" is the combination of "poly" + "morphs" which means many
forms. It is a greek word. In object-oriented programming, we use 3 main concepts:
inheritance, encapsulation, and polymorphism.
Real Life Example Of Polymorphism
Let's consider a real-life example of polymorphism. A lady behaves like a teacher in a

classroom, mother or daughter in a home and customer in a market. Here, a single person is
behaving differently according to the situations.
There are two types of polymorphism in C++:

o Compile time polymorphism: The overloaded functions are invoked by matching the
type and number of arguments. This information is available at the compile time and,
therefore, compiler selects the appropriate function at the compile time. It is achieved
by function overloading and operator overloading which is also known as static
binding or early binding. Now, let's consider the case where function name and
prototype is same.
1. class A // base class declaration.

2. {
3. int a;
4. public:
5. void display()
6. {
7. cout<< "Class A ";
8. }
9. };
10. class B : public A // derived class declaration.
11. {
12. int b;
13. public:
14. void display()
15. {
16. cout<<"Class B";
17. }
18. };
In the above case, the prototype of display() function is the same in both the base and
derived class. Therefore, the static binding cannot be applied. It would be great if the
appropriate function is selected at the run time. This is known as run time polymorphism.
o Run time polymorphism: Run time polymorphism is achieved when the object's
method is invoked at the run time instead of compile time. It is achieved by method
overriding which is also known as dynamic binding or late binding.
Differences b/w compile time and run time polymorphism.
Compile time polymorphism Run time polymorphism
The function to be invoked is known at the The function to be invoked is known at the
compile time. run time.
It is also known as overloading, early binding It is also known as overriding, Dynamic

and static binding. binding and late binding.
Overloading is a compile time polymorphism Overriding is a run time polymorphism

where more than one method is having the same where more than one method is having the
name but with the different number of same name, number of parameters and the
parameters or the type of the parameters. type of the parameters.
It is achieved by function overloading and It is achieved by virtual functions and

operator overloading. pointers.
It provides fast execution as it is known at the It provides slow execution as it is known at

compile time. the run time.
It is less flexible as mainly all the things execute It is more flexible as all the things execute
at the compile time. at the run time.
C++ Runtime Polymorphism Example
Let's see a simple example of run time polymorphism in C++.
// an example without the virtual keyword.
3. class Animal {
4. public:
5. void eat(){
6. cout<<"Eating...";
7. }
8. };
10. {
11. public:
12. void eat()
13. { cout<<"Eating bread...";
14. }
15. };
17. Dog d = Dog();
18. d.eat();
19. return 0;
20. }
Output:
Eating bread...
C++ Run time Polymorphism Example: By using two derived class
Let's see another example of run time polymorphism in C++ where we are having two
derived classes.
// an example with virtual keyword.
3. class Shape { // base class
4. public:
5. virtual void draw(){ // virtual function
6. cout<<"drawing..."<<endl;
7. }
8. };
9. class Rectangle: public Shape // inheriting Shape class.
10. {
11. public:
12. void draw()
13. {
14. cout<<"drawing rectangle..."<<endl;
15. }
16. };
17. class Circle: public Shape // inheriting Shape class.
18.
19. {
20. public:
21. void draw()
22. {
23. cout<<"drawing circle..."<<endl;
24. }
25. };
27. Shape *s; // base class pointer.
28. Shape sh; // base class object.
29. Rectangle rec;
30. Circle cir;
31. s=&sh;
32. s->draw();
33. s=&rec;
34. s->draw();
35. s=?
36. s->draw();
37. }
Output:
drawing...
drawing rectangle...
drawing circle...
Runtime Polymorphism with Data Members
Runtime Polymorphism can be achieved by data members in C++. Let's see an example
where we are accessing the field by reference variable which refers to the instance of derived
class.
3. class Animal { // base class declaration.
4. public:
5. string color = "Black";
6. };
7. class Dog: public Animal // inheriting Animal class.
8. {
9. public:
10. string color = "Grey";
11. };
13. Animal d= Dog();
14. cout<<d.color;
15. }
Output:
Black
C++ Overloading (Function and Operator)
If we create two or more members having the same name but different in number or type of
parameter, it is known as C++ overloading. In C++, we can overload:
o methods,
o constructors, and
o indexed properties
It is because these members have parameters only.
Types of overloading in C++ are:
o Function overloading
o Operator overloading
C++ Function Overloading
Function Overloading is defined as the process of having two or more function with the same
name, but different in parameters is known as function overloading in C++. In function
overloading, the function is redefined by using either different types of arguments or a
different number of arguments. It is only through these differences compiler can differentiate
between the functions.
The advantage of Function overloading is that it increases the readability of the program
because you don't need to use different names for the same action.
C++ Function Overloading Example
Let's see the simple example of function overloading where we are changing number of
arguments of add() method.
// program of function overloading when number of arguments vary.
3. class Cal {
4. public:
5. static int add(int a,int b){
6. return a + b;
7. }
8. static int add(int a, int b, int c)
9. {
10. return a + b + c;
11. }
12. };
14. Cal C; // class object declaration.
15. cout<<C.add(10, 20)<<endl;
16. cout<<C.add(12, 20, 23);
17. return 0;
18. }
Output:
30
55
Let's see the simple example when the type of the arguments vary.
// Program of function overloading with different types of arguments.
1. #include<iostream>
3. int mul(int,int);
4. float mul(float,int);
5.
6.
7. int mul(int a,int b)
8. {
9. return a*b;
10. }
11. float mul(double x, int y)
12. {
13. return x*y;
14. }
15. int main()
16. {
17. int r1 = mul(6,7);
18. float r2 = mul(0.2,3);
19. std::cout << "r1 is : " <<r1<< std::endl;
20. std::cout <<"r2 is : " <<r2<< std::endl;
21. return 0;
22. }
Output:
r1 is : 42
r2 is : 0.6
Function Overloading and Ambiguity
When the compiler is unable to decide which function is to be invoked among the overloaded
function, this situation is known as function overloading.
When the compiler shows the ambiguity error, the compiler does not run the program.
Causes of Function Overloading:
o Type Conversion.
o Function with default arguments.
o Function with pass by reference.
o Type Conversion:
3. void fun(int);
4. void fun(float);
5. void fun(int i)
6. {
7. std::cout << "Value of i is : " <<i<< std::endl;
8. }
9. void fun(float j)
10. {
11. std::cout << "Value of j is : " <<j<< std::endl;
12. }
13. int main()
14. {
15. fun(12);
16. fun(1.2);
17. return 0;
18. }
The above example shows an error "call of overloaded 'fun(double)' is ambiguous". The
fun(10) will call the first function. The fun(1.2) calls the second function according to our
prediction. But, this does not refer to any function as in C++, all the floating point constants
are treated as double not as a float. If we replace float to double, the program works.
Therefore, this is a type conversion from float to double.
o Function with Default Arguments

3. void fun(int);
4. void fun(int,int);
5. void fun(int i)
6. {
7. std::cout << "Value of i is : " <<i<< std::endl;
8. }
9. void fun(int a,int b=9)
10. {
11. std::cout << "Value of a is : " <<a<< std::endl;
12. std::cout << "Value of b is : " <<b<< std::endl;
13. }
14. int main()
15. {
16. fun(12);
17.
18. return 0;
19. }
The above example shows an error "call of overloaded 'fun(int)' is ambiguous". The fun(int a,
int b=9) can be called in two ways: first is by calling the function with one argument, i.e.,
fun(12) and another way is calling the function with two arguments, i.e., fun(4,5). The fun(int
i) function is invoked with one argument. Therefore, the compiler could not be able to select
among fun(int i) and fun(int a,int b=9).
o Function with pass by reference
3. void fun(int);
4. void fun(int &);
5. int main()
6. {
7. int a=10;
8. fun(a); // error, which f()?
9. return 0;
10. }
11. void fun(int x)
12. {
13. std::cout << "Value of x is : " <<x<< std::endl;
14. }
15. void fun(int &b)
16. {
17. std::cout << "Value of b is : " <<b<< std::endl;
18. }
The above example shows an error "call of overloaded 'fun(int&)' is ambiguous". The first
function takes one integer argument and the second function takes a reference parameter as
an argument. In this case, the compiler does not know which function is needed by the user as
there is no syntactical difference between the fun(int) and fun(int &).
C++ Operators Overloading
Operator overloading is a compile-time polymorphism in which the operator is overloaded to

provide the special meaning to the user-defined data type. Operator overloading is used to
overload or redefines most of the operators available in C++. It is used to perform the
operation on the user-defined data type. For example, C++ provides the ability to add the
variables of the user-defined data type that is applied to the built-in data types.
The advantage of Operators overloading is to perform different operations on the same

operand.
Operator that cannot be overloaded are as follows:
o Scope operator (::)

o Sizeof
o member selector(.)
o member pointer selector(*)
o ternary operator(?:)
Syntax of Operator Overloading
1. return_type class_name : : operator op(argument_list)

2. {
3. // body of the function.
4. }
Where the return type is the type of value returned by the function.
class_name is the name of the class.
operator op is an operator function where op is the operator being overloaded, and the
operator is the keyword.
Rules for Operator Overloading
o Existing operators can only be overloaded, but the new operators cannot be
overloaded.
o The overloaded operator contains atleast one operand of the user-defined data type.
o We cannot use friend function to overload certain operators. However, the member
function can be used to overload those operators.
o When unary operators are overloaded through a member function take no explicit
arguments, but, if they are overloaded by a friend function, takes one argument.
o When binary operators are overloaded through a member function takes one explicit
argument, and if they are overloaded through a friend function takes two explicit
arguments.
C++ Operators Overloading Example
Let's see the simple example of operator overloading in C++. In this example, void operator +
+ () operator function is defined (inside Test class).
// program to overload the unary operator ++.
3. class Test
4. {
5. private:
6. int num;
7. public:
8. Test(): num(8){}
9. void operator ++() {
10. num = num+2;
11. }
12. void Print() {
13. cout<<"The Count is: "<<num;
14. }
15. };
16. int main()
17. {
18. Test tt;
19. ++tt; // calling of a function "void operator ++()"
20. tt.Print();
21. return 0;
22. }
Output:
The Count is: 10
Let's see a simple example of overloading the binary operators.
// program to overload the binary operators.
3. class A
4. {
5.
6. int x;
7. public:
8. A(){}
9. A(int i)
10. {
11. x=i;
12. }
13. void operator+(A);
14. void display();
15. };
16.
17. void A :: operator+(A a)
18. {
19.
20. int m = x+a.x;
21. cout<<"The result of the addition of two objects is : "<<m;
22.
23. }
24. int main()
25. {
26. A a1(5);
27. A a2(4);
28. a1+a2;
29. return 0;
30. }
Output:
The result of the addition of two objects is : 9

Data Abstraction in C++
o Data Abstraction is a process of providing only the essential details to the outside
world and hiding the internal details, i.e., representing only the essential details in the
program.
o Data Abstraction is a programming technique that depends on the seperation of the
interface and implementation details of the program.
o Let's take a real life example of AC, which can be turned ON or OFF, change the
temperature, change the mode, and other external components such as fan, swing.
But, we don't know the internal details of the AC, i.e., how it works internally. Thus,
we can say that AC seperates the implementation details from the external interface.
o C++ provides a great level of abstraction. For example, pow() function is used to
calculate the power of a number without knowing the algorithm the function follows.
In C++ program if we implement class with private and public members then it is an example
of data abstraction.
Data Abstraction can be achieved in two ways:
o Abstraction using classes

o Abstraction in header files.
Abstraction using classes: An abstraction can be achieved using classes. A class is used to
group all the data members and member functions into a single unit by using the access
specifiers. A class has the responsibility to determine which data member is to be visible
outside and which is not.
Abstraction in header files: An another type of abstraction is header file. For example,
pow() function available is used to calculate the power of a number without actually knowing
which algorithm function uses to calculate the power. Thus, we can say that header files hides
all the implementation details from the user.
Access Specifiers Implement Abstraction:
o Public specifier: When the members are declared as public, members can be
accessed anywhere from the program.
o Private specifier: When the members are declared as private, members can only be
accessed only by the member functions of the class.
Let's see a simple example of abstraction in header files.
// program to calculate the power of a number.
2. #include<math.h>
4. int main()
5. {
6. int n = 4;
7. int power = 3;
8. int result = pow(n,power); // pow(n,power) is the power function
9. std::cout << "Cube of n is : " <<result<< std::endl;
10. return 0;
11. }
Output:
Cube of n is : 64
In the above example, pow() function is used to calculate 4 raised to the power 3. The pow()
function is present in the math.h header file in which all the implementation details of the
pow() function is hidden.
Let's see a simple example of data abstraction using classes.
3. class Sum
4. {
5. private: int x, y, z; // private variables
6. public:
7. void add()
8. {
9. cout<<"Enter two numbers: ";
10. cin>>x>>y;
11. z= x+y;
12. cout<<"Sum of two number is: "<<z<<endl;
13. }
14. };
15. int main()
16. {
17. Sum sm;
18. sm.add();
19. return 0;
20. }
Output:
Enter two numbers:

3
6
Sum of two number is: 9
In the above example, abstraction is achieved using classes. A class 'Sum' contains the private
members x, y and z are only accessible by the member functions of the class.
Advantages Of Abstraction:
o Implementation details of the class are protected from the inadvertent user level
errors.
o A programmer does not need to write the low level code.
o Data Abstraction avoids the code duplication, i.e., programmer does not have to
undergo the same tasks every time to perform the similar operation.
o The main aim of the data abstraction is to reuse the code and the proper partitioning of
the code across the classes.
o Internal implementation can be changed without affecting the user level code.
In C++, string is an object of std::string class that represents sequence of characters. We can
perform many operations on strings such as concatenation, comparison, conversion etc.
C++ String Example
Let's see the simple example of C++ string.
3. int main( ) {
4. string s1 = "Hello";
5. char ch[] = { 'C', '+', '+'};
6. string s2 = string(ch);
7. cout<<s1<<endl;
8. cout<<s2<<endl;
9. }
Output:
Hello
C++
C++ String Compare Example
Let's see the simple example of string comparison using strcmp() function.
2. #include <cstring>
4. int main ()
5. {
6. char key[] = "mango";
7. char buffer[50];
8. do {
9. cout<<"What is my favourite fruit? ";
10. cin>>buffer;
11. } while (strcmp (key,buffer) != 0);
12. cout<<"Answer is correct!!"<<endl;
13. return 0;
14. }
Output:
What is my favourite fruit? apple

What is my favourite fruit? banana
What is my favourite fruit? mango
Answer is correct!!
C++ String Concat Example
Let's see the simple example of string concatenation using strcat() function.
4. int main()
5. {
6. char key[25], buffer[25];
7. cout << "Enter the key string: ";
8. cin.getline(key, 25);
9. cout << "Enter the buffer string: ";
10. cin.getline(buffer, 25);
11. strcat(key, buffer);
12. cout << "Key = " << key << endl;
13. cout << "Buffer = " << buffer<<endl;
14. return 0;
15. }
Output:
Enter the key string: Welcome to
Enter the buffer string: C++ Programming.
Key = Welcome to C++ Programming.
Buffer = C++ Programming.
C++ String Copy Example
Let's see the simple example of copy the string using strcpy() function.
4. int main()
5. {
6. char key[25], buffer[25];
7. cout << "Enter the key string: ";
8. cin.getline(key, 25);
9. strcpy(buffer, key);
10. cout << "Key = "<< key << endl;
11. cout << "Buffer = "<< buffer<<endl;
12. return 0;
13. }
Output:
Enter the key string: C++ Tutorial

Key = C++ Tutorial
Buffer = C++ Tutorial
C++ String Length Example
Let's see the simple example of finding the string length using strlen() function.
4. int main()
5. {
6. char ary[] = "Welcome to C++ Programming";
7. cout << "Length of String = " << strlen(ary)<<endl;
8. return 0;
9. }
Output:
Length of String = 26
C++ String Functions
Function Description
int compare(const string& str) It is used to compare two string objects.
int length() It is used to find the length of the string.
void swap(string& str) It is used to swap the values of two string objects.
string substr(int pos,int n) It creates a new string object of n characters.
int size() It returns the length of the string in terms of bytes.
void resize(int n) It is used to resize the length of the string up to n

characters.
string& replace(int pos,int It replaces portion of the string that begins at character
len,string& str) position pos and spans len characters.
string& append(const string& str) It adds new characters at the end of another string
object.
char& at(int pos) It is used to access an individual character at specified

position pos.
int find(string& str,int pos,int n) It is used to find the string specified in the parameter.
int find_first_of(string& str,int It is used to find the first occurrence of the specified
pos,int n) sequence.
int find_first_not_of(string& It is used to search the string for the first character that
str,int pos,int n ) does not match with any of the characters specified in
the string.
int find_last_of(string& str,int It is used to search the string for the last character of
pos,int n) specified sequence.
int find_last_not_of(string& It searches for the last character that does not match
str,int pos) with the specified sequence.
string& insert() It inserts a new character before the character indicated

by the position pos.
int max_size() It finds the maximum length of the string.
void push_back(char ch) It adds a new character ch at the end of the string.
void pop_back() It removes a last character of the string.
string& assign() It assigns new value to the string.
int copy(string& str) It copies the contents of string into another.
char& back() It returns the reference of last character.
Iterator begin() It returns the reference of first character.
int capacity() It returns the allocated space for the string.
const_iterator cbegin() It points to the first element of the string.
const_iterator cend() It points to the last element of the string.
void clear() It removes all the elements from the string.
const_reverse_iterator crbegin() It points to the last character of the string.
const_char* data() It copies the characters of string into an array.
bool empty() It checks whether the string is empty or not.
string& erase() It removes the characters as specified.
char& front() It returns a reference of the first character.
string& operator+=() It appends a new character at the end of the string.
string& operator=() It assigns a new value to the string.
char operator[](pos) It retrieves a character at specified position pos.
int rfind() It searches for the last occurrence of the string.
iterator end() It references the last character of the string.
reverse_iterator rend() It points to the first character of the string.
void shrink_to_fit() It reduces the capacity and makes it equal to the size of
the string.
char* c_str() It returns pointer to an array that contains null

terminated sequence of characters.
const_reverse_iterator crend() It references the first character of the string.
reverse_iterator rbegin() It reference the last character of the string.
void reserve(inr len) It requests a change in capacity.
allocator_type get_allocator(); It returns the allocated object associated with the string.
Fibonaccci Series in C++ without Recursion
Let's see the fibonacci series program in C++ without recursion.
3. int main() {
4. int n1=0,n2=1,n3,i,number;
5. cout<<"Enter the number of elements: ";
6. cin>>number;
7. cout<<n1<<" "<<n2<<" "; //printing 0 and 1
8. for(i=2;i<number;++i) //loop starts from 2 because 0 and 1 are already printed
9. {
10. n3=n1+n2;
11. cout<<n3<<" ";
12. n1=n2;
13. n2=n3;
14. }
15. return 0;
16. }
Output:
Enter the number of elements: 10

0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34
Fibonnaci series using recursion in C++
Let's see the fibonacci series program in C++ using recursion.
3. void printFibonacci(int n){
4. static int n1=0, n2=1, n3;
5. if(n>0){
6. n3 = n1 + n2;
7. n1 = n2;
8. n2 = n3;
9. cout<<n3<<" ";
10. printFibonacci(n-1);
11. }
12. }
13. int main(){
14. int n;
15. cout<<"Enter the number of elements: ";
16. cin>>n;
17. cout<<"Fibonacci Series: ";
18. cout<<"0 "<<"1 ";
19. printFibonacci(n-2); //n-2 because 2 numbers are already printed
20. return 0;
21. }
Output:
Enter the number of elements: 15

Fibonacci Series: 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377
In this program, we will get an input from the user and check whether number is palindrome
or not.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int n,r,sum=0,temp;
6. cout<<"Enter the Number=";
7. cin>>n;
8. temp=n;
9. while(n>0)
10. {
11. r=n%10;
12. sum=(sum*10)+r;
13. n=n/10;
14. }
15. if(temp==sum)
16. cout<<"Number is Palindrome.";
17. else
18. cout<<"Number is not Palindrome.";
19. return 0;
20. }
Output:
Enter the Number=121

Number is Palindrome.
Enter the number=113
Number is not Palindrome.
Factorial Program using Loop
Let's see the factorial Program in C++ using loop.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int i,fact=1,number;
6. cout<<"Enter any Number: ";
7. cin>>number;
8. for(i=1;i<=number;i++){
9. fact=fact*i;
10. }
11. cout<<"Factorial of " <<number<<" is: "<<fact<<endl;
12. return 0;
13. }
Output:
Enter any Number: 5

Factorial of 5 is: 120
Factorial Program using Recursion

Let's see the factorial program in C++ using recursion.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int factorial(int);
6. int fact,value;
7. cout<<"Enter any number: ";
8. cin>>value;
9. fact=factorial(value);
10. cout<<"Factorial of a number is: "<<fact<<endl;
11. return 0;
12. }
13. int factorial(int n)
14. {
15. if(n<0)
16. return(-1); /*Wrong value*/
17. if(n==0)
18. return(1); /*Terminating condition*/
19. else
20. {
21. return(n*factorial(n-1));
22. }
23. }
Output:
Enter any number: 6

Factorial of a number is: 720
Let's see the C++ program to check Armstrong Number.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int n,r,sum=0,temp;
6. cout<<"Enter the Number= ";
7. cin>>n;
8. temp=n;
9. while(n>0)
10. {
11. r=n%10;
12. sum=sum+(r*r*r);
13. n=n/10;
14. }
15. if(temp==sum)
16. cout<<"Armstrong Number."<<endl;
17. else
18. cout<<"Not Armstrong Number."<<endl;
19. return 0;
20. }
Output:
Enter the Number= 371

Armstrong Number.
Not Armstrong Number.
Let's see the sum of digits program in C++.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int n,sum=0,m;
6. cout<<"Enter a number: ";
7. cin>>n;
8. while(n>0)
9. {
10. m=n%10;
11. sum=sum+m;
12. n=n/10;
13. }
14. cout<<"Sum is= "<<sum<<endl;
15. return 0;
16. }
Output:
Enter a number: 23
Sum is= 5
Enter a number: 624
Sum is= 12
Let's see a simple C++ example to reverse a given number.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int n, reverse=0, rem;
6. cout<<"Enter a number: ";
7. cin>>n;
8. while(n!=0)
9. {
10. rem=n%10;
11. reverse=reverse*10+rem;
12. n/=10;
13. }
14. cout<<"Reversed Number: "<<reverse<<endl;
15. return 0;
16. }
Output:
Enter a number: 234

Reversed Number: 432
Let's see the program of matrix multiplication in C++.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int a[10][10],b[10][10],mul[10][10],r,c,i,j,k;
6. cout<<"enter the number of row=";
7. cin>>r;
8. cout<<"enter the number of column=";
9. cin>>c;
10. cout<<"enter the first matrix element=\n";
11. for(i=0;i<r;i++)
12. {
13. for(j=0;j<c;j++)
14. {
15. cin>>a[i][j];
16. }
17. }
18. cout<<"enter the second matrix element=\n";
19. for(i=0;i<r;i++)
20. {
21. for(j=0;j<c;j++)
22. {
23. cin>>b[i][j];
24. }
25. }
26. cout<<"multiply of the matrix=\n";
27. for(i=0;i<r;i++)
28. {
29. for(j=0;j<c;j++)
30. {
31. mul[i][j]=0;
32. for(k=0;k<c;k++)
33. {
34. mul[i][j]+=a[i][k]*b[k][j];
35. }
36. }
37. }
38. //for printing result
39. for(i=0;i<r;i++)
40. {
41. for(j=0;j<c;j++)
42. {
43. cout<<mul[i][j]<<" ";
44. }
45. cout<<"\n";
46. }
47. return 0;
48. }
Output:
enter the number of row=3

enter the number of column=3
enter the first matrix element=
123
123
123
enter the second matrix element=
111
212
321
multiply of the matrix=
14 9 8
14 9 8
14 9 8
Let's see the C++ example to convert decimal to binary.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int a[10], n, i;
6. cout<<"Enter the number to convert: ";
7. cin>>n;
8. for(i=0; n>0; i++)
9. {
10. a[i]=n%2;
11. n= n/2;
12. }
13. cout<<"Binary of the given number= ";
14. for(i=i-1 ;i>=0 ;i--)
15. {
16. cout<<a[i];
17. }
18. }
Output:
Enter the number to convert: 9

Binary of the given number= 1001
Let's see the C++ program to convert number in characters.
3. int main()
4. {
5. long int n,sum=0,r;
6. cout<<"Enter the Number= ";
7. cin>>n;
8. while(n>0)
9. {
10. r=n%10;
11. sum=sum*10+r;
12. n=n/10;
13. }
14. n=sum;
15. while(n>0)
16. {
17. r=n%10;
18. switch(r)
19. {
20. case 1:
21. cout<<"one ";
22. break;
23. case 2:
24. cout<<"two ";
25. break;
26. case 3:
27. cout<<"three ";
28. break;
29. case 4:
30. cout<<"four ";
31. break;
32. case 5:
33. cout<<"five ";
34. break;
35. case 6:
36. cout<<"six ";
37. break;
38. case 7:
39. cout<<"seven ";
40. break;
41. case 8:
42. cout<<"eight ";
43. break;
44. case 9:
45. cout<<"nine ";
46. break;
47. case 0:
48. cout<<"zero ";
49. break;
50. default:
51. cout<<"tttt ";
52. break;
53. }
54. n=n/10;
55. }
56. }
Output:

seven four two five four

C++ Program: 1. Type Variable - List

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C++ Program

#include<iostream.h> includes the standard input output library functions. It

getch() The getch() function asks for a single character.

Let's see the syntax to declare a variable:

The example of declaring variable is given below:

Basic Data Type int, char, float, double, etc

auto break case char const continue default Do

double else enum extern float for goto If

int long register return short signed sizeof Static

It can consist of letters, digits, and underscore. It contains only letters.

It can be classified as internal and external It cannot be further classified.

Examples of C++ expression:

An expression can be of following types:

The C++ if statement tests the condition. It is executed if condition is true.

C++ Switch Example

1. for(initialization; condition; incr/decr){

C++ For Loop Example

C++ Nested For Loop Example

Let's see a simple example of nested for loop in C++.

Let's see a simple example of while loop to print table of 1.

C++ Nested While Loop Example

C++ Nested do-while Loop

C++ Break Statement with Inner Loop

Let's see the example code:

C++ Continue Statement Example

There are two types of comments in C++.

o Single Line comment

C++ Single Line Comment

C++ Multi Line Comment

Advantages of C++ Array

o Code Optimization (less code)

Disadvantages of C++ Array

C++ Array Types

There are 2 types of arrays in C++ programming:

1. Single Dimensional Array

C++ Single Dimensional Array

C++ Array Example: Traversal using foreach loop

What is two-dimensional array?

What is a multi-dimensional array?

How to insert it in array?

1. int mark[5] = {19, 10, 8, 17, 9}

How to display the sum and average of array elements?

The numbers are: 7 5 6 12 35 27

How to display array elements?

The numbers are: 7 5 6 12 35

1. functionname(arrayname); //passing array to function

C++ Passing Array to Function Example: print array elements

Printing array elements:

C++ Passing Array to Function Example: Print minimum number

Minimum element is: 10

C++ Passing Array to Function Example: Print maximum number

Maximum element is: 54

The symbol of an address is represented by a pointer. In addition to creating and modifying

How to use a pointer?

1. Establish a pointer variable.

2) We can return multiple values from function using pointer.

There are many usage of pointers in C++ language.

2) Arrays, Functions and Structures

Symbols used in pointer

7. std::cout << "size of ptr1 : " <<sizeof(ptr1)<< std::endl;