Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Engineering Technology Department

Instructional Material

ECEN 30012

Basic Electronics I

Compiled by:

ENGR. JESS RHYAN A TIBURCIO, ECE

i|ECEN 30012 BASIC ELECTRONICS 1

Part I Direct Current

Electricity
Learning Outcomes:
After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Understand the basic knowledge of Electronics.

• Know the key concepts and physical properties of electricity.

Course Materials:

Introduction

Electronics the science dealing with the development and application of devices
and systems involving the flow of electrons or other carriers of electric charge, in a
vacuum, in gaseous media, in plasma, in semiconductors, in solid-state and/or in
similar devices, including, but not limited to, applications involving optical,
electromagnetic, and other energy forms when transduced or converted into electronic
signals.

Negative and Positive Polarities

All the materials contain two basic particles of electric charge: the electron and
the proton. An electron is the smallest amount of electric charge having the
characteristic called negative polarity. The proton is a basic particle with positive
polarity.

Figure 1–1: Physical force between electric charges. (a) Opposite charges attract. (b) Two
negative charges repel each other. (c) Two positive charges repel.

Electrons and Protons in an Atom

When many atoms are close together in a copper

wire, the outermost orbital electron of each copper atom
can easily break free from its home or parent atom.
These electrons then can migrate easily from one atom
to another at random. Such electrons that can move
freely from one atom to the next are called free
electrons.
Figure 1–2: Electron and proton in
hydrogen (H) atom
1|ECEN 30012 BASIC ELECTRONICS 1
 The charge of many billions of electrons or protons is necessary for common
applications of electricity. Therefore, it is convenient to define a practical unit called the
coulomb 𝐶𝐶 as equal to the charge of 6.25 𝑋𝑋 1018 electrons or protons stored in a dielectric.

The symbol for electric charge is 𝑄𝑄 or 𝑞𝑞, standing for quantity. For instance, a
charge of 6.25 𝑋𝑋 1018 electrons are stated as 𝑄𝑄 = 1 𝐶𝐶. This unit is named after Charles A.
Coulomb (1736–1806), a French physicist, who measured the force between charges.

The Volt Unit of Potential Difference

Potential refers to the possibility of doing work. Any charge has the potential to
do the work of moving another charge by either attraction or repulsion. When we
consider two unlike charges, they have a difference of potential.

When one charge is different from the other, there must be a difference of
potential between them. For instance, consider a positive charge of 3 𝐶𝐶, shown at the
right in Figure 1–3a. The charge has a certain amount of potential, corresponding to the
amount of work this charge can do. The work to be done is moving some electrons, as
illustrated.

Figure 1–3: The amount of work required to move electrons between two charges depends on their difference of potential.
This potential difference (PD) is equivalent for the examples in (a), (b), and (c).

The volt unit of potential difference is named after Alessandro Volta (1745–1827).
In electronics, potential difference is commonly referred to as voltage, with the symbol
𝑉𝑉 .

Charge in Motion Is Current

Whenever there is movement of charge carriers in a substance, there is an electric

current. Current is measured in terms of the number of electrons or holes passing a
single point in 1 second.

The unit for stating the amount of current is defined in rate of flow of charge is
called Ampere with symbol 𝐴𝐴. Named after André Marie Ampère (1775–1836).

2|ECEN 30012 BASIC ELECTRONICS 1

 Figure 1–4: Potential difference across two ends of wire conductor causes drift of free electrons throughout the wire to
produce electric current.

The Closed Circuit

In applications requiring current, the components are arranged in the form of a

circuit. A circuit can be defined as a path for current flow. The purpose of this circuit is
to light the incandescent bulb.

Any electric circuit has three important characteristics:

1. There must be a source of potential difference. Without the applied voltage,

current cannot flow.
2. There must be a complete path for current flow, from one side of the applied
voltage source, through the external circuit, and returning to the other side of
the voltage source.
3. The current path normally has resistance. The resistance is in the circuit either
to generate heat or limit the amount of current.

Note that It is the current that moves through the circuit. The potential difference
does not move.

Open circuit occurs when any part of the path is open or broken, the circuit is
incomplete because there is no conducting path. The resistance of an open circuit is
infinitely high. The result is no current in an open circuit.

Short Circuit occurs when the voltage source has a closed path across its
terminals, but the resistance is practically zero which results to too much current.

Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC)

The electron flow is direct current (DC) if it has just one direction. The reason
for the unidirectional current is that the battery or a DC voltage source maintains the
same polarity of output voltage across its two terminals.

An alternating voltage source periodically reverses or alternates in polarity. The

resulting alternating current (AC), therefore, periodically reverses in direction.

3|ECEN 30012 BASIC ELECTRONICS 1

 Figure 1–5a: Direct Current Figure 1–5b: Alternating Current

Assessments

A. Essay Question(s) (in your own words):

1. In a metal conductor, what is a free electron?

2. Describe the difference between an open circuit and a short circuit.
3. Can the voltage exist without current? Can current exist without voltage?
Explain.

4|ECEN 30012 BASIC ELECTRONICS 1

Resistors

Learning Outcomes:
After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Obtain basic knowledge on the functions of resistors.

• Distinguish the different types of resistors.
• Calculate and determine the resistance of fixed resistors.
• Measure the resistance using Ohmmeter.

Course Materials:

Resistors are used in a wide variety of applications in all types of electronic

circuits. Their main function in any circuit is to limit the amount of current or to
produce a desired drop in voltage. Resistors are manufactured in a variety of shapes
and sizes and have ohmic values ranging from a fraction of an ohm to several megohms.
The power or wattage rating of a resistor is determined mainly by its physical size. There
is, however, no direct correlation between the physical size of a resistor and its
resistance value.

Fixed Resistors

Carbon-Composition Resistors

The cheapest method of making a resistor is to mix up powdered carbon (a fair

electrical conductor)with some nonconductive substance, press the resulting claylike
stuff into a cylindrical shape, and insert wire leads in the ends

Figure 2–1a: Parts of carbon Figure 2–1b: Example of carbon

compositions resistor composition resistor

Wirewound Resistors

Another way to get resistance is to use a length of wire that isn’t a good conductor.
The wire can be wound around a cylindrical form as a coil. The resistance is determined
by how well the wire metal conducts, by its diameter or gauge, and by its stretched-out
length.

5|ECEN 30012 BASIC ELECTRONICS 1

 Figure 2–2a: Parts of wire-wound Figure 2–2b: Example of a wire-
Resistor wound resistor
Film-type Resistor

There are two kinds of film-type resistors: carbon-film and metal-film resistors.
The carbon-film resistor, is made by depositing a thin layer of carbon on an insulated
substrate. The carbon film is then cut in the form of a spiral to form the resistive
element. The resistance value is controlled by varying the proportion of carbon to
insulator.

Metal-film resistors are constructed in a manner similar to the carbon-film type.

However, in a metal-film resistor, a thin film of metal is sprayed onto a ceramic substrate
and then cut in the form of a spiral.

Figure 2–3a: Parts of metal film Figure 2–3b: Parts of carbon film
Resistor Resistor

Integrated-Circuit (IC) Resistors

Resistors can be fabricated on a semiconductor wafer known as an integrated

circuit (IC), also called a chip. The thickness, and the types and concentrations of
impurities added, control the resistance of the component. Integrated-circuit resistors
can handle only a tiny amount of power because of their small size.

6|ECEN 30012 BASIC ELECTRONICS 1

 The resistance value of a chip resistor is determined from the three-digit number
printed on the film or body side of the component. The three digits provide the same
information as the first three color stripes on a four-band resistor.

Figure 2–4: Typical chip resistor coding system.

The first two digits are 5 and 6, giving 56 as the first

two numbers in the resistance value. The third digit, 2, is the
multiplier, which means add 2 zeros to 56 for a resistance of
5600 or 5.6 𝑘𝑘Ω.

Rheostats and Potentiometers

Rheostats and potentiometers are variable resistances, either carbon or wire-

wound, used to vary the amount of current or voltage in a circuit. The controls can be
used in either dc or ac applications.

A rheostat is a variable R with two terminals connected in series with a load.

The purpose is to vary the amount of current.

A potentiometer, generally called a pot for short, has three terminals. The fixed
maximum R across the two ends is connected across a voltage source. Then the variable
arm is used to vary the voltage division between the center terminal and the ends.

Figure 2–5a: Rheostat Circuit Figure 2–5b: Potentiometer Circuit

7|ECEN 30012 BASIC ELECTRONICS 1

Power Rating of Resistors

The power rating is a physical property that depends on the resistor construction,
especially physical size. Note the following:

1. A larger physical size indicates a higher power rating.

2. Higher wattage resistors can operate at higher temperatures.
3. Wire-wound resistors are larger and have higher wattage ratings than carbon
resistors.

Resistor Color Coding

Because carbon resistors are small, they are color-coded to mark their R value in
ohms. The basis of this system is the use of colors for numerical values

Figure 2-6: Resistor color coding

The colored bands or stripes completely encircle

the body of the resistor and are usually crowded toward
one end. Reading from left to right, the first band closest
to the edge gives the first digit in the numerical value of
R . The next band indicates the second digit. The third
band is the decimal multiplier, which tells us how many
zeros to add after the first two digits.

Figure 2–7: Reading of resistor color

code.

8|ECEN 30012 BASIC ELECTRONICS 1

Problem 2-1

Therefore, this 𝑅𝑅 value is 2500 Ω or 2.5 𝑘𝑘Ω.

Problem 2-2

This illustrates that black for the third stripe just means “do
not add any zeros to the first two digits.” Since this resistor
has red, green, and black stripes, the 𝑅𝑅 value is 25 Ω.

Problem 2-3
For these values, the third stripe is either gold or silver,
indicating a fractional decimal multiplier. When the third
stripe is gold, multiply the first two digits by 0.1.
In this example, the R value is

25 𝑥𝑥 0.1 = 2.5 Ω

Silver means a multiplier of 0.01. If the third band were silver, the 𝑅𝑅 value would
be

25 𝑥𝑥 0.01 = 0.25 Ω.

Resistor Tolerance

The amount by which the actual R can differ from the color-coded value is the
tolerance, usually given in percent. For instance, a 2000 − Ω resistor with ±10%
tolerance can have resistance 10% above or below the coded value. This R , therefore, is
between 1800 and 2200 Ω. If there is no color band for tolerance, it is ±20%.

Five-Band Color Code

With the five-band code, the first three color stripes indicate the first three digits,
followed by the decimal multiplier in the fourth stripe and the tolerance in the fifth
stripe. In the fifth stripe, the colors brown, red, green, blue, and violet represent the
following tolerances:

• Brown ±1%
• Red ±2%

9|ECEN 30012 BASIC ELECTRONICS 1

 • Green ±0.5%
• Blue ±0.25%
• Violet ±0.1%

Problem 2-4

The first stripe is orange for the number 3, the second

stripe is blue for the number 6, and the third stripe is
green for the number 5.

The first three digits of the resistance are 3, 6, and

5, respectively. The fourth stripe, which is the multiplier,
is black, which means add no zeros. The fifth stripe,
which indicates the resistor tolerance, is green for
Figure 2–8: Five-band resistor ±0.5%. Therefore 𝑅𝑅 = 365 Ω ± 0.5%.

Resistor Troubles

The most common trouble in resistors is an open. When the open resistor is a
series component, there is no current in the entire series path.

Resistance is measured with an ohmmeter. The ohmmeter has its own voltage
source so that it is always used without any external power applied to the resistance
being measured.

Note: When measuring the value of a resistor in an electronic circuit, make

absolutely sure that the power is off in the circuit being tested. Failure to do so could
result in damage to the meter!

Figure 2–9a: Ohmmeter reading of Figure 2–9b: Ohmmeter reading of

parallel resistors. series resistors.

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Assessments

Resistor Problems 1: Calculate the resistances of the following resistor with its
corresponding torelance. Show your calculations.

Resistor Problems 2: Calculate the resistances of the following resistor with its
corresponding torelance. Show your calculations.

Resistor Problems 3: Calculate the resistances of the following resistor with its
corresponding torelance. Show your calculations.

Essay Question(s):

1. How to measure resistance using Ohmmeter? Briefly explain the procedure(s).

11 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Direct Current Basics

Learning Outcomes:
After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• List the three forms of Ohm’s law.

• Use Ohm’s law to calculate the current, voltage, or resistance in a circuit.
• Calculate the power in a circuit when the voltage and current, current and
resistance, or voltage and resistance are known.
• Calculate the total resistance of a series circuit.
• Calculate the total resistance of a parallel circuit.
• Determine the required resistance and appropriate wattage rating of a resistor.

Course Materials:

Introduction

The mathematical relationship between voltage, current, and resistance was

discovered in 1826 by Georg Simon Ohm. The relationship, known as Ohm’s law, is the
basic foundation for all circuit analysis in electronics. Three formulas denote this law:

V = IR I = V/R R = V/I

The Ohm’s Law triangle. The voltage

is 𝑉𝑉, the current is 𝐼𝐼, and the resistance is
𝑅𝑅. These quantities are expressed in volts,
amperes, and ohms, respectively.

Figure 3–1: Ohm’s Law Triangle Relationship

Current Calculations

If we keep the same resistance in a circuit but vary the voltage, the current will
vary. With volts as the practical unit for 𝑉𝑉 and ohms for 𝑅𝑅 , the amount of current 𝐼𝐼 is
in amperes. Therefore,

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 (𝑉𝑉)
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝐼𝐼 ) =
𝑂𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝑅𝑅)

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Problem 3-1

Suppose that the dc generator produces 10 𝑉𝑉 and the resistor has a value of 10 𝛺𝛺.
What is the current?

This is solved by the formula 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑉𝑉/𝑅𝑅.

Plug in the values for 𝑉𝑉 and 𝑅𝑅; they are both
10, because the units are given in volts and
ohms. Then,
10
𝐼𝐼 = = 1 𝐴𝐴
10

where A is the unit of current in amperes.

Problem 3-2

Imagine that dc generator produces 100 𝑉𝑉 and the resistance is set to 10 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. What
is the current?

First, convert the resistance to ohms:

10 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 10,000 𝛺𝛺. Then plug the values in:

100
𝐼𝐼 = = 0.01 𝐴𝐴
10,000

You might prefer to express this as

10 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 where mA is in milliamperes.

Problem 3-3

Suppose that dc generator is set to provide 88.5 𝑉𝑉, and the resistance is set to
477 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀. What is the current?

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 First, change the resistance value to
ohms, so you get 477,000,000 𝛺𝛺. Then plug
into the Ohm’s Law formula:

88.5
𝐼𝐼 = = 0.000000186 𝐴𝐴
447,000,000

It is more reasonable to express

this as 0.186 μA or 186 nA where μA is in
microamperes and nA is in nanoamperes.
Voltage Calculations

Voltage Calculations

The second application of Ohm’s Law is to find unknown dc voltages when the
current and the resistance are known.

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(𝑉𝑉 ) = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝐼𝐼 ) 𝑥𝑥 𝑂𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚(𝑅𝑅)

Problem 3-4

Suppose the resistance is set to 100 𝛺𝛺, and the measured current is 10 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚. What
is the dc voltage?

Use the formula 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼. First,

convert the current to amperes: 10 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
0.01 𝐴𝐴. Then multiply:

𝑉𝑉 = 0.01 𝑥𝑥 100 = 1.0 𝑉𝑉

where V is the unit of potential difference

in voltage.

Problem 3-5

Resistor is set to a value of 157 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, and suppose the current reading is 17.0 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
What is the voltage of the source?

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 You must convert both the
resistance and the current values to their
proper units. A resistance of 157 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 is
157,000 𝛺𝛺, and a current of 17.0 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 is
0.0170 𝐴𝐴. Then

𝑉𝑉 = 0.017 𝑥𝑥 157,000 = 2669 𝑉𝑉 = 2.669 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

You should round this off to

2.67 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. This is a dangerously high
voltage.

Problem 3-6

Suppose the meter reads 1.445 𝐴𝐴, and you observe that the resistors shows 99 𝛺𝛺.
What is the voltage?

These units are both in their proper

form. Therefore, you can plug them right in
and use your calculator:

𝑉𝑉 = 1.445 𝑥𝑥 99 = 143.055 𝑉𝑉 = 143 𝑉𝑉

Resistance Calculations

Ohms’ Law can be used to find a resistance between two points in a dc circuit
when the voltage and the current are known.

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 (𝑉𝑉)
𝑂𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝑅𝑅) =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝐼𝐼 )

Problem 3-7

If the voltmeter reads 24 𝑉𝑉 and the ammeter shows 3.0 𝐴𝐴, what is the resistance?

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 Use the formula 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉/𝐼𝐼, and plug in
the values directly, because they are expressed
in volts and amperes: 𝑅𝑅 = 24/3.0 = 8.0 𝛺𝛺.

24
𝑅𝑅 = =8Ω
3

Problem 3-8

What is the value of the resistance if the current is 18 mA and the voltage is 229 mV?

First, convert these values to amperes

and volts. This gives I = 0.018 A and E = 0.229
V. Then plug into the equation: R = E/I =
0.229/0.018 = 13 Ω.

0.299
𝑅𝑅 = = 13 Ω
0.018

Problem 3-9

Suppose the ammeter reads 52 μA and the voltmeter indicates 2.33 kV. What is
the resistance?

Convert to amperes and volts, getting I =

0.000052 A and 𝑉𝑉 = 2330 𝑉𝑉. Then plug into the
formula:

0.000052
𝑅𝑅 = = 45,000,000Ω = 45 MΩ
2330

Electric Power

The unit of electric power is the watt 𝑊𝑊, named after James Watt (1736–1819).
One watt of power equals the work done in one second by one volt of potential difference
in moving one coulomb of charge.

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 Remember that one coulomb per second is an ampere. Therefore power in watts
equals the product of volts times amperes.

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 (𝑊𝑊 ) = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(𝑉𝑉 ) 𝑥𝑥 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝐴𝐴)

Power Calculations

You can calculate the power 𝑃𝑃, in watts by using the formula 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉. This
formula tells us that the power in watts is the product of the voltage in volts and the
current in amperes. If you are not given the voltage directly, you can calculate it if you
know the current and the resistance.

Recall the Ohm’s Law formula for obtaining voltage: 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼. If you know 𝐼𝐼 and 𝑅𝑅
but you don’t know 𝑉𝑉, you can get the power 𝑃𝑃 this way:

𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼)𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅

Suppose you’re given only the voltage and the resistance. Remember the Ohm’s
Law formula for obtaining current: 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑉𝑉/𝑅𝑅. Therefore:

𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 2
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉( ) =
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅

Problem 3-10

Suppose that the voltmeter reads 12 V and the ammeter shows 50 mA. What is
the power dissipated by the potentiometer?

Solution:

First, convert the current to amperes, getting 𝐼𝐼 = 0.050 𝐴𝐴. Then multiply by 12 𝑉𝑉,
getting

𝑃𝑃 = 12 𝑥𝑥 0.050 = 0.6 𝑊𝑊

When current flows in a resistance, heat is produced because friction between

the moving free electrons and the atoms obstructs the path of electron flow. The heat is
evidence that power is used in producing current. Dissipation means that the power is
wasted, since the resultant heat is not used.

Problem 3-11

If the resistance in the circuit is 999 Ω and the voltage source delivers 3 V, what
is the power dissipated by the potentiometer?

Solution:

𝑉𝑉 2 32
𝑃𝑃 = = = 0.009 𝑊𝑊 = 9 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅 999

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Resistances in Series

When you place resistances in series, their ohmic values add together to get the
total resistance. This is easy to imagine, and it’s easy to remember!

Problem 3-12

Suppose resistors with the following values are connected in series: 112 𝛺𝛺, 470 𝛺𝛺,
and 680 𝛺𝛺. What is the total resistance of the series combination?

Solution:

Simply add up the values, getting a total of 112 + 470 + 680 = 1262 𝛺𝛺. You might
round this off to 1260 𝛺𝛺.

Resistances in Parallel

When resistances are placed in parallel, they behave differently than they do in
series. One way to look at resistances in parallel is to consider them as conductances
instead. In parallel, conductances add up directly, just as resistances add up in series.
If you change all the ohmic values to siemens, you can add these figures up and convert
the final answer back to ohms.

The symbol for conductance is 𝐺𝐺. This figure, in siemens, is related to the
resistance R, in ohms, by these formulas:

1
𝐺𝐺 =
𝑅𝑅
1
𝑅𝑅 =
𝐺𝐺
Problem 3-13

Consider five resistors in parallel. Call them 𝑅𝑅1 through 𝑅𝑅5 , and call the total
resistance R. Let the resistance values be as follows: 𝑅𝑅1 = 100 𝛺𝛺, 𝑅𝑅2 = 200 𝛺𝛺, 𝑅𝑅3 = 300 𝛺𝛺,
𝑅𝑅4 = 400 𝛺𝛺, and 𝑅𝑅5 = 500 𝛺𝛺. What is the total resistance 𝑅𝑅 of this parallel combination?

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Solution:

Converting the resistances to conductance values, you get: G1 = 1/100 = 0.01 S,

G2 = 1/200 = 0.005 S, G3 = 1/300 = 0.00333 S, G4 = 1/400 = 0.0025 S, and G5 = 1/500
= 0.002 S. Adding these gives G = 0.01 + 0.005 + 0.00333 + 0.0025 + 0.002 = 0.0228 S.
The total resistance is therefore R = 1/G = 1/0.0228 = 43.8 Ω.

Resistances in Series-Parallel

Sets of resistors, all having identical ohmic values, can be connected together in
parallel sets of series networks, or in series sets of parallel networks. By doing this, the
total power-handling capacity of the resistance can be greatly increased over that of a
single resistor.

(a)

(c)

(b)

Figure 4–1: (a) Example of a circuit with Series-Parallel resistances. (b) Equivalent circuit of Series-Parallel resistances
when reduced to three resistors in parallel by combining resistances in series. (c) Equivalent total resistance when the
parallel resistances in (b) is reduced by combining the resistances in parallel.

19 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Assessments

A. Refer to the schematic diagram below and answer the following questions
involving Ohm’s Law. (2 points each)

Resistance

1. V = 14 V, I = 2 A, R = ?
2. V = 99 V, I = 3 mA, R = ?
3. V = 160 mV, I = 8 µA, R = ?

Voltage

4. I = 1.5 A, R = 5 Ω, V = ?
5. I = 50 µA, R = 390 kΩ, V = ?
6. I = 200 µA, R = 3.3 MΩ, V = ?

Current

7. V = 90 V, R = 450 Ω, I = ?
8. V = 10 V, R = 100 kΩ, I = ?
9. V = 120 V, R = 1.5 kΩ, I = ?

Power

10. V = 120 V, I = 625 mA, P = ?

11. P = 100 W, I = 8.33 A, V = ?
12. V = 15.81 V, P = 500 mW, I = ?

B. Problem Solving

1. Calculate the maximum current that a 22-kΩ, 1⁄8 - W resistor can safely
handle without exceeding its power rating. (5 points)

2. What is the resistance of a device that dissipates 1.2 kW of power when

its current is 10 A? (5 points)

20 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Direct Current Circuit Analysis

Learning Outcomes:
After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Calculate the current in a series circuit.

• Determine the individual resistor voltage drops in a series circuit.
• Explain why voltage is the same across all branches in a parallel circuit.
• Calculate the individual branch currents in a parallel circuit.
• Calculate the total current in a parallel circuit.
• Determine the total resistance of a series-parallel circuit.
• Calculate the voltage, current, resistance, and power in a series-parallel circuit.
• Calculate the voltage, current, resistance, and power in a series-parallel circuit
having random unknowns.
• State Kirchhoff’s current law.
• State Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
• Calculate currents and voltages using the principles of Kirchhoff’s Laws

Course Materials:

Current through Series Resistances

In a series circuit the current at any given point is the same as the current at any
other point. Series components can be defined as those in the same current path. The
path is from one side of the voltage source, through the series components, and back to
the other side of the applied voltage. However, the series path must not have any point
at which the current can branch off to another path in parallel.

Problem 4-1

Solve for the total current in the given circuit.

First, calculate for the total resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇

𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3

𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 = 10 + 20 + 30

𝑹𝑹𝑻𝑻 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 Ω

Next, calculate for the total current 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇

𝑉𝑉 12
𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 = =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 60

𝟏𝟏
𝑰𝑰𝑻𝑻 = = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨
𝟓𝟓

21 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Therefore, the total current IT for the series resistances is 0.2 A. Each resistor carries
the same current in series.

Voltage across Series Resistances

In the analysis of voltages in a series circuit, imagine three batteries that are
connected in series. The total voltage is the summation of all the individual voltages of
three batteries. Suppose that resistor are connected in series, each resistor has different
voltage drops across their terminals. The summation of the voltage drops of each
resistance in series equals to the potential difference voltage source.

Figure 4 – 2: Voltage sources in series which is equivalent to 30 V.

Problem 4-2

Taking the example from Problem 2-1, let’s calculate the voltage drops in 𝑅𝑅1 , 𝑅𝑅2 , and
𝑅𝑅3 . Remember that the total current 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 in the circuit is 0.2 A.

Denoting 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅1 = voltage in 𝑅𝑅1 ; 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 = voltage in 𝑅𝑅2 ; 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅3 = voltage in 𝑅𝑅3

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅1 = (𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 )(𝑅𝑅1 ) = (0.2)(10) = 2 𝑉𝑉

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 = (𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 )(𝑅𝑅2 ) = (0.2)(20) = 4 𝑉𝑉

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅3 = (𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 )(𝑅𝑅3 ) = (0.2)(30) = 6 𝑉𝑉

Lastly, calculate the sum of all the voltage drops or each resistors

𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅3

𝑽𝑽𝑻𝑻 = 𝟐𝟐 𝑽𝑽 + 𝟒𝟒 𝑽𝑽 + 𝟔𝟔 𝑽𝑽 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑽𝑽

As stated, getting the summation of the voltage drops of the resistances in series
is equivalent to the potential difference of the dc voltage source.

Voltage across Parallel Resistances

In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each component is equal to the supply or
battery voltage. The current drawn by each component depends only on the resistance
of that particular device. In this sense, the components in a parallel-wired circuit
operate independently, as opposed to the series-wired circuit in which they all interact.

22 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
 Figure 4–3: Voltage across parallel resistances.

If any one branch of a parallel circuit opens up, is disconnected, or is removed,

the conditions in the other branches do not change. If new branches are added,
assuming the power supply can handle the load, conditions in previously existing
branches are not affected.

Current through Parallel Resistances

Recall that in series circuits, current is the same through the resistors regardless
of their ohmic values. In contrast to parallel resistances, current 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛 in any particular
branches is different and it depends to the given resistances for each branch. The sum
of all the currents 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛 is equal to the total current, 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 , drawn from the dc voltage source.
The current is divided up in the parallel circuit in a manner similar to the way that
voltage is divided up in a series circuit. In the figure below shows that the total current
𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 , has been divided into three branches in parallel, 𝐼𝐼1 , 𝐼𝐼2 , and 𝐼𝐼3 .

Problem 4-3

Solve for the currents in 𝐼𝐼1 , 𝐼𝐼2 , and 𝐼𝐼3 .

Solution:

Calculate for 𝐼𝐼1 . Remember that the voltages in parallel resistances are the same.

𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 10
𝐼𝐼1 = = = 1 𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅1 10

𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 10
𝐼𝐼2 = = = 0.5 𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅2 20

𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 10
𝐼𝐼3 = = = 0.333 𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅3 30

23 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
To check if the answers are correct, calculate 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 first.

1 1 1 −1
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 = � + + �
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3

1 1 1 −1
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 = � + + �
10 20 30

𝑹𝑹𝑻𝑻 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 Ω

𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇
Next, calculate 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 = .
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇

𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇
𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇

10
𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 =
5.454

𝑰𝑰𝑻𝑻 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝑨𝑨

Now, verify that

𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐼3

𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 = 1 + 0.5 + 0.333

𝑰𝑰𝑻𝑻 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝑨𝑨 ≅ 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝑨𝑨

Kirchhoff’s Laws

In electricity and electronics, dc circuit analysis can be made easier if you are
acquainted with certain axioms, or laws as listed below:

• The current in a series circuit is the same at every point along the way.
• The voltage across any resistance in a parallel combination of resistances is the
same as the voltage across any other resistance, or across the whole set of
resistances.
• The voltages across resistances in a series circuit always add up to the supply
voltage.
• The currents through resistances in a parallel circuit always add up to the total
current drawn from the supply.
• The total wattage consumed in a series or parallel circuit is always equal to the
sum of the wattages dissipated in each of the resistances.

24 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
 The physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887) was a researcher and
experimentalist in a time when little was understood about how electric currents flow.

Kirchhoff’s First Law (Kirchhoff’s Current Law):

At any point in a circuit, the algebraic sum of the currents directed into and out of
a point must total zero.

Problem 4-4

As an example, let’s take Figure 4-4. Let:

𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴 = 8 𝐴𝐴; 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 = 5 𝐴𝐴; 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = 3 𝐴𝐴

Then, we can write the KCL equation as:

𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴 + 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 + 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = 0

8 𝐴𝐴 + (−5 𝐴𝐴) + (−3 𝐴𝐴) = 0

Figure 4–4: Current passing through
8 𝐴𝐴 − 5 𝐴𝐴 − 3 𝐴𝐴 = 0 point A.

Current 𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴 is positive because this current flows into A, but 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 and 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 flows out A.

Kirchhoff’s Second Law (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law):

The algebraic sum of the voltage sources and IR voltage drops in any closed path
must total zero.

Any closed path is called a loop . A loop equation specifies the voltages around
the loop. As an example, let’s take Figure 4-4. Let the voltage drops of the resistors be

Problem 4-5

𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 = 240 𝑉𝑉; 𝑉𝑉1 = 30 𝑉𝑉; 𝑉𝑉2 = 90 𝑉𝑉; 𝑉𝑉3 = 120 𝑉𝑉; 𝑉𝑉4 = 40 𝑉𝑉; 𝑉𝑉5 = 80 𝑉𝑉;

The schematic diagram also has three loops, the outside loop ACEFDB which
includes the voltage drops 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 , 𝑉𝑉1 , 𝑉𝑉4 , 𝑉𝑉5 , and 𝑉𝑉2 . The inner loop ACDBA which includes
voltage drops 𝑉𝑉4 , 𝑉𝑉5 , and 𝑉𝑉3 . The other inner loop CEFDC which inludes only 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 , 𝑉𝑉1 , 𝑉𝑉3 ,
and 𝑉𝑉2 .

25 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
 Figure 4–5

By the taking the algebraic sum of the inside loop with 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 we get,

𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉3 + 𝑉𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 = 0

30 𝑉𝑉 + 120 𝑉𝑉 + 90 𝑉𝑉 − 240 𝑉𝑉 = 0

Voltages 𝑉𝑉1 , 𝑉𝑉3 , and 𝑉𝑉2 have positive signs, because the positive terminal for each
of these voltage drops is reached first. However, the source 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 is a negative term because
its negative terminal is reached first, going in the same direction.

The equation above is equivalent to:

30 𝑉𝑉 + 120 𝑉𝑉 + 90 𝑉𝑉 = 240 𝑉𝑉

which states that the sum of the voltage drops equals the applied voltage.

26 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Assessments

A. Solve for the total resistance RT , from point A to point B, of the following:

1.

2.

3.

4.

B. Series – Parallel Circuits. Refer to the schematic diagrams below.

27 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
 1. Refer to schematic diagram (a),

Given: 𝑉𝑉1 = 20 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅1 = 25 Ω
𝑅𝑅2 = 15 Ω
𝑅𝑅3 = 30 Ω

Find: 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 =?
𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 =?
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅3 =?

2. Refer to schematic diagram (b),

Given: 𝑉𝑉1 = 18 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅1 = 25 Ω
𝑅𝑅2 = 15 Ω
𝑅𝑅3 = 30 Ω

Find: 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 =?
𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 =?
𝐼𝐼3 =?

Enrichments: Refer to the circuit below (+10 points on Quiz)

Given: 𝑉𝑉1 = 18 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅1 = 5 Ω
𝑅𝑅2 = 10 Ω
𝑅𝑅3 = 15 Ω
𝑅𝑅4 = 20 Ω
𝑅𝑅5 = 25 Ω

Find: 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 =?
𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 =?
𝐼𝐼2 =?
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅4 =?

28 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Part II Alternating Current

Alternating Current Basics

Learning Outcomes:
After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe how a sine wave of alternating voltage is generated.

• Describe the difference between alternating current and direct current.
• Define frequency and period and list the units of each.

Course Materials:

Introduction

As learned from the past lessons, the electron flow of direct current (dc) is
unidirectional, meaning that the dc voltage source maintains the same polarity of output
voltage across its two terminals. In alternating current, the electron flow periodically
reverses in direction this is because alternating voltage source periodically reverses or
alternates in polarity. When the generator alternates in polarity, the current also
reverses its direction.

AC Voltage Generator

Alternating current can be generated

by a rotating the armature, a coil of wire,
rotating in a magnetic field to produce
induced voltage.

The ac voltage that a generator can

produce depends on the strength of the
magnet, the number of turns in the wire coil,
and the speed at which the magnet or the
armature rotates.

The ac frequency depends only on the

speed of rotation. In household distriburtion,
this speed is 3600 revolutions per minute
(rpm), or 60 complete revolutions per second
(rps), so the ac output frequency is 60 Hz. Figure 5–1: AC voltage generator model
Altenating Current

When a sine wave of alternating voltage is connected across a load resistance,

the current that flows in the circuit is also a sine wave. In figure 5-1b, the alternating
voltage at figure 5-1a be applied across 𝑅𝑅1 of 100 Ω. The resulting sine wave of alternating
current is shown at figure 5-1c.

29 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
 (a) (b) (c)
Figure 5–2: Electron flow of an alternating circuit.

In this scenario, conventional flow is used. The direction of electron flow is from
the positive side of the ac voltage source through 𝑅𝑅1 , back to the negative side of ac
voltage source, current flows in the direction indicated by arrow A for the first half-cycle
which has a positive value of voltage. Figure 5-1c also shows that when the the voltage
of the ac voltage source is positive, current is also positive at the first half cycle.

In the next half-cycle, the polarity of the alternating voltage reverses. With
reversed voltage polarity, current flows in the opposite direction.

Period and Frequency

The period 𝑇𝑇 is the length of time 𝑆𝑆 it takes for one cycle to be completed. In
sinusoidal wave shown in Figure 5-3, this is the amount of time to which a wave
completes one revolution.

Frequency on the other hand is the

number of cycles or revolution per second. 1
revolution per second is equivalent to 1 Hertz or
1 𝐻𝐻 where 𝐻𝐻 is the unit of frequency denoted by
𝑓𝑓. By taking 60 Hz as an example, which is the
currently a standard of the Philippine electrical
distribution systems, means that in every
second, it completes 60 cycles. In terms of its
period, the formula used is

1
𝑇𝑇 =
𝑓𝑓

Figure 5–3: Sinusoidal Wave

to which frequency and period are reciprocals of each other. Therefore, the period of of
a 60 − 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 frequency is equivalent to 1�60 𝑆𝑆.

30 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Assessments

A. Essay

1. Define alternating current and briefly explain how alternating current is

generated.

31 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Capacitors

Learning Outcomes:
After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe how charge is stored in the dielectric of a capacitor.

• Describe how a capacitor charges and discharges.
• List several types of capacitors and the characteristics of each.
• Calculate the total capacitance of parallel-connected capacitors.
• Calculate the equivalent capacitance of series-connected capacitors.
• Describe how an ohmmeter can be used to test a capacitor.

Course Materials:

Introduction:

A capacitor consists of an insulator (also called a dielectric) between two

conductors as shown in Figure 6-1b that draws energy from a voltage source and stores
the energy. The ability of the plates, and of the space between, to store this energy as
an electric field is the property of capacitance. The symbol for capacitance is C , and
the unit is the farad (F), named after Michael Faraday.

Dielectric materials are poor conductors of electric currents, known as insulators,

but has the ability to accommodate electric fields. The substance between the plates is
called the dielectric of the capacitor as shown in Figure 6-1b.

(a) (b)
Figure 6–1: Capacitor Model.

The Unit of Capacitance

The unit of capacitance is an expression of the ratio between the current that
flows and the rate of voltage change between the plates as the plates become charged.
A capacitance of 1 Farad (1 F) represents a current flow of 1 A while there is a voltage
increase of 1 𝑉𝑉/𝑠𝑠. A capacitance of 1 𝐹𝐹 also results in 1 𝑉𝑉 of potential difference for an
electric charge of 1 𝐶𝐶. The most common units of capacitance are the microfarad (μF)
and the picofarad (pF).

32 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Capacitors in Series

With the same concept of resistors in parallel, total capacitance of capacitors in

series can be calculated by using the formula:

1 1 1 1 −1
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = � + + +⋯+ �
𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2 𝐶𝐶3 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛

Problem 6-1

Suppose two capacitors, with values of 𝐶𝐶1 =

220 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 and 𝐶𝐶2 = 370 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇, are connected in series. What
is the net capacitance?

1 1 −1
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = � + �
220 370

𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = 137.966 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

Problem 6-2

Suppose two capacitors with values of 0.0010 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 and

100 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 are connected in series. What is the net
capacitance?

For 𝐶𝐶2 = 100 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.000100 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

−1
1 1
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = � + �
0.0010 0.000100

𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = 0.000091 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 = 91 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

Capacitors in Parallel

With the same concept of resistors in series, total capacitance of capacitors in

series can be calculated by using the formula:

𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = 𝐶𝐶1 + 𝐶𝐶2 + 𝐶𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛

33 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Problem 6-3

Suppose three capacitors are in

parallel, having values of 𝐶𝐶1 = 0.100 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇, 𝐶𝐶2 =
0.0100 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇, and 𝐶𝐶3 = 0.001000 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇. What is the
total capacitance?

𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = 0.1 + 0.01 + 0.001

𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = 0.111 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

Problem 6-4

Suppose two capacitors are in parallel, one with a

value of 100 μF and one with a value of 100 pF. What is
the net capacitance?

𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = 100 + 0.0001

𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = 100.0001 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

In this case, you can say right away that the net
capacitance is 100 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 for practical purposes. The smaller
capacitance contributes essentially nothing to the net
capacitance of this combination.

Types of Capacitors

Paper Capacitors

In this construction shown in Fig. 16–5 a , two rolls of tinfoil conductor separated
by a paper dielectric are rolled into a compact cylinder. Each outside lead connects to
its roll of tinfoil as a plate. The entire cylinder is generally placed in a cardboard
container coated with wax or encased in plastic (Schultz, 2011).

(a) (b)
Figure 6–2: Paper Capacitor Model.

34 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Mica Capacitors

Mica capacitors can be manufactured by alternately

stacking metal sheets and layers of mica, or by applying
silver ink to sheets of mica. The metal sheets are wired
together into two meshed sets, forming the two terminals
of the capacitor (Schultz, 2011).

Figure 6–3: Mica Capacitor

Plastic-Film Capacitors

Plastics make good dielectrics for the manufacture

of capacitors. Polyethylene and polystyrene are commonly
used. The method of manufacture is similar to that for
paper capacitors. Stacking methods can be used if the
plastic is rigid. The geometries can vary, and these
capacitors are therefore found in various shapes
(Gibilisco, 2006).
Figure 6–4: Plastic-Film Capacitor

Ceramic Capacitors

The ceramic materials used in ceramic capacitors are

made from earth fired under extreme heat. With titanium
dioxide or one of several types of silicates, very high values
of dielectric constant can be obtained. Most ceramic
capacitors come in disk form. (Schultz, 2011).

Figure 6–5: Ceramic Capacitor

Surface-mounted capacitors

Surface-mounted capacitors are often called chip

capacitors. Chip capacitors are constructed by placing a
ceramic dielectric material between layers of conductive film
which form the capacitor plates. The capacitance is determined
by the dielectric constant and the physical area of the plates.
Chip capacitors are available with values ranging from a
fraction of a picofarad up to several microfarads. (Schultz,
2011).

Figure 6–6: Surface-mounted

capacitors

35 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Electrolytic Capacitors

Electrolytic capacitors use a molecular-thin oxide film as

the dielectric, resulting in large capacitance values in little space.
Electrolytic capacitors are used in circuits that have a
combination of dc voltage and ac voltage. The dc voltage
maintains the required polarity across the electrolytic capacitor
to form the oxide film. A common application is for electrolytic
filter capacitors to eliminate the 60-Hz or 120-Hz ac ripple in a
dc power supply (Schultz, 2011).

Figure 6–7: Electrolytic

Capacitors

Dielectric Construction Capacitance

Air Meshed plates 10 – 400 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
Ceramic Disk 1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 – 1 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
Electrolytic Aluminum 1 – 6800 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
Mica Stacked sheets 10 – 5000 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
Paper Rolled foil 0.001 – 1 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
Plastic film Foil or metallized 100 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 – 100 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

Table 6–1: Capacitance Summary (Grob’s Basic

Electronics)

Troubles in Capacitors

Checking Capacitors with an Ohmmeter

1. Carefully discharge the capacitor by connecting a 20,000 Ω, 5-watt resistor

across the leads for five seconds.
2. Set the ohmmeter to the highest ohm range, such as 1 𝑀𝑀Ω.
3. Take the ohmmeter and place the probes across the leads of the capacitor.
Polarity doesn’t matter on reading resistances.
4. Short-Circuited Capacitors - If an ohmmeter reading immediately goes
practically to zero and stays there.
Open Capacitors - If a capacitor shows no charging action but reads very
high resistance
Good Capacitor - the meter pointer moves quickly toward the low-
resistance side of the scale and then slowly recedes toward infinity.

36 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Assessments

A. Multiple choice. Show solution to problem solving items.

1. Capacitance acts to store electrical energy as

a. current. c. a magnetic field.
b. voltage. d. an electric field.

2. A capacitance of 100 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 is the same as which of the following?

a. 0.01 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 c. 0.0001 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
b 0.001 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 d. 0.00001 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

3. If five 0.050 − 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 capacitors are connected in parallel, what is the net capacitance
of the combination?
a. 0.010 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 c. 0. 50 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
b. 0.25 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 d. d. 0.025 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

4. When checked with an ohmmeter, a shorted capacitor will measure

a. infinite ohms c. somewhere in the range of 1 to 10 𝑀𝑀Ω
b. zero ohms d. none of the above.

5. Suppose that two capacitors are connected in series, and their values are 47 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
and 33 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝. What is the net capacitance of this combination?
a. 80 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 c. 33 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
b. 47 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 d. 19 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

6. Which of the following types of capacitors is polarized?

a. Paper c. Interelectrode
b. Mica d. Electrolytic

7. The basic unit of capacitance is the

a. farad c. tesla
b. henry d. ohm

8. A capacitor consists of
a. two insulators separated by a conductor.
b. a coil of wire wound on an iron core.
c. two conductors separated by an insulator.
d. none of the above.

9. Suppose that two capacitors are in parallel. Their values are 47.0 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 and 470 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇.
What is the net capacitance of this combination?
a. 47.0 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 c. 517 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
b. 517 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 d. 470 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

10. In general, a capacitor is a component that can

a. pass a dc current.
b. store an electric charge.
c. act as a bar magnet.
d. step up or step down an ac voltage

37 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Inductors

Learning Outcomes:
After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Explain how electromagnetism is produced.

• Explain the concept of inductance.
• Calculate the total inductance of series-connected inductors.
• Calculate the equivalent inductance of parallel-connected inductors.
• Explain how transformers transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through the process of electromagnetic induction.
• Calculate the turns ratio and the voltage ratio of a transformer.
• List the type of cores used for inductors.

Course Materials:

Introduction

Electromagnetism is produced when an electrical current flows through a

simple conductor such as a length of wire or cable, and as current passes along the
whole of the conductor then a magnetic field is created along the whole of the conductor.
In Figure 7-1, when the direction of the current is upward from the positive terminal,
the magnetic lines of force is counter-clockwise. But when the direction is downward,
the magnetic lines of force is clockwise.

Figure 7–1: Production of magnetic field as electric

currents flows through a conductor.

Inductors is an electrical component often consists of wire coils as shown in

Figure 7-2a , that opposes the flow of alternating current by temporarily storing energy
as magnetic fields when electric current flows through it. Inductor’s action is known as
inductance.

38 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
 (a) (b)
Figure 7–2: Inductor. (a) actual representation of inductor with toroidal
core. (b) Magnetic lines of force as current passes through

The Unit of Inductance

When a battery is first connected across an inductor, the current builds up at a

rate that depends on the inductance. The greater the inductance, the slower the rate of
current buildup for a given battery voltage. The unit of inductance 𝐿𝐿 is an expression of
the ratio between the rate of current buildup and the voltage across an inductor. An
inductance of 1 henry (1 𝐻𝐻) represents a potential difference of 1 volt (1 𝑉𝑉) across an
inductor within which the current is changing at the rate of 1 ampere per second (1 𝐴𝐴/𝑠𝑠)
(Gibilisco, 2006).

Inductor in Series

When the magnetic fields around inductors do not interact, inductances in series
add like resistances in series. The total value is the sum of the individual values. This
can be done by using the formula:

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 𝐿𝐿1 + 𝐿𝐿2 + 𝐿𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛

Problem 7-1

Suppose three 40.0 − 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 inductors are connected in series, and there is no interaction,
or mutual inductance. What is the total inductance 𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 ?

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 𝐿𝐿1 + 𝐿𝐿2 + 𝐿𝐿3

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 40 + 40 + 40

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 120 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

Problem 7-2

Imagine three inductors, with no mutual inductance, with values of 20.0 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 55.0 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇,
and 400 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛. What is the total inductance 𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 , in millihenrys, of these components if they
are connected in series.

39 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
First is to set all the values to equivalent microhenry units because it makes the
calculation easier. Let:

𝐿𝐿1 = 20 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 20000 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇;

𝐿𝐿2 = 50 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇; 𝐿𝐿3 = 400 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 0.4 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇;

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 𝐿𝐿1 + 𝐿𝐿2 + 𝐿𝐿3

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 20000 + 50 + 0.4

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 20,055.4 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 = 20.1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Inductors in Parallel

If there is no mutual inductance among two or more parallel-connected

inductors, their values add up like the values of resistors in parallel. This can be done
by using the formula:

1 1 1 1 −1
𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = � + + + ⋯+ �
𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛

Problem 7-3

Suppose there are three inductors, each with a value of 40 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇, connected in parallel with
no mutual inductance, as shown in Fig. 10-4. What is the net inductance of the
combination?

1 1 1 −1
𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = � + + �
𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿3

1 1 1 −1
𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = � + + �
40 40 40

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 13.333 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

Problem 7-4

Imagine four inductors in parallel, with no mutual inductance and values of 𝐿𝐿1 =
75.0 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝐿𝐿2 = 40.0 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝐿𝐿3 = 333 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇, and 𝐿𝐿4 = 7.00 𝐻𝐻. What is the net inductance of this
combination?

First is to set the standard unit to used at your convenience, let say in 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻. Then let:

𝐿𝐿1 = 75 𝑚𝑚ℎ = 0.075 𝐻𝐻; 𝐿𝐿2 = 40 𝑚𝑚ℎ = 0.04 𝐻𝐻; 𝐿𝐿3 = 333 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 = 0.000333 𝐻𝐻; 𝐿𝐿4 = 7 𝐻𝐻;

40 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
 1 1 1 1 −1
𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = � + + + �
𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿4

1 1 1 1 −1
𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = � + + + �
0.075 0.04 0.000333 7

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 0.00032879 H = 328.79 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

Mutual Inductance 𝐿𝐿𝑀𝑀

Mutual inductance can either increase or decrease the net inductance of a pair of
series-connected coils, compared with the condition of zero mutual inductance. The
magnetic fields around the coils either series-aiding or series-opposing.

Series-aiding means that the common current produces the same direction of
magnetic field for the two coils. The series-opposing connection results in opposite fields.
The value of 𝐿𝐿𝑀𝑀 is a function of the values of the inductors, and also of the coefficient of
coupling. The formula is

𝐿𝐿𝑀𝑀 = 𝑘𝑘�(𝐿𝐿1 )(𝐿𝐿2 )

Coefficient of coupling symbolized as 𝑘𝑘, is an expression of the extent to which

two inductors interact. It is specified as a number ranging from 0 (no interaction) to 1
(the maximum possible interaction) (Gibilisco, 2006).

(a) (b)

Figure 7–3: Mutual Conductance (Grob’s Basic Electronics). (a)

Series-aiding. (b) Series-opposing

Problem 7-5

Suppose two coils, having inductances of 30 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 and 50 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 for 𝐿𝐿1 and 𝐿𝐿2 respectively, are
connected in series so that their fields reinforce. Suppose that the coefficient of coupling
is 0.500. What is the total inductance of the combination?

41 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
First is to calculate 𝐿𝐿𝑀𝑀 ;

𝐿𝐿𝑀𝑀 = 𝑘𝑘�(𝐿𝐿1 )(𝐿𝐿2 )

𝐿𝐿𝑀𝑀 = 0.5�(30)(50)

𝐿𝐿𝑀𝑀 = 0.5√1500

𝐿𝐿𝑀𝑀 = 0.5(38.73) = 19.365 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

Then find the total inductance for series-aiding using:

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 𝐿𝐿1 + 𝐿𝐿2 + 2𝐿𝐿𝑀𝑀

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 30 + 50 + 2(19.365)

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 30 + 50 + 2(19.365)

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 118.73 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

Problem 7-6

Imagine two coils with inductances of 𝐿𝐿1 = 835 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 and 𝐿𝐿2 = 2.44 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚. Suppose they are
connected in series so that their coefficient of coupling is 0.922, acting so that the coils
oppose each other. What is the net inductance of the pair?

Using microhenrys, let:

𝐿𝐿2 = 2440 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

Calculate 𝐿𝐿𝑀𝑀 ;

𝐿𝐿𝑀𝑀 = 𝑘𝑘�(𝐿𝐿1 )(𝐿𝐿2 )

𝐿𝐿𝑀𝑀 = 0.922�(835)(2440)

𝐿𝐿𝑀𝑀 = 1316.04 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

Then find the total inductance for series-opposing using:

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 𝐿𝐿1 + 𝐿𝐿2 − 2𝐿𝐿𝑀𝑀

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 835 + 2440 + 2(1316.04)

𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 = 642.92 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

42 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Transformers

A transformer is defined as a passive electrical

device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through the process of electromagnetic induction.
It is most commonly used to increase (‘step up’) or decrease
(‘step down’) voltage levels between circuits (Electrical4U,
2021).

By Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, EMF

is induced in the second winding as long as the circuit of
this secondary winding is closed, current will flow through
it.

Figure 7–4: Transformer with

laminated iron core.

Turns Ratio

The ratio of the number of turns in the primary to the number in the secondary
is the turns ratio of the transformer:

𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠

Figure 7–5: Transformer representation of electromagnetic induction of the

primary turn and secondary turn.

where 𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃 number of turns in the primary and 𝑁𝑁𝑆𝑆 number of turns in the secondary.

Turn ratio is used to determine the output voltage of

the secondary winding depending on the output voltage of
the primary winding.

Figure 7–6: Schematic symbol of

inductor with iron-core
Voltage Ratio

With unity coupling between primary and secondary, the voltage induced in each
turn of the secondary is the same as the self-induced voltage of each turn in the primary.
Therefore, the voltage ratio is in the same proportion as the turns ratio:

43 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃
=
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠

The ratio is in terms of the primary voltage, which may be stepped up or down in
the secondary winding.

Problem 7-5

A power transformer has 100 turns for 𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃 and 600 turns for 𝑁𝑁𝑆𝑆 . What is the turns
ratio? How much is the secondary voltage 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 if the primary voltage 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 is 120 V?

𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃
=
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠

120 100
=
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 600

(120)(600)
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 =
100

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 720 𝑉𝑉

Therefore the transformer is a step-up transformer which increases the 120 𝑉𝑉 to 720 𝑉𝑉.

Problem 7-6

A power transformer has 100 turns for 𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃 and 5 turns for 𝑁𝑁𝑆𝑆 . What is the turns ratio?
How much is the secondary voltage 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 with a primary voltage of 120 𝑉𝑉?

𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃
=
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠

120 100
=
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 5

(120)(5)
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 =
100

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 6 𝑉𝑉

Therefore the transformer is a step-down transformer which decreases the 120 𝑉𝑉 to 6 𝑉𝑉.

44 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Type of Cores

Air-Core Coils

A coil can be wound on a hollow cylinder of plastic or other

nonferromagnetic material, forming an air-core coil. In practice,
the maximum attainable inductance for such coils is about 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
Air-core coils are used mostly in radio-frequency transmitters,
receivers, and antenna networks.

Figure 7–7: Air-core coils

Laminated Iron Core

In this construction, Each laminated section is insulated by a very thin coating

of iron oxide, silicon steel, or varnish. The insulating material increases the resistance
in the cross section of the core to reduce the eddy currents.

Figure 7–8: Laminated Iron-core

Ferromagnetic Core

Ferromagnetic substances can be crushed into dust and

then bound into various shapes, providing core materials that
greatly increase the inductance of a coil having a given number of
turns. There are two main types of ferromagnetic material in
common use as coil cores. These substances are known as
powdered iron and ferrite.

Figure 7–9:
Ferromagnetic Core

45 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1
Assessments

A. Multiple choice. Show solution to problem solving items.

1. An inductor works by
a. charging a piece of wire.
b. storing energy as a magnetic field.
c. choking off dc.
d. introducing resistance into a circuit.

2. Inductors in series, assuming there is no mutual inductance, combine

a. like resistors in parallel.
b. like resistors in series.
c. like batteries in series with opposite polarities.
d. in a way unlike any other type of component.

3. Suppose two inductors are connected in series, without mutual inductance. Their
values are 33 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 and 55 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚. What is the net inductance of the combination?
a. 1.8 𝐻𝐻 c. 88 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
b. 22 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 d. 21 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

4. Suppose three inductors are connected in series without mutual inductance.

Their values are 4.00 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛, 140 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇, and 5.07 𝐻𝐻. For practical purposes, the net
inductance will be very close to
a. 4.00 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 c. 5.07 𝐻𝐻
b. 140 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 d. none of the above.

5. Suppose two inductors, each of 100 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇, are connected in series, and the
coefficient of coupling is 0.40. The net inductance, if the coil fields reinforce each
other, is
a. 50.0 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 c. 200 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
b. 120 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 d. 280 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

B. Essay.

1. Briefly explain why the inductors blocks alternating current but passes
direct current.

2. Briefly explain how transformers work.

C. Problem solving.

In Figure 7-10, what turns ratio is

required to obtain the following
secondary voltage 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 when primary
voltage is 120 𝑉𝑉?

a. 60 𝑉𝑉 d. 24 𝑉𝑉
b. 600 𝑉𝑉 e. 12.6 𝑉𝑉 Figure 7 – 10
c. 420 𝑉𝑉

46 | E C E N 3 0 0 1 2 B A S I C E L E C T R O N I C S 1