9. THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM. LEARNING MODELS AND TECHNIQUES.

PERCEPTION, DISCRIMINATION AND EMISSION OF SPEECH SOUNDS. STRESS, RHYTHM,

AND INTONATION. PHONETIC CORRECTION.

1. INTRODUCTION

2. THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM

2.1. Phonology and phonetics

2.2. Segmental and suprasegmental features.

2.3. The mechanisms of speech

2.4. Speech organs

2.5. Classification of speech sounds

2.5.1. Vowels

2.5.2. Consonants

2.6. Suprasegmental features: stress, rhythm, and intonation.

3. LEARNING MODELS AND TECHNIQUES

4.1. The development of methodologies: phonetics

4. PERCEPTION, DISCRIMINATION AND EMISSION OF SPEECH SOUNDS, STRESS,

RHYTHM, AND INTONATION

5. PHONETIC CORRECTION

6. CONCLUSION

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

7.1. Legal References

7.2. General References

7.3. Webliography

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1. INTRODUCTION

It goes without saying that in the last decades, the field of foreign language teaching has
experienced drastic changes triggered by the implementation of the communicative approach,
which focuses on fluency and communication. Thus, pupils should be familiarized with the English
phonological system, due to a week pronunciation can easily lead to misunderstandings. This
change of methodology goes to show the important role of pronunciation and phonetics in
communicative language teaching.

Hence, this paper aims to discuss the vexed question of teaching phonetics in the English
classroom. To do that, this issue will be dealt with from two different scopes, that of theory and its
correspondent pedagogical implications. The first part will examine the English phonological
system, including a distinction between phonetics and phonology; a brief analysis of the speech
organs and mechanisms of speech, as well as a thorough study of the English segmental and
prosodic features. Throughout the second part, the didactic application of phonetics will be covered
in detail.

The arguments put forward here have been foregrounded on some of the most relevant authors in
the field, namely Brewster and Ellis, ‘The Primary English Teacher’s Guide’ 2002 and Harmer ‘The
Practice of English Language Teaching’ 2007, who have shed light on the issue at stake, but also
considering the current legislation. Moreover, we shall consider, the Spanish curriculum (Act
209/2020) as it establishes clear guidelines so as to what and how teach the phonological system.

2. THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM

2.1. Phonology and Phonetics

While phonetics is concerned with how speech sounds are produced in a given language,
phonology deals with the study of the phonemes in a language system. Its minimal unit is the
phoneme, which is represented by slashes (/ /). A phoneme is an abstract representation in the
speaker’s mind (internal), which is physically realized by one or more allophones, represented in
turn between square brackets []. Moreover, phonemes can change meaning sat/set, mop/top.
Every language has a unique set of phonemes (sounds) which are used to build words. More
specifically, English has approximately 44 phonemes (depending on the accent).
2.2. Segmental and suprasegmental features

• Segmental features: deal with vowels (sound produced by air passing through the mouth
in a continuous stream, no obstruction) and consonants (can be voiced or, voiceless –
sounds with partial or complete obstruction).
• Suprasegmental features: stretches of speech (stress, rhythm, intonation) and voice
quality. These features operate over longer stretches of speech, as opposed to the
segmental features which are referred to as the individual sounds.

2.3. The mechanisms of speech

It is important to note that when learning a foreign language, one should be conscious of the point
and manner of articulation of the sounds, since they hardly ever coincide with one’s own language.
For example, whereas Spanish has 5 vowels, English has twelve. In this sense, learning a new set
of sounds means forming a number of new habits like the shape of their lips. Three different
physical stages take place when we make speech sounds. These are: initiation (breathe in the air
to produce the sound), phonation (the quality of sound) and articulation (the shaping of the
sound is given).

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 2.4. Speech organs
Each organ of speech contributes to the formation of speech sounds in different ways. There are
movable and fixed speech organs.
• Movable speech organs include the vocal cords, which can take up several positions and,
in this way, affect speech sounds (voiced, voiceless, whisper, glottal stop); the soft palate,
which gives rise to oral or nasal sounds; the tongue, which is, perhaps, the most important
of the organs of speech; and the lips, which can also take up four positions (open,
narrowing, in contact, vibration).
• Fixed speech organs include the lungs (inhale and exhale air), larynx (modify the air
stream), hard palate, teeth…

2.5. Classification of speech sounds

Speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants, being both of them the segmental
features of the language.
For recording speech sounds, it is necessary to make use of a phonetic alphabet, that is to say, an
alphabet based on the principle of one letter per phoneme. Various phonetic alphabetic notations
are in use. Yet, the most widely accepted alphabet is the International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA.

2.5.1. Vowels
Vowels are voiced sounds in the pronunciation of which the air passes through the mouth in a
continuous stream, there being no obstruction and no narrowing. English, unlike Spanish, has 12
vowels, which are often referred to with numbers:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
i: i e æ a: o o: u u: ^ 3: ә
On the one hand, for the sake of describing and identifying vowels, a number of criteria will be
clarified. The three main criteria are: position of the tongue, a vowel can be front, back or central;
secondly, the openness of the mouth, classifies vowels as close, half-close, half-open and open,
and, finally, the length of the sound, vowels can be long or short.
Other ways to categorize vowels are tension of muscles (tense and lax); vowel length (quantity:
long or short); vowel strength (quality: weak or strong); lip position (rounded or unrounded) and
nasalization (velum raised, oral and, velum lowered, nasal).
On the other hand, a diphthong is a vowel which changes its quality in the course of its
production. Thus, it is a glide sound, that is to say, the tongue starts in one vowel position and
glides towards another by the most direct route. There are eight falling diphthongs in English, the
first element being louder than the second. For example, in the diphthong /ai/, the tongue starts at
the position of the /a/ and moves towards, but does not actually reach, the /i/ position. But
diphthongs can also be closing or centering, depending on the final movement of the glide. Closing
diphthongs are: /ai, ei, oi, әu, au/ and centering diphthongs are: /iә, eә, uә/.
Finally, English has also triphthongs, although it should be pointed out that they are usually
reduced to diphthongs or even to long vowels. The first and last sounds are more sonorous than
the middle one. The English triphthongs are: /aiә, auә, eiә, әuә, oiә/.

2.5.2. Consonants
A consonant is a sound accompanied or unaccompanied by voice, in which there is either a
complete or partial obstruction which prevents the air from issuing freely from the mouth.
Consonants are classified according to the organs articulating them and according to the manner
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of their articulation. These criteria, the point and the manner of articulation, help phonetician study
and classify consonants in an accurate way.
According to the point of articulation, consonants can be: bilabial (/p/, /b/, /m/), labio-dental (/f/,
/v/), dental (/θ/, /δ/), alveolar (/t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /l/, /n/), post-alveolar (/r/), palato-alveolar (/ʒ/, /ʃ/,
/tʒ/, /tʃ/), palatal (/j/), velar (/k/, /g/, /ŋ/), and glottal (/h/).
According to the manner of articulation, consonants can be: plosive (a plosive consists of: stop +
hold + release /p, b/), fricative (air makes a rubbing sound /f, v, θ, δ, s, z, ʒ, ʃ, h/), affricate (/tʒ, tʃ/,
lateral (air escapes along the sides of the mouth /l/), nasal (closing of mouth passage and
lowering of the soft palate /m, n, ŋ/), semi-vowel (non-syllabic vowels that form diphthongs with
syllabic vowels) or approximant (gliding sound /w, j, r/).
Finally, consonants can also be classified according to the function of the vocal cords. If the vocal
cords vibrate, the consonant is voiced (/b, d, v/). By contrast, if they do not vibrate, the consonant
will voiceless (/p, t, f/).

2.6. Suprasegmental features: stress, rhythm, and intonation.

These prosodic or suprasegmental features of the language belong to the field of phonology. They
convey meaning (a distinguishing feature of English).
Regarding stress, it consists in giving more emphasis to some parts of a word or
utterance. There are three possibilities of stress in a word, the primary stress is transcribed by a
high mark (`), which stands for the most prominent syllable; secondary stress is weaker than the
primary stress but stronger than that of the unstressed syllable and is normally notated in
transcriptions by a low mark (,) and, unstressed syllables are defined by the absence of any
prominence and they normally have the closed short vowels or schwa /ә/.
On the one hand, English has two types of stress: word and sentence stress. Regarding word
stress, one-syllable words take primary stress. Two-syllable words tend to place the stress on
the first syllable, although/even if it is subject to change. Words of Old English origin place the
stress on the first syllable, that is, they take the trochaic pattern /1 0/ (‘brother, ‘wonder…). Words
with inflectional or derivational suffix also take this pattern (‘thinking, ‘older…). Non-native
words (e’xam) and verbs with prefix and stem (be’gin) take the stress on the second syllable, /0
1/. This is the so-called iambic pattern. Finally, compound words normally take the trochaic
pattern /1 0/; yet this is not always so. Thus, true-compounds (both parts form a whole, just one
meaning) take the trochaic pattern (‘green-house, ‘black-bird, ‘English teacher). Pseudo-
compounds (sea ‘shore, sea’wall, English ‘teacher).
On the other hand, as for sentence stress, when several words are put together in a sentence,
there are seldom of equal importance, and some are given more stress than others are. In ordinary
statement, the most important words, called content words, are stressed, namely: nouns, main
verbs, adjectives, demonstrative and interrogative pronouns, and adverbs. By contrast, form
words do not normally bear the stress. These are: auxiliary verbs, prepositions, pronouns,
conjunctions, and articles. But sometimes, these form words can also take a stressed form when
the speaker wants to highlight something, that is, they take contrastive stress (give HIM the key).
Finally, it is important to mention that two strong stresses cannot go together, so the first is de-
stressed (japaNESE → Japanese GIRL).
As for rhythm, it is the regular succession of strong and weak stresses in utterances
which occur at regular intervals of time. Many non-English languages (Spanish, for instance) tend
to use a rhythm which is more closely related to the syllable than the regular stress-timed type of
English.
Last but not least, intonation is the term given to the rise and fall in the pitch of the
voice in speech. Intonation conveys meaning and it is also called “melody”. There are five clearly
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perceptible intonation patterns that are used on a regular basis in English: falling, rising, flat, fall-
rise and rise-fall. Intonation carries linguistic information, and the various elements of intonation are
seen to perform a variety of functions. Three different functions will be taken into consideration in
this study: grammatical, discourse and attitudinal.

3. LEARNING MODELS AND TECHNIQUES.

Since the acceptance of pronunciation as a contributing factor to language acquisition, two general
approaches are adopted by teachers, the intuitive-imitative approach, in which children can
acquire the sounds of the target language by means of intuitive imitation and, the analytic-
linguistic approach, students carry out structured exercises and pedagogical aids are required,
such as the phonemic chart, articulatory descriptions, minimal pair drills, etc.

3.1. The development of methodologies: phonetics

Methods and approaches in the teaching of phonetics go from the grammar translation methods to
the communicative approaches. For the sake of economy, we will only mention the most recurrent
ones. The Grammar Translation Method involves no phonetics instruction; the emphasis is on
grammar and translation. The Direct Method is based on repetition and the imitation of the
teacher and recordings. Other methods such as Asher’s Total Physical Response and Krashen
and Terrell’s Natural Approach consist of intensive listening comprehension, which persist for an
extended period before any speaking is allowed.
In the 1980’s, with the creation of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and the Reform
Movement, the oral component of the language becomes primary, and it is assumed that learners
should get phonetic training to establish good speech habits.
In the United States Audiolinguism and in Britain the Oral Approach (1940’s and 1950’s) were
two methodologies that were built upon the explicit instruction of phonological aspects of language.
Also introduced was the practice of using minimal pairs for listening practice and oral production
(Baker, 1981).
The 1960’s was the decade which was to have a profound destabilizing effect on the teaching of
pronunciation. Thus, the Cognitive Approach understands pronunciation as something that is
secondary, being the most important aspects grammar and vocabulary.
In the 1970’s pronunciation returned to favor with the development of the Silent Way, in which
segmental and suprasegmental features are introduced from the beginning. The teacher indicates
through gestures what the students should do. Also central to the Silent Way are visual teaching
aids: the sound-colour chart, fiddle wall charts and Cuisenaire rods.
Finally, the current dominant methodology sprung into prominence in the 1980’s. The
Communicative Approach places the emphasis on communication, so more attention has to be
paid to suprasegmental features.

Last but not least, it is worth mentioning that a current belief is that pronunciation should be
integrated into the general language lesson, instead of being taught as a separate subject.

4. PERCEPTION, DISCRIMINATION AND EMISSION OF SPEECH SOUND, STRESS, RHYTHM

AND INTONATION
Students improve pronunciation and listening comprehension in English by means of language
awareness, ear training and discrimination. Firstly, in language awareness activities, students
should be aware of the differences between their first and second language. An example of this
could be minimal pair drills (ship-sheep, tree-three). Secondly, ear training activities help the
students in distinguishing between key sounds, stress and intonation patterns; they are the most

5
suitable in the early stages. Finally, discrimination is based on the contrastive segmental and
suprasegmental features.
The Presentation-Practice-Production becomes the instruction of pronunciation with the
implementation of the communicative approach; students listen to the new sounds and reproduce
them.
Thus, regarding the segmental features of language (vowels and consonants), we could use in
the presentation stage the phonemic chart to show the lip position, we could also use mimics and
gestures (for /3:/, show disgust) or associations (/^/: and arrow pointing up, /p/ → popcorn
popping). In the practice stage, it is interesting to work on extensive practice (recognition and
guided practice). To do that, we could use flashcards, grids and lists. In the consolidation stage, it
is important to use the sounds studied in conversations by means of role plays, simulations,
discussions, or fluency-focused games.
As for the prosodic features (stress, rhythm, and intonation), for stress we can use underlining,
marking accent, listen to the access pattern in texts, drills, dictations… Also clapping, tapping or
playing simple rhythm instruments. Regarding rhythm activities, we can use songs, repetitions,
nursery rhymes, games, chants… Finally, for intonation, it is interesting to repeat with certain
intonation patterns, humming sentence, listening, songs…

On top of that, we cannot forget about the recent incorporation of the media, which is a great tool
to practice phonetics as well. There is a wide range of activities in the net, regarding both the
segmental and prosodic features. These are very encouraging for students, since using computers,
searching on the net, or watching a video has always been an entertaining activity for them.

5. PHONETIC CORRECTION

The more innovative classroom approach to pronunciation modification is the learner-centered

classroom, activities related to the correction of pronunciation must take into account the students’
learning styles.
Phonological problems should be tackled from the very beginning using ear-training techniques
above all. Hence, phonetic correction is important in order to avoid misunderstanding and
intelligibility problems and to get the message across correctly.
As for the question about how and when pronunciation should be corrected, it is worth noting
that, at the beginning, teachers must instruct students in how to pronounce each phoneme with the
objective of changing their L1 habits. It is then when pronunciation should always be corrected. To
do that, teachers can use phonetic charts, pictures with the initial phoneme, mimicking the way the
word is uttered, drilling exercises… This type of practice is good not only when they are starting to
learn the language, but also, in the practice stage.
Last but not least, a contrastive analysis between the English and the Spanish phonological
systems helps teachers to identify pronunciation problems. These can be grouped as following:
long/short vowels; schwa; /h/ is aspirated in English; /b, d, g/ are plosive in English and fricative in
Spanish; /z/ does not exist in Spanish; /v/ is not pronounced as /b/; /t, d/ are alveolar in English and
dental in Spanish; English consonant clusters /sp, st, sk/, to name but a few.

6. CONCLUSION
As we have seen throughout the development of the unit, teachers should be trained in teaching
phonetics, as it is as very difficult task in the teaching practice, but it is necessary for our students
to acquire communicative competence. To do that, entertaining materials and techniques should
be used in order to foster motivation in our students, which is, perhaps, they key to learn a foreign
language.

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In this sense, considering that our main aim is to teach our students to communicate in an effective
way, this implies the teaching and practice of the English phonological system and pronunciation,
in order to avoid misunderstanding.

This leads us to the major goal stated by Act 209/2020, which places special emphasis on the idea
that the development of communicative competence is enables students to establish contacts and
communicate with people from other countries and cultures, thus improving both their personal and
working situation and providing them with a global vision of reality. In short, it has educational,
social, and personal benefits.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
7.1. Legal References
- Organic Law of Education 3/2020, 29th December, which amends the Organic Law 2/2006,
3rd May. Official State Gazette, 340, 30th December 2020.
- Royal Decree 157/2020, 1st March, which establishes the minimum learnings in Primary
Education. Official State Gazette, 52, 2nd March 2022.
- Act 209/2020, 17th November, which establishes the curricula for Primary Education. Official
Gazette of the Region of Murcia, 267, 18th November 2022.

7.2. General References

- Harmer, J The Practice of English Language Teaching. London: Longman, 2007.
- Brewster, J., Ellis, G. ‘The Primary English Teacher’s Guide’. London: Penguin, 2002.
- Baker, A. ‘Ship or Sheep? An Intermediate Pronunciation Course’. Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1981.

7.3. Webliography

- ‘Learning English’, UCL https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org

- ‘Legislation BOE’, UCL https://www.boe.es/eli/es/lo/2020/12/29/3

- ‘Act 209/2020’, UCL https://www.borm.es/eli/es-mc/d/2022/11/17/209/dof/spa/html