Human Resources Management in Government 2nd Edition Searchable

HUMAN RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT
IN GOVERNMENT
A South African Perspective on theories, politics and processes
(EDITOR)
HUMAN RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT
IN GOVERNMENT
A South African perspective on theories,
politics and processes
HUMAN RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT
IN GOVERNMENT
A South African perspective on
theories, politics and processes
Second edition
ERNST J VAN DER WESTHUIZEN (EDITOR)
juta
Human Resource Management in Government: A South African perspective on theories,
politics and processes
First published 2016
Second edition 2021
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Table of contents
Lise of rabies and figures.......................................................................... xxi

About the editor and authors................................................................... xxiii
Preface....................................................................................................... xxix
/X working day in the life of a human resource manager in the
public sector...................................................................................... xxxvi
Acknowledgements and thanks............................................................... xlii
Acronymsand abbreviations..................................................................... xliii
Parti: Context and theoretical overview............................................... 1

Chapter 1: General introduction........................................................................... 3
ErnstJ van der Westhuizen
1.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 4
1.2 Meaning of human resource management in the public
sector context................................................................................ 4
1.3 Management perspective.............................................................. 5
1.4 Public dimension.......................................................................... 7
1.5 Resources....................................................................................... 8
1.6 Human resource management asa specific responsibility.......... 10
1.7 Ethics.............................................................................................. 12
1.8 Institutional roles.......................................................................... 14
1.9 Human resource management as an integrated process............. 16
1.9.1 Key functions and practices............................................ 16
1.9.2 Management tasks.......................................................... 17
1.9.3 Additional managementskills....................................... 19
1.9.4 Outcomes......................................................................... 20
1.10 Enhanced institutional performance and promotion of the
public interest................................................................................ 22
1.11 Integrated relationship of human resource management
functions and practices, tasks, additional skills and outcomes... 23
1.12 Conclusion..................................................................................... 23
1.13 Self-evaluation questions.............................................................. 24
Chapter 2: Theoretical perspectives................................................................... 25

2.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 25
Human Resource Management in Government
2.2 Phases of development..................................................................... 26

2.3 International developments........................................................... 27
2.3.1 Early times........................................................................ 27
2.3.2 Foundations..................................................................... 27
2.3.3 Political context............................................................... 28
2.3.4 Principles of administration......................................... 29
2.3.5 Management of people.................................................... 32
2.3.6 Contributors to the hybrid model of human
resource management...................................................... 35
2.4 South African context..................................................................... 40
2.4.1 Early colonialism............................................................. 40
2.4.2 Apartheid and the growth of personnel
management..................................................................... 41
2.4.3 Political transition and transformation of personnel
management to human resource management............. 41
2.4.4 Post-apartheid: human resource maturity ................... 42
2.5 Public administration developments............................................. 42
2.6 Professionalism and the South African Board for People
Practices........................................................................................... 45
2.6.1 Registration....................................................................... 46
2.6.2 National Human Resource Management System
Standards Model............................................................. 46
2.7 Remaining a valued humanresource specialist........................... 47
2.8 Conclusion....................................................................................... 49
2.9 Self-evaluation questions............................................................... 50
Part 2: Strategising and planning........................................................... 51

Chapter 3: Green human resource management............................................. 53
Iliana Stone
3.1 Introduction.................................................................................... 54
3.2 Conceptual and theoretical framework.................................................... 54
3.2.1 The need for green human resource management....... 56
3.3 The role and function of the green human resource manager... 57
3.4 Advantages and disadvantages of green human resource
management.................................................................................... 59
3.5 International trends in green human resource management.... 60
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Table of contents
3.6 South African legislation and structures guiding green

human resource management....................................................... 62
3.7 Problems identified with the implementation of green
human resource management in South Africa, and
possible solutions............................................................................ 71
3.7.1 What happened?............................................................... 71
3.7.2 Why did it happen?......................................................... 72
3.7.3 What can we learn?......................................................... 72
3.7.4 How can the lessons learnt be used to improve the
implementation ofthe green human resource
management system?...................................................... 72
3.8 Characteristics, qualities and skills of a green human
resource manager............................................................................ 73
3.8.1 Knowledge and expertise................................................ 74
3.8.2 Communicator................................................................. 75
3.8.3 Presenter............................................................................ 75
3.8.4 Innovative........................................................................ 75
3.8.5 Approachable.................................................................. 75
3.8.6 Time management........................................................... 76
3.9 Future directives for green human resource managers............... 76
3.9.1 Greer, recruitment........................................................... 76
3.9.2 Green performance management................................... 77
3.9.3 Green training and development................................... 77
3.9.4 Green compensation....................................................... 77
3.9.5 Green employee relations................................................ 78
3.10 Green initiatives for human resource management..................... 78
3.10.1 Green building................................................................. 78
3.10.2 Paperless office................................................................. 78
3.10.3 Conservation of energy.................................................... 79
3.10.4 Recycling and waste disposal........................................ 79
3.11 Conclusion....................................................................................... 79
Chapter 4: The Fourth Industrial Revolution and human resource

management....................................................................................................... 81
Vain Jarbandban
4.1 Introduction................................................................................... 81
4.2 Definition of key terms.................................................................. 82
vii
4 2.1 The Fourth Industrial Revolution................................ 82

4.2.2 Talent management.............................................................. 82
4.3 Conceptual clarification of the 41R.............................................. 83
4.3.1 Digital connectivity.......................................................... 83
4.3.2 Upscaling communication.............................................. 83
4.3.3 Predict outcomes............................................................. 84
4 3.4 Using technology to measure impact........................... 84
4.4 Effects of the 41R on government.................................................. 85
4.5 Role ofthe state in the 41R............................................................. 86
4.6 Current public sector human resource challenges in
South Africa........................................................................................... 87
4.6.1 Political versus professional appointments................... 87
4.6.2 Governance, accountability, and ethics........................ 87
4.6.3 Skills deficit and quality in leadership.......................... 88
4.6.4 Bloated public service...................................................... 88
4.7 Emerging trends: The worker of the future................................. 88
4.7.1 Demographic shifts.......................................................... 89
4.7.2 Improved investment in education............................... 89
4.7.3 Workforce motivations.................................................... 90
4.8 The changing nature of work.......................................................... 90
4.9 Challenges presented by the 41R for human resource
management................................................................................... 91
4.9.1 Adapting to a rapidly changing worker profile.............. 92
4.9.2 Understanding the subtleties of workers’
qualifications................................................................... 92
4.9.3 Retaining and engaging a changing workforce............ 42
4.9.4 Aligning technology best practices to global
management strategy...................................................... 93
4.9.5 Performance management............................................... 93
4.9.6 Data-based management................................................ 93
4.9.7 Protection of information.............................................. 94
4.10 The workforce of the future........................................................... 94
4.11 Preparing the workforce of the future........................................... 95
4.11.1 Embracing lifelong learning........................................... 95
4.11.2 Gaining advantage by planning early............................ 96
4.11.3 Building an inclusive workforce...................................... 96
4.11.4 Multiple stakeholder engagement................................. 96
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Table of contents
6.7.6 Income differentials......................................................... 162

6.7.7 Commission for Employment Equity.......................... 162
6.7.8 Compliance, monitoring, enforcement and legal
proceedings........................................................................ 163
6.7.9 Assessment of compliance............................................... 163
6.8 Implementation of an affirmative action programme in
the South African public service........................................ 164
6.8.1 Measuring the implementation of an affirmative
action programme............................................................. 164
6.8.2 Representativeness in the South African
public service...................................................................... 167
6.8.3 Why affirmative action programmes sometimes fail ... 169
6.8.4 Strategic approach to affirmative action in public
institutions........................................................................ 170
6.9 Conclusion......................................................................................... 172
6.10 Self-evaluation questions................................................................ 172
Chapter 7: Talent management: Recruitment, selection and

appointment.......................................................................................................... 173
Ernst J van der Westhuizen
7.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 174
7.2 Defining talent and talent management........................................ 174
7.3 Role players in talent management............................................... 176
7.4 Recruitment policy and procedures for talent management .... 177
7.5 Key research findings in talent management on recruitment
and selection..................................................................................... 179
7.6 Objectives of recruitment................................................................ 180
7.7 Factors influencing recruitment..................................................... 180
7.7.1 External factors................................................................ 181
7.7.2 Internal factors.................................................................. 182
7.8 Recruitment sources........................................................................ 183
7.8.1 Internal sources................................................................ 183
7.8.2 External sources................................................................ 184
7.9 Recruitment, selection and appointment...................................... 186
7.9.1 Recruitment...................................................................... 186
7.9.2 Selection and appointment.......................................... 192
7.10 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 202
xi
Part 4: Performance and career development........................................... 205
Chapter 8: Appraising and managing employees' performance in the

public service..................................................................................................... 207
Shepherd R Malefane
8.1 Introduction................................................................................... 207
8.2 Definition of‘performance appraisal’ and ‘performance
management................................................................................... 208
8.3 Relationship and differences between performance
appraisal and performance management..................................... 209
8.4 Purpose of performance appraisals........................................................... 212
8.4.1 Performance appraisals as administrative
instruments...................................................................... 212
8.4.2 Employee development.................................................... 213
8.4.3 Institutional development.............................................. 214
8.5 Regulatory framework.................................................................... 214
8.5.1 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 ... 215
8.5.2 Public Service ?\ct as amended....................................... 215
8.5.3 White Paper on Human Resource Management
in the Public Service....................................................... 216
8.5.4 Public Service Regulations of 2016............................... 216
8.5.5 Resolutions by the Public Service Coordinating
Bargaining Council......................................................... 217
8.5.6 The Treasury Regulations.............................................. 218
8.6 Types of performance appraisers.................................................... 219
8.6.1 Appraisal by supervisors.................................................. 219
8.6.2 Appraisal by peers............................................................ 220
8.6.3 Appraisal by subordinates............................................... 220
8.6.4 Appraisal by oneself self-appraisal................................ 221
8.6.5 Appraisal by consumers/citizens.................................... 221
8.6.6 360-degree performance appraisals............................... 222
8.7 Problems associated with performance appraisals..................... 223
8.7.1 Rating errors.................................................................... 223
8.7.2 Development of performance standards...................... 226
8.8 Steps in (he performance appraisal phase................................... 227
8.9 Rewarding performance in the public service.............................. 230
8.10 Conclusion....................................................................................... 231
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Table of contents
Chapter 9: Career management........................................................................ 233

Luni Vermeulen
9.1 Introduction................................................................................... 234
9.2 Career management concepts....................................................... 235
9.3 Career theories............................................................................... 238
9.3.1 Super’s process theory...................................................... 238
9.3.2 Holland’s theory............................................................... 239
9.4 Career anchors................................................................................. 240
9.5 Career patterns............................................................................... 242
9.6 Career plateauing............................................................................ 243
9.7 Obsolescence................................................................................... 245
9.8 Practices that support careermanagement programmes............ 246
9.9 Overview of career management in the public service................. 249
9.10 Conclusion....................................................................................... 253
Chapter 10: Reflections on learning programmes.................................................. 255

Liza Ceciel van Jaarsveldt
10.1 Introduction................................................................................... 255
10.2 The importance of a professional educated and trained
public workforce ............................................................................ 256
10.3 Theories relevant to adult education and training .................... 258
10.4 Reflections on education and training........................................ 263
10.4.1 Problem-based learning.................................................. 263
10.4.2 Case studies.................................................................... 264
10.4.3 Portfolios ........................................................................ 264
10.4.4 Storytelling...................................................................... 264
10.4.5 Role-play.......................................................................... 264
10.4.6 Mentoring........................................................................ 265
10.4.7 Demonstrations............................................................... 265
10.4.8 Groupwork...................................................................... 265
10.4.9 Critical debate................................................................. 265
10.4.10 Professional enquiry....................................................... 266
10.4.11 Lifelong learning............................................................. 266
10.5 The virtual world of education and training ............................. 267
10.5.1 E-learning........................................................................ 267
10.5.2 Mobile learning............................................................... 269
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10.5.3 Social media...................................................................... 270

10.5.4 Massive open online courses .......................................... 271
10.5.5 Open Educational Resources.......................................... 271
10.5.6 Educational games.................................................... 272
10.5.7 Webinars............................................................................ 272
10.6 Requirements for the education and training of public
officials in South Africa.................................................................. 272
10.6.1 Higher Education Quality Committee........................... 273
10.6.2 South African Qualification Authority......................... 273
10.6.3 National Qualifications Framework.............................. 274
10.6.4 White Paper on Public Service Training and
Education of 1997 ............................................................. 275
10.6.5 Public Service Sector Education and Training
Authority............................................................................ 275
10.7 Conclusion......................................................................................... 276
10.8 Self-evaluation questions................................................................. 276
Part 5: Compensating and caring............................................................. 277

Chapter 11: Compensation in the public sector.................................................. 279
11.1 Introduction...................................................................................... 279
11.2 Concept of compensation.................................................................. 280
11.3 Compensation objectives................................................................. 282
11.4 Compensation policy........................................................................ 284
11.5 External and internal factors influencing the design of
compensation systems...................................................................... 286
11.5.1 External factors................................................................. 287
11.5.2 Internal factors.................................................................. 288
11.6 Elements of a compensation system................................................. 289
11.6.1 Applying particular criteria for determining
compensation levels............................................ 289
11.7 Conclusion......................................................................................... 296
11.8 Self-evaluation questions.................................................................. 296
Chapter 12: Establishing and maintaining wellness.......................................... 297

Lum Vermeulen
12.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 297
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Table of contents
12.2 Theoretical perspectives on health behaviour.............................. 298

12.2.1 Health Belief Model.......................................................... 298
12.2.2 Health promotion by Social Cognitive Theory............. 299
12.3 Occupational health and safety.................................................... 301
12.4 Employee wellness and employee wellness programmes............. 302
12.4.1 Approaches to employee wellness programmes........... 303
12.5 Statutory and regulatory framework............................................. 306
12.5.1 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 ... 306
12.5.2 Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993........... 307
12.5.3 Employee Health and Wellness Strategic
Framework for the Public Service.................................... 308
12.5.4 HIV/AIDS and TB management policy for the
public service..................................................................... 312
12.5.5 National Strategic Plan for HIV, TB and STIs,
2017-2022 ......................................................................... 312
12.6 Managing employee wellness, health and
safety - Psychosocial hazards........................................................ 313
12.6.1 Ergonomics and workplace design.................................. 314
12.6.2 Work-life balance.............................................................. 314
12.6.3 Factors intrinsic to the job............................................... 315
12.6.4 Work overload................................................................... 315
12.6.5 Work time......................................................................... 315
12.6.6 Fatigue.............................................................................. 316
12.6.7 Stress.................................................................................. 316
12.6.8 Bullying............................................................................ 317
12.7 Conclusion........................................................................................ 318
Part 6: Employment relations................................................................... 321

Chapter 13: Understanding and managing employment relations.................... 323
Gera Ferreira
13.1 Introduction.................................................................................... 323
13.2 History and development of the employment relationship
in the public sector........................................................................... 324
13.2.1 Public sector labour relations between
1902 and 1947................................................................... 325
XV
Public sector labour relations between

13.2.2
1948 and 1994................................................................... 325
13.2.3 Public sector labour relations from 1994 onwards........ 326
13.3 Establishing sound union-management relations....................... 326
13.3.1 Handling initial trade union contact............................ 327
13.3.2 Normalising the union-management relationship....... 328
13.4 Entering into collective bargaining negotiation.......................... 329
13.4.1 Distributive negotiation.................................................. 330
13.4.2 Integrative negotiation.................................................... 332
13.5 Structures for collective bargaining negotiation........................ 332
13.5.1 National Economic Development and Labour
Council............................................................................... 333
13.5.2 Public Service Co-ordinating Bargaining Council....... 333
13.6 Handling of disputes....................................................................... 334
13.6.1 Types of labour dispute................................................... 335
13.7 Mechanisms for dispute resolution............................................... 336
13.7.1 Functions of the Commission for Conciliation.
Mediation and Arbitration............................................. 336
13.7.2 Dispute resolution under the auspices of the
Commission for Conciliation. Mediation
and Arbitration.................................................................. 337
13.7.3 Special provisions for dispute resolution under
the Labour Relations Act ............................................... 339
13.7.4 Labour Court and Labour Appeal Court...................... 339
13.8 Handling of strikes......................................................................... 340
13.8.1 Nature and content of a ‘strike’ and ‘lock-out’............. 340
13.8.2 Status of strikes and lock-outs in terms of the
Labour Relations Act...................................................... 341
13.8.3 Procedures for protected industrial action................... 341
13.8.4 Unprotected strikes and lock-outs.................................. 342
13.8.5 Strike management phases............................................. 343
13.9 Establishing sound employment relations.................................... 345
13.9.1 Methods of communicating with public
sector employees................................................................ 345
13.9.2 Handling public sector employee grievances................. 346
13.9.3 Disciplining employees.................................................... 348
13.10 Conclusion........................................................................................ 348
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Table of contents
Chapter 14: Terminating the services of employees......................................... 351

Kedibone G Phagp
14.1 Introduction................................................................................... 351
14.2 Theoretical basis for employment contract termination............. 352
14.3 Overview of different forms of termination of employment
services............................................................................................. 353
14.3.1 Retirement........................................................................ 353
14.3.2 Resignations.................................................................... 353
14.3.3 Ill-health.......................................................................... 354
14.3.4 Operational requirements.............................................. 355
14.4 Definition of dismissal ................................................................. 355
14.5 Contextual issues pertaining to employee dismissal................... 356
14.6 Causes of employee dismissals in the public sector.................... 358
14.7 Fairness of a dismissal.................................................................... 360
14.8 Unfair dismissal.............................................................................. 361
14.9 Automatically unfair dismissals.................................................... 362
14.10 Categories of dismissals................................................................. 363
14.10.1 Dismissal with regard to employee’s conduct............... 363
14.10.2 Dismissals relating to employee s capacity................... 364
14.10.3 Dismissal based on operational requirements............. 368
14.11 Procedural fairness in retrenchment of employees...................... 369
14.12 Prescribed severance pay ............................................................... 372
14.13 Remedies for unfair dismissal ...................................................... 375
14.14 Pre-dismissal arbitration............................................................... 376
14.15 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 377
Part 7: Future of human resource management...................................... 379

Chapter 15: Role of political leadership in a dynamic and changing
human resource environment............................................................................. 381
Liezel Lues
15.1 Introduction................................................................................... 381
15.2 Effect of global variables on the South African macro-
and micro-environments............................................................... 382
15.2.1 Global environment......................................................... 382
15.2.2 Macro-environment......................................................... 384
15.2.3 Micro-environment......................................................... 384
xvii
15.3 Public Management Transitions in the South African

public sector.................................................................................... 385
15.3.1 Dynamics of the workforce environment pre-1994 .... 386
15.3.2 Dynamics of the workforce environment post-1994 .. . 386
15.3.3 Dynamics of the current public sector workforce....... 390
15.4 The role of public sector leadership accountability in a
dynamic and changing work environment:
The Mandela, Mbeki, Zuma and Ramaphosa eras...................... 392
15.4.1 Mandela era (10 May 1994 to 14 June 1999).................. 393
15.4.2 Mbeki era (16 June 1999 to 24 September 2008)........... 395
15.4.3 Zuma era (9 May 2009 to 14 February 2018)................. 397
15.4.4 Ramaphosa era (15 February 2018 to present)............. 399
15.5 Theory............................................................................................. 401
15.6 Contemporary trends in and challenges for the South African
public sectorHRM.......................................................................... 402
15.7 Conclusion...................................................................................... 407
15.8 Self-evaluationquestions............................................................... 408
Chapter 16: Human resource management in the developed and

developing world................................................................................................. 409
Sinval B Kahn
16.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 409
16.2 Human resource management in the United States and
the United Kingdom...................................................................... 410
16.2.1 Employment relationship in the United States ........... 410
16.2.2 Employee relations in the United Kingdom.................. 411
16.3 Human resource management in BRICS countries.................... 414
16.3.1 Talent management and absorptive capacity
in Brazil........................................................................... 415
16.3.2 Talent management and absorptive capacity
in Russia........................................................................... 418
16.3.3 Human resource management in India........................ 421
16.3.4 Intellectual capital and organisation performance
in China........................................................................... 423
16.4 Human resource management in South Africa........................... 425
16.4.1 Retention ....................................................................... 425
16.4.2 Training and development ............................................ 426
16.4.3 Compensation................................................................ 427
16.4.4 Equality of people with disabilities............................... 427
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Table of contents
16.5 Traditional determinants of human resource management

in three BRICS countries................................................................ 428
16.5.1 Harmony' in China.......................................................... 428
16.5.2 Indian traditions.............................................................. 430
16.5.3 South Africa’s Ubuntu..................................................... 431
16.6 Human resource management in Kenya........................................ 431
16.6.1 Recruitment and selection............................................... 431
16.6.2 Compensation.................................................................. 433
16.6.3 Performance management............................................... 434
16.7 Human resource managementin Tanzania................................. 434
16.7.1 Resource management..................................................... 434
16.7.2 Recruitment and selection............................................... 435
16.7.3 Human resource development........................................ 435
16.8 Conclusion........................................................................................ 436
Chapter 17: Decolonisation and human resource management...................... 439

Sinval B Kahn
17.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 439
17.2 Colonisation..................................................................................... 440
17.2.1 Definition of colonisation............................................... 440
17.2.2 Definition of coloniality'................................................. 440
17.3 Decolonisation ............................................................................... 441
17.3.1 Overview of decolonisation............................................. 441
17.3.2 Definition of decolonisation........................................... 442
17.4 Decolonisation in democratic South Africa.................................. 443
17.4.1 New approach to decolonisation.................................... 443
17.4.2 Stages of decolonisation................................................... 444
17.5 Afrocentricity philosophy.............................................................. 447
17.5.1 Afrocentric human resource manager principles......... 447
17.6 African management philosophy................................................... 450
17.7 Pre colonial African management philosophy.......................... 450
17.7.1 Capabilities of the professional human
resource manager.............................................................. 451
17.8 Decolonising human resource management................................ 453
17.8.1 New human resource management approach ............. 454
17.8.2 African epistemology and human resource
management...................................................................... 455
xix
17.8.3 Transformed workplace................................................... 456

17.8.4 Human resource development....................................... 457
17.8.5 New approach to employee-employer relations........... 458
17.9 Decolonisation of education.......................................................... 460
17.9.1 Battle for the mind.......................................................... 460
17.9.2 New educational approach............................................. 461
17.9.3 Pedagogy of possibilities................................................. 462
17.9.4 Intellectual decolonisation............................................. 465
17.10 Conclusion........................................................................................ 466
Chapter 18: Human resource governance.......................................................... 467

Anton Grobler
18.1 Introduction.................................................................................... 467
18.2 Corporate governance versus human resource governance........ 470
18.2.1 Governance....................................................................... 470
18.2.2 Human resource governance........................................... 472
18.3 Human resource governance system for public service
and other South African institutions........................................... 478
18.3.1 Framework for governance of the human
resource function.............................................................. 478
18.3.2 Key aspects of the proposed human resource
governance system............................................................ 481
18.4 Human resource governance metrics............................................. 482
18.5 Human resource governancereporting.......................................... 485
18.6 Conclusion........................................................................................ 489
Bibliography........................................................................................................... 491
Index..................................................................................................................... 565
xx
List of tables and figures
Figure 4.1: The nine technologies that are transforming the
world of work................................................. 85
Figure 4.2: Skills needed by government workers in the 4IR.............. 103
Figure 4.3: Digital government trends................................................... 105
Figure 4.4: The future of jobs in South Africa..................................... 107
Figure 6.1: From apartheid to true or substantive employment
equity............................................................... 147
Figure 6.2: Non-discrimination versus affirmative action................... 158
Figure 7.1: The selection process.............................................................. 193
Figure 8.1: Phases of the performance management cycle of a
public institution......................................... 210
Figure 8.2: Steps in the performance appraisal phase.......................... 229
Figure 11.1: Types and structure of rewards............................................ 282
Figure 15.1: Variables and changes at a global level and their
influence on the South African macro- and
micro-environments............................................................... 383
Figure 16.1: Human resource needs basket model................................ 422
Figure 17.1: Ma’at an Afrocentric canon.................................................. 448
Figure 18.1: Strategic alignment of HR function.................................. 473
Figure 18.2: Framework for the public service sector............................ 476
Figure 18.3: HR governance system for South African institutions... 479
Figure 18.4: Levels of HR reporting.......................................................... 485
Table 4.1: Requirements for governments to benefit from

the 41R............................................................ 97
Table 4.2: Possible scenarios for governments in the 41R................... 98
Table 4.3: Skill- sets for each industrial revolution............................ 99
Table 4.4: A comparison of the top 10 skills demands in
2018 and 2022 ......................................................................... 101
Table 5.1: Generational cohorts and characteristics.......................... 131
Table 5.2: Differences between replacement planning and
succession planning............................................................... 134
xxi
Table 5.3: Dimensions of a workforce plan....................................... 137

Table 6.1: Comparison of South African population and public
service by population group as a percentage in 1995
and 2010.............................................................................. 150
Table 6.2: Managers at all levels, by population group, as a
percentage of total managers in the public service,
1995-2002................................................... 151
Table 6.3: Female managers at all levels, by population group,
as a percentage of total managers in the public
service per race group, 1995 2002............. 151
Table 9.1: Shortcomings- and recommendations for career
management in the public service............ 250
Table 10.1: Theories relevant to adult education and training.......... 259
Table 10.2: Modes of education and training delivery......................... 268
Table 14.1: Very serious offences............................................................ 359
Table 14.2: Serious Offences.................................................................. 359
Table 14.3: Less serious offences............................................................ 360
Table 14.4: Employee’s capacity: key factors in substantive and
procedural fairness............................................................. 365
Table 14.5: Key factors in substantive and procedural fairness
relating to dismissals for operational reasons. 369
Table 14.6: Measures specified by the LRA when considering
retrenchment of employees................................................ 370
Table 15.1: Public sector leadership focus............................................ 393
Table 17.1: Afrocentric canon infused in AMP and HR
manager’s capabilities........................................................ 453
Table 17.2: Afrocentric epistemologies infused in HRM studies .... 456
Table 18.1: Core elements of an HR function’s system of
governance........................................................................... 474
Table 18.2: HR metrics associated with an HR governance
system........................................................... 483
Table 18.3: HR governance reporting: Overall reporting format .... 486
Table 18.4: HR governance reporting: HR Scorecard reporting
format......................................................... 487
xxii
About the editor and authors
Editor
Ernst J van der Westhuizen is Professor of Public Administration in che
Department of Public Administration and Management at Unisa. He joined
che teaching profession in 1988 following a career in human resources in
che public service. He has authored numerous articles for local as well as
international accredited journals, and has addressed many international
and local conferences on public management, human resource management,
public sector reform and ethics. He is registered as Master HR Professional
in the category Learning and Development with the South African Board for
People Practices. He received the Researcher of the Year Award in the School
of Management Sciences at Unisa in 2005.
Current authors
Gera Ferreira is Associate Professor of Public Administration in the
Department of Public Administration and Management at Unisa. She started
her teaching career in 1980 and joined Unisa in 1981. She has authored and
co-authored various articles on labour relations for local accredited journals.
She was editor of a local accredited journal and serves on the editorial board
of an international accredited journal.
Anton Grobler holds a PhD in Industrial Psychology from the North West
University. He is a qualified Industrial Psychologist, Master People Practitioner
and an international affiliate of the Society of Industrial and Organisational
Psychology. He is currently employed at the Unisa Graduate School of Business
Leadership as full professor in Leadership and Organisational Behaviour.
Prior to his appointment at Unisa, he was the national Head of Psychological
Services (at the rank of Director Brigadier) in the South African Police
Services. He has an extensive record of academic and institutional research,
with numerous publications in accredited peer-reviewed academic journals
and has delivered papers at various national and international conferences.
Sinval Kahn is a Professor in the Department of Public Administration and

Management at Unisa. He has lectured at various national and international
colleges, such as the Military Academy in Saldanha, St Mary’s College in the
USA and Helderberg College in Cape Town, and facilitated Strategic Human
Resource Management and Leading Change for the National School of
Government (NSG). He served as a human resource practitioner in the South
African National Defence Force for more than 22 years.
xxiii
Liezel Lues, Ph.D. Public Management, is an associate professor of Public

Administration and Management at the University of the Free State, South
Africa (since 2006). Prior to her appointment at the University of the Free
State, she worked in Human Resource Management in the Free State Office
of the Premier and the National Department of Water Affairs, respectively.
During 2015-2018 she was respectively the Deputy- and Chairperson of the
Association of Southern African Departments of Public Administration and
Management. Al present, she is the co-chairperson of the working group VI
Public Sector Leadership and Governance of the International Associations of
Schoolsand Institutes of Administration. Her research interests include public
management transitions, particularly the role of leadership accountability.
She has published extensively on the above field. Her latest work appears in
the International Journal of Transforming Government: People, Process and
Policy. Her latest academic book chapters focus respectively on peace leadership
in the public and private sectors and leadership in the African context.
Shepherd Malefane is a Professor of Public Administration in the

Department of Public Administration and Management at Unisa. He holds a
PhD in Economics from the North-West University. He is the former Editor of
the South African Journal for Political Science and Public Administration (Politeia) and
has served as chairperson of the Dr Kenneth Kaunda District Municipality
Economic Agency (a state-owned enterprise) and an employee of the South
African public service, specialising in human resource management. He has
published extensively in accredited peer-reviewed academic journals and has
delivered papers at various national and international conferences.
Kedibone Phago holds a doctoral degree from Unisa and serves as Professor
and Head of Department for the Master of Public Administration programme
at the Faculty of Management and Law of the University of Limpopo. Fie
currently serves as Deputy Editor for the Journal ofPublic Administration. He is
also responsible for editing special editions of the journal and serves as a South
African Association of Public Administration and Management (SAAPAM)
board member. He received several research awards at the department, school,
college and university levels while still at Unisa. He has extensive experience
in the teaching and development of training material for Short Learning
Programmes for government and non-government institutions.
xxiv
Mike van Heerden was Professor of Public Administration in the Department

of Public Administration and Management at Unisa. He holds qualifications
in public administration. He was employed as a civil servant and served in
various government departments in a legal capacity before entering academic
life at Unisa, where he was involved in the Unisa Tutorial Support Programme.
In January 2006, he was appointed lecturer in Unisa’s Department of Public
Administration and Management. Since 1999. he presented workshops for
Unisa students in the certificate course in Provincial and Local Government
Law. He has lectured and presented workshops since 2002 at the University
of Pretoria in the post-graduate programme in Legislative Drafting. He has
authored and co-authored articles on constitutional matters, administrative
justice and ethics for local and international accredited journals, and has
delivered papers at various national and international conferences. He is
currently a professor emeritus.
Liza Ceciel van Jaarsveldt is an Associate Professor of Public Administration

in the Department of Public Administration and Management at the
University of South Africa (UNISA). She started her teaching career at the
University of Pretoria as an assistant lectures in 2000 and joined UNISA in
January 2006. She has authored and co-authored various articles for national
and international accredited journals. Public Administration education
and training as well as Reflective Public Administration forms part of her
main research focus area. Prof van Jaarsveldt is the project manager for
the International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration
(IASI A) working group on public human resource managing. She has received
several awards from the University of South Africa for tuition, research,
courage in adversity and being the youngest PhD graduate in 2011. She
currently holds a Y2 rating from the National Research Foundation (NRF) in
Public Administration.
Luni Vermeulen is an Associate Professor in Public Administration at the

North-West University and Director of the School of Government Studies.
She has published in several national and international accredited journals
and has addressed various national and international conferences on public
administration, human resource management and behavioural public
administration. She holds a doctoral degree in Public Administration from
UNISA. She serves as Vice President for the South African Association of
Public Administration and Management (SAAPAM) and as an editorial board
member of the Journal of Public Administration and International Humanities
Studies. She has received the Institutional Teaching Excellence Award from
the North-West University.
xxv
Riana Stone is currently working as freelance environmental consultant for

public and private institutions. She started her career in 1987 as assistant
planner at the Department of Constitutional Development and Planning.
Thereafter she started her teaching career in 1989 as senior lecturer at
Technikon Northern Transvaal, and later joined Vista University in 1991
and Tshwane University of Technology in 1999. From 2007 till 2011 she got a
contract appointment at the University of Pretoria where she mainly taught
the Masters program in Public Management and the Executive Leadership
program for councillors. In 2014 she was appointed at Pro-Active College
as General Manager of the Local Government Unit. She has authored
several books and authored and co-authored various articles for national
and international accredited journals. She is also project co-ordinator of
a partnership between Tshwane Metro and the Institute of Housing in the
Netherlands on saferand healthier cities.
Vain Jarbandhan is an Associate Professor in Public Management and

Governance at the University of Johannesburg (UJ). He is also Acting Director
of the Centre of Public Management and Governance in the College of
Business and Economics at UJ. He served as head of department in the College
of Business and Economics, was chief editor of Administrate) Ptiblica, a DoHET
accredited journal and serves on the expert panel of Innovate Governance,
a global non-governmental organisation based in Austria. He has published
numerous papers and book chapters focusing primarily on good governance
and leadership. He serves on selected NRF review panels, has acted as
conference chairs, has served as reviewer of numerous journals and has won
the best paper accolade at an international conference. He has supervised to
completion numerous masters and doctoral candidates to completion.
Authors previously involved

Jacobus S Wessels is a Professor of Public Administration in the Department
of Public Administration and Management at Unisa. He served jointly as
editor with Prof, van der Westhuizen for the preceding two editions of this
book and contributed extensively to writing various chapters.
Hester Nienaber is a Research Professor m the Department of Business

Management at Unisa. She added to the previous edition in two chapters.
However, she is not involved in this issue.
Barney Erasmus was Vice-Principal: Operations at Unisa and Professor of

Human Resource Management at Unisa.
xxvi
Heinz Schenk is Professor of Human Resource Management at Unisa.
Marius van Wyk (deceased) was Professor of Labour Law and Business Ethics
at the Graduate School of Business Leadership at Unisa.
Ben Swanepoel (deceased) was Professor of Human Resource Management

and Labour Relations at Unisa.
xxvii
Preface
I have been honoured to teach Public Human Resource Management (hereafter
referred to as PH RM) for more than 31 years now. In this capacity, I have
been able to convey all that 1 know of the field and continue to learn about
this appealing subject. Much has changed since the predecessor of this book,
South African Human Resource Management for the Public Sector, was published
and, although the authors and I maintain the same essential arguments, we
have updated them in many areas. This book continues with the discussion
on public administration and management principles against the changing
background of South Africa's complex historical and political evolution. In
this endeavour, a critical and practical agenda is crucial.
There is a pressing need to understand how the theory and practice of human
resource management (hereafter referred to as HRM) can help transform
the corporate world of government in positive ways. It is essential that we
persist in involving the pedagogical, theoretical and practical potential of the
human resource (hereafter referred to as HR) function as a fundamental form
of democratic public administration practice. A textbook like this one should
be a creative summation of the available knowledge of HR. It should be a
yardstick, marking the existence of new and current literature and helping to
outline both the present and future of the discipline. This textbook describes
different discourses and debates. It includes the best thinking of scholars in
the writing fraternity; it is thoughtful, inclusive, reader-friendly and reliable.
The authors of this book function in a collective context. Although we
work as a team, we make an effort to respect diversity beyond disciplinary
and paradigmatic viewpoints. A textbook of this type is more than a review
of the HR literature. It speaks to graduate students, to conventional scholars,
to those who wish to become skilled in the discipline and to practitioners
who seek solutions in everyday work situations. This book applies data and
information of a mixed nature. It shows the reader how to progress from ideas
to inquiry, from inquiry to interpretation, and from interpretation to action
in the broader practical world.
The idea of writing a textbook began with the comment of a senior
public HR officer in the Department of Public Service and Administration
(hereafter referred to as DPSA) in 2014, who was of the view that developing
public managers must be prepared to rise to the occasion in managing and
administering people in the public sector. He contended that public managers
must develop a broader understanding of. for example, labour law and should
have a clear comprehension of HR policies and practices and sounder problem
solving abilities than those classically obtained from textbooks. After much
xxix
reflection on che subject, I and others resolved co write a textbook co better

prepare our learners for a career in che public sector without engulfing them
in an academic text with too much and too difficult content.
The HR field in South Africa has progressed continuously. During
the nineties, important changes occurred in South Africa. The country
faced its first democratic election, where the previous apartheid National
Party government was replaced with che newly elected democratic ANC-
led government. This resulted in the replacement of many political leaders
in government positions and changes in key positions in the public sector.
Understandably, expectations of transformation were high.
The Mandela government set itself two interrelated tasks in 1994:
reconciliation along with reconstruction, nation-building and development.
Over a relatively short period of time, it transformed rhe entire public
sector, placing a renewed value on the importance of public administration,
particularly the development of human resources. The changeover brought
into play the refrain of ‘international competitiveness' and climaxed with
the implementation of strategic interventions such as the negotiated
Constitution of rhe Republic of South Africa. 1996 (hereafter referred to as
the Constitution) with its comprehensive Bill of Rights, and an entire chapter
dealing with a new set of values and principles for public administration. The
Constitution has stimulated the implementation of major policy changes for
the South African public sector during the nineties with a view to making it
truly representative ofSouth African society.
In the Mandela government's view, HRM in the public sector was over
regulated, too centralised and inadequately suited to society’s needs. Taking on
‘new public management' philosophies (more effective, efficient and responsive
government), the government's vision for the future of HRM included:
• familiarity with technological changes:
• adjustment to globalisation issues;
• international competitiveness;
• deregulation measures;
• acceptance of privatisation;
• application of efficient, effective and economic principles in service
delivery with a
• customer focus;
• employment of strategic management principles;
• modification of management systems to fit a particular public
institution’s culture; and
• transformation of public offices from bureaucratic workstations to
professional advice-givers and consultants.
XXX
Preface
This approach signifies a paradigm change from che traditional model of

public administration that prevailed for most of the last century to new
public management, applying economic theories and provision by markets.
Few readers of this book will disagree that the last few years have brought
fundamental challenges to the South African public sector. The complete
transformation of society, coupled with ‘borderless public service delivery’,
means that South African public sector institutions are faced with external
environmental forces that require change and transformation for the
institution to survive and develop. It is well known that the way in which
we manage the people within our institutions in the public sector holds che
key to managing these forces of change and transformation in today's highly
competitive environment.
These challenges relate to such aspects as managing changing worker
expectations, strategically implementing affirmative action, coping with fast
changing labour legislation, enhancing service delivery, dealing with unions,
contracting out services, and an increasing emphasis on quality, performance,
efficiency and cost-effectiveness. In addition, the public sector is confronted
with such changes as the devolution of managerial responsibility and
accountability, introduction of more participative organisational structures
and less rule-bound cultures, development of more effective computerised
management information systems (the 4:h Industrial Revolt! tion/4IR), green
demands in the workplace and decolonisation challenges.
Preparation and rationale

In preparing this book, our lengthy deliberations with role players in the
field made it evident that we required ideas beyond our own. Many people,
some directly and others indirectly, have contributed to this book. From our
work with members of the DPSA. we gained a special appreciation of the
complexities ofthe locus of HRM challenges. Colleagues in the Public Service
Commission (hereafter referred to as PSC) were also a great source of help.
They provided us with lengthy research reports on contemporary HR issues.
In addition, we consulted extensively with peers in the field, who contributed
invaluable theoretical inputs and added considerable value to the study of
HRM in the broader Public Administration domain. They gave us feedback
from their experience in the HR line of work, including suggestions for new
chapters, new themes and different angles in each chapter.
xxxi
Here are three reasons why this book will help you learn more about the
complex environment of managing people:
1. New chapters expose emerging HR discourses, focusing on important
concerns in the field, including a dynamic and changing environment,
concerns in the developed world, BRICS countries and Africa, challenges
of the 41R, concerns about green issues in the work environment,
managing of people in a decolonised workplace and HR metrics.
2. More than half of the chapters in this book are written by members of
the growing community of HR scholars, offering imaginative insights
into and assessments of the transformation of the field.
3. This book provides for a proper comprehension of HR theories and
practices. The idea is to present the chapters in such a way that the
information is completely contextualised in terms of social, political,
legal and managerial shifts in South African public administration.
What is new?
The authors of this book have extensively z studied recent academic literature
and practitioner data. Invaluable inputs were made by academics who adopted
the 2011 edition at their respective institutions. Moreover, constructive
feedback was received from many people outside the academic community.
The editor has included two new authors who are experts in their fields in
Public Administration. There parts cover the fields of technology (4IR) and
green human resource management which should provide a fresh look at HR
and present the reader with new and relevant information. One of the current
authors will also look at a very relevant theme, namely human resource
management and decolonisation.
To make this book more valuable and interesting, the following structure
was followed:
• The book has been divided into seven parts, each of which has an
introductory section which provides an overview of the chapters allo
cated to that part. The main parts have been presented in a way that
ensures that the information reflects the latest developments in HRM.
• The 'Purpose' and the ‘Learning outcomes’ at the beginning of each
chapter have been re-written to reflect the changed content.
• Abridged chapter overviews are included in the introductory sections.
• Concise chapter reviews appear in the ‘Conclusion’ at the end of each
chapter.
xxxii
Preface
• ‘Self-evaluation questions’ included in each chapter serve as a yardstick

in mastering knowledge of the topics in the chapter.
• Features such as ‘Did you know? and ‘Spotlight on the law’ make
the text more innovative and interesting. Since the Constitution and
related law play such an important role in the management of human
resources, the relevance of court cases has been highlighted.
This book has several distinguishing features. It covers fundamental HR

material such as recruitment, selection, labour relations and dismissal. By
covering a broad spectrum of topics, integrating all of them into the whole
and blending them with a unique South African public sector flavour, we
believe that we will enhance appreciation and understanding of the important
management challenges facing South African public institutions. We do not
aim to be comprehensive and definitive in the ideas introduced here. The
discussion is deliberately selective, emphasising certain major ideas around
the HR function to stress their importance to the responsibilities of both
line-function employees and HR specialists.
PowerPoint slides
A set of PowerPoint slides is accessible for lecturing staff and training officers
to use.
Structure of this book

Part 1: Context and theoretical overview
The two chapters that comprise this part introduce HRM as a field ofstudy from
a general international and national, and a specifically public administration
perspective. The South African public administration environment, which
has an ongoing influence on the HR function, is surveyed. This introductory
part spells out the nature and character of the field and analyses certain
theoretical perspectives.
Part 2: Strategising and planning

The three chapters that comprise this part cover the long-term preparatory
decisions that every senior management team in the South African public
sector has to make. They deal with the principles of strategic HRM in relation
to the overall approaches that enable public officials to make strategic
decisions about workforce planning, technology (41R) and green issues in the
workplace in order to ensure sustainable institutional capacity.
xxxiii
Part 3: Obtaining suitable talent

One chapter in this part deals with equal opportunity, diversity and affirmative
action in government. The other addresses talent management, which is
directed at attracting, deploying, developing, retaining and optimising
talent requirements as identified in the workforce plan to ensure sustainable
institutional performance.
Part 4: Performance and career development

The three chapters that comprise this part cover a wide spectrum of topics,
including appraising and managing work performance, career management
and structuring learning programmes for public officials.
Part 5: Compensating and caring

These two chapters cover rewarding and handling wellness in the public
workplace.
Part 6: Employment relations

In the two chapters of which this part consists, special attention is devoted to
managing employment relations and the termination of the services of public
employees.
Part 7: Future of human resource management

This part, comprising three chapters, focuses on the dynamic and changing
work environment within which public employees need to be managed. HRM
in the developed world, BRICS countries and Africa, decolonisation and HR
governance (metrics).
How to use this book

We have attempted to make this textbook user friendly both as the main
resource in an HR course or as an accompanying text. We hope that you, the
reader, can comprehend its content without difficulty and make use of it. The
following are some pointers to help you to make the most of the encounter:
• Have a quick look at the table of contents to get a sense of what is
covered in the book.
xxxiv
Preface
• If you see a chapter that interests you, turn to that page and take a look
at the ‘Purpose’ and the Learning outcomes’ at the beginning of the
chapter to get an understanding of what the chapter contains.
• Divide your time carefully and do not try to read too much at one time.
You could try reading one chapter a week to come to terms with the
content.
• Pay particular attention to the ‘Did you know?’, ‘Focus on research’ and
‘Spotlight on the law’ features in each chapter. They give you an insight
into the integrative nature of the material that you read and a fresh
understanding of the topics that are covered.
• Write down comments you might have in the empty spaces on the
page or in a notebook. When you have the tune, ask a person who is
knowledgeable in the field to clarify the information for you. or bring
your questions to your study group for discussion.
XXXV
A working day in the life of a human resource manager
in the public sector
Collins Maimane is Chief Director of Programme 2: Human Resource

Management and Development in Government in the Department of
Public Service and Administration (DPSA) in Tshwane. The main tasks and
responsibilities of this programme include activities such as the research,
monitor, and evaluation of policies through a persuasive research agenda
for broader public administration discourse and reforms. It aims to equip
government departments with tools and skills in the following specific sub
programmes of HRM policy: (1) Knowledge management. (2) Integrated
public administration reform. (3) Transformation management policies,
practices and frameworks. (4) Guidelines on methodology and techniques
for research reports. (5) Integrated access on norms and mechanisms for
information systems and population segmentation. (6) Institutional capacity
and functionality assessments. (7) Productivity and efficiency studies.
(8) Transversal monitoring and evaluation of public service systems.
Collins is caught up in some of the biggest HR challenges, brought about by

changing the HR office from a narrowly demarcated administrative function
into a more people-oriented and highly digitalised one with significant
and considerable changes in the public sector workplace. His office life is
complicated by a rapidly diversifying workforce (for example. Generation
Y’s, and fewer fulltime employees), an endless changing legal and regulatory
framework, declining budgets, deteriorating confidence in public service
delivery, demands for productivity improvement, artificial intelligence (Al),
robotisation and automation and an unstable environment.
06:00 Another Monday morning for Collins and his family. He looks
into his briefcase and finds a report recently released by Price Waterhouse
and Cooper entitled The way we work - m 2025 and beyond, which he read
the previous evening. The report outlines a completely new workplace of
transformation not just in 2025, but also today. It is clear from the report
that factors such as digitisation and demographics, talent management,
compensation and benefits, mobility and culture will radically influence the
workplace. The report focuses on five main pillars of transformation, namely:
(1) Digitisation: Apps and technology platforms (applications on smart devices
and cloud solutions), robotisation and automation (virtual applications
taking over formerly human-led work - Twitter, Facebook and iPhones),
xxxvi
A working day in the life of a human resource manager in the public sector
machine learning (advanced level of Al machines reaching themselves with

multi-layered algorithms). (2) Demographic changes: (aging population,
more women joining the labour market, more talent from Asia and Africa,
more younger workers entering the workplace - Generation Y and Z - with
new expectations). (3) Talent management: Flexible work environment and
career paths (workers designing their own jobs, increase in part-time workers
and outsourcing, contingency workers and managing employees working for
multiple employers not for just one employer at a time). (4) Compensation
and benefits: Lifestyle incentives becoming more important (HRM will need a
deeper understanding of employees’ lives and needs, appraisals progressively
more based on qualitative and not just quantitative results, move away
from individual to team performance, new financial incentives culture of
performance. (5) Culture and change: Digitisation is the most important driver
for change in the culture of an institution, acceptance of a ‘failure culture’
approach as a consequence of risk-taking, uncertainty is accepted as a given.
Collins glances at a newspaper report on an enquiry by a member of the public

regarding poor services delivered by a certain state department. He decides (in
light of the initiative created by the Office of the President for more responsive
government) to report this incident to one of the public liaison officers on
the Presidential hotline. The paper reports that the Director-General of the
DPSA has rejected demands from employees for salary increases. The trade
unions, in turn, are reluctant to endorse the Director-General’s proposals
for re-inventing and re-engineering plans. The newspaper also contains
a story on a lawsuit filed against a male manager in the Department for
sexual harassment. The DPSA’s training section has held training sessions
throughout the 2020 financial year to provide guidelines in such cases. This
has definitely helped to reduce the Department s legal exposure.
07:00 Collins arrives at work after dropping off his two daughters at
school. His wife, who works at the City of Tshwane as a financial consultant,
is on a three-day strategic planning session and was not able to transport
the children this morning. Since they are a dual-career couple, he finds the
conversation in the Department’s parking area very interesting. There are
other staff members in the same situation who feel the need for on-site
child-care facilities and more flexible working conditions. One of the staff
members remarks that if the Department had such facilities it would be more
competitive in its recruitment efforts.
Arriving at his office, Collins switches on the computer to check the weather
in Cape Town. He will be flying down to Cape Town tonight, where he has
xxxvii
co appear before che Parliamentary Portfolio Committee on Public Service

and Administration in the National Assembly to answer questions about HR.
matters in the DPSA. After getting settled, he requests his administrative
assistant, Judy Botha, to do the following:
• Pick up the air tickets, hotel accommodation reservations and vehicle
reservations at Jabulani Travel Agency, the DPSA’s on-site travel agency.
• Make an appointment with Quick Tyres so chat his car can be fitted
with new tyres while he is in Cape Town.
• Forward the minutes of last Thursday’s meeting with the South African
Board for People Practices to all four of the directors in the H R office by
e-mail with a request to comment on the HR metrics standards for sick
leave proposed by the Board.
• Make sure that a copy of the Guide for Employment Equity Compliance
in the Public Service is scanned and sent to his laptop and tablet. Send
a copy to Martha Nkwali, head of the Affirmative Action section, and
arrange a meeting between himself and Martha for next Thursday to
discuss strategies for gathering data foi the next meeting with the
Governance and Administration Cluster on 18 March in Johannesburg.
08:00 - Staff meeting with Judy. They discuss the new office rules that have to
be compiled, a delegation of powers manual that has to be finalised and Judy’s
performance appraisal, which needs to be finalised and uploaded in electronic
format on rhe HR system. He asks Judy to go through his e-mail messages and
scan those relating to the week's activities. He will work through these on the
plane to Cape Town.
08:45 Starts preparing a speech to be delivered at the Public Service Month

event in Polokwane on 15 June. This is a regular national event that mirrors
UN and Africa Public Service days and requires all national and provincial
departments to participate by putting in place activities and campaigns to
improve service delivery.
10:30 Creates a PowerPoint presentation on the effects of the Service Charter.

This Service Charter is a social contract emphasising the commitment and
agreement between the state and public servants to service delivery. Collins
should address the executive of the National School of Government (hereafter
referred to as NSG) on how the DPSA will manage service matters in future
- within the boundaries set by the Operations Management Framework
(hereafter referred to as OMF).
xxxviii
11:00 - Meets with the unions to discuss che implementation of

Resolution 1 of 2015 of the Public Service Co-ordinating Bargaining Council,
signed on 10 February. The resolution deals with existing outsourcing and
agentisation practices in the public service and an independent impact study
on the principles of decent work.
12:00 Discusses with the Director-General and chief directors implementing

the newly developed talent management plan for 2020 in the Department.
13:00 - Lunch in the staff canteen with legal counsel on the status of
the pending lawsuits and sexual harassment charges against one of his
subordinates. Meets Patrick Buthelezi, chairperson of the Social Club, on the
way out of the canteen. Patrick reminds him that they have to sort out the
matter of members’ contributions.
14:00 - Skype session with the programme director of the Centre for Public
Service Innovation to plan for strategies to unlock innovation in the public
sector and create an enabling environment for improved and innovative
service delivery. One of the objectives of the session is to create at least two
research and development projects per annum.
14:30 Meets with university contractors on the content of management

development programmes for senior managers of the governance programme
in North-West. A strategic training intervention is identified to develop and
implement capacity-building programmes to fight corruption and improve
ethical conduct by April 2021.
15:00 Listens to the Governance and Administration Cluster media briefing

via video link to the Media Centre in Tshedimosetso House in Pretoria
regarding the 2020 State of the Nation Address by the President, which
mentions important strategies regarding the strengthening of HR capacity
in the public sector.
16:00 Chairs a meeting with heads of department of the Department of

Correctional Servicesand the Department of Home Affairs regarding progress
in the implementation of the Eight-Principle Action Plan for Women’s
Empowerment and Gender Equality.
17:00 - Collects a car at the Avis carport and departs for OR Tainbo
International Airport. Confirms arrangements to have his daughters picked
up at the day-care centre and taken to his parents. Quickly updates his
Facebook profile and makes an online payment to settle an outstanding
plumber’s account.
xxxix
As Collins settled into his seat on flight SA317, he could not help but think
about his challenging and exciting job and career. He thought about the
importance of constitutional rights in the public sector workplace and the
new ways of working that this implied for example, the right of public sector
employees to privacy, which applies to issues such as alcohol and drug testing,
pre-employment background checks and religious freedom. The emerging
virtual public sector workplace (digital transformation) means that some
traditional nine-to-five workplaces with fixed central office locations are
replaced with more flexible working arrangements, such as telecommuting
and contract labour. In addition, cultural diversity, a worldwide phenomenon,
requires particular sensitivity towards one another in the workplace. The
South African public sector workforce is more diverse and more representative
of the nation’s demographics than ever before.
Although Collins has a busy day, structured around different meetings,
he tries to arrange for time each day to consider long-range strategies. These
include the implementation of policy guidelines spelled out in the:
• Guide for Members of the Executive dated 20 November 2019 which
provides a guide forbenefits, tools of trade and allowances to which
Members and their families are entitled, in the execution of a Member’s
duties;
• Generic Management Plan for Early Retirement issued by the Depart
ment of National
• Treasury.
• Guidelines published by the eDisclosure Resource Centre regarding
the disclosure of financial interests by Senior Management Service
members and Heads of Departments HOD’s.
• Policy and Procedures Manual on the Management of Sexual Harass
ment in the Public Service.
• Guide for Public Managers on Whistle Blowing: Promoting Public
Accountability.
xl
Data and information for the above scenario (working day)

are mainly derived from the following source references:
Republic of South Africa. 2019. About the Department of Public Service
and Administration: Programme 2: Human Resource Management
and Development in Government. Department of Public Service and
Administration. [http://www.dpsa.gov.za/about/publicatiionsl (Accessed
26 December 2019).
Republic ofSouth Africa. 2019. About the Department of Public Service and
Administration: Organisation design and macro organising. Department of
Public Service and Administration, [http://www.dpsa.gov.za/about/publi-
cations] (Accessed 26 December 2019).
Republic of South Africa. 2019. Documents: Department of Public Service

and Administration. Service Charter. Department of Public Service and
Administration, [http://www.dpsa.gov.za/documents/publications] (Accessed
25 February 2020).
Price Waterhouse and Cooper. The way we work - in 2025 and beyond. HR today:
Know-how for tomorrow, (http:, www.pwc.ch future of work-survey/2019/
pdf) (Accessed 25 November 2019).
Simms, M, Holgate, J & Roper, C. 2019. The trades union congress 150 years
on: A review of the organising challenges and responses to the changing
nature of work. Employee Relations 41(2): 331-343.
Van der Wai, Zeger. 2017. The 21 century public manager: Challenges, people and
strategies. London: Palgrave.
Xli
Acknowledgements and thanks
This textbook would not exist without its editor and its authors, as well as
those people who have provided critical responses to the work. Human Resource
Management in Government: A south African Perspective on theories, politics and
processes has facilitated a long overdue exchange of ideas. Many have found
our original approach to the field difficult, a challenge that indicates where
more dialogue needs to take place. We have included a wide range of authors
from various tertiary institutions and have taken a broader look at the field of
HRM, including the BRICS countries, a more intense focus on Africa, 41R, the
green workplace and decolonisation. Each author gave continued dedication
to the project as well as immediate input when needed. Thanks go to them all.
1 also extend my thanks and appreciation to colleagues and friends at the
Department of Public Administration and Management at Unisa, who were
of great help during the project. I trust that we have correctly reflected the
content of the HR function as it was clarified during our many conversations.
There are other contributions, personal and close at hand. This book
would never have been possible without the omnipresent assistance, backing,
understanding and inspiration of our publisher. Juta. Here 1 want co single
out Jayde Butler, Melissa Toenen and Valencia Wyngaard-Arenz. Their
comprehension of the field, its history and variety are remarkable. Their views
on what this project should look like were exceedingly helpful. Whenever we
encountered difficulties, Jayde and Melissa were there with advice, kindness
and a sense of fun. Others have also contributed in a special way and provided
balance along the road. Finally, thanks go to our families who kept it all
together for us and, above all, to our Heavenly Father for His guidance.
It is now up to you as the reader to use this book well. Enjoy it! 1 hope
that you become skilled in the different facets of HRM and that the learning
encounter is packed with new understanding of your area of interest and
will help to build your own capacity. Feedback on the content of the book,
including what you like and do not like, and suggestions for changes are very
welcome. You can reach me through e-mail (vdwescj(Punisa.ac.za).
As editor, 1 take full responsibility for the oversights and faults in this
book. 1 apologise for difficulties that may have arisen because of these errors.
We have tried to eliminate them as far as is humanly possible.

Unisa
2021
xlii
Acronyms and abbreviations
AA Affirmative Action
AMO Ability ♦ Motivation + Opportunity
ART Anti re t rovi ra 1 Trea t men t
ASSADPAM Association of Southern African Schools and
Departments of Public Administration and Management
ATRCAD African Training and Research Centre in Administration
for Development
AU African Union
BEE Black Economic Empowerment
BRICS Brazil, Russia. India, China and South Africa
CC Constitutional Court
CCMA Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration
CCMS Complaints or Compliments Management Systems
CCOHS Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety
CCP Chinese Communist Partv
CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CHE Council on Higher Education
CH RO Chief Human Resource Officer
CIPD Chartered Institute of Personnel Development
CSF Critical Success Factor
DG Director General
DDG Deputy Director General
DoL Department of Labour
DPSA Department of Public Service and Administration
DST Department of Science and Technology
E&D Equality and Diversity
EAP Employee Assistance Programme
EAPASA Employee Assistance Professionals Association
of South Africa
EAS Employee Assistance Services
EEO Equal Employment Opportunity
EEOC Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
EPA Engineering Profession /\ct
EDI Foreign Direct Investment
FTE Full Time Equivalent
GAO Government Accountability Office (US)
GDLN Global Distance Learning Network
GEAR Growth. Employment and Redistribution
xliii
GOA Government of Alberta

GRC Governance, Risk and Compliance
HDI Human Development Index
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HEQC Higher Education Quality Committee
HR Human Resource
HRC Human Rights Council (UN)
HRD Human Resource Development
HRM Human Resource Management
IBSA India-Brazil-South Africa
ICT Information and Communications Technology
1DP Integrated Development Plans
HE Institute for International Education
1LO International Labour Organisation
I PM Institute of People Management
1RASA Industrial Relations Association of South Africa
1OD Institute of Directors in South Africa
KPA Key Performance Area
KS1 Key Strategic Issue
LCA Labour Court of Appeal
LRA Labour Relations Act
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MDR-TB Multi-Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis
MNC Multi-National Corporation
MOOC Massive Open Online Courses
MPSA Ministry of Public Service and Administration
MTSF Medium-Term Strategic Framework
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
NDP National Development Plan
NEDLAC National Economic Development and Labour Council
NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development
NISPAcee Network of Institutes and Schools of Public
Administration in Central and Eastern Europe
NPM New Public Management
NQF National Qualifications Framework
NRF National Research Foundation
NSG National School of Government
NSP National Strategic Plan
ODL Open Distance Learning
xliv
Acronyms and abbreviations
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

Development
OER Open Education Resources
OHSA Occupational Health and Safety Act
PA Public Administration (Chapter 2) or Performance
Appraisal (Chapter 7)
PALAMA Public Administration Leadership and Management
Academy
PDA Protected Disclosure Act
PERSAL Personnel and Salaries (management system)
PEST Political, Economic, Social and Technological
PM Performance Management
PMC Performance Management Committee
PM DS Performance Management and Development System
PRI Performance-Related I ncentive
PSA Public Service Act
PSC Public Service Commission
PSCBC Public Service Co-ordinating Bargaining Council
PSETA Public Service Sector Education and Training Authority
PSM Public Service Motivation
PSM EP Public Service Management and Employment Policy
PSR Public Service Regulations
PSTI Public Service Training Institute
RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme
SAA South African Airways
SAAPAM South African Association of Public Administration and
Management
SABPP South African Board for People Practices
SAMDI South African Management Development Institute
SAN AC South African National AIDS Council
SA NASS South African National Association of Suggestion Systems
SAQA South African Qualifications Authority
SA RS South African Revenue Services
SASSA South African Social Security Agency
SBS Sick Building Syndrome
SCA Supreme Court of Appeal
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SETA Sector Education and Training Authority
SHERQ Safety. Health. Environment, Risk and Quality
Management
Xlv
SHRM Strategic Human Resource Management

SMS Senior Management Service
STI Sexually Transmitted Infection
SOE State-Owned Enterprise
TB Tuberculosis
TBVC Transkei, Bophutatswana, Venda and Ciskei
TEC Transitional Executive Council
TETA Transport Sector Education and Training Authority
UN United Nanons
UNAIDS United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS
UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation
UNPAN United Nations Public Administration Network
VET Vocational Education and Training
WBI Workplace Bullying Institute
WHO World Health Organisation
WSDL1 Washington State Department of Labor and Industries
XDR-TB Extensively-Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis
xlvi
Part 1
Context and theoretical overview
The manner in which the subordinates do their work has incontestably a
great effect upon the ultimate result, but the operation ofmanagement has
much greater effect.
Henri Fayol
Adults generally have to engage in some form of work to earn a living. Most
do so as personnel, staff, workers, employees in other words, the human
resources of an institution. A public institution is one type of institution in
which 'human resources’ supply labour (knowledge, skills and energy). Because
the government provides multiple public services, enforces laws and regulations
and is involved in many court decisions, the public sector may be classified as a
labour-intensive sector. How well it operates depends principally on the quality
of its human resources and the way in which the various institutions manage
the knowledge, skills, attitudes and talents of those they employ. Research has
proved that the successful management of human resources and the success of
an institution have a distinctly positive relationship.
Human resource management (HRM) in a public sector context is a stimu

lating and thought-provoking field of study. This book aims to provide data
and information on state-of-the-art theory and practice of HRM from a South
African public administration perspective. It aims to facilitate learning about
the management of people in relation to their work and the institutions for
which they work in the South African public sector.
Part 1 comprises two chapters in which we seek a clear understanding of the

political, institutional, ethical, historical and theoretical aspects of HRM
in the public sector. We examine the factors that distinguish the discipline
from others, in other words, the HRM public sector milieu. We also examine
theoretical perspectives underpinning the discipline from a national and
international perspective. Above all, we emphasise the management context.
In this regard, we aim to familiarise you with management tasks and skills
and how they relate to human resource (HR) practices.
The HR function in the public sector is characterised by a pursuit of the

democratic values and principles (or outcomes) stated in Section 195(1) of the
Constitution and the White Paper on Human Resource Management in the
Public Service of 1997 (Chapter 2). Almost every activity of a public manager is
influenced by the values and principles described in these documents. In your
daily work at public offices, you are obligated to synchronise these values and
principles with tasks, skills and practices in response to the public interest.
Since the HR function renders a service to other employees in the institution
and not directly to the public, this may at first sound rather abstract and may
appear to be a particularly complex approach.
Chapter
1 General introduction
Purpose
This chapter provides a broad overview of human resource management
(HRM) so that the reader may have a better insight into the nature and
content of this field of study.
Learning outcomes
After you have read this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe and discuss the concept of HRM in the public sector.
• Describe HRM’s management perspective.
• Explain that HRM extends to the public sector and its ‘public*
dimension requires specific skills and competencies.
• Consider the key role that resources play in an institution to guide the
human resource (HR) function optimally.
• Show that HRM is the strategic part ofthe tripartite division of
responsibilities between executive political managers, line-function
employees, and HR specialists.
• Analyse the basic ethical principles of HRM.
• Delineate institutional roles and sketch structural arrangements.
• Outline the scope of the integrated HRM process that comprises four
main activities:
1. key functions and practices;
2. management tasks;
3. additional management skills; and
4. specific outcomes.
1.1 Introduction
More than one million people are employed by the different public institutions
in South Africa. The question that arises immediately is what criteria to
use to recruit, select and pay them. All these activities require the skills and
competencies of people managing the HR function.
The quality of our lives rests in no insignificant part on the public services
that governments deliver. From sweeping our streets and safeguarding us
against our enemies to exploring outer space, government programmes work
for the promotion of the public interest in countless ways. In the ultimate
analysis, however, these services are not offered by machines but by employed
public servants. Human beings, not machines, ensure that streets are dirt
free and driver’s licences are issued. It is no overstatement to say that our
public servants represent an admirable group of people. The nation's ability
to achieve success through effective public service delivery depends on the
quality of the public servants it appoints.
This chapter presents an overview of the fundamentals of HRM and describes

state-of-the-art theory and practice from the perspective of the South African
public sector.
1.2 Meaning of human resource management in the

public sector context
HRM began to develop as an area of personnel practice and a field of study
towards the beginning of the 1900s. During these early years, the concept
of personnel administration as a group of administrative tasks executed by
trained specialists was established. The scope of these tasks rapidly developed
beyond employment testing and selection to include activities such as job
classification and compensation administration. Concentrating narrowly
on personnel administration can, however, very easily cause a separation
between the general management of people and personnel administration.
The problems challenging governments today require a more comprehensive
and strategic perspective. In reality, personnel administration refers to an
expansive range of activities performed jointly by political managers, HR
specialists and line-function staff with the strategic objectives of the public
sector in mind.
There are different opinions regarding the meaning of HRM. In this book,
HRM as a field of study, theory and practice is taken to be that part of
4
Chapter 1: General introduction
management concerned with the factors, decisions, principles, strategies,

operations, practices, functions, activities, methods, processes and procedures
related to employees in public institutions, and to the dimensions related to
employment relationships and the dynamics that flow from them. This is all
aimed at ensuring the continuing success of public institutions through ‘good
fit’ employment relationships in turbulent and ever-changing environmental
conditions. Clearly, this perspective regards employees as key assets and their
empowerment through job security, personal growth, career advancement
and fair treatment as key to success.
1.3 Management perspective

The public sector worldwide is under increasing pressure to demonstrate
success in terms of service delivery, institutional performance and effectively
promoting the public interest. That public institutions are non-profit
institutions does not mean that they do not fulfil a particular role and
therefore do not need to exist. All public institutions consist of people who
are supposed to interact continuously in an endeavour to achieve certain
institutional goals by serving a particular need in society (Denhardt,
Denhardt & Aristigueta. 2013: 203-204). For this reason, HRM in the public
sector should also strive towards success. Success, in this context, means
doing the right things (being effective) in the right way (being efficient) and
at the lowest cost possible (being economical). The ‘right things’ refer to the
specific services that a particular HR office provides; the ‘right way' means
that all the stakeholders are satisfied, and the ‘lowest cost’ implies that the
HR office has a duty to deliver services at an affordable rate.
By taking on the developmental form of state with a link to democratic

constitutionalism, the South African government has added two further
criteria to measuring success in the public sector, namely development (being
instrumental in accelerating developmental priorities) and constitutionalism
(understanding constitutional values). Public employees working in a
developmental environment play a unique role in the state. As agents of
development they should act as creators, delegates, decision-makers, advisors
and mentors to ensure that success is stimulated, service delivery levels are
advanced and the lives of people are improved. Public administrators must
also understand the effect of constitutional values and apply them in the
execution of their daily tasks. For example, the Constitution places great
emphasis on employment equity. If a transgression occurs, public employers
will be tested in the courts on how this particular value has been applied in
5
the workplace. An example of the application of the HRM outcome ‘equity’

in the workplace is shown below in ‘Spotlight on the law 1.1’. This court case
concerned a dismissal for misconduct and incapacity, unfair treatment of an
employee and unrealistic operational targets.
SPOTLIGHT ON THE LAW 1.1
Poor work performance
Background
Damelin dismissed Mr Parkinson for not successfully achieving the
stipulated enrolment targets at the campus where he was employed. He
was of the view that his dismissal was unfair because the set targets by the
employer were unrealistic.
Decisions
However, a Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration
(CCMA) commissioner held that the dismissal was procedurally and
substantively fair. However, the Labour Court, on review, set aside the
CCMA award and reinstated Parkinson. In response, Damelin appealed.
In Damelin (Pty) Ltd v Solidarity obo Parkinson and Others (2017) 38 ILJ
872 (Labour Appeal Court - LAC) the court held that despite the fact
that Damelin’s argument was premised on a dismissal of Parkinson for
misconduct, the appeal had to be based on the principles of dismissal for
poor work performance. This implies that the commissioner had to take
into account whether Parkinson failed to meet a performance standard
and, if not, whether he was familiar with the standard set by the employer.
The LAC also questioned if he had been given a reasonable opportunity
to meet the targets of the employer. Parkinson had insisted that the
‘catchment area’ for prospective students had decreased because the
appellant had opened another campus adjacent to the current campus.
The LAC further held that because the enrolment targets had been lowered,
it is an indication that they were unrealistic and that Parkinson had also
been given too short a time to achieve the targets. The LAC consequently
dismissed the appeal with costs.
Source: Grogan. Mascrumulc & Govindjec (2017: 53-54)
Success can be measured in different ways. After experimenting with a range

of methods, comprising monetary measurements, scorecards and the matrix
method, it was decided that the matrix approach denotes the most suitable
6
and easy-to-understand approach in the public sector environment. The

matrix method considers quantity’ and ‘quality measurements as critical
in measuring success. To identify concrete targets for the institution and to
determine the cause-effect relationship between different factors, there must
be detailed information available on those factors affecting success.
Furthermore, factors such as demand frequency (whether daily or occasional);

the capacity of the facility; and the competencies of the public servants
(capability, attitude and skills) influence the quantity of a service. Quality
measures for public services, on the other hand, may include both tangible and
intangible elements, of which the most general istheSERVQUAL model and its
dimensions: reliability, tangibility, responsiveness and empathy (Gbadamosi
& De Jager, 2009: 880). Supplementary factors associated with service quality
include, for example, consultation with citizens, queue management systems,
process flow and ergonomics.
HR managers play an important role in ensuring that measurements are

put into practice. For this reason, the Department of Public Service and
Administration (DPSA) has categorised the hierarchy of a large service
delivery institution in three managerial levels, namely: operational (first-line
supervisors and junior managers), tactical (middle managers) and strategic
(senior managers). A Director General (DG) heads each institution. The other
management positions are Deputy Director General (DDG), Chief Director,
Director, Deputy Director and Assistant Director. The strategic level is
referred to as the Senior Management Service (SMS) and was implemented in
2001. SMS refers to DGs, DDGs, Chief Directors and Directors (Republic of
South Africa, 2001).
1.4 Public dimension

HRM’s ‘public’ dimension is unique and HRM in a public, as opposed to a
private context, remains a distinct field of study. The literature often describes
public employees as performing their duties in a goldfish bowl, meaning that
they operate in the public eye. What does it mean to work in the public eye
like this? The Constitution outlines the public extent of HRM and separates
its control from state power. It places HRM in public institutions under three
masters: the legislature, judiciary, and executive. This implies that three
different constitutional actors, with dissimilar purposes, are drawn into
HRM activities. The result may be discouraging.
7
South Africans have become used to the idea of the legislature having the
constitutional authority to manage public institutions by, for example,
establishing their budgets and staff procedures. The judiciary also often
applies significant power and control over HRM in public institutions.
Judicial review of public institutions is so wide-ranging that the courts
and public employees are now commonly considered partners. The scope of
legislative and judicial authority leaves junior managers, middle managers,
and senior managers with only limited control over the executive branch of
their operations. In short, constitutional concerns play an important part in
emphasising the ‘public’ aspect of HRM.
Aditionally, operating in the public eye is accentuated by the governmental

obligation to promote the public interest; in a moral sense, government must
serve ‘a higher purpose'. HR specialists are responsible for using the interests
of the citizens they serve as a general guideline. Various regulations have been
promulgated over the years in an attempt to make certain that those using
public power will not use it for their own benefit. All governments are concerned
with the political behaviours of state employees and many order constraints on
the political behaviours of employees (Denhardt & Denhardt. 2015: 71).
Finally, in keeping with the sovereignty principle, employment in the public

sector is to be regarded as a public trust. As subordinates (servants) of the
sovereign people, public administrators are a decisive source of political
power and authority. Sovereignty involves domination and, by implication,
the authority to legitimately use force in society (Rosenbloom, Kravchuk
& Clerkin, 2015: 11-12). Today it is largely acknowledged that public
administrators have a justifiable role in all phases of the public policy cycle.
Participation in public policy makes their role far more significant, further
highlighting that their actions take place in the public eye.
1.5 Resources
Reliable resource management is critical if public institutions are to comply
with t heir large-scale objectives. They need to assess their resource management
practices and make best use ofthe latest data on the consumption of resources.
Given the enormous quantities of resources absorbed in governmental
programmes, even a moderate advance in efficiency could result in significant
cost savings.
In any given situation, a public manager has four basic resources at his or
her disposal in successfully executing the HR function. These resources are
roughly classifiable (Shafritz, Russel & Bonck, 2014: 37) as:
• financial: salaries, wages and petty cash funds;
• physical: buildings, lecture rooms, computers, cell phones, tables and
chairs;
• informational: annual reports, research reports, data on survey
questionnaires, postal records, leave records, remuneration systems,
HR planning systems, service records, training records, statutes,
regulations and instruction codes; and
• human: human resource managers, line-function personnel, admini
strative personnel and other HR specialists.
An important responsibility facing the HR manager is to ensure that these

resources are utilised optimally. Human resources probably play a larger and
more strategic role than the other resources because managers in any public
institution have to make decisions on how to utilise the other resources.
However, there is a tendency to believe that capital expenditure is the
most important cost item on the budget and merits increased government
investment and a greater focus on financial resources. This is discouraging for
the employment of public servants. If employees are recognised as a cost item
on the budget and not an indispensable element, an employment strategy can
become little more than cost-cutting and maintaining salaries at the lowest
level possible.
It does not require complex analysis to show that a public institution's capacity
to deliver quality services in a manner that enhances positive attitudes in
the public rests on the level of skill and dedication of its employees. The
concluding phases of service delivery are in the hands of individual employees
who are in direct contact with the public and frequently work out their own
judgements and ideas with minor upfront supervision.
DID YOU KNOW?

The average manager has less than 6.5 hours per week of uninterrupted
time to get work done.
Source: Moolman & Mankins (2016: 6)
9
1.6 Human resource management as a specific

responsibility
The terminology used co refer co government systems is sometimes unclear.
A ‘government system' signifies a state body in which full-time, compensated
bureaucrats work within a structure of distinct hierarchical relations, with
suitable provision of detailed service benefits. The system used in a particular
country is expressed mainly by the laws and regulations that govern
employment and can be organised on either a patronage or merit basis to
assign responsibilities.
Patronage systems are composed of political appointees and career public

servants. Although che entire system is operated primarily based on merit,
senior managers are appointed on the basis of patronage. This means that
political or personal networks rather chan formal qualifications determine
their employment responsibilities.
A merit system is ruled by procedures intended to guard and advance

principles ensuring responsibility. These merit principles include open
competition for jobs, selection based on formal qualifications, political
neutrality and protection from subjective treatment.
The choice of a system has an obvious effect on responsibility, accountability,

and responsiveness. In accordance with Section 7(3)(b) of the Public Service
Act 103 of 1994 (PSA) (Republic of South Africa, 1994), HR managers are
responsible for the efficient management and administration of public
institutions, including the effective utilisation and training of staff,
maintenance of discipline and promotion of sound labour relations. A further
piece of legislation that deals with responsible and accountable HRM is the
Public Finance Management Act 1 of 1999 (as amended by Act 29 of 1999)
(Republic ofSouth Africa, 1999). This particular Act promotes good financial
management in order to maximise service delivery through the effective and
efficient use of resources. Two key objectives of the Act are:
1. to enable public managers to manage but at the same tune be held
accountable; and
2. to eliminate waste and corruption in the utilisation of public assets.
These two Acts make provision for responsible, accountable, and responsive
action in the public sector.
The responsibility issue is further emphasised in the White Paper on

Human Resource Management in the Public Service of 1997 (Republic of
10
South Africa, 1997). This White Paper explicitly states that HRM will no
longer be the sole responsibility of HR specialists but, rather, the dual
responsibility of HR specialists and other public managers. Because HRM
takes place in the public domain, one can add another role player here, namely
political managers. Briefly, this involves a division of responsibilities between
executive political heads (political managers), line-function employees
(mostly managers) and HR specialists (including HR managers).
Political managers keep an eye on the implementation of government policies

and programmes in every sphere of government. They head government
programmes and are accountable to the voters as well as the legislatures for the
work done by government, including HR work. Senior H R specialists produce
departmental plans and budgets as well as annual reports to the legislature.
They have to liaise closely with heads of departments (HODs) and give overall
direction to the HR work of a department, mainly at a strategic level. They
further have to account for the performance of the department generally and
on how responsive employees have been in the execution of plans.
It is essential to appreciate the difference between this political role and the
managerial role of HODs. who are officially accountable for things such as
spending, procurement, contracts and staff employment. Politicians should
never micro-manage the work ofdivisions within the department. At the senior
management level, politicians tend to be more involved in appointments since
they are held accountable for the performance of the institution. Checks and
balances exist to ensure that nepotism and corruption are prevented; these
mechanisms are usually concealed in legislation. The Code of Conduct for
the Public Service further guides the relationship between politicians and
managers (see section 1.7 below).
Although public service systems may be organised in any number of ways,

they usually tend to follow the policy-making model, the commission model,
or the executive HR office model. These structural arrangements have been
agreed to for the purpose of governing the merit system in a responsible and
accountable way.
• The policy-making model makes provision for the allocation of policy-
making responsibilities to the DPSA. The DPSA is also responsible for
ensuring that HR policies are implemented successfully. It plays a major policy
role in establishing norms and standards for the public service. In terms of
the PSA, the Minister of Public Service and Administration is responsible for
establishing norms and standards relating to, for example, the functions of
the public service and to integrity, ethics, conduct and corruption.
11
• The commission model provides for a Public Service Commission (PSC),

the responsibilities of which are presented in Section 196 of the Constitution.
According to the Constitution, the PSC is responsible for investigating,
monitoring and evaluating the HR practices of the public service. This
responsibility essentially involves a so-called watchdog role.
• The executive HR office model embraces the important role which line
function staff and HR specialists play and. in a sense, could be referred
to as a line/staff partnership. For this partnership to be effective, line
function employees and HR specialists must work together strategically
to realise the central purposes of government. The responsibilities of line
function managers may include, among others:
■ establishing of job qualifications:
■ selecting and orienting new employees; and
■ interpreting and executing HR policies and regulations.
The HR specialist may be responsible for, among others:
■ drafting HR policies for consideration by upper management (in our
case, the DPSA);
■ consulting with line-function employees about compliance with HR
laws, regulations and other instructions; and
■ providing routine HR services (for example, screening of job applicants,
negotiating collective agreements, and administering pay and benefit
programmes).
1.7 Ethics
Public administrators may be regarded as the ‘custodians’ of the modern-
day administrative state. But this raises an important question in political
philosophy: ‘Who watches the custodians?’ HR specialists must be held
accountable for their actions if they are to uphold the public interest. Like any
rational social entity, public employees have identifiable behavioural patterns
that involve compliance with a specific set of rules or values. In the public
sector, ethical norms are usually entrenched in Acts, regulations, office rules
or a code of conduct to which the individual must subscribe when employed.
The foundation of these ethical codes is to be found in the values of the
broader society and differs from group to group.
In simple terms, ethics is the branch of moral philosophy that involves

regulating the concepts of what is considered right and wrong conduct
(Denhardt & Denhardt, 2015: 133-135). HR managers have a challenging
12
cask in this regard. They muse make subjective judgements on a daily basis in
dealing with specific ethical issues. For instance, they may be instructed by a
higher authority to terminate the services of a public health nurse for refusing
on religious grounds to supply condoms or birth control pills to unmarried
individuals, or ordered to reprimand a military officer for publicly disputing
a ban on gay, lesbian, or bisexual persons in military service.
Ethics may be considered a form of self-accountability or an ‘inner check’.

However, self-regulation is not sufficient; the risks are too high. A variety of
external checks have been implemented over che years co control che actions
of public sector employees. Many governments seek to establish high levels
of professionalism ro ensure that the ‘custodians guard themselves. Many
methods are available co create a sense of professionalism among public
employees, including a code of ethics or a code of conduct, which lays down
procedures and rules for the behaviour of employees.
A code of ethics delineates an institution’s basic values, ideals and principles. A

code of conduct is a longer document that is very specific in setting guidelines
prohibiting certain behaviours and. as a result, is easier to administer.
In essence, a code of ethics is a value-based document, while a code of
conduct is a rule-based document. Such codes should, preferably, be brief,
concise, and well defined and should offer practical guidance to managers
in dealing appropriately with ethical problems. Directorships in companies,
partnerships, board memberships, gift-giving/receiving, remunerated
work outside the public sector, consultancies, contractor relations, sexual
harassment, political activity and relations between stakeholders are
standard items that might be specified in a code of conduct and declared by
employees. There are a few initiatives in South Africa that assist in developing
an ethically responsible society. One of these is the Ethics Institute of South
Africa (Ethics SA), a non-profit public-benefit institution that offers training
on a variety of ethics-related themes and publishes research results collected
through surveys.
A code of conduct has been implemented for the public service as a guideline
for what is expected of employees from an ethical point of view, both in their
own conduct and in their relationship with others. Compliance with the
code can be expected to enhance professionalism. Nevertheless, an employee
may be found guilty of misconduct in terms of section 2()(t) of the PSA.
Four categories are identified in the Act. namely relationships with:
13
1. the legislature and the executive (for example, the loyal execution of
government policies expected of public employees);
2. the public (providing services in an unbiased and impartial manner);
3. other employees (co-operating fully with each other to advance the
public interest); and
4. the institution (striving to achieve institutional objectives through
the cost-effective performance of duties and in the public interest).
1.8 Institutional roles

HR offices have tended to adopt too passive a role when applying their expert
knowledge and skills in the management process. The emphasis on playing
only a supportive role has created the impression that the HR function is
there merely to give advice when required. However, countless changes have
taken place in the HR field during the last few years, underlining new roles.
HR specialists cannot be only functional experts anymore. Line-function
employees and HR specialists must become partners in decision-making,
engaging the HR office more actively in the strategic areas of the institution.
As professionals in their area of specialisation. HR specialists frequently have
co look into new developments in rhe broader environment to determine how
their particular input might assist in achieving the institution’s objectives.
H R offices have two basic obligations: service to line management and control
of organisational behaviour. These obligations are performed at two levels:
strategic and tactical.
Ar a strategic level, the HR function may be directed ar:

• the consequences for the size, quality, composition and culture of the
institution;
• the effects on the institution’s supply, services and costs; and
• employment matters that require institution-wide consistency of policy
and practice.
At a tactical level, detail becomes more significant and time scales are shorter.
Many employment practices require an outline of procedure to guarantee that
policy goals can be put into practical effect coherently and efficiently. The H R
office acts tactically by, for example, designing and re-designing plans and
procedures regarding the application of new employment legislation. Tactical
responsibilities should not be seen as only a matter of supporting devised
procedures or routines. The HR specialist must also work closely with line
function employees to solve immediate operational problems.
14
The following are among the roles that flow from these two levels of obligations:
• Policy developer: This entails outlining policy guidelines for
deliberation by the management board or executive committee of the
institution; specifying information to assist in policy discussions;
and. ideally, playing a part in the strategic planning processes of the
institution. These policy guidelines should be contained within the
boundaries of norms and standards set by the DPSA.
• Advisor: The HR specialist is expected to participate with senior
management in the broader corporate issues of the institution. This
implies the integration of the ideas of senior management in the
development of service policies and corporate strategies. In more
practical terms, it means that the HR office serves as an internal
consultant in much the same way as an external consultant might.
• Champion: Every HR specialist has been trained to be an expert in the
field, required to take executive action in carrying out everyday tasks.
This implies the authority to make decisions that are binding on other
managers as well. As the person most educated and trained regarding
HR matters, he or she should be sanctioned to make decisions about
key HR activities, such as the testing and screening of job applicants
and the administration of compensation systems.
• Investigator: This prominent HR role is one that is occasionally
disregarded. There may be, for example, a policy advancing internal
promotion and a system aimed to achieve this. But is it working? The
HR office is usually entrusted to investigate, monitor and evaluate the
effectiveness of the implementation of HR policies and procedures.
This is a central issue in terms of research responsibilities.
• Disseminator: The body of HR knowledge entrenched within the HR
office is invaluable to the institution. Although much of this may be
an internal resource, it should be readily available to other staff in the
institution. Information technology (IT) presents opportunities to
expand managerial access to HR data. IT databases and systems now'
empower HR staff to generate this information within moments on
their own computers to guarantee speedy accessibility and accuracy in
a user-friendly form.
• Strategist: This role is closely related to the concept of’human capital
management’ (in the current jargon), which requires HR to back up the
strategic mission of the institution. In order to comply with that objective.
HR specialists are advised to act as full members of the management
team, bringing HR policy to bear on the institution’s mission, policies
15
and budget. In this way they can provide the entire institution with a
solid sense of purpose and direction, serving as business partner and
playing an integral role in the strategic planning process (Ainos, Ristow,
Ristow, Liezel & Pearse, 2013: 8-11). In the national government sphere,
strategic planning has been elevated and formalised by the Public Service
Regulations of 2016 (Republic of South Africa, 2016). Chapter 3, Part 1,
Section 25 of the Regulations specifies that an executing authority shall
prepare a strategic plan for the institution, stating its core objectives,
based on constitutional and other legislative mandates and on functional
mandates and service delivery improvement programmes.
1.9 Human resource management as an integrated

process
To better promote service delivery in the public sector, all institutions, teams,
and individuals must perform well. If public employees are to think and act
in a way that leads to improved institutional performance, they must have a
clear understanding of how their efforts contribute in an integrated manner
towards desired service delivery levels. In this book, HRM is presented as an
integrated process comprising a number of different, connected activities.
Public managers are expected to make key strategic connections between
the key HR functions and practices, HR management tasks and additional
HR management skills to ensure that certain outcomes are achieved and
institutional performance is enhanced in the public interest.
1.9.1 Key functions and practices

'HR function’ refers to the activities for which line-function employees and HR
specialists are jointly responsible. A function is a specialised professional activity
to realise effective institutional performance and service delivery. In contrast to
the HR management tasks policy determination, organising, financing and
controlling the HR function deals primarily with the people-related aspects
of management. These specialised professional HR functions and practices are
delivered to line-function employees in order to achieve the objectives of the
relevant institution. The primary HR functions and practices include:
• Strategising and planning: This task involves establishing institutional
objectives and formulating, integrating and implementing strategies for
achieving them. It includes strategic HR planning, which allows public
institutions to anticipate future HR needs and to adjust to the internal
and external environment in reaching institutional objectives.
16
• Obtaining suitable human resources: This cask embraces che

formulation and implementation of equal employment opportunity
requirements and affirmative action policies, che recruitment of
qualified job applicants, and che selection and appointment of chose
applicants who best comply with che requirements of vacant posts.
• Utilising and developing employees: This task centres on appraising,
career management and learning, and on training and development.
• Compensating and caring: The premise here is chat che employer
is consciously involved in remunerating, providing incentives
and counselling.
• Handling employee relations: This covers dismissal, redundancy,
handling of grievances and outplacement, among ocher labour issues.
DID YOU KNOW?

A total of 8 770 grievances were reported in both national and provincial
departments for the 2017/18 financial year, which reflects a decrease of
2.9% from the total of 9 031 grievances reported for che 2016/17 financial
year. However, in comparison with the total of 9 191 grievances that were
reported for the 2015/16 financial year, the number of grievances for the
2017/18 financial year has decreased by 4.6%.
Source: Republic of South Africa (2018)
1.9.2 Management tasks

Whatever one’s philosophy regarding work, it is through management tasks such
as policymaking, organising, financing and controlling chat a public institution
directs its efforts cowards goal achievement. There are various management
models that can be used as an analytical framework of reference, but for rhe
purposes of this book, we have decided on the previously mentioned set of
management tasks as the basic model. These management tasks are enabling
activities that typify the work of all public managers, including HR managers.
Policymaking is one of che most important management tasks. HR policy is

the cornerstone of all HRM activities because it gives direction and enables the
public manager to lead che institution co the achievement of its objectives. HR
policy guidelines in the public sector are embodied in statutes, bills, draft bills,
regulations. White Papers. Green Papers, collective agreements and management
guides. The PSA is an example of an official statute governing HRM.
17
A number of key HRM responsibilities can be identified under the management

task of policymaking, such as:
1. ensuring that the policy as embodied in legislation, regulations
and office directives is correctly interpreted and conveyed in an
understandable way to the staff;
2. knowing what powers of delegation are available and in which cases
sanction is required from higher authority; and
3. advising immediate superiors on issues regarding the implementation
and possible adjustment of policies.
The results of a study by Sharon Florentine on diversity and inclusion are

described in ‘Focus on research 1.1*.
The second management task, organising, is an enabling process that comprises:

1. orientating subordinates towards their place in the larger
organisational hierarchy;
2. delegating authority to members of the team in accordance with
officially approved delegation of power in the institution; and
3. allocating duties and responsibilities to individual team members.
FOCUS ON RESEARCH 1.1
Results of a study done by Sharon Florentine on diversity and inclusion
According to Florentine a strong diversity and inclusion strategy can help

the institution to achieve significant outcomes. Research shows that most
institutions implementing diversity and inclusion initiatives with more
diverse teams do better than those with a more homogeneous workforce.
The following eight practices are necessary to be successful: (1) A sense of
belonging must first be established. (2) Every individual leader needs to buy
into the value of belonging. (3) Every individual must see and understand
their role in the institution culture - seniors and operational workers. (4)
Diversity numbers will not spontaneously generate an inclusive culture
- onboarding to the daily aspects of work is required. (5) Inclusion is
unending - not a once-off intervention. (6) Highlight the experiences of
success and praise the performers. (7) Concentrate on helping individual
workers to be successful. (8) Make certain the culture is reflected inside
and outside the institution.
Source: Florentine (Internet: 2019)
18
Thus far we have focused on two management tasks, namely policymaking

and organising. The third, financing, is an enabling activity that makes
funds available so that HR functions and practices can be implemented. In
general terms, HRM responsibilities in the financing task involve:
• assisting the accounting officer of the institution to prepare a medium
term expenditure framework budget ami annual operational budget;
• responding to HR queries from the relevant portfolio committee of the
National Assembly;
• executing the approved budget in compliance with what the budgetary
authorities have approved, both in financial and policy aspects;
• adapting the execution of the budget to significant changes in the
macro-environment;
• keeping records of all HR financial transactions in the office; and
• assisting the accounting officer with queries from the offices of the
Auditor-General and the Standing Committee on Public Accounts on
the performance of the institution in HR matters.
The fourth and last management task of the public manager, controlling,
involves a wide-ranginggroup of activities which ensure that human resources
are utilised effectively and efficiently. This involves the setting of standards,
checking to see how actual performance compares with these standards and
taking corrective action as required. HRM responsibilities that involve the
exercise of control include:
• submission of annual and special reports to the accounting officer;
• studying the investigation, monitoring and evaluation reports of the
independent central personnel agency, namely the PSC; and
• keeping abreast of progress in the workplace, as well as with problems
and the solutions that were implemented.
1.9.3 Additional management skills

Thus far. we have covered the H R functionsand practicesand HR management
tasks. Although indispensable to HRM, these must not be seen in isolation.
The public manager is responsible for additional H RM skills, which are usually
implemented in conjunction with HR functions, practices and management
tasks, and are classified in the literature in three main categories, namely
conceptual, human (interpersonal) and technical.
19
• Conceptual skills relate to the ability to see the relevant HR office as a

whole and complex system and to coordinate and integrate all interests
and activities therein by:
■ working out well-conceived plans in collaboration with subordinate
employees; and
■ taking rational and informed decisions about HR issues.
• People skills relate to the ability to work with, understand and motivate
people. They can be judged by:
■ how successfully one communicates with others; and
■ the extent to which one is involved in motivating employees.
• Technical skills relate to the ability to apply professional, functional
and specialised knowledge and expertise to ensure that HRM takes place
smoothly. In practice, this involves the ability to apply techniques and
procedures in a particular field of HRM (as in the selection of employees
when specialised selection tests need to be analysed).
1.9.4 Outcomes
Citizens expect public institutions to ‘perform well’, although there will
always be considerable disagreement about what this means. In general.
South Africans expect public institutions to reach their mandated purposes
efficiently, effectively, economically and in line with developmental standards
and values highlighted in the Constitution (see 1.3 above). However, there are
different ways to ensure that performance is maintained. One such way is
to make certain that the necessary outcomes are achieved. These outcomes
must be representative of the products of the HR functions and practices,
management tasks and additional management skills. The outcomes can
also be viewed as markers and may be classified into three categories.
The first category, individual level, derives from the Constitution. It is

summarised in the White Paper on Human Resource Management in the
Public Service of 1997 (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1997) as follows:
• Promoting fairness: All actions and decisions of public employees
within the context of HRM must be objective, consistent, equitable,
and without prejudice.
• Applying equity principles: The present government has undoubtedly
inherited a public service that is deeply marked by inequalities and
unfairness on almost every level of public administration. Every effort
should be made to apply corrective measures to ensure that HR practices
are free from discrimination.
20
• Encouraging accessibility: In line with overall government policy,

considerable emphasis should be placed on accessibility in relation
to employment and general government data and information. Since
HRM is subject to the application of the Constitution, it is essential
that all human resource activities contribute to this outcome.
• Fostering transparency: In keeping with the principles of democratic
public administration, all HRM activities must be open and subject to
public scrutiny within reasonable limits.
• Demonstrating accountability: The Senior Management Service:
Public Service Handbook (Republic ofSouth Africa, 2003) clearly defines
the responsibilities of senior HR managers. This handbook states that
the appointment of senior managers will be subject to the signing of
an employment contract and a performance agreement. This signifies
that individual employees will be held accountable for discharging their
responsibilities conscientiously and with probity and integrity.
• Increasing professionalism: Acodeofconduct has been implemented for
the South African public service. This means that HRM will be conducted
competently and reflect the highest moral and ethical standards. These
ethical standards (or ‘professional ethical guidelines’ as they are better
known in public administration terms) are influenced by factors in the
political and social spheres. As in any democratic state, certain political
doctrines serve as guidelines for the behaviour of public servants.
For example, Section 2 of the Constitution provides it shall be the supreme

law for all South African public institutions and their activities, including
HRM. In addition, public managers have to accept Parliament as the policy-
making authority. In other words. Parliament must provide guidelines on
how HRM should function. HRM is inseparable from the social sphere within
which it operates and the cultural and historical backgrounds of various
communities, prescribing ethical norms and standards such as sincerity,
honesty and integrity.
The second category, group level, is directed at the promotion of proper

relations among staff. It includes outcomes such as the creation of suitable
staff interaction, proper teamwork and overall good relations. The third
category, institutional level, comprises a broad spectrum of HR items,
including staff retention, lawful behaviour and absenteeism.
21
Central to the understanding of the outcomes concept is the principle that

public institutions that succeed in achieving the outcomes will deliver better
services than those (hat do not. The outcomes identified here are by no means
exhaustive. However, we have examined those that are generic to everyday
IIRM and with which public managers are mostly concerned.
DID YOU KNOW?

The public service employed 1 227 162 employees as at 31 March 2019
and largely meets the demographics of the country. The African population
constitutes 81.26%(997191) ofthe public service. The Coloured population
represents 8.74% (107 253), the White population represents 7.47%
(91 669) and the Asian population represents 2.52% (30 924) ofthe total
number of public employees.
1.10 Enhanced institutional performance and

promotion of the public interest
A question frequently asked nowadays is: ‘Can HRM really have a positive
effect on a public institution’s performance or service delivery levels?’ Many
stakeholders in the public administration field would contend that che answer
is ‘No’. Most commonly quoted in this regard is the stereotyped view of line
function employees that sees HRM as a clerical job which lacks a focus on
performance. In essence, this view holds that, as a staff or advisory function,
HRM does not have a direct link to enhanced performance (better service
delivery) or promotion of the public interest. As a result, it is believed that
HRM is not associated with performance enhancement. Fortunately, this
view has been proved wrong and has been largely rejected. It has already been
found that HRM techniques, procedures and systems, as applied by line
function employees and HR specialists in their HR role, have a real effect on
service delivery' levels of public institutions.
Researchers have found, for example, that the use of screening tests has
resulted in the identification of high-potential candidates and has saved
employers millions of rands per year. Another example is the implementation
of occupational health and safety' programmes. These programmes, which
are also HRM related, can reduce costs incurred by lost time resulting
from accidents and illnesses. The fact is that almost every aspect that will
22
be discussed in this book HR planning, recruiting, selecting, appointing,

appraising, remunerating and labour relations has a measurable effect on
the performance of public institutions. Every HR activity has an influence on
all the others. HR activities, such as the appointment of people, the provision
of training, the measurement of performance, and the exercise of discipline,
affect the performance not only of individuals but of the institution as a
whole. Ultimately, the functions executed by public employees are directed at
the promotion of the public interest and protection of society at large.
1.11 Integrated relationship of human resource

management functions and practices, tasks,
additional skills and outcomes
None of the four main areas of HRM is executed independently or is an
end in itself. Although these four areas stand in sharp contrast with each
other, HR functions and practices, tasks, additional skills and outcomes are
distinctly related. In the application of disciplinary measures, for example, it
is important that the public manager understands the policy guidelines on
discipline and how to apply them in practice. It is also necessary to ensure that
these policy guidelines are communicated to all employees so that they know
what is expected of them. In this way, the disciplinary process is structured
and executed in an orderly manner.
However, this is only the beginning of the disciplinary process. Management

must also plan which people will be responsible for administering the
disciplinary function. Furthermore, it must be decided how much money
will be allocated to the budget for the disciplining of staff. At the same time,
management must decide how the transgressors will be dealt with so that
they do not feel worthless after disciplinary action has been taken. During
the execution of the disciplinary process, it is important that actions are
objective, consistent and equitable.
1.12 Conclusion
This chapter has introduced you to the nature and content of HRM and the
way in which it fits into the South African public sector. Specific attention
has been devoted to the meaning of HRM. the management part of the HR
function, the public’ dimension, the key responsibilities of an HR manager
and the integrated nature of the field.
23
1.13 Self-evaluation questions

1. What is meant by ‘public human resource management’?
2. ‘HRM has a management perspective.’ Is this a valid statement?
3. HRM takes place in the public sector. What does the term ‘public’ entail?
4. What resources can an HR manager in the public sector utilise to
guide the HR function optimally?
5. What are the tripartite responsibilities of HRM? How do line/staff
partnerships feature in this regard?
6. What are the four integrated activities associated with HRM? How
are these activities connected to enhance institutional performance?
24
Chapter
Theoretical perspectives
Purpose
This chapter provides an overview of the theoretical developments
in human resource management (HRM) in order to comprehend the
discipline from a contemporary South African public sector perspective.
Learning outcomes
• Compare origins and trends in HRM.
• Display an awareness of international perspectives (including Africa)
in HRM.
• Describe HRM developments in South Africa.
• Identify the role ofthe South African Board for People Practices
(SABPP) by explaining its registration procedures, its framework
for human resource (HR) practices and the national HRM System
Standards Model.
• Explain how one can remain a valued HR specialist in South Africa by
doing extensive networking and reading on the subject.
2.1 Introduction
There is no single, comprehensive theory of HRM. This categorical statement
reflects the contradictory character of HRM and how it takes form in
different public institutions. This relates to conflicting HR problems in
public institutions and the numerous strategies employed to solve them and
is essentially linked to the unpredictable nature of human behaviour.
Theories arise from che thoughts and interpretations of individuals in

a certain area, such as the motivation of people in an office. How these
theories develop is the question we should continually ask ourselves. It is
generally agreed that theories by and large develop from preconceived ideas
(hypotheses) that are then substantiated by research results and, ultimately,
found to be trustworthy or not. In this way, wide-ranging theories have arisen
in various disciplines and are adopted in fields such as HRM. Individuals in
this field will, logically, pursue a unique approach, based on their preferred
values, when settling on a theoretical perspective.
The literature makes it clear that scholars and others in different disciplines
have been making theoretical contributions to HRM from the earliest times.
These contributions offer distinct and varied ideas about the way in which the
HR function should be managed. Closer analysis reveals that, together, they
have had a cumulative effect, continuously influencing the body of knowledge
(theory) and practice (collection of practical skills) of HRM. For this reason, it
is necessary to consider the evolution of HRM through time. In this regard, a
brief review of international and national perspectives is provided to describe
as completely as possible what constitutes ‘good HRM’ in the public sector.
2.2 Phases of development

The development of HRM as an academic discipline goes hand in hand with
the expansion of public administration (PA), which is regarded as a broad
ranging and unstructured combination of theory and practice. In essence,
PA is concerned with hierarchical organisational structures, diverse task
environments, jurisdiction of decision alternatives, relevant areas of study,
the authenticity of the administrator and advanced managerial techniques
for achieving public objectives efficiently. These items outline the locus
(institutional setting) and focus (specialised field or theory) of HRM.
In what follows, we review how HRM has been regarded in the past and where
it is going. HRM cannot be viewed as an old discipline; it was first written
about approximately 128 years ago. However, its development cannot be
considered in isolation from P/\ and their historical development is thus
presented in conjunction.
26
Chapter 2: Theoretical perspectives
2.3 International developments

It is not inappropriate to start a discussion of international developments
from very early, even ancient, times. Internationally, the content of the two
disciplines, PA and HRM, has not been settled. It is still not clear what exactly
the constituent elements of the two disciplines should entail, particularly
from a public sector perspective.
2.3.1 Early times

Formal HR activities were undertaken only during the early 1800s, but there
is evidence of relevant activities even earlier. For example, in 2000 BC, King
Hammurabi of Babylon issued instructions on the compensation of staff,
instituting more effective HRM. In 1491 BC, during the exodus of the Israelites
from Egypt, Moses followed the recommendation of Jethro, his father-in-law,
that he should delegate authority over the tribes of Israel along hierarchical
lines. Again. Confucius expressed the view in 551 BC that administrative work
could be improved by appointing honest and competent staff. Plato, in 400 BC,
recognised management as a separate art when making the connection between
managerial and functional work and was very much in favour of the principles
of specialisation of work. Focusing on the cooperation between line-function
employees and support staff. Alexander the Great was already of the opinion in
325 BC that the work of these two groups should be linked. Alexander is well
known for successfully managing to conquer most of the known world.
Six centuries ago. another significant contribution came from Machiavelli.

In 1525, he emphasised the importance of certain leadership traits for success
in the workplace. Further, military institutions were generally forerunners in
using efficient training methods to improve productivity. The use of training
as a mechanism to increase productivity formally began in 1790.
2.3.2 Foundations
Woodrow Wilson must be credited with introducing P/\ as an academic field
of study; he is considered the leading protagonist of the discipline. In an
article entitled ‘The study of administration’, published in 1887 in the Political
Science Quarterly, he observed that ‘it is getting harder to run a constitution
than to frame one’ and underlined the need to study PA as a discipline apart
from politics (Denhardt & Denhardt, 2015: 3-5). The article presents two
arguments that provide a focus for the study of PA and HRM. The first is the
need for the separation of politics (policy) and administration, with reference
to the accountability of elected officials (politicians) and impartial expertise
27
on the part of administrators. These ideas emphasised the oversight function

of politicians and the substantial effect of oversight on the daily execution of
administrative tasks.
Second, Wilson’s article called for unified hierarchical structures of

administrative management that would enable public managers to act
in the most efficient way possible. He was also of the view that the actions
of administrators were to be scrutinised carefully and they should be held
responsible to elected political leaders so as not to diverge from established
policy guidelines. Wilson established what was known for many years as
the politics-administration dichotomy. His opinions set the tone for later
developments in HRM.
2.3.3 Political context

In his work Politics and administration, Frank] Goodnow argued in 1900 that there
are ‘two distinct functions of government’: the political function, which ‘has to
do with policies or expressions of the state will' and the administrative function,
which ‘has to do with the execution of these policies’. The administrative function
represents the human side of government (Shafritz, Hyde & Parkes, 2004:
35-37). Goodnow further postulated the politics-administration dichotomy and
expanded on the work of Wilson. Notably, separation of state powers provides
the foundation of Goodnow’s arguments. The legislative sphere of government,
supported by the interpretive powers of the judicial sphere, articulates the will of
the state and formulates policy, while the executive sphere manages those policies
objectively, emphasising the indispensable nature of human resources in the
state environment. Goodnow emphasised the ‘locality’ aspect of government.
In other words, where all bureaucratic activity takes place, the management of
people signifies the amount of administrative work required.
Over time, the two disciplines, P/\ and HRM, began to harvest academic
authenticity. Noteworthy in this regard is the publication of Leonard 19
White’s Introduction to the study ofpublic administration in 1926, the first textbook
exclusively devoted to the subject (Rosenbloom, Kravchuk 6c Clerkin, 2015: 15).
The net result of Goodnow and White’s respective works was to reinforce the
idea of a distinct area of work for public administrators. The pairing of two
separate analytical areas of work and of politicians and public administrators
during the locus-orientated stage can be clearly seen today in the curricula
of universities. Scholars in P/\ and HRM are teaching students the skills of
managing a public institution and political scientists are schooling them in
the philosophy of politics.
28
DID YOU KNOW?

Major influences on HRM in developing countries include:
• religions such as Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as traditional
beliefs in spirits, fetishes and gods;
• cultural practices such as Confucianism, African traditional practices,
caste systems (in India); and
• western colonial influences, such as the predominance of a particular
language, and modern influences, such as organisational development
techniques.
Source: Wilkinson, B-acon, Redman & Snell (2010: 396)
2.3.4 Principles of administration

Following on the previously mentioned contributions is the work of Frederick
W Taylor. Taylor, who published the Principles of Scientific Management in
1911, stated that there was ‘only one best method’ to follow in the selection
of employees. He argued that ‘scientific principles of administration’ could
be applied to make sure that quality public service delivery took place
(Rosenbloom etal, 2015: 154-156).
Among the most prominent followers ofthe principles of administration move

ment were Mary P Follett, William F Willoughby, Henn Fayol, Luther H Gulick,
Lyndall Urwick and Chester I Barnard. Follett, an organisational consultant,
has been called ‘rhe woman who invented management’. In 1924, she published
her first contribution entitled The Creative experience. She was in favour of a ‘pull’
rather than ‘push approach to employee motivation, distinguishing between
‘power over’ and power with’, and offered insightful ideas on negotiation,
conflict resolution and power sharing, which facilitated modern HRM theory
(Shafritz, Hyde & Parkes, 2004: 64 66). She was of the opinion that true leaders
‘create group power, rather than expressing personal power'.
Willoughby’s book Principles ofpublic administration was published in 1927 as the

second comprehensive text in the field. He played a leading role in emphasising
the importance of applying certain principles for the efficient management
of people (Denhardt & Denhardt. 2015: 5). According to Willoughby, clear
scientific principles of administration are evident in any workplace. These
principles appeared to work in any administrative location, irrespective of
culture, milieu, or institutional framework and, it was understood, could be
applied successfully anywhere.
29
Another exponent of this movement was Henri Fayol. His work appeared in
1930 under che title Industrial and general management. He developed a general
theory of business administration that is often described as Fayol ism. He
generated a list of 14 principles ofadministration, which include the following:
1. division of work (specialisation);
2. authority (giving of orders);
3. disciplining;
4. unity of command;
5. unity of direction;
6. subordination of individual interests to the general interest;
7. fair compensation;
8. centralisation;
9. chain of command;
10. orderliness in the workplace, with clean, tidy and safe facilities for
employees;
11. equity (fairness);
12. stability of tenure:
13. initiative (freedom to create and carry our plans); and
14. team spirit (Hays, Kearney & Coggburn, 2009: 197).
It is clear char the focus of Fayol’s work was mainly on the promotion of
aspects such as excellence and effective management in the workplace. If
one links this to rhe South African public service it is integrally related to
the creation of a professional and meritocratic place of work informed by
the democratic values and principles (such as accountability, efficiency and
effectiveness) as highlighted in Section 195(1) of the Constitution (Republic
of South Africa, 1996). As a result of the concern with the gradual progress
made in establishing a professional public service, the Public Service
Commission considered it appropriate to create a platform where relevant
role players can come together to reflect and consider on the need for a
corporate understanding of professionalisation and the creation of a capable,
developmental and progressive public service. This was done in the form of
a roundtable discussion. The various expert inputs and discussions of this
roundtable are summarised in ‘Focus on Research 2.1’ below.
30
Public Service Commission report on the professionalisation of the

public service in South Africa
It is clear from the content of the report that reasonable progress has been
made towards professionalising the public service, but critical action is still
required in terms of certain values of the Constitution. These include in
particular: (1) promoting a people-centred service culture; (2) engaging
in merit-based appointments, including political competence, the skills
to meet people’s needs and the understanding of how to implement
programmes to progressively realise socio-economic rights; and (3) demon
strating economic inclusion and development.
Gulick and Urwick elaborated on Fayol’s work. Theorists have referred

to Gulick and Urwick as ‘structuralists’ and to Fayol as a ‘functionalist'.
Fayol was not entirely blind to the structural aspects of the institution.
Equally, Gulick and Urwick were aware of the functional aspects. In their
Papers on the science ofadministration (1937), they identified certain important
structural principles for an institution to be successful. These two scholars
developed the mnemonic device, POSDCORB (planning, organising, staffing,
directing, coordinating, reporting, budgeting), to highlight several different
administrative HRM principles (Rosenbloom etal, 2015: 178 179).
Notwithstanding the elevated status achieved by the administration

movement. HRM entered a new phase of intellectual activity with the
contributions of another group of intellectuals, namely the nonconformists.
They openly condemned the idea of principles. In his work Functions of the
executive (1938), one of the most prominent nonconformists, Barnard,
critiqued the principles and pointed out what the real functions of senior
officials ought to be (Shafritz, Hyde & Parkes, 2004: 105-110). He viewed
institutions as collaborative systems, which he described as:
a complex of physical, biological, social and rational components which are in
a specific systematic relationship by reason of the cooperation of two or more
persons for at least one definite end.
He was of the view that an institution is not self-supporting but needs to

count on resources from the external environment that allows it to function.
For example, an institution needs capital, labour, equipment, and resources
to function and achieve its objectives.
31
According to Barnard, an institution needs to achieve system equilibrium. In

the context of his Inducement-Contribution Theory, achieving equilibrium
involves two related activities (Rosenbloom et al, 2015: 157-158). The first
relates to the equilibrium between the institution’s characteristics and its
external environment; the second attempts to equalise the input that staff
members of the institution provide to the collective purpose and the amount
of satisfaction both the institution and members receive in the exchange. In
the main, this is simply a theory of motivation. The theory claims that an
individual member will contribute in exchange for incentives. Essentially,
Barnard considered an institution as a two-wav system. He illustrated two
methods of encouraging such cooperation. The first is by the incentive
method, whereby current motives, such as money, are satisfied; the second
method is to change motives and is referred to as the persuasion method.
2.3.5 Management of people

Yet another group of scholars brought about new ways of thinking about H RM.
They introduced well-defined notions about how the HR function should be
structured and the values, responsibilities, and principles it should serve. These
perspectives can be classified broadly into six models for the management
of people in public institutions: The traditional model concentrates on
the centralisation of HR activities, prescribing rules and procedures by an
independent central HR agency, apparently to achieve fairness and equity.
One reason for this is to take politics out of the purview of HRM to exclude
political patronage from the public workplace (Condrey, 2010: xliv).
The reform or management model seeks to decentralise and cascade HR

authority down to line-function managers. It is almost a mirror image of the
traditional model and was a shared effort by academics and practitioners to
identify the principles fundamental to the effective and efficient functioning
of government. It appeals for the distribution of real HR authority to
several institutional units, granting them the authority to make important
decisions regarding employee recruitment, selection and compensation. The
management model makes it necessary for the HR office to fall under a chief
executive officer based in a central office and requires that HR offices be
instituted in government departments. It was argued that, in general, line
function managers should be allowed to manage people independently but
should be held accountable for their actions through policy guidelines rather
than detailed rules and tight control.
32
DID YOU KNOW?

The SABPP started to develop HRM standards many years ago and
measurement (metrics) is one of the standards in this model. Metrics
standards reformed how the public service operates and are designed to
support a data-driven, evidence-based approach to making HRM more
sustainable.
Source: Meyer & Abbott (2019: 16)
Proponents of this model presented arguments in defence of the separation

of the government’s political and administrative processes, and more
prominence was placed on the employment of professional managers in the
cadres of the public sector. This transformation in thinking led to the ideas
and practices of business management taking root in the public sector. The
authors who contributed during this period claimed that the practices of the
private sector were the principal source of the public management perspective,
or ‘managerialism’, as it has been branded (Condrey. 2010: xlv). They were
further of the view that the primary focus of management in the private
sector is on efficiency, effectiveness and results (economy), ultimately making
more profits, as opposed to the rigid rules that prevail in the conventional
public sector environment. Many management experts advocated these ideas
which resulted in a change of terminology from ‘personnel administration’
to ‘human resource management as a way of conceptualising the HR
function. The irony of this perspective lies in it being applied globally, thereby
encouraging a one-size-fits-all approach to the public sector.
From reading the literature one might observe that ‘new public management'
is a relatively recent development that has found a place in the public
management model. Rapid adjustment to the best practices of new public
management (NPM) shows the influence of globalisation on the public sector
and that HRM is not immune to this influence. The new public management
model may be viewed as a distinctive collection of administrative techniques,
merging insights from economic theories with practical lessons from
business management (Kearney & Coggburn, 2016: 5 12). It conveys an
anti-bureaucratic philosophy in the belief that traditional PA is prone to
inefficiency. Its ultimate criticism of the traditional model is, however, that
it has no method of improving efficiency other than more rules, the effect of
which is greater inefficiency.
33
The cools of NPM are competition, marketisation, and deregulation. This

view generated persistent attempts to cut down on government’s activities,
to enhance its responsiveness, to ‘shrink the beast and put more resources
in the hands of separate business units that can manage independently.
These ideas were embodied in the catchphrase that government ‘works
better and costs less’ with fundamental changes in the structural aspects of
public institutions and accountability. They were encapsulated in the terms
‘reinventing government’ and ‘new public management’.
The complexity of these developments compelled scientists and practitioners

to look for new ways. This led in time to the formulation of the strategic
planning model. In this model, institutions define their mission (the
rationale for their existence), devise objectives chat are compatible with their
missions and everyday realities, and draw up plans of action in order to
achieve their objectives tactically. Tins perspective makes it clear that senior
line-function managers, as well as senior HR managers, need to be involved
in the strategic planning process at a corporate level. It is also essential chat
once the general mission and objectives have been formulated, the results
of the strategic planning process are cascaded down to the lower levels of
the institution. This implies that all employees need to be informed of the
planned direction ar corporate level before staff at the lower levels can cake
a given course of action. Strategic planning ensures that HR philosophies,
policies and practices are linked to the strategic demands of the institution
(Rosenbloom et alt 2015: 352). Since strategic planning cakes place in the
political environment and calls for considerable time, drive and contribution
from the various role players, the process can easily be overturned and may
become a barrier to effective service delivery.
Since the introduction of these models, the privatisation or outsourcing

model has come co exert a considerable influence in the area of HRM. As
political leaders began to look more to the private sector for models of
structuring public institutions and public administrators were constricted in
terms of government payrolls, outsourcing of the HRM function increased,
reaching its peak during the 1980s. In the privatisation or outsourcing
model, the HR function is less clear. The challenge for HR offices is to hold
on to control over the HR function, k should not be overlooked chat, even if
various functions are performed by a private entity, the public interest is still
at stake and should be protected at all times. Issues of fairness, objectivity,
representative bureaucracy, and equity should constantly be taken into
consideration (Condrey, 2010: xlvi). The implementation and management of
private contracts should reflect the values of responsible public service.
34
k is clear that multiple thoughts, philosophies an d perspectives have developed

over time in the study and practice of HRM. It is difficult to demarcate one
model as the best and most workable approach. What is certain is that HRM
is a complex activity that covers employee productivity, human behaviour
(emotions), social equity, intellectual capital (talent), employee engagement,
public service motivation (PSM), responsiveness, constitutional rights and
the ‘new public service’, among other things.
Since no single model prevailed, a hybrid model has developed, taking the
discipline forward through the various phases of development. This model
suggests an evolution of the field that allows HRM with features of all the
previous models. It relies heavily on the assumption that workers are willing to
contribute to the achievement of institutional objectives and sees employees as
‘valuable reservoirs of untapped resources’ and not merely human commodities.
The most important writers in this area are described below.
2.3.6 Contributors to the hybrid model of human resource

management
The following writers have provided key inputs as regards the hybrid model:
• Abraham Maslow generated a hierarchy of needs, a theory of
psychological health based on satisfying intrinsic human needs,
ultimately culminating in self-actualisation. He classified human
needs in a specific order, starting at the bottom of the hierarchy: basic
needs (food, water and sleep); safety and security; love and belonging;
esteem (status and level of success); and self-actualisation. According
to Maslow, self-actuahsing people share qualities such as honesty,
perfectionism, and self-regulation (Denhardt & Denhardt, 2015: 166-
167; Grobler & Warmch. 2012: 170).
• Chris Argyris’s work has influenced thinking about the relationship
between people and institutions, organisational learning, and action
research. In his theories of action, he developed the concepts of single
loop and double-loop learning, and how these can be transformed into
contrasting models of organisational learning systems. He researched
the effect of formal organisational structures, organisational change
and. in particular, the behaviour of senior executives. This research
resulted in the books Personality and organization: The conflict between
system and the individual integrating the individual and the organization,
Interpersonal competence and organizational effectiveness, Organization
and innovation and Knowledge for action: A guide to overcoming barriers to
35
organizational change (Denhardt & Denhardt, 2015: 166-167). Preparing

the workforce for the Fourth Industrial Revolution (41R) is perhaps one
of the key areas that the future public sector employer should focus on.
‘Focus on research 2.2' below highlights this aspect.
• Douglas McGregor suggested his famous X-Y theory in his book
The human side of enterprise. McGregor classified managers into two
categories, namely Theory X managers (authoritarian) and Theory Y
managers (participative). The typical Theory X manager is intolerant,
elitist and results-driven. Theory Y managers place a large amount of
autonomy and trust in subordinates, believing them to be loyal and
committed to the institution (Denhardt & Denhardt, 2015: 67).
• Frederick Herzberg made major contributions to developments
in the field, coming forward with a publication entitled Work, and the
nature of man. He emphasised the necessity of incorporating certain
‘motivational' principles (such as challenging work and responsibility),
as well as ‘hygiene’ principles (such as good pay and good interpersonal
relations between superiors and subordinates) in the design of work
processes and systems to manage employees in institutions (Amos,
Ristow, Ristow & Pearse. 2016: 220-222).
• David McClelland, like Abraham Maslow, perceived motivation
in terms of needs. However, he did not see needs in the form of a
hierarchy. In his book, The achieving society, he identified three types
of motivational needs: for achievement (advancement in the job); for
authority and power (personal status); and for affiliation (interaction).
These needs are found in fluctuating degrees in all employees and typify
their behaviour. McClelland has led the way in workplace motivational
thinking, stimulating developments in employee assessment methods
and encouraging competency-based assessments and tests (Amos et al,
2016: 222-223).
• Victor Vroom’s theories were developed and published in his book Work
and motivation, in which expectancy theory is applied to the workplace for
the first time. Expectancy theory argues that people will be motivated
to act in specific ways if they believe that doing so will bring them the
rewards they strive for and value (Denhardt & Denhardt, 2015: 170).
• Rensis Likert s management theory produced a new element in
organisational development theory. The Likert theory made it possible
to quantify the outcomes of the work theorists had been doing on group
dynamics. The theory also enabled measurement of the ‘soft* areas of
management, such as trust and exchange of ideas (communication).
36
In addition. Likert emphasised the ‘harder’, economic or business value

aspects of HRM. considering employees as highly valued assets rather
than as cost factors of production (Denhardt & Denhardt, 2015: 12).
• Burrhus Skinner emphasised visible behaviour in the study of humans,
hence the term ‘behaviourism’. Skinner used the consequences of
behaviour to explain why, in certain circumstances, it persists or not. He
believed that behaviour that is supported by reinforcement (positive or
negative) has a greater probability of re-occurrence and that behaviour
followed by a reprimand has a decreased prospect of re-manifestation.
Since learning is implied by a change in behaviour, it is important that
a manager first establishes what behavioural change is anticipated.
Through appropriate manipulation, the manager can stimulate the
development of new behaviours (Denhardt & Denhardt, 2015: 173).
• George Frederickson touched upon the theory of social equity and
put it forward as the ‘third pillar' of PA. He held that the concept of
social equity is located in the idea that justice, objectivity and equality
have everything to do with PA. Frederickson argued that laws do not
execute themselves and, as public administrators put into practice
the law, it cannot be brought to life as it is written; the law cannot be
applied uniformly from case to case. In public agencies, the ethical
and equitable treatment of citizens by administrators should be at the
forefront of concern (Denhardt & Denhardt, 2015: 178). The equity
principle is highlighted in ‘Focus on research 2.2’ below.
Two researchers from the University of Johannesburg (Nalubega and

Uwizeyimana) conducted a study on the implications of 4IR on current
public sector monitoring and evaluation systems (M&E) in Africa. The
findings disclosed that many different African countries have already
started employing 4IR technologies in their respective public service
delivery systems. Nevertheless, it was established that the use of big data
in evaluation systems demands additional new skills and critical debates,
consultations and dialogues among M&E specialists, technologists and
engineers. This is necessary to ensure that captured data complies with
the principles of equity, quality, validity and reliability. In sum, the research
results uncoverthat policies need to be adaptive, inclusive, sustainable, and
human centred in order to make certain that these innovative technologies
are regulated successfully without restricting future opportunities.
Source: Nalubega & Uwizeyimana (2019: 1)
37
• James Perry and Lois Wise pioneered rhe idea that many individuals have
a construct known as ‘public service motivation’ in an article that appeared
in Public Administration Review. They argued that these individuals have an
inner desire to serve the public. PSM explains why some people choose
careers in the government sector notwithstanding the potential for more
financially rewarding careers in the private sector. This is influenced by a
variety of extrinsic factors (politics and policy) that, in time, may alter the
individual's PSM. If rhe extrinsic factors are negative, PSM will influence
the behaviour of the individual for a period of rime that is less significant
than the career interests of that individual. If the extrinsic factors are
positive, PSM can influence behaviour during the entire career. Perry and
Wise opined that PSM is also influenced by ‘administrative romanticism',
meaning the altruistic wish to serve the community, the state, the
nation and humankind. This refers to factors such as public interest and
compassion (Ng. Lyons & Schweitzer. 2014: 20-21).
• James Harter observed that employee engagement is central to a high-
performance public institution. Employee engagement is described by
Naff, Riccucci and Freyss (2014: 302) as:
a heightened connection between employees and their work, their
organisation, or the people they work for or with. Engaged employees find
personal meaning tn their work, take pride in what they do and where they
do it, and believe that their organization values them.
Although motivation is intrinsic to the individual, there are different
ways institutions can develop it. According to a study by Maylett and
Nielsen (Naffer al, 2014: 304), these include ensuring a good fit between
the person and rhe job, linking recognition and rewards to performance
and introducing mentoring programmes.
• David Rosenbloom first proposed a model referred to as the ‘public
service model’, which attempts to strike a balance between the interests
of the government as employer, the constitutional rights of public
employees, the public’s concern with the way the government runs its
affairsand the judiciary's interest in preventing unjustifiable interference
in the day-to-day conduct of HR matters. Clearly, this model sees
managing the HR office as a complex endeavour that represents three
different approaches, arising out of different perspectives. While several
people view the HR office as a managerial undertaking comparable
to practice in the private sector, others underline the ‘publicness’ of
its political and policymaking features. Yet others stress the role of
the courts, underlining the issues of sovereignty, constitutions and
regulation in HRM (Rosenbloom etal, 2015: 14).
38
• Janet Denhardt and Robert Denhardt introduced rhe ‘new public

service’ model. They proposed a comprehensive agenda for the various
institutions, appealing for the reassertion of democratic values in the
workplace, respect for citizenship and service in the public interest. This
model is positioned around a set of seven core principles, highlighting
specific HR interventions:
1. Valuing employees individually (public institutions are probably
more likely to be successful if (heir employees are managed through
partnerships and collective leadership based on respect for all).
2. Serving customers (line-function staff) professionally. The 'public
interest' is a product of discourse about shared values rather than
che accumulation of individual self-interests. Thus. HR specialists
do not merely respond to the demands of their customers but focus
on the development of relationships of trust and alliances with and
among customers.
3. Thinking strategically and acting democratically in terms of the
execution of specialised professional HR functions and practices.
HR policies and programmes co meet customers' needs can be most
effectively and responsibly achieved through the collective efforts
of all stakeholders involved.
4. Recognising that the accountability part of the IIR function is not
straightforward. This implies that public employees should consider
more than the market; they should also attend to the public interest,
political norms (for example, accountability), professional standards
(HR standards prescribed by a professional association such as
che SABPP) and statutory and constitutional law (positioning the
constitutional relationship between citizen and government above
che relationship between public employer and employee).
5. Enhancing institutional performance by always promoting the
public interest. (HR specialists have a moral obligation to ensure that
che public interest prevails. In other words, their actions should be
consistent with democratic standards of justice, fairness and equity -
public interest based on shared values is referred to as ‘consensualist’
and is based on policy debate to achieve public value consensus.)
6. Respecting the value of customers and setting public service above
entrepreneurship. The public interest is better taken forward by
public employees and citizens jointly dedicated to the welfare of
society than by risk-taking HR managers acting as if public money
is their own. HR policies today, the policies that guide the broader
39
HR environment, are rhe result of exchanges between multiple

groups and interests - government is no longer seen as a separate
entity ‘in charge’.
7. Serving customers rather than steering the HR function. It is
increasingly important for HR specialists to use joint value-based
leadership in helping customers convey and meet their shared
interests, rather than attempting to control or steer the HR
community in new directions. Traditional top-down models of
leadership are outdated. Leadership is increasingly thought of not
as a formal position in the hierarchy but as consulting with external
constituencies, allowing them to participate in the decision-making
processes of governments. As such they are doing the right things,
not just doing things right (Denhardt & Denhardt, 2015: 42-43).
2.4 South African context

HRM in its broad diversity in the South African context is shaped by the
distinctive political, social, and cultural environment and its systems,
accordingly, may differ from those in similar institutions in other countries.
The assurances of a constitutional democracy lie at the heart of present-day
HRM practice in the South African public sector. It is to be expected that HR
systems and procedures are affected by the democratic concerns reflected in
the Constitution. Before 1996 and the advent of the Constitution, the way in
which HR managers operated was shaped by very different traditions, legacies
and approaches.
In what follows, the evolution of HR svstems in South Africa is described from

early developments to the present in three periods: colonialism, apartheid, and
the post-apartheid era. Although there is an overlap between these periods,
they each display key trendsand developments.
2.4.1 Early colonialism

In the early stages of development, most of the country’s inhabitants
were engaged in agrarian activities. The Khoekhoen, among the earliest
inhabitants of South Africa, were highly competent herders. They bartered
their cattle in exchange for the copper, beads, iron, and tobacco offered by
European visitors. As more and more immigrants settled at rhe Cape after
Jan van Riebeeck arrived in 1652 to set up a refreshment post, trade between
these groups increased. Because the settlers increasingly needed labour
40
and the Khoekhoen were reluctant to supply it, Van Riebeeck, who was well
acquainted with the slave trade in the East, arranged for the first shipment
of slaves from Angola in 1658. Slavery became an intrinsic part of life in the
Cape Colony, the basic relationship between employer (farmer) and employees
(slaves) being that of‘master and unpaid captive servant ’.
2.4.2 Apartheid and the growth of personnel management

In 1948, the National Party took over the government in South Africa and
began to implement the inflexible policy of apartheid or racial separation,
which was legalised and strictly applied. Despite enormous international
opposition, various Acts were promulgated during this period to put into
effect the political philosophy of apartheid. Not unexpectedly, black workers
used trade unions to fight for their rights and, in the absence of a political
voice, unions became increasingly confrontational. In support of the apartheid
philosophy, the government passed separate labour laws for black people.
During the 1970s, numerous government commissions were formed to

investigate ways to improve the state of labour relations. Since the majority
of employees were black, it was obvious that old-style HR practices had to
change. It was evident that labour legislation in South Africa, and collective
bargaining, in particular, was completely ineffective. A commission of inquiry
into the country’s labour legislation was set up under the chairpersonship
of Professor Nic Wiehahn in 1979. The Wiehahn Commission recommended
granting worker rights and removing racial restrictions in the workplace
(Meyer, in Kaufman, 2014: 392-393). The governments acceptance of such
recommendations meant that industrial democracy preceded political
democracy in South Africa. Fundamental change took place in the context
of the workplace.
2.4.3 Political transition and transformation of personnel

management to human resource management
By the end of the 1980s, the South African economy was in recession owing
to political instability, disinvestment and sanctions imposed by overseas
countries. Against the background of the gloomy economic situation, the
socio-economic backlog suffered by the majority of black South Africans
became increasingly apparent. South Africa was in the midst of political and
socio-economic turmoil a situation felt by virtually every employer and
employee. On 2 February 1990, South Africa’s newly elected State President,
FW de Klerk, announced the government's intention of trying to resolve South
41
Africa’s socio-political problems through negotiations with all stakeholders,

effectively turning upside down the world of every South African. In 1990,
the SABPP made available a Generic Competency Model for Human Resource
Practitioners. This broad framework identified the knowledge, skills, and
experiential and behavioural base required to perform competently at various
levels in the HR profession in South Africa.
2.4.4 Post-apartheid: human resource maturity

After the first democratic elections in 1994 and South Africa’s ‘political
miracle', a new labour legislative environment was kick-started by the ‘five-
year plan' of the Department of Labour. A stream of new labour-related laws
provided the impetus for a renewed awareness of what the people-centred
philosophy’ of the government meant (Meyer, in Kaufman, 2014: 394-397).
Some of the first of these pieces of legislation were the Labour Relations
Act 66 of 1995 (Republic ofSouth Africa. 1995a); South African Qualifications
Authority Act 58 of 1995 (Republic of South Africa. 1995b); Basic Conditions
of Employment Act 75 of 1997 (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1997); Employment
Equity Act 55 of 1998 (Republic of South Africa, 1998a), Skills Development
Act 97 of 1998 (Republic of South Africa. 1998b) and the Skills Development
Levies Act 9 of 1999 (Republic of South Africa. 1999). For the first time in the
history of South Africa, a single set of labour legislation was implemented
and administered for the entire country, including the public sector.
2.5 Public administration developments

Although governments have used complex structures for rhe management
of people throughout history, HRM as a self-conscious field of study and
practice (and as a sub-field of PA) in South Africa is generally thought to have
begun during the 1940s. South African writers on the subject have basically
all responded to Luther Gulick’s mnemonic POSDCORB (see section 2.3.4).
Although not in the PA arena, Isobel White was one of the first people to
write on HRM in South Africa; she can truly be regarded as the mother of
South African HRM. Towards the end of 1940, White gave the first of six
lectures on industrial psychology. She began to steer research in the HR field
during the 1940s, published extensively and drew attention to the need for
HR managers in large factories. She further researched the subject and her
research results highlighted welfare aspects and related these to items such as
employee training, absenteeism, and labour turnover.
42
Among chose who responded co POSDCORB was a South African scholar

named Jacobus JN Cloece. During the mid-1960s, Cloece developed the
POFPPC (policy making, organising, financing, procedures, personnel and
control). In Cloece‘s work, personnel administration served as a key to study
ing PA. He referred to it as ‘staffing’, including functions such as personnel
provision, utilisation; and training and development (Cloece, 1985: 2).
His work was revised and updated by Chris Thornhill, who classified the
activities of the HR function into:
• personnel provision (creating posts, classifying them and allocating
them to classes);
• support functions (determining conditions of service, keeping records
and settling grievances); and
• training and development (induction, orientation and development)
(Thornhill. 2012: 229-242).
Another Souch African scholar who wrote on HRM was Yvonne Andrews. In
her book The personnel function, she elaborated on Cloete’s work and highlighted
personnel functions such as personnel provision, utilisation, compensation,
training and development, and retention (Andrews, 1988: 16-22). Later, two
other intellectuals, SX Hanekom and Chris 1 hornhill, published / he functions
of the public administrator. In this book, they emphasised the importance of
personnel development in promoting professionalism (Hanekom & Thornhill.
1986: 84). Paul Botes also contributed to the field by focusing on aspects of
supervision, particularly human behaviour in che workplace. He highlighted
certain items such as induction training, interviewing, training, handling of
conflict, discipline and grievances, personnel appraisal and labour relations
(Botes, 1994: 100).
William Fox, Erwin Schwella and Henry Wissink made more recent
contributions. In their book Public management, they trace the pervasive role
of leadership, which affects the life of every human being in the workplace
(Fox, Schwella & Wissink, 1991: 91-113) These authors relate leadership to
aspects such as motivation, communication and conflict management. In
addition, Schwella, Burger, Fox and Muller published a book entitled Public
resource management and wrote extensively on critical issues related to HRM.
These include labour relations and affirmative action (Schwella, Burger,
Fox & Muller, 1996: 81). Botes, Brynard. Fourie and Roux contributed
Public administration and management and offered some insightful thoughts
on personnel administration. They elaborated on the influence of previous
authorsand focused on aspects such as personnel policy, financial implications
43
of the personnel function, organisational arrangements and control (Botes,

Brynard, Fourie & Roux, 1996: 322).
In their book Managingfor excellence in the public sector, Gerrit van der Waldt and
DaanduToir discussed pertinent HRM issues. Theyeinphasised the significant
role personnel play in governmental relations and recognise the importance
of the leadership function in managing public employees. Recognising the
influence that leadership can have on governmental performance, they offer
practical advice to HR managers on the development of negotiation skills,
interpersonal and labour relations, handling of conflict, change and diversity
(Van der Waldt & Du Toit. 1997: 196-200).
As public institutions keep on changing, well-judged and effective

management of human resources is essential for the successful rendering of
services to South African communities. This is the focus of The fundamentals
ofpublic personnel management (Cheminais, Bayat. Van der Waldt & Fox, 1998).
They argue that the availability of items such as physical resources, equipment
and technology is of no consequence without a well-trained group of public
employees providing professional services to the different parties. They present
an open-systems perspective, explaining that HR activities such as provision,
motivation, compensation, maintenance, training and development, and
equity and labour relations are central to the success of a public institution
(Cheminais etal. 1998: 45-64).
David M Mello continued the theme of the connection between the skills levels
(calibre) of public employees and effective service delivery. His book Managing
human capital in the public sector concerns all HR activities from recruitment
to termination of employment. Inspired by the work of other South African
scholars in the field of HRM, he expanded on themes such as strategic human
capital management, acquisition, employment equity, compensation, career
management, talent management, and employee relations (Mello, 2013: 1 -9).
Employment equity in the workplace is illustrated with a disability
discrimination example in ‘Spotlight on the law 2.1’ below). The research of
ChrisThornhill. Gerda van Dijk and Isioma He gave rise to Public administration
and management in South Africa. An entire chapter in this book is devoted to
the developmental stages of HRM, the functions inherent in human capital
management, and HR functions such as recruitment, selection, placement
and retention (Thornhill, Van Dijk & lie, 2014: 314-333).
44
Discrimination on the ground of disability
Imvula Quality Protection created a WhatsApp group for managers to

engage with each other in the workplace. During the course cf a WhatsApp
discussion, the operations manager referred to Mr Ngwabe as ‘one eye.’ In
reality, Mr Ngwabe was indeed blind in the one eye. Ngwabe took exception
and lodged a grievance complaint against the operations manager. The
operations manager expressed his regret and was issued with a written
warning by the employer for making inappropriate remarks towards
a fellow employee. Ngwabe submitted a dispute to the Commission
for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration (CCMA), claiming that he
had been exposed to unfair discrimination, seeking compensation of
R500 000. However, the employer insisted that it had taken proper action
and that there was no basis for the claim. The commissioner in the case
of Ngwabe and Imvula Quality Protection (Pty) Ltd (2017) 38 ILJ 724 (CCMA)
mentioned that Ngwabe had conveyed his claim as one of discrimination
on the position of disability - a listed ground. This implied that the
company bore the liability of evidencing, on a balance of probabilities,
that discrimination did not take place. The commissioner noticed that
the comment, though it was inadequate (judgement), did not represent
unfair discrimination or unfavourable treatment based on prejudice
in the workplace. The commissioner was further of the opinion that
Ngwabe’s biased sense of indignation could not itself draw an award of
compensation - the claim was dismissed.
Source: Grogan, Maserumuie & Govindjee (2017: 24-25)
2.6 Professionalism and the South African Board for

People Practices
A historic event occurred inJune 2012, when the South African Qualifications
Authority recognised the SABPP as a professional body and set in motion the
process to register the SABPP’s HR specialists' qualifications on the National
Learners Record Database. This meant that HR specialists registered with
the SABPP would have official professional status, alongside other more
traditional professions. The SABPPserves the same need as in other professions
for an impartial body to set credible standards (related to the education and
training of new entrants, registration and professional conduct).
45
2.6.1 Registration
You can now either register as an HR generalist or a specialist in any of the
categories below:
• Master HR Professional (masters doctorate + 6 years’ top management
level experience).
• Chartered H R Professional (honours + 4 years’ senior management level
experience).
• HR Professional (3-year degree/diploma + 3 years’ middle management
level experience).
• HR Associate (2-year diploma + 2 year s HR experience).
• HR Technician (1-year certificate + 1 year’s HR experience).
• Candidate (3/4 years HR related qualification and be gainfully employed).
2.6.2 National Human Resource Management System

Standards Model
Most HR specialists are doing their best to establish an effective HR office.
However, they are doing so in the absence of a universal framework for
HR practices. Hence, the SABPP, in consultation with the HR profession,
developed the national HRM System Standards Model, describing what
institutions should have in place in order to enhance their human capital
and to offer meaningful work for employees (Meyer & Abbott, 2019: 28-30).
The model has been tailor-made for the HR field. In this model all HR work
needs to adhere to the following four distinct phases:
1. Preparation: First, all HR work needs to be prepared or planned. This
planning commences with the strategic framework of the institution.
2. Implementation: Second, once planning has been completed HR
managers have to implement HR policies, strategies and practices.
3. Review: Third, all HR work needs to be reviewed and evaluated to
determine the value it adds to the institution.
4. Improvement: Fourth, once the effect of HR work (good or bad) is
determined, key improvements should be made so that the system
continues to improve.
46
This model contains 13 standard elements, namely:

1. strategic HRM;
2. talent management;
3. HR risk management;
4. workforce planning;
5. learning and development;
6. performance management;
7. reward and recognition;
8. employee wellness;
9. employment relations management (ERM);
10. organisation development;
11. HR service delivery;
12. HR technology; and
13. HR measurement.
In addition, the HRM System Standards Model provides for an HR Com

petency Model, which is directly linked to the 13 standards and describes
what HR specialists need to be able to offer in terms of knowledge, skills and
behaviour to implement the standards. The HR Competency Model consists
of the following three broad competence areas (Meyer & Abbott, 2019: 46-48):
1. four pillars of professionalism (duty to society; ethics; professionalism;
HR and institutional knowledge);
2. five core competencies (leadership and personal credibility; institu
tional capability; solution creation and implementation; interpersonal
and communication skills; citizenship for the future); and
3. five HR capabilities (strategy; talent management; HR governance; risk
and compliance;analytics and measurement; and HR service delivery).
2.7 Remaining a valued human resource specialist

Individuals who choose a career in the public HRM field specifically, and
who want to become successful HR specialists and professionals, must keep
abreast of the latest developments in the relevant areas in order to ensure
that they remain knowledgeable, valued, state-of-the-art HR practitioners.
They must constantly add to their knowledge and keep in contact with other
specialists. To accomplish this, it is necessary to read extensively and to
become a member of associations where interaction with others with similar
interests can take place.
47
Globally, the International Public Management Association for Human

Resources, American Society for Public Administration, European Association
for Public Administration, European Institute of Public Administration and
the Network of Institutes and Schools of Public Administration in Central
and Eastern Europe (NISPAcee) are examples of prominent institutions in
the HRM field. All these institutions originated from the genuine efforts of
people and institutions in different regions to share their knowledge and
skills and cope with present and future challenges in the field. They serve
as well-functioning forums for the exchange of ideas, facilitating training
and education in specialised fields of HRM, supporting the development
of research capacities, and accelerating the implementation of theory and
methodology into the practice of HRM by providing consultancy services.
Many associations in South Africa enhance the professional status of the HR

function through debate and dialogue in order to improve the understanding
of employment relations at multiple levels. One such example is the Institute
of People Management. Other relevant associations include the Industrial
Relations Association ofSouth Africa, the Employee Assistance Professionals
Association of South Africa, the Association of Southern African Schools
and Departments of Public Administration and Management and the South
African Association of Public Administration and Management. By joining
associations such as these, individuals can meet and connect with other
professionals who also want to stay on top of their professions.
Apart from the networking that can be undertaken by joining these institutes,
and actively taking part in their activities, it is important to read the relevant
journals to remain a valued HR scholar and specialist. Some of the more
prominent South African and international publications are listed below:
• Administrate Publica
• American Review ofPublic Administration
• British Journal ofIndustrial Relations
• Contemporary Labour Lair
• Employment Law
• European Industrial Relations Review
• HR Future
• Human Resource Management Journal
• Industrial Relations Journal
• International Journal ofHuman Resource Management
• International Journal ofPublic Sector Management
48
• Journal ofHuman Resources

• Journal ofIndustrial Relations
• Journal ofOrganizational Behavior
• Journal ofPublic Administration
• Personnel Journal
• Personnel Management
• Politeia (Journal of the Departments of Political Sciences and Public
Administration)
• Public Management Review
• Public Personnel Management
• Review ofPublic Personnel Administration
• South African Journal ofHuman Resource Management
• South African Journal of Labour Relations
• The Personnel Administrator
• The Public Manager
2.8 Conclusion
This chapter discussed the theoretical aspects of public sector HRM from an
international and South African perspective, addressing historical and more
recent developments. The contributions of well-known international experts
in the field were examined. When analysing HRM in South Africa, special
attention was paid to the pioneering work of Isobel White and her influence
on HRM in this country.
Some contemporary perspectives on HRM in the public sector were also

considered. The South African public sector HR specialist is confronted
with a variety of challenges in the external environment, which call for a
professional approach to rhe management of people in the public sector.
To equip oneself for these challenges, one can study for professional HR
qualifications and register with the SABPP. As public sector HRM specialists
seek to professionalise themselves, they must constantly add knowledge
to their fields of expertise by reading in the subject field and by joining
professional associations and subscribing to professional journals.
49

1. Has HRM in South Africa been influenced by international develop
ments in the field?
2. How has the discipline developed from early times, including
foundations, political context and administration principles?
3. Notions about the management of people played a significant role in
the history of the discipline. Which are the five models developed in
this regard?
4. What is the role of the writers who were instrumental in the develop
ment ofthe hybrid model?
5. To which three periods in South Africa is the history of HRM clearly
related?
6. What are the roles played by the South African scholars described in
this chapter in the PA and HRM fields?
7. As an HR management specialist, how would one describe a
contemporary South African perspective on the HR function?
8. What are the options available to professionalise oneself in HRM in
South Africa? What is the role of the SABPP and how does one go
about networking and reading?
50
Part?
Strategising and planning
People in any organization are always attached to the obsolete - the things
that should have worked but did not, the things that once were productive
and no longer are...
Peter Drucker
In Parc 1 we explained that human resource management (HRM)

ought to be managed in accordance with a strategic approach,
che need for which was already being mooted in the early 1980s
in South Africa. The strategic approach to HRM is a recurrent
theme in this book. In Part 2. we aim to present specific aspects
of this approach in greater detail.
We have already noted that public service delivery is a strongly

labour-intensive activity. Because so many people are employed
in the public sector, it is essential that public managers think
ahead about the kind of human resources they will need and
how to obtain, keep and optimally utilise these human resources.
Strategies have to be developed within the parameters set by the
budgetary process. Strategy, in this regard, includes adopting
wide-ranging techniques, such as organisational redesign,
process re-engineering and outsourcing.
Applied in a narrow sense, strategising and planning for human resources
refers co staffing. This refers co employment practices such as recruiting,
selecting, appointing and orientating employees that are categorised under
the central theme of‘talent management’ this aspect will be addressed in
Part 3, Chapter 7. The strategising and planning function can be extended
to other human resources (HR) casks, such as promotion, redeployment,
career management, green demands in the workplace, the Fourth Industrial
Revolution (4IR) and decolonisation. Depending on the results of a planning
exercise, strategies need to be developed and implemented in terms of specific
HR needs (workforce planning).
As part of their strategies, employers are even currently adopting green HR

practices (as a form of‘employer branding’) in order to improve their selection
attractiveness for an increasingly environmentally aware younger generation.
More information is also provided by the institution during the recruitment
and selection process in terms of the environmental activities of the
institution, compared with traditional media such as newspaper advertising
or brochures.
The 41R is also on the doorstep of the corporate world, and there is a clear
distortion in the lines between people and technology and merging the
physical, digital and biological worlds. On a more strategic level, H R is shifting
from being a ‘steward of employment - recruitment, selection, appointment -
to being a ‘steward of work.' whether it is being done by a person occupying a
job, a person extended by a machine or an employee of an outsourcer. The 41R
plays out across the globe and it is creating this space for humans to express
true compassion sympathy, empathy, imagination, inventiveness, originality
and ability to communicate with emotional intelligence.
In the process of developing strategies and working out plans, it is important

to bear in mind that HRM does not take place in a vacuum. Many variables
singly or collectively influence the HR function in the public sector. These
variables provide guidelines for all HR activities. It is important for the
public manager to take note of these variables and to realise that the
functions of the HR office are shaped by the nature, purpose and context of
government (the political field), the existing public management framework
(organisational structures and policies), prevailing social values (for example,
religious influences), and the public interest and changes such as economic
developments that are taking place continuously.
Chapter
Green human resource
management
Riana Stone
Purpose
This chapter provides a broad overview of green human resource
management (GHRM) to equip the reader with a better insight into the
nature and content of this field of study.
Learning outcomes
• Explain the concept of GHRM in the public sector.
• Describe the need for GHRM in South Africa.
• Describe the role and functions of a green human resource manager
(GHR manager).
• Identify the advantages and disadvantages of GHRM.
• Have insight into international trends in GHRM.
• Have insight into legislation guiding local GHRM.
• Explain how the four leadership-learning-for-performance questions
could be applied to identify problems in GHRM.
• Identify the problems with the implementation of GHRM in
South Africa.
• Explain how lessons learnt can contribute to the successful
implementation of GHRM.
• Outline and describe the characteristics of a GHR manager.
3.1 Introduction
South Africa is a beautiful yet contrasting country, with a mix of both
developed and developing world characteristics. It is a country where green
jungles with wild animals coexist in close proximity with modern cities and
where the protection of (he environment by government, industry and citizens
is hailed in (he Constitution (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1996), different sector
policies and legislation. Through legislation, interest groups and society put
pressure on all public and private institutions to abide by the three pillars
of sustainability namely compliance, governance and ethics which serve
as a solid platform for the development of a sustainability-conscious nation
(Mcembu, 2018:577).
GHRM has become the buzz word within the public and private sector and
its significance is increasing manifold with the passage of time. This term
has also secured its position as a hot topic in recent research works since
the awareness of environmental management and sustainable development
globally has been rising increasingly day by day. Today the topic of GHRM
not only includes awareness of environmental affairs but also stands for the
social and economic well-being of both the institution and the employees
within a broader prospect (Telephonic interview, Nel. B. April 2020).
This chapter provides an overview of what GHRM entails, the need thereof,
its advantages and disadvantages as well as global trends in GHRM. Problems
identified with the implementation of GHRM will furthermore be explained
and possible solutions suggested. Lastly, the characteristics of a GH R manager
will be outlined.
3.2 Conceptual and theoretical framework

The world is going green - from activists who want to save the planet and
influence climate change to (hose who are yearning for a simpler, less stressed
and less complicated lifestyle (Telephonic interview, Nel, B. April 2020).
What then is the impact of going green on how people work and perform
m institutions?
There is a growing need for the integration of environmental management

into human resource management (HRM) practices such effort is known
as GHRM initiatives. GHRM looks at the role that the HR division plays in
assisting institutions to adopt green lifestyles, by being environ mentally aware,
resource efficient and sustainable (Mishra, 2017: 762). It involves undertaking
54
Chapter 3: Green human resource management
environmental friendly HR initiatives resulting in greater efficiencies, lower

costs and improved employee engagement and retention which, in turn, help
organisations to reduce employee carbon footprints (Arulrajah, Opatha &
Nawaratne, 2016: 104).
Cohen. Taylor and Muller-Camen (2012: 18), furthermore states that:
Sustainability practice needs to be embedded across an organisation at all levels,
becoming an ongoing change process, since the prime focus and skills of HR
professionals include organisational process, change management and culture
stewardship, /GHR] should take a leading role in developing and implementing
a sustainability strategy.
In the twenty-first century, HR practitioners are expected to be agile,

transformative and environmentally conscious. HR operations are required
to be aligned with the current environmental trends to ensure long
term sustainability. An institution’s HR division can be instrumental in
facilitating a comprehensive approach to creating a culture of sustainability
and environmental stewardship (Liebowitz, 2010: 50). Therefore, developing
a new organisational culture through GHRM practices becomes a manager's
concern. Developing a green culture can affect employee behaviour and
introduce certain values that build an internal culture.
Schein’s (2004: 12) organisational culture theory helps us to understand the

kind of vision, beliefs, values, principles, behaviours and goals an institution
requires in embedding a culture of sustainability. The mainstream
organisational culture theory of Schein provides a remarkable foundation
in the exploration of how organisational culture can be established towards
being conducive for green and sustainable operations as it provides the
building blocks for the foundation of a strong organisational culture. Schein
(2004: 17) defines culture as a ‘pattern of shared basic assumptions that
was learned by a group as it solved its problems of external adaptation and
internal integration’. These basic assumptions should work well enough to be
considered valid and therefore to be taught to new members as the correct way
to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems.
The question of whether GHRM practise is important in the institution will

be non-existent if it was naturally in the culture of institutions to conserve
resources. Culture therefore plays a vital role in the realisation of green
institutions. Therefore, one can argue that with HR employing the building
blocks laid out in Schein's (2004: 12) organisational culture theory, they can
build an organisational culture whose identity is synonymous with the term
‘greening organisation’.
55
3.2.1 The need for green human resource management

The last two decades of this century have witnessed a unanimous consensus
for the need of a realistic environmental management drive all over the world.
The quality of our environment affects all of us no matter where we live.
When people abuse the environment, this affects us all. If water is polluted,
if the air is full of smoke and chemicals, if food contains poisons, people, as
well as plants and animals, are harmed. Many of the natural resources that
we use or consume every day, such as water, wood, minerals and fish, will soon
run out if we do not limit or regulate the rate at which we use them. All people
have a responsibility to protect the environment to ensure that it will be of
benefit for ourselves as well as future generations (Glazewski, 2013: 164).
As Bansal and Roth (2000: 717) observe, in the face of a growing global
concern for the environment the critical need for sustainable institutional
practices and strategies as well as ecologically responsible products and
processes is undeniable. Public and private sector institutions have responded
to this call by adopting a number of environmentally responsible strategies
either through mandated or proactive means. Although there is substantial
evidence for changes in operational procedures and behaviour (for example
recycling, reducing energy use. and using environmentally benign products),
z less evidence for how this concern for the environment has
there is relatively
permeated the GHR realm. Although changes in operational procedures
and employee behaviour are crucial, a holistic approach to environmentally
responsible practices requires that environmental initiatives be fully
integrated with HR practices (Telephonic interview, Nel, B. April 2020).
The lack of government efforts to adopt eco-friendly practices across govern

mental operations and procedures sends a weak message to the private sector
about the seriousness of government to really ‘green’ its approach. For this
reason, the alignment ofstated environmental goalsand operations, such as H R
practices and procedures, is important if government is serious about moving
in a green direction and demonstrating that resolve to the private sector.
According to Jabbour and Santos (2008: 2133) the symbiotic relationship

between HR and eco-friendly initiatives can be illustrated by the fact that
sustainability practices can only be implemented successfully through a
well-trained, well-informed pool of employees, and new initiatives can be
envisioned only by employees who are motivated, creative, and empowered.
56
Madsen and Ulhoi (2002: 59) emphasise the association between HR factors
such as environmental training, employee empowerment, rewards, teamwork
and support of senior management as essential in achieving sustainability
and in implementing successful environmental management systems.
3.3 The role and function of the green human

resource manager
G11R managers examine corporate activities to establish where improvements
can be made and ensure compliance with environmental legislation across
the institution. They have a wide remit and will review the entire operation,
conducting environmental audits and assessments, identifying and resolving
environmental problems and acting as agents of change.
An important role of a GHR manager is to ensure that staff are trained at all
levels and that the workforce recognises their own contributions to improved
environmental performance. They have a particularly varied workload, which
usually entails working ac a corporate and strategic level to identify significant
environmental effects. Typical work activities include:
• Developing and implementing environmental strategies and action
plans that ensure corporate sustainable development.
• Leading the implementation of environmental policies and practices.
• Taking the lead on sustainable procurement for all goods and services.
• Coordinating all aspects of pollution control, waste management,
recycling, environmental health, conservation, and renewable energy.
• Ensuring compliance with environmental legislation.
• Auditing, analysing, and reporting on environmental performance to
the public and regulatory bodies.
• Promoting and raising awareness of emerging environmental issues.
• Managing the development and implementation of an environmental
management system.
• Training staff at all levels in environmental issues.
• Participating in environmental education and research.
• Writing ofenvironmental reports (Telephonic interview. Nel, B. April 2020).
57
DID YOU KNOW?

The Minister of Public Service and Administration has announced a government
directive (Circular 5 of 2009), that in terms of Section 3(3)(c), read with
Section 5(4) of the Public Service Act 103 of 1994, GPSSBC Resolutions 3 and
5 of 2009, effective from 1 July 2009, the Occupation Specific Dispensation
(post and salary structures) for Scientists applies to employees who are
appointed in terms of the Public Service Act. According to Korommbi,
(Personal interview: 2020), this legislation is not effectively applied and is the
main problem for the lack of implementation of GHRM in the public sector.
Source Republic of South Africa (2009)
An example ofthe application of GHRM litigation is explained in ‘Spotlight

on the law 3.1'
Before the government fulfils its mandate in terms of Section 24(bJ, it

will have to ensure that there is a balance, not only in environmental
considerations, but also social and economic considerations - namely
sustainable development. In the well-known case Minister of Public Works
and Others v Kyalami Ridge Environmental Association and Another, heavy rains
led to extensive flooding and the subsequent destruction of homes of
approximately 300 people. The government decided to establish a site
for temporary accommodation. The residents then brought an interdict
restraining the respondents from proceeding with the establishment of
an informal settlement for the temporary accommodation. The residents’
argument was based on the premise that government’s action was in
contravention ofthe relevant town planning scheme as well as the applicable
environmental legislation, and possible damage to the environment that
the temporary camps would have. The court granted an interim interdict
and ordered the government to comply with the necessary environmental
legislation. The government then successfully appealed the case to the
Constitutional Court. The appeal raised important constitutional
considerations such as government s obligation to provide assistance to
flood victims. The court concluded that if regard was had to government’s
constitutional obligations to owners of the land, its decision to establish
the temporary camp for the victims of the flooding was lawful.
Source: Glazewski, (2013: 181)
58
3.4 Advantages and disadvantages of green human

resource management
The Unman Resource Department of an institution plays a significant role
in the creation of a sustainability culture (Hannon, Fairfield & Wittenberg,
2007: 12). In this regard, Bohdanowich, Zientara and Novotna, (2011:
1544) noted that the greater the strength of GHR policies, the greater the
intensity of adaptation of environment management systems and policies by
institutions. The main objective of GHRM is to make the employees aware
of the intricacies of environmental management, for instance, what action is
needed, how it functions, and how does it help the environment. During this
process of going green, the HR manager will be met with certain obstacles as
well, and it is therefore important for all the role players in the institution
to understand why going green is important and that it has the following
advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages:
• It creates a culture of having concern for the well-being and health of
fellow workers.
• It helps in creating higher employee job satisfaction.
• It helps in creating a green, friendly environment.
• Institutions have an opportunity to reduce their carbon footprint.
• Improvement in the retention rate of employees.
• Improved public image.
• Promote employee morale.
• Improvement in attracting better employees.
• Reduction in the environmental impact of the institution.
• Increased business opportunities.
Disadvantages:
While going green is a positive ideal for institutions, there are several possible
disadvantages as well and HR managers should be aware of them. According to
Khorommbi (Personal interview. March 2020), the disadvantages are as follows:
• Initial costs perhaps the greatest disadvantage of going green is that
it often requires a large initial cost. For example, installing new eco-
friendly solar panels in government departments may cost a lot of money
initially, but in the long run. it can assist in lower electricity costs, and
also contribute to the regulation of the temperature in the building.
59
• Marginal impact The theory is that if everyone were to go green, it would

have a significant and noticeable impact, but not all can be convinced to
go green and many believe that doing so has no real impact.
• Employee apathy and reluctance Many employees feel that it is not
their responsibility to protect the environment while they are at work.
• Lack of expertise GHR managers need specific qualifications, which is a
big problem that many government institutions are currently facing.
DID YOU KNOW?

The Government of South Africa through the Department of Environmental
Affairs (DEA) (now the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries
(DEFF)) has set up a Green Fund to support the transition to a low carbon,
resource-efficient and climate-resilient development path delivering
high impact economic, environmental and social benefits. The DEA has
appointed the Development Bank of Southern Africa as the implementing
agent of the Green fund and R800 million represents the initial resources
available for disbursement.
Source: Republic of South Africa (2009) Department of Environmental Affairs website:
http://www.environment.gov.za , 20 April 2020
3.5 International trends in green human resource

management
It can be asserted that nowadays no country can effectively protect its
environment and solve its various environmental problems on its own. No
matter how advanced its science and technology are or how perfect the
means of legislation and implementation of environmental law are, an
independent effort to resolve global problems is not enough. Given this
situation, international jurists have clearly realised that the drafting and
implementation of especially international environmental law must take into
account the needs and differences between first- and third-world countries.
Countries differ in the way that they deal with environmental management
and GHRM according to their unique circumstances. Following is a look at
certain trends that can be observed in Europe. Asia and the United States of
America regarding GHRM.
60
In Europe, the environmental or green HR movement is led by the European

Union (EU) which has some of the world’s highest environmental standards.
Environmental policy helps the EU region to become more environmentally
friendly, protects Europe’s natural resources, and safeguards the health and
well-being of people living in the EU. All the countries are assisting and making
sure that officials work together to meet the EU s implementation of the Paris
Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), with its main objective to mitigate greenhouse-gas-emissions as far
as possible. Sustainable development is an overarching objective for the EU. which
is committed to a high level of protection and improvement of the quality of the
environment. The EU has also developed the Environmental Management and
Audit System based on ISO 14001-standards, where countries and individuals
in the EU could be evaluated and monitored against one another, and prices
are being awarded on a yearly basis. The European Environment Agency is an
agency of the EU and assists in supporting sustainable development. Germany
and Belgium are currently leading the way in the implementation of GHRM
actions and the training of officials in government departments and teachers
in the education field to be able to implement and monitor environmental
programmes (www.vmm.be). Germany specifically has also adopted new policies
to bring their country closer to a renewable energy revolution. ‘Out with the old,
in with the new’, is one such policy where nuclear power is seen as incompatible
with a long-term renewable strategy, and a nuclear power phase-out is a central
part of Germany’s energy transition.
Many of the key environmental problems facing Asia such as poverty, ecological
degradation, weather extremes and water shortages are integrally linked to the
pathways countries have taken to achieve economic growth. More governments
are recognising that they can no longer afford strategies that negatively affect
the well-being of communities and the environment. The Asia Foundation is
strategically positioned and plays an important role in the green agenda. The
Foundation orga nised the first Northeast Asia Mayor s Forum on Green Growth,
bringing together municipal leaders from eight cities in China, Mongolia, and
Korea. The forum created a platform for officials to learn and exchange best
practices to implement in their respective cities. The Foundation also assists the
Department of Disaster Management in Thailand to train officials to expand
the reach of early warning systems through smartphones.
In Bangladesh. India and Nepal, the Foundation partnered with government

departments responsible for water affairs to provide financial aid to
manage transboundary water governance issues more effectively (https://
asiafoundation.org).
61
Governmental authority in the United States of America is highly

fragmented. While the Environmental Protection Agency is the most
comprehensive environmental agency, its authority on these matters is
not absolute. As chief executive, the President plays an important role in
environmental policy, and can veto legislation and, through executive
orders, regulate administrative behaviour. The environmental policy of
the Trump administration represents a shift from the priorities and goals
of the Obama administration. While Obama’s environmental agenda
prioritised the reduction of carbon emissions using clean renewable energy,
the Trump administration has sought to increase fossil fuel use and
scrapped environmental regulations. The United States also announced on
1 June 2017 their plans to pull our of rhe UNFCCC, and will officially do so on
4 November 2020 (Lavelle, 2019: 14). Where America was once considered a
world leader in sustainable environmental management, it is currently seen
as a country that is moving backwards.
3.6 South African legislation and structures guiding

green human resource management
According to Jabbour and Santos (2008: 2138), GHRM is guided by certain
legislation and structures pertaining to a country. It is therefore important
for the GHR manager to have knowledge and understanding of all relevant
legislation and structures pertaining to environmental management in
South Africa.
• There are three categories of law in South Africa that affect the
relationship between people and the environment:
• The Constitution which protects various human rights, including our
right to enjoy and have access to the environment.
• The Common Law which regulates how people interact with each other
in the context of the environment and which protects our use and
enjoyment of our own property.
• National, Provincial and Municipal Laws that apply across all aspects
of the environment, and others that are sectoral in nature and apply
to certain aspects of the environment such as fresh water, marine
environment, forests or mineral resources.
Section 24 of the Constitution explicitly grants environmental rights and

states clearly that ‘everyone has the right
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(a) to an environment that is not harmful to their health or wellbeing;

and
(b) to have rhe environment protected, for the benefit of present and
future generations, through reasonable legislative and other measures
that -
(i) prevent pollution and ecological degradation;
(ii) promote conservation: and
(iii) secure ecologically sustainable development
Section 24 therefore places a duty on all spheres of government to take

reasonable steps, including to make laws, to prevent pollution, promote
conservation and ensure sustainable development.
In the late 199O’s, South Africa ratified several international conventions

relating to the environment. It also enacted the National Environmental
Management Act 107 of 1998 (NEMA) (Republic of South Africa, 1998), which
supplemented but did not entirely repeal the provisions of the Environment
Conservation Act 73 of 1989, (Republic of South Africa, 1989).
Other important recent legislation includes:

• National Water Act 36 of 1998.
• National Forests Act 30 of 1998.
• National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act 57 of 2003.
• National Environmental Biodiversity Act 10 of 2004.
• Marine Living Resources Act 18 of 1998 (Glazewski, 2013: 164).
Chapter 3 of the Constitution, entitled ‘Co-operative government/ further

more reflects a fundamental departure from the past, in that the three spheres
of government are no longer regarded as hierarchical tiers with the national
government at the helm, but rather, in the words of the Constitution, as
'distinctive, interdependent and interrelated.’ Cooperative relationships
between all spheres of government play a central role in the development of
an integrated environmental management framework for South Africa.
According to Paterson and Kotze (2009) all three spheres of government

have a key role to play in environmental governance and, accordingly,
environmental compliance and enforcement. However, this role has to a degree
been undermined by significant overlap in their respective competences,
which, during the course of the past decade, has resulted in legislative and
institutional fragmentation, both within and between the different spheres
63
of governance. This fragmentation has in turn led to functional duplication

and confusion, an undesirable reality in a country with significant resource
constraints. Cooperative governance is accordingly regarded as ‘a necessary
precursor’ for the development of an effective environmental compliance and
enforcement effort in South Africa.
National authority
National executive authority is vested in the President who, together with the
Cabinet, must implement national legislation, develop and implement national
policy, coordinate the functions of state departments and administrations,
prepare and initiate legislation, and perform any other executive function
provided for in law. The Cabinet consists of the President, a Deputy President
and the Ministers. The members ofthe Cabinet must, inter alia, act in accordance
with the Constitution and provide Parliament with full and regular reports
concerning matters under their control (Glazewski,2013: 170).
In the environmental context, the Minister of Environmental Affairs and

Tourism, with the DEFF, constitutes the leading national environmental
authority. There are a number of other ministries and departments which
also play a role in environmental governance. They include Agriculture,
Foreign Affairs, Health, Housing, Justice and Constitutional Development,
Land Affairs, Provincial and Local Government, Science and Technology,
Transport, Minerals and Energy. Trade and Industry* and Water Affairs.
The fact that environmental matters fall within the jurisdiction of so many
different ministries and departments poses an immense challenge for
developing a coherent and effective environmental regime in South Africa.
The national government’s legislative authority is similarly prescribed in

Section 44 of the Constitution. It has exclusive competence to make laws govern
ing the following environmental matters, namely national parks; national
botanical gardens; marine resources; fresh water resources; and mining.
Furthermore, it has concurrent competence with provincial government to

make laws regulating the following environmental matters, namely' indigenous
forests, agriculture, disaster management, cultural matters, environment, health
services, housing, nature conservation, pollution control, regional planning and
development, soil conservation, trade, and urban and rural development.
The national government has exercised this legislative authority to prescribe

an extensive array' of new environmental laws, such as the:
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• National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998.

• National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 10 of 2004.
• National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act 39 of 2004.
• National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act 57 of 2003.
• National Water Act 36 of 1998.
• Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act 28 of 2002.
These laws, which apply across the entire territory of South Africa, and are
generally administered by several national departments, contain a myriad of
provisions of relevance to environmental compliance and enforcement.
National legislative and executive competence is provided for in Section 44

of the Constitution, which states that Parliament may pass legislation on any
matter, including a matter referred to in Schedule 4, but excluding a matter in
Schedule 5, unless it is a matter in which it is specifically authorised to intervene.
Among the reasons for which it may intervene within a functional area listed in
Schedule 5 are the following, which are relevant to environmental concerns:
to maintain essential national standards;
to establish minimum standards required for the rendering ofservices; or
to prevent unreasonable action taken by a province which is prejudicial to the
interests ofanother province or to the country as a whole.
Parliament therefore enjoys ‘residual competence,’ in that it has exclusive

legislative competence in respect of all matters which are not expressly
assigned to the concurrent or exclusive competence of provincial legislatures.
If, in other words, the matter appears in neither Schedule 4 nor Schedule 5,
Parliament has exclusive competence to deal with it.
If standards are not uniform throughout the country, individual provinces

could pass, for example, less stringent standards for their individual provinces
to attract industrial investment. This, however, could be detrimental to the
national public environmental interest. According to Glazewski, (2013: 182),
uniform standards, would inhibit a situation where polluting industries
go ‘polluter-haven shopping’, for the provinces with the least stringent
environmental standards.
65
Provincial authority
South Africa has nine provinces, each with its own provincial government,
which possesses legislative and executive authority. The legislative authority
of a province vests in its provincial legislature, which Section 104 of the
Constitution states may pass legislation not only in respect of the functional
areas listed in Schedule 4 and 5, but also in respect of any matter outside those
functional areas, and that is expressly assigned to the province by national
legislation as stipulated in Section 44(l)(d) of the Constitution.
Provincial legislatures must provide for mechanisms to ensure that all

provincial executive organs of state are accountable to it, and must maintain
oversight of the exercise of provincial executive authority in the province,
including the implementation of legislation.
The executive power in the principal sphere vests in the premier of the
province, who exercises this authority together with the Members of the
Executive Council (MECs).
Executive powers accorded to the provincial executives include:

• Implementing provincial legislation in the province.
• Implementing all national legislation within the functional areas listed
in Schedules 4 and 5 of the Constitution.
• Developing and implementing provincial policy.
• Coordinating the functions of the provincial administration and its
departments.
• Preparing and initiating provincial legislation.
Sections 146 to 150 of the Constitution also enables relevant provincial

executive authorities to intervene in local governance, where a municipality
refrains from or fails to fulfil an executive obligation in terms of legislation, by
taking any appropriate steps to ensure fulfilment of that obligation. A typical
example would be where provincial legislation compels all local governments
within the province to draft a cultural heritage resources management plan,
and a particular municipality fails to do so.
In most instances, MEC’s are responsible for the various provincial depart
ments, certain of which undertake environmental functions. The manner in
which these functions are grouped per department varies between the provinces:
66
In Gauteng, for example, the Department of Agriculture, Conservation and

Environment administers environmental matters, whereas in the Western
Cape, the Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning
is the provincial environmental authority.
Local authority
Within the sphere of local government, South Africa has 278 municipalities.
As the sphere of government closest to communities, local government has
an essential role to play in promoting not only socio-economic development
and the provision of basic services, but also environmental compliance and
enforcement (Kotze and Paterson, 2009: 133).
The Constitution outlines in Section 156 the objectives, composition,
executive powers and legislative functions of local governments. They generally
have the right to govern, at their own initiative, the local affairs relevant to
their community, subject to national and provincial legislation. National
and provincial governments may not, however, compromise or impede a
municipality’s ability or right to exercise its powers or to perform its functions.
Some of the environmentally relevant areas over which local governments
exercise legislative competence include building regulations, electricity and
gas reticulation, municipal planning, specified water and sanitation services,
cleansing, control of public nuisances, municipal roads, noise pollution,
public places, refuse removal, refuse dumps, and solid waste disposal.
The Constitution goes on to set out the areas of local authority competence,
stipulating that a municipality has executive authority and the right to
administer local government matters listed in the respective Part B’s of
Schedules 4 and 5, so that ‘air pollution’, for example, being a Part B item
in Schedule 4, may be administered by local authorities; and ‘any other
matter assigned to it by national or provincial legislation’. In this regard, a
further subsection stipulates that national and provincial government must
assign, by agreement, the administration of any Part A’ matter listed in
Schedules 4 and 5, if the matter would be more effectively administered
locally and the municipality has the capacity to administer it.
The Constitution requires provincial government to establish municipalities
in a manner consistent with legislation prescribed in the Constitution, and to
monitor, support and promote the development of local government capacity.
National legislation, in the form of the Local Government: Municipal
Structures Act 117 of 1998 (MSA) (Republic of South Africa, 1998), which
deals with local authority competences, has been passed.
67
The Constitution establishes three categories of municipalities:

A ‘Category A’ municipality has exclusive municipal executive and
legislative authority in area.
A ‘Category B' municipality shares municipal executive and legislative
authority in its area with a ‘Category C’ municipality.
z\ ‘Category C* municipality has municipal executive and legislative
authority in an area that includes more than one municipality.
The MSA elaborates on this categorisation, providing for ‘the establishment of

municipalities in accordance with the requirements relating to categories and
types of municipality,’ and seeks ‘to establish criteria for determining the category
of municipality in an area and related matters.' The Act includes chapters on:
• categories and types of municipality;
• the establishment of municipalities; and
• the functions and powers of municipalities.
The Constitution is clear in Schedule 4 that national government has

overriding powers as regards the setting of standards. Where uniform
standards are warranted, national government could invoke the provisions of
the Constitution which deal with conflicting laws.
Municipalities have executive authority and the right to administer the local
government matters listed in Part B of both Schedules 4 and 5, or through
Section 44(2) of the Constitution to make and administer by-laws in this
regard. They also have this right in respect of those matters specifically
assigned to them by national or provincial legislation. Furthermore, Part A
matters which relate to local government must be assigned to municipalities
if the matter would most effectively/ be administered locally, / 7 and if the
municipality has the capacity to administer it.
It follows from all this that either national government or provincial

governments are to administer pollution laws generally, but that, in the case
of air pollution, local authorities have the right to do so.
Section 41(1) of the Constitution specifically prescribes a set of principles

of cooperative governance and intergovernmental relations. The Inter
governmental Relations Framework Act 13 of2005 (Republic ofSouth Africa,
2005) (IRFA) contains detailed provisions on cooperative governance, while
NEMA prescribes an array of statutory mechanisms for achieving cooperative
environmental governance, such as a set of national environmental manage
ment principles, planning frameworksand procedures for conflict resolution.
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Intergovernmental Relations Framework Act

The IRFA is rhe primary Act on cooperative governance. Its specific objectives
include facilitating and coordinating the implementation of policy and
legislation, including coherent government; monitoring such implementation;
providing for effective services; and realising national priorities (Republic of
When read together with the conflict resolution procedures prescribed in NEMA,
IRFA ‘should significantly contribute to resolving disputes arising as a result of
environmental governance inefficiencies' (Kotze & Paterson, 2009: 124).
National Environmental Management Act

The purpose of NEMA is dual in nature and is specifically dealt with in
Section 1 of rhe Act which reads as follows:
To provide for cooperative environmental governance by establishing principles
for decisionmaking on matters affecting the environment, institutions that will
promote cooperative governance and procedures for coordinating environmental
functions exercised by organs of state; and to provide for matters connected
therewith (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1998).
Chapter 3 of NEMA. entitled ‘Procedures for Co-operative Governance/

provides for the drawing up of environmental implementation plans by
certain scheduled national government departments and provinces. These
reflect how the activities of the organ of state affect the environment. In
addition, environmental management plans shall be drawn up by certain other
scheduled national departments. These reflect how the respective functions
of the departments listed involve the management of the environment.
These implementation plans are one of the strategic ways of implementing
the set of principles contained in Section 2 of the Act. More particularly,
Section 2 of the Act stipulates the following:
• All provinces, and only those national government departments listed
in Schedules 1 and 2, have to carryout environmental implementation
and/or management plans.
• Schedule 1 lists national government departments which exercise
functions which ‘may affect the environment.’ These have to prepare
environmental implementation plans.
• Schedule 2 lists national departments exercising functions that
‘involve the management of the environment’. These have to prepare
environmental management plans.
69
According to Glazewski (2013: 189), the primary focus of NEMA is not to

impose a set of burdensome requirements on the private sector but rather to
design a national environmental management system applicable to certain
organs of state whether at national, provincial, and possibly local level. These
requirements are the following:
• The provinces have to prepare environmental implementation plans only.
• Local authorities do not appear to be directly affected by these
requirements.
• Both implementation and management plans must be prepared within
one year of the promulgation of the Act. and every four years thereafter.
The purpose of both environmental implementation and environmental

management plans is set out in Section 14 of the Act. In essence, these plans
must give effect to: (1) the principle of cooperative governance; (2) enable
the Minister to monitor the achievement, promotion and protection of
sustainable environment, and (3) coordinate and harmonise environmental
policies, plans, programmes and decisions of national, provincial and local
tiers of government to minimise duplication and promote consistency.
DID YOU KNOW?

The DEFF, provincial environmental departments and municipalities
employ Environmental Management Inspectorates (EMI), a network of
environmental enforcement officials from various national, provincial and
local departments created by NEMA.
The mandate and functions of the EMI are to:
Investigate: question witnesses, inspect and remove articles, take
photographs, take samples ard remove waste.
Inspect: enter premises to ascertain whether legislation is fo lowed
and seize evidence of criminal activity.
Enforce: search premises, containers, vessels, vehicles, aircrafts,
seize evidence, establish roadblocks and make arrests.
Administrative: issue compliance notices and admission of guilt
fines. EMI are not empowered to prosecute cases in court.
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3.7 Problems identified with the implementation of

green human resource management in South
Africa, and possible solutions
As proven in rhe literature, when implementing GHRM practices, there is a
reliance on technical prerequisites or human/institutional aspects (Jabbour
& Santos, 2008: 2141). According to Schwella (2014: 66) environmental
managers should ask the four-leadership-learning-for-performance questions
to determine what the current situation in South Africa is regarding the
implementation of GHRM. The four questions will now be explained in the
con tex t of G HRM:
3.7.1 What happened?

The answer to question ‘what happened’, it is necessary to do a systematic
assessment of performance and trends based on empirical evidence (Personal
interview, Schwella, E. April 2020). The world is going green and is bombarded
by green at all levels - to eat, live and have a greener lifestyle. What then is the
impact of going green on how people work and perform in institutions? Will
HR strategically be able to adjust to current policies to incorporate a new way
of work for people?
Out of all the research done and interviews conducted with managers in the
public sector and academic institutions, it is quite clear that enough legislation,
policies and by-laws pertaining to GHRM exist and its implementation and
enforcement in South Africa (Telephonic interview, Nel. B. April 2020).
All three spheres of government have a role to play in environmental
governance and, accordingly, environmental compliance and enforcement
are fundamental in the successful implementation of GHRM. However, this
role has to a degree been undermined by a noteworthy overlap of respective
competences, which, during the course of the past decade, has resulted in
legislative and institutional fragmentation, both within and between the
different spheres of governance. This fragmentation has in turn led to
functional duplication and confusion, an undesirable reality in a country
with major resource constraints. In order to implement an effective green
management system in an institution, it is important to promote a great deal
of technical and management skills among all employees in the institution
and apply distinguished policies in the field of recruitment, performance and
appraisal management, training and personnel development. Unfortunately,
this is not the case in many public and private institutions in South Africa, and
green initiatives are not seen as a priority nor a function of the HR division.
71
HR managers are also expected to be experts in environmental issues and its

related areas, and they do not have adequate knowledges, skills capacity or
the rime to drive green projects within the institutions.
3.7.2 Why did it happen?

The answer to the 'why did it happen’ question results in a diagnostic analysis
based upon provisional explanation of actions and what these actions caused.
According to the research findings in a study done by Mtembu (2018:586), it was
revealed that legislation and policies are drafted just for compliance reasons
and filed in cabinets without any implementation and follow-up. Kharummbi
(Personal interview. April 2020) also mentioned that HR divisions have not
yet embraced the greening role, and they refuse to take its ownership. There
are also challenges such as lack of financial support for green initiatives, lack
of skills capacity for this area in HR. lack of management commitment and
lack of staff buy-in.
3.7.3 What can we learn?
The answer to the above ‘lessons learned’ question can be clearly derived out
of the facts that we have gathered so far.
It is quite evident that even with the best legislation and policies in place,
GHRM cannot be guaranteed. It is therefore important that institutions built
an organisational culture that is conducive to conservation of natural resources
and whose identity is synonymous with the term ‘greening organisation'. It is the
foundation and building blocks from which employee’s behaviours are shaped,
and it influences and guides operations within the institutions (Liebowitz,
2010: 55). It is furthermore also important to recruit and appoint people with
the necessary skills and qualifications in GHR positions who are committed to
the environment (Jabbour & Santos, 2008: 2133).
3.7.4 How can the lessons learnt be used to improve

the implementation ofthe green human resource
management system?
The last question deals with lessons learnt and if there is enough information
to be able to suggest any improvements in the current situation.
The responsibility of the H R managers is to create awareness about the GH RM.

the green movement, and the utilisation of natural resources. In this way,
72
HR managers are helping rhe institution to maintain a greener environment

and retain natural resources for future generations among young and working
people. The following sustainability principles should be applied to improve
the implementation of GHRM:
• Establish a green workforce with the necessary qualifications, skills
and a green ethos.
• Create an environmentally friendly, healthy work environment for
employees.
• Implement green management and governance principles in the insti
tutions.
• Management should be held accountable for the implementation of
green policies and comply with set standards (Telephonic interview,
Nel, B. April 2020).
It is important that HR managers learn lessons from research done to

determine the perceptions regarding GHRM. Focus on research 3.1, is a
summary of research done amongst HR managers and senior practitioners in
higher education institutions.
A research project was launched in KwaZulu-Natal amongst 20 HR

managers and senior practitioners from higher education institutions, to
investigate their perceptions on the implementation of GHRM and the
implementation of GHRM practices in institutions.
The results revealed that most HR practitioners have a perception that
greening activities should not be in a list of priorities for the HR division.
They furthermore revealed that they are not experts on greening and that
no green HR policies existed. The research, however, revealed that all the
higher education institutions had environmental and greening policies but
were filed and never used.
Source: Mtembu (2018: 583)
3.8 Characteristics, qualities and skills ot a green

human resource manager
There is a growing awareness within public and private institutions of the
need co be good stewards of the environment. Public and private sector
institutions have responded to this need by putting in place a variety of
73
eco-friendly policies and procedures, It is rhe role and function of GHR

managers co examine corporate activities to determine where improvements
can be made and ensuring compliance with environmental legislation across
the institution. In the twenty-first century green HR practitioners need to
be agile, transformative and align themselves with the current trends to
ensure institutions sustainability. According to Mandip (2012: 2277) and Nel
(Telephonic interview, Nel, B. April 2020) it is clear that the GHR manager will
be a professional that can develop, lead, manage, teach, work and influence
an institution and will need many different characteristics to be a successful
GHR manager. These aspects will be dealt with in the next sections.
3.8.1 Knowledge and expertise

The GHR manager should possess foundation on the functions of human
resources and environmental management and should update their knowledge
and skills on the latest practices and trends on a regular basis. Understanding
and interpretation of all relevant legislation is also necessary. As was indicated
above the whole context of HRM is currently being studied in the light of sus
tainability. It was argued that GHRM is one of the most significant components
of sustainability. It is clear that the HR office (GHR manager) is responsible for
the management of the environment in the institution. Fundamentally, green
HR involves two key elements, namely the establishment of an environmentally
friendly public sector and rhe promotion of environmentalism which could
further increase public employee morale and satisfaction.
It was also emphasised that GHRM plays an important role in the wider
public sector field in order to promote environmental-related issues. It is
also one of the key tasks of the GHR manager to make certain that public
employees are trained in green issues to simultaneously increase awareness
about rhe environment and implement eco-friendly policies and procedures
to create a green atmosphere for environmental protection. In other words,
the GHR manager plays an important role in converting green HR policies
into practice - influential and instrumental on the execution side.
Green recruitment, green training and development, green compensation

and green employee relations are important aspects which can contribute to
the improvement of GHRM in the public sector workplace. It is for example,
important that HRM managers make environmental responsibilities and
qualifications part of every job profile and write job descriptions with
environmental elements. Green performance management should also include
issues related to environmental concerns. When GHR managers incorporate
environmental performance standards(indicators) into performance manage
ment systems they protect the institution against potential damage.
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3.8.2 Communicator
Communication is considered one ofthe most important skills of a successful
manager. One of the qualities needed for a good communicator is to have good
listening skills. Employees will come to the GHR manager with questions and
problems on various issues and listening to them with full attention is one
of the best qualities of a manager. The abilities of a good GHR manager are
judged based on the capability of communicating clearly and honestly. This
is done by creating a stable and transparent line of communication between
the technical team, managers, and different stakeholders.
3.8.3 Presenter
Great presenters attract their audiences attention, keep them engaged and
positively deliver the message. Presentation skillsare important forasuccessful
GHR manager as they handle several training sessions and must also present
new environmental strategies and projects to management (Ahmad. 2015: 3).
3.8.4 Innovative
Not all projects or problems have the same answer or ready solution. The GHR
manager must think out of the box and deliver the best sustainable solution
to the institutions. To meet the ever-evolving requirements of the institution
and its workforce, the GHR manager will have to implement new ideas, methods
and technologies to stay in touch with environmental innovations and trends.
Therefore, the GHR manager will have to acquire knowledge and skills regarding
sustainable environmental management methods such as recycling, climate
change and renewable energy (Telephonic interview, Nel, B. April 2020).
3.8.5 Approachable
It is important that the GHR manager should follow an open-door policy and
let staff know that they can come to discuss any potential suggestion on how
to improve the institution to become more environmentally friendly. They
should also know that they can come to discuss any problems they encounter
in their work situation that stands in the way to accomplish goals. The
GHR manager must also be willing to share knowledge and skills with staff
members and to work together as a team to develop a green organisational
culture and to become an environmentally friendly institution (Telephonic
interview, Nel. B. April 2020).
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3.8.6 Time management

The successful GHR managers will manage time not only to complete day-
to-day activities but also to allow time for sudden challenges that might
arise. A first step in developing good time management is to understand
which circumstances are beyond our control, such as phone calls, employee
problems, IT problemsand urgent meetings. A helpful tool forGHR.managers
will be to prioritise time every day to communicate with fellow employees to
determine progress on set goals and objectives. Personal time management
is also important, and the GHR manager must make sure not to waste too
much time on reading e-mails and unnecessary tasks, but rather to focus on
making sure that policies are implemented and all actions are focused on
achieving a green, environmental friendly institution.
3.9 Future directives for green human resource

managers
According to Dutta (2012: 145), GHRM is a manifesto that assists to help
create a workforce that understand and appreciate green culture in an
institution. Such a green initiative can be maintained through the HR process
of recruitment, hiring, training, development, and advancing the institution’s
human capital. HR processes play an important role in translating green HR
policy into practice, and therefore human capital and its management are
instrumental to the fulfilment of environmental management objectives
(Hersey, 1998: 27).
More specifically, Chenan and Jacob (2012: 25) are of the opinion that
recruitment, training, employee motivation and rewards are important
HR dimensions that could contribute to the improvement in employee
implementation of green management principles. Following is a brief
description of a few selected HR functions and practices which identify with
sustainability and the natural environment at the workplace.
3.9.1 Green recruitment

Green recruitment can be defined as the process of hiring individuals with
knowledge, skills, approaches and behaviours that identify with environmental
management systems within an institution. According to Wehrmeyer (1996: 22),
recruitment practices can support effective environmental management by
ensuring that all new entrants understand the environmental culture and
believe in the values of the institution. Recruiting candidates with a basic
76
understanding of sustainable environmental practices makes the induction

process much easier. Public employers need to include green job descriptions,
eco-friendly locations, paperless interviews and similar practices in their
recruitment portfolio.
3.9.2 Green performance management

Green performance management is the process by which employees are
prompted to enhance their professional skills and knowledge regarding
environmental issues to help achieve institutional goals and objectives.
Nowadays institutions install environmental standards and green infor
mation audits to gain useful data on environmental performance. One of the
most useful aspects of performance management is performance appraisal.
Performance appraisal provides useful feedback to employees about their
performance and supports (hem on a continues basis to improve in reaching
the goals of the institution. Issues involved in environmental performance
appraisal concern the need for managers to be held accountable for
environmental management performance in addition to wider performance
objectives (Renwick. Redman & Maguire, 2013: 5). The job description should
be aligned with green tasksand goals to be achieved.
3.9.3 Green training and development

Green training and development educates people about the value of
environmental management of employees and trains them in methods
that conserve energy, reduce waste, develop environmental awareness and
problem-solving. It is important that public institutions create a favourable
environmental culture for employees and that they feel part of solving
environmental problems (Ahmad, 2015: 7).
3.9.4 Green compensation

In the context of GHRM, rewards and compensation can be assumed as
potential tools for supporting environmental activities in an institution. In
a study conducted by Forman and Jorgensen (2001: 75) on the importance
of employee participation in environmental programmes, it was observed
that employee commitment to environmental management programmes was
increased when they were offered compensation to take up duties in relation to
environmental responsibility. In addition, public employees could be awarded
bonuses for outstanding work and initiatives on environmental projects.
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3.9.5 Green employee relations

['he participation of public employees in green initiatives increases the
chances of better green management as it aligns employees’ goals, motivations
and perceptions with green management practices and systems. Eco-
friendly ideas should be welcomed from all employees irrespective of their
designation, which will encourage their interest in environmental issues.
Senior management should create a participative working environment where
employees are free to share their ideas on green issues. This approach is key
to successful GHRM. since senior managers are the ones who in reality are
responsible for implementing corporate behaviour in the day-to-day life of
the institution (Ahmad. 2015: 11).
3.10 Green initiatives tor human resource

management
Adoption and integration of GHRM practices in public institutions
are not impossible but require a changed approach toward the existing
HR practices on the part of managers at all levels, line function employees
and HR specialists (including HR managers). A key role for GHR managers
could be to assist line function managers to get full staff co-operation and
support toward implementing environmental policies. According to Daily,
Bishop and Govindarajulu (2009: 249), the HR department can adopt the
following green initiatives to reach their objectives:
3.10.1 Green building

Institutions around the world are opting considerably more for green
buildings at their workplaces and offices as an alternative to traditional
offices. Green buildings reduce the exploitation of natural resources that
are utilised in their construction. They furthermore include some enhanced
features related to green practices such as energy efficiency, renewable energy
and storm and water management.
3.10.2 Paperless office

A paperless office is a workplace where the use of paper is either restricted or
eliminated by converting important official documents and communication
into automated workflows. This practice greatly reduces the consumption
of paper, the cost of paper-related actions including copying and
printing and can directly contribute to conserving natural resources and
preven11ng pollution.
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3.10.3 Conservation of energy

The conservation of energy is also one of the key green initiatives in the
field of GHRM. In this regard, HR departments could start a campaign
where employees are asked to turn off personal computers and lights when
leaving their office and to use 100% renewable energy and solar lighting where
possible. Employees should also be encouraged to participate in car-sharing
initiatives and the use of public transport.
3.10.4 Recycling and waste disposal

Nowadays recycling is regarded a green initiative which public institutions
cannot ignore. Essentially, it is seen as a method of processing expended
materials into new and useful products. Recycling reduces the use of raw
materials that would have otherwise been used to produce new products.
HR managers should, as part of their green initiatives, implement recycling
programmes to increase the number of recycled products and decrease the
amount of waste.
3.11 Conclusion
This chapter has introduced you to the nature and content of GHRM and the
way in which it fits into the South African public sector. Specific attention
has been devoted to the meaning of GHRM. the need for GHRM and the
main functions of a GHR manager. International and local trends in GHRM
were also explored and attention was paid to the qualities and characteristics
of GHRM. Lastly, future GHRM directives were discussed as well as green
HR initiatives.
79

1. What is meant by GHRM?
2. Explain the need for GHRM.
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of GHRM?
4. What are the main functions of a GHR manager?
5. What are the international and local trends towards GHRM?
6. What are the characteristics of a GHR manager?
7. What are the functions that will direct GHRM in the future?
8. Name and explain a few green initiatives that the HR manager can
implement.
80
Chapter
The Fourth Industrial Revolution
and human resource management
Vain Jarbandhan
Purpose
This chapter provides a broad overview of the implications of the Fourth

Industrial Revolution (4IR) on public human resource management (HRM).
Learning outcomes
• Describe and discuss the concept of the 4IR.
• Explain the challenges of human capital development in the
public sector.
• Analyse the importance of strategically planning for staffing in
the 4IR.
• Understand the complexities of a digital future.
4.1 Introduction
The South African public sector is faced with many challenges. Among these
challenges, is a call for the rationalisation of the public service wage bill,
the re-alignment of the public service to support a capable developmental
agenda and managing the challenge of incorporating a public service that
is capacitated by the 41R. From a strategy perspective, human resource
specialists, policymakers and planners must identify an institution's needs to
further us operational and strategic goals. Given this scenario, it is imperative
to unpack the role of the 41R on public HRM.
The 41R has catapulted us into a world of agile, talent-focused, and disruptive
institutions - ones that thrive on excellence and growth. The traditional
way of managing human resource, that of uniformity and consistency, is
now outdated. The 4IR embraces diversity and divergent thinking; it thrives
in an environment of creativity, curiosity and continuous learning and
development. It encourages human resource specialists to express themselves
by using their broad range of skill sets. The 41R allows institutions to tussle
over employee retention and ‘talent seduction’, it further allows for the
balancing of openness and transparency in human resource decision-making
(Stan & Goodwin, 2020: 2 5). The 41R seeks to generate more value using
fewer resources. Although there has not been much research on the impact
of the 41R on public sector workers, what is clear is that the public sector will
have to deal with the disruption it brings to the workplace. More specifically,
the challenges that public institutions face in aligning strategy and preparing
the workforce of the future.
4.2 Definition of key terms

The section below defines the key terms that are commonly used in this
chapter.
4.2.1 The Fourth Industrial Revolution

It is argued that the 41R took root some 40 years back. The developments
in genetics, robotics, nanotechnology, 3D printing, biotechnology, smart
system applications and supply chains have underpinned the 41R (Schwab
St Samans, 2016: v). From a human resource perspective, the 41R could be
seen as having limitless opportunities, with an opposing view that the 41R
could result in a ‘massive dislocation of jobs’. Moreover, the challenge with
the 4IR is that ‘many roles, skills and job titles of tomorrow are unknown
today’ (Price Waterhouse Coopers (PwC), 2018: 3).
4.2.2 Talent management

There is no universal definition of talent. However, one certainty is that talent,
and the management thereof is paramount to the participation in the 41R.
Farndale, Scullion and Sparrow (2010) in Nienaber (2016: 123) summarise
talent as the possession of‘required competence... to contribute to institutional
performance’. In the 41R, talent management will be guided by ‘workers with the
critical skills that institutions need’ (PwC, 2018: 31). The critical skills for public
employees will be guided by decision-making and policy implementation in a
digital age as well as communication with an engaged citizenry.
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Chapter 4: The Fourth Industrial Revolution and human resource management
4.3 Conceptual clarification of the 4IR

The 41R will be one of the most disruptive and transformative shifts in history.
Technologies such as driver-less cars, smart robotic technology, 3D printing
and biotechnological advances will have a profound transformative impact
on society (see Figure 4.1). The 41R was placed at the centre of discussions
during the World Economic Forum (WEF) discussions in Davos, Switzerland
in 2016. The Chairman of the WEF. Klaus Schwab, described the 41R as a
‘technological revolution that will fundamentally alter the way we live, work
and relate to one another (Schwab in Jarbandhan. 2017: 65). The 41R builds
on the Third Industrial Revolution, which focused on developing automation
through computerisation. The challenges of the 4IR are daunting. However,
the opportunities for harnessing the power of technology can be used to
improve the fate of humankind. The next sections discuss the ways in which
institutions can benefit from the 41R (Doyle in Jarbandhan, 2017: 66).
4.3.1 Digital connectivity

The technology available allows people who have access to the Internet
to connect with institutions in real time. Institutions can disseminate
information and keep connected to communities even in outlying areas. As
long as connectivity exists, institutions can keep communities up to speed
with the latest developments, higher education institutions can keep in
contact with students across the world, and non-governmental institutions
(NGOs) can keep in touch with volunteers, donors and communities during
natural disasters (Doyle in Jarbandhan, 2017: 66).
DID YOU KNOW?

Digitalisation is the process by which digital technologies are used to
change the way business is conducted. It creates more opportunities for
firms to sell more products and to move markets. It is increasing trade
in goods and services across all sectors and allowing countries to draw
greater benefits from their trade agreements.
Source: World Economic Forum [WEF| (2016)
4.3.2 Upscaling communication

Technology offers the opportunity to communicate with large numbers of
the community. Communities that were previously deemed unreachable
can now be reached as a result of technological advancement. The following
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interesting statistics prove just how technological advances could impact

communication. For example, global digital traffic in 1992 showed that there
was just 100GB of data traffic a day, compared to 46 600GB of traffic per
second in 2017, and an anticipated 150 700GB per second anticipated in 2020
(International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis (II ASA), 2019 2020: 13).
4.3.3 Predict outcomes

According to Doyle in Jarbandhan (2017: 66) it is anticipated in 2020 at lease
75 billion devices will be connected worldwide. These connected devices will
generate copious amounts of data of which artificial intelligence (Al) and
deep learning will be able to make sense. For example, non-profit institutions
focusing on humanitarian crises could identify the specific location and
number of refugees coming into different countries, and pre-emptively send
the appropriate level of aid and supplies to these vulnerable locations.
4.3.4 Using technology to measure impact

Using technology presented by the 41R to analyse big data and trends in
society will assist policymakers to ascertain trends and to adjust policies for
improving the fate of societies (Doyle in Jarbandhan, 2017: 66). Technological
advances in HRM depend on data analytics and predictions for planning.
The development of smart applications (smart apps) could be used to track
the wellness of employees, employment trends, resignations, training needs,
and so forth (Adler-Bell & Miller, 2018: 13).
However, the contentious issue around the 41R is that jobs in certain categories
of employment will be shed, many more workers will be contract-based,
training and reskilling will need to be adequately financed, and the constant
threat of cybercrinie will have to be monitored. Moreover, global inequalities
could increase with poor countries not having enough resources to invest
in technology and talented employable skills will be attracted to better-
resourced regions globally, resulting in the widening of global inequality.
Figure 4.1 indicates the nine technologies that are transforming the world
of work in all sectors. Technologies related to che 41R include autonomous
robots, cybersecurity, the cloud, augmented reality, and big data analytics.
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The cloud Cybersecurity
Industry 4.0 is the vision of the

industrial production of the future
Figure 4.1: The nine technologies that are transforming the world of work
Source: Boston Consulting Group in Masala (2018)
4.4 Effects of the 4IR on government

The effects of the 41R. on government has not been researched in much detail.
However, the available literature points to the fact that governments will
not escape its consequences. There is the argument that for the first time
in history, white-collar workers would lose jobs to digitisation and Al,
where machines will perfect knowledge and humanity’s ability to control
technology will be severely eroded.
Overall, however, governments will increasingly face pressure to change their

current approach to public engagement and policymaking, as their central
role of conducting policy diminishes owing to new sources of competition
and the redistribution and decentralisation of power that new technologies
make possible (WEF in Jarbandhan. 2017: 67).
85
Ultimately, the ability of government systems and public authorities to adapt

will determine their survival. If they prove capable of embracing a world of
disruptive change, subjecting their structures to the levels of transparency
and efficiency that will enable them to maintain their competitive edge, they
will endure. If they cannot evolve, they will face increasing challenges.
11 ASA Options Winter (2019 2020: 14) makes the point that the digital era
will see the blurring of lines between government and the private sector. They
conclude that governments often succeed or fail because ofthe way they engage
with stakeholders, including citizens, in terms of decision-making processes
and policy implementation, and in a digital age, it is becoming increasingly
clear that governments ought to be proactive in the way they communicate
and engage with citizens (1IASA Options Winter. 2019 2020: 14).
4.5 Role of the state in the 4IR

The role of the state has come under serious scrutiny during the 41R. The
state plays a crucial role in creating favourable political, legal and economic
environments for both markets and civil society to prosper. The WEF, in
Jarbandhan (2017: 67) summarises the role of the state in the 41R as follows:
• The desire for public institutions to balance the power of technology
and business with rules, codes and standards to safety, inclusion and
respect for humanity.
• The ability of the state themselves to adapt to technological advances.
• The realisation that the state is not static.
• The maintenance of public trust and safety when devolving new
technology.
• Using technology ethically, especially in a cyber-world.
• It is important for the state to preserve the public interest, by adopting
agile leadership and embracing (he advantages of (he 41R (WEF in
Jarbandhan. 2017: 68).
The rapid change in technological advancement would require a responsive

and capable state to exercise judgement in an environment that is evolving at
a rapid pace.
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4.6 Current public sector human resource challenges

in South Africa
This section highlights the current challenges in public sector HRM.
4.6.1 Political versus professional appointments

In executing the mandate of the state, a highly skilled, professional and
competent public administration is required. With the devolution of authority
to line function ministers to make appointments, rather than the Public
Service Commission, which had a strong oversight function in upholding
merit; the politicisation of the public service is proving problematic. The cadre
deployment system has opened itself up to corruption in the appointment of
especially senior officials. As a former senior public servant puts it, ‘the civil
service, which has a critical role to play, has been crippled by cadre deployment
and the practice of good directors-general (DGs) being fired or otherwise
removed by ministers who are out of their depth and feel insecure’ (Sunday
Times - Business Times, 2020: 9).
The influence of labour unions within the ambit of the public sector also poses
a challenge in the appointment of especially senior-level public servants. The
voice of the unions will have to be carefully contemplated in conversations
around possible job losses in the 4IR.
4.6.2 Governance, accountability, and ethics

An unethical public service that is bedevilled by corruption and a lack of
accountability cannot fulfil its mandate of delivering services effectively and
efficiently. Former President Jacob Zuma in his address to DGs and Heads
of Departments (HoDs) in 2010 indicated, The failures in our government
are not mainly caused by any significant lack of capacity. The simple truth is
that we face a crisis of accountability* (Public Service Commission (PSC) in
Muthien, 2014). Moreover. Mie (2012: 33) lists some of the consequences of
unethical conduct and professionalism in the public service as:
• minimum development of people and nations;
• disorderliness and anarchy in society;
• lack of investor confidence, leading to lack of economic growth; and
• deterioration of trust by citizens.
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4.6.3 Skills deficit and quality in leadership

Effective public sector leadership is underpinned by four attributes, namely:
• The mobilisation of the institution towards the realisation of social goals
• The institution is a site of institutional learning
• Effective policymaking and implementation take place within the
institution
• The institution must promote effective service delivery (Muthien, 2014:54).
If the above attributes are to be realised, effective institutional leadership

within the public sector must be promoted. With the onset of democracy,
the public sector saw large-scale appointments of managers across the sector
however, this did not result in better effective leadership. In his address to
DGs and HoDs in 2010, President Jacob Zuma said, ‘in some of our front and
back offices are employed men and women who do not respect the jobs they
are employed in or the citizens they are appointed to serve’ (PSC, in Muthien
2014). Moreover, the staff turnover at the senior manager level is also an area
of concern and does not bode well for the building of leadership capability.
This will ultimately be a challenge for the public sector as a highly-skilled
workforce is central to the success of the 41R.
4.6.4 Bloated public service

In the 2020 State of the Nation Address, President Ramaphosa indicated that
government was going to take ‘measures to contain the public wage bill ...’
(Parliament Website, Internet: 2020). The burgeoning wage bill indicates that
approximately 35% of the national budget is allocated to the salary of public
servants. This situation is untenable, given the other priorities and challenges
that government faces. Research indicates that South Africa’s public sector
wage bill is among the highest among OECD countries, with South Africa
spending more than Brazil. Russia and Turkey (The South African, 2019). In
terms ofvalue-for-money, the wage bill and output in terms of service delivery
remain disproportionate.
4.7 Emerging trends: The worker of the future

The workforce of the future will be significantly different from that of the
present and the recent past. The changing workforce will also force the public
service to align with future trends and applications. Demographic shifts,
improved investment in education and training and workforce motivation
will be key to the workforce of the future in a 41R environment.
88
4.7.1 Demographic shifts

The changes in the structure of the global population have consequences
of which human resource specialists and planners need to be cognisant.
Globally, there is an ageing working population across Europe and some
parts of Asia, there is differentiation in the levels of education, and in Africa,
the working population is growing steadily. Eor example, European countries
such as Denmark and Italy have increased their pensionable age due to a lack
of younger entrants into the labour market. In China, the reality is similar.
The African continent is different in that there is a growth in the young
population, due co investment in health care and education (Strategic Human
Resource Management Foundation (SHRM Foundation. 2014: 11; The Future
of Jobs Report. 2016: 6). These issues must be considered in strategic planning.
Rapid urbanisacion has resulted in the working population moving to

cities, a trend that is noted predominantly in East Africa, che Pacific and
China (SHRM Foundation. 2014: 12). Moreover, the global migrant crisis
has resulted in working populations being dispersed across the world, the
consequence of which has been that regions in conflict suffer from a loss of
productive labour.
An area of interest is the increasing levels of women entering the workforce.

In countries where traditionally the levels of women in the workforce
have been low, the trends show a shift. Booz in SHRM Foundation
(2014: 13) predicts that 'rising female employment rates will result in a net
gross domestic product boost of 34% in Egypt and 27% in India by 2020'. With
women outnumbering men in tertiary education, skilled female participation
in the workplace must be factored into strategic human resource planning
(The Future ofJobs Report. 2016: 6-7).
4.7.2 Improved investment in education

Indications are chat the world’s population is becoming more educated. In
order to compete in the knowledge economy, there has to be an investment in
education. The gap between education disparity in advanced G20 economies
and that in non-OECD G20 countries is fast closing (SHRM Foundation,
2014: 13; The Future ofJobs Report, 2016).
Of concern is the basic and higher education sectors in a country like South
Africa. The global educational trends indicate that the quality of maths and
literacy levels at the basic education level leaves much to be desired. This is
compounded by the poor quality of university graduates, especially in the
89
science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) disciplines. To

further complicate matters is the high levels of unemployment, especially
among the youth. The 56.4% youth unemployment rate is considered the
highest globally (Businesstech Report, Internet: 2019). The Draft National
Youth Policy 2020 2030 has taken cognisance of the challenges above and
has proposed changes to both the basic and higher education systems.
Among the suggestions are the opportunity for drop-out students to
complete their studies, the introduction of computer literacy skills across the
schooling system, the introduction of technical skills, the introduction of
entrepreneurial learning and the re-introduction of Technical and Vocational
Education and Training (TVET) colleges.
4.7.3 Workforce motivations

The workforce is challenged by the introduction of millennials (Generation Y)
in the workplace. Millennials have to be carefully managed, as their
expectations of the world vary vastly from that of the ‘baby-boomers’
(older generation workers). Millennials are much more focused on their
immediate future, they thrive in innovative environments, and they seek the
freedom to express themselves openly. Additionally, they are prone to switch
their careers much more frequently which at times brands them as being
‘disloyal'. Thus, the rapid turnover of millennials ‘hurts employers’ finances’
(SHRM Foundation, 2014: 15).
Work-life balance features highly for millennials. Given that more female
millennials enter the workforce, their domestic and work responsibilities
must be factored into their employment.
4.8 The changing nature of work

The world has seen a shift from the agricultural sector to the services sector
over the last few decades. Moreover, rapid growth of technology is perceived
to create more job opportunities, while threatening others. Technological
growth is accompanied by more citizens having access to personal computers,
smartphones and gadgets, and increased data traffic (IIASA Opinions
Winter, 2019 2020). Given this changing nature of work due to technological
advances, the physical office has now become less important and working
remotely has become possible in some sectors. For example, the ‘lockdown’
of many economies due to the 2020 coronavirus disease (Covid-19) pandemic
has allowed some categories of workers to function effectively remotely.
Initial global research on working remotely among ‘teleworkers’ has resulted
90
in greater job satisfaction, flexibility in working hours and maximum

control over the work environment amongst 65% of employees who were
surveyed (Institut de Publique Sondage d'Opinion Secteur [Ipsos] Survey in SHRM
Foundation, 2014: 20).
It is anticipated that technology will result in job creation in the following

sectors. Moreover, the employment packages for these scarce jobs will result
in better compensation.
• Resource-efficient sustainable production and robotics, especially in
architecture and engineering.
• Skilled technicians in advanced and automated production systems.
• Internet of Things (loT) engineers.
• Installation and maintenance in smart fitting and installation in jobs such
as retrofitting, repair and maintenance of smart meters, and so forth. This
would require a growth in computer and maths specialists in. for instance,
data analysis.
• Technology also results in job losses.
• Approximately 5.1 million job losses resulted due to disruptive labour
market changes between 2015-2020.
• 7.1 million jobs were lost in office and administration jobs due to the
introduction of new technologies (WEF in SHRM Foundation, 2016: 15).
It is anticipated that the public sector will introduce smart technologies

to keep up with the technological advancements and those workers seen as
redundant will face retrenchments. That reality becomes more tangible in
a country like South Africa where the bureaucracy is already seen as being
bloated. Human resource specialists and policymakers will have to finely
balance technology-based efficiency with employment.
4.9 Challenges presented by the 4IR for human

resource management
Although the 4IR has immense benefits for HRM, for example, in analysing
worker trends and human resource data analytics, the challenges for HRM
remain a concern. These are discussed below.
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4.9.1 Adapting to a rapidly changing worker profile

The workforce of the future will be diverse when compared to traditional
patterns, for example, there will be more female entrants in the job market.
Furthermore, in sectors like the public sector, the workforce is ageing. Con
sequently, public sector human resources will need more targeted ‘incentive
structures' to manage the older worker (SHRM Foundation, 2014: 32).
New skill sets due to technological advances, where demand outstrips supply,
requires greater training incentives. Besides training new job entrants,
especially the millennial will be retained if the work environment is attractive.
4.9.2 Understanding the subtleties of workers' qualifications

The skills that are required by the 41R are not adequately provided for by
the traditional education system. For example, in 2013 The Economist Intel
ligence Unit and SHRM Foundation (2016:34) survey of executives found that
‘the current disconnect between the skills fostered by education and those
they actually need will represent a very considerable gap in coming years'.
This makes it very difficult for human resources to assess qualifications
effectively. Through collaboration with other functions of the institution,
human resources can increase its understanding of qualification and skill
sets to ensure that hired employees are capable of executing their functions
(SHRM Foundation, 2016: 34).
4.9.3 Retaining and engaging a changing workforce

Human resources of the future will have to adapt their incentive schemes,
benefit policies and retention strategy for workers who are not only driven by
financial incentives. Furthermore, employers will have to ensure that employees
are committed, productive and do not leave after a short while, thereby incurring
substantial turnover costs and wastage oftraining incentives on them. A Gallup’s
142-country study on the global workforce found that only 13% of workers
worldwide are ‘engaged’, meaning that they are psychologically committed to
their jobs. The bulk of the working population (63%) are considered disengaged,
citing a lack of motivation (SHRM Foundation, 2016: 36).
Additionally, 24% are considered actively disengaged they are unhappy and
unproductive employees who are liable to spread negative attitudes to co
workers. Retaining loyal and well-trained millennials is a key challenge for
human resource managers. The conditions of employment must be conducive
tc retaining talented staff
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4.9.4 Aligning technology best practices to global

management strategy
The alignment of technology to best human resource practice is something
that future institutions are looking for. Technology acts as an enabler for
institutions to expand. Additionally, virtual teams that are enabled by
technology, allow for the enlargement ofthe pool of knowledge. Furthermore,
culturally diverse (cams stimulate creativity and innovation, something that
the 41R thrives on.
4.9.5 Performance management

The traditional management of employee performance will have to be
redesigned for the 41R. Performance management that favoured a traditional
approach that valued seniority to an approach that rewards young, talented
innovative staff must be part of the performance management mix. Moreover,
the digitisation of performance monitoring and measurement software
is critical so that real-time data on employee performance can be accessed
(Bayraktar & Atac, 2018: 13).
4.9.6 Data-based management

The 41R provides numerous opportunities for governments to apply new
data management systems to manage employee records. Furthermore, data
analytics has become an essential tool in the human resource office. The
strategic analysis of data allows human resource specialists to deploy the
right skills at the right time at the right place, with minimal wastage of
financial resources. Data-driven tools are effectively used for the management
of talent, retention, and training, planning for human resource and to reduce
government inefficiency. Over the recent past, human resource specialists have
identified tools such as Business Dashboards, Cloud Analytics, Mobile Analytics,
Qhk, and SPSS to gather data for effective decision-making.
The SHRM Foundation (2016: 28) puts it succinctly:

HR will need to become better equipped to handle and analyse data than is
currently the case. That does not mean that HR practitioners need to become
data scientists. But in a more data-centred world, they will certainly need to
understand general statistical analysis and be able to transmit findings m a way
that business leaders relate to.
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4.9.7 Protection of information

The 41R inevitably provides opportunities for governments to store employee
data on electronic platforms. Given this development, it is imperative that
sensitive personal data be protected against cyber-criminals. Recent examples
of data breaches have forced governments to take the lead to safeguard d igital
records. Governments must invest in cyber-resilient systems to protect the
data and records of employees and employers (Subban & Jarbandhan, 2019).
One of the major challenges that the public sector faces in the 4IR is the
security of data, for example, the personal records of staff. An article
published bySubbanandJarbandhan(2019: 50) examined Good Governance
Perspectives in Public Administration and Cybersecurity. The article examined
technology-led public administration and information governance to
ensure open, transparent, efficient, and effective service delivery. The
article found that there was an increased need for accountability and
transparency, together with new forms of resilience to avert cyber-attacks.
Moreover, the article found that cybersecurity regulation is an important
aspect of good cyber-governance in the 4IR. Consequently, the article
concluded that by introducing cyber-centric measures in e-governance,
a more reflective approach could bring about positive changes and
measures in how information is managed, disseminated and governed
while improving service delivery in the twenty-first century and beyond .
Source: Subban and Jarbandhan (2019: 50-77)
4.10 The workforce of the future

The evidence is overwhelming that the workforce, in both the public and
private sector, will need reskilling in order for them to participate effectively in
the 4lR (WEF, Internet: 2020; WEF, Internet: 2015; Penphrase, Internet: 2018;
Lye, Internet: 2017). The public sector will have to develop flexible skills in the
knowledge economy, where, for example, the public health care system, the
defence industry and social welfare can benefit from developing technology
(Lye, Internet: 2017). Moreover, studies done by Jung, Park, Wu and Park
(2014: 583) indicate that social media tools such as Facebook. Twitter and
YouTube can be used to enhance citizen-participation in public policymaking.
Their study found that social media services have offered ‘crucial platforms
for facilitating mutual communication [and participation] between citizens
94
and government’ (Jung et al, 2014: 595). Governments will have to adapt
technologies for the benefit of improving the lives of the citizenry. Failure to
adapt to technologies, ‘will both fail to generate the efficiency gains needed
to keep public services going, and damage the reputation of government’
(Lye, Internet: 2017).
4.11 Preparing the workforce of the future

The workforce of the future will look exponentially different from the
workforce of the last decade. Disruption and change are the common
denominators of the 41R, consequently there has to be a clear narrative of
what rhe workforce of the future should look like. Public sector leaders will
have to consider the following.
4.11.1 Embracing lifelong learning

The educational system adopted by the post-apartheid dispensation was
philosophically grounded in lifelong learning. Simply put, learning takes
place from the ‘cradle to the grave’. The current workforce will have to develop
their skills on an ongoing basis in order to stay relevant. The introduction of
online courses for employees in areas such as machine learning, Al, smart
business development processes and enhanced decision-making in an era of
big data, serve as examples. The current senior management (SMS) competency
framework will have to be realigned to ensure an agile, creative and adaptable
public sector decision-maker. Besides building hard technology skills, human
skills such as ‘creativity, critical thinking, persuasion and negotiation' will
need attention to brace the technology-human divide (WEF, Internet: 2020).
Failure to bridge the skills gaps will ‘significantly hamper new technology
adoption’ (Hatting, 2018: 11).
The future worker will have co be multi-skilled; will be required co have an in-
depth knowledge of a specific field, while having sufficient knowledge outside
(heir areas of specialisation and be cognisant of a future that is turbulent
and progresses with great speed (WEF, 2019; Hatting, 2018: 7). Furthermore,
the 41R requires employees to become more entrepreneurial in their approach
to employment, and this new spirit can be exercised indirectly by being
an intrapreneur - an employee who works for someone else but embodies
the entrepreneurial spirit of being innovative and seeking continuous
improvement of things around them - or directly as an entrepreneur
(WEF, Internet: 2019).
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4.11.2 Gaining advantage by planning early

In their report entitled Workforce ofthe Future. The competingforces shaping 2030,
PWC are quick to point out that leaders need to consider the following guiding
principles in building a workforce of the future:
• Act now decisive action to manage change and disruption;
• No regrets and bets prepare for changing scenarios;
• Make bigger leap - think of the end. the destination;
• Own the automation debate the future of the workforce cannot only
be left to HR;
• People not jobs nurture agility, adaptability and reskilling; and
• Build a clear narrative - keep employees in the loop all of the way (PwC,
Internet: 2018).
By understanding, the disruptive nature of technology and planning early,

employers can benefit from continuously skilling and training their staff
for the agility that is needed in the future workplace. The WEF has also
introduced the concept of‘reverse-mentoring’ where recent graduates could
help and support senior executives in decision-making (WEF. Internet: 2020).
4.11.3 Building an inclusive workforce

It is anticipated that the gender disparity in the workforce of the future will
have to be carefully considered with greater numbers of women entering the
workforce. The stereotypes against women in the areas of entrepreneurship
and information and communications technology related jobs will have to
be challenged and rectified. The upskilling of women in. for example, coding
and machine learning will have to be upscaled to promote inclusivity.
Chiweshe (2019: 4) is of the opinion that African countries are investing

heavily in educating girls in STEM. Previously, girls were on the fringes of
tertiary education, current trends indicate girls will enter universities and
choose careers in STEM related areas, and thereby promote the 41R.
4.11.4 Multiple stakeholder engagement

The partnership between the public and private sectors for sustainable job
creation in the 41R cannot be overemphasised While governments set the
policies for the adoption and upscaling of technology, the private sector
provides the technological infrastructure for improving the lives of citizens
by effective and efficient service delivery. Stakeholders have a diverse skill
set that they could contribute to access the 41R. Finally, building a narrative
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of the skill sets that are required, involves a multi-stakeholder approach to

reskilling the workforce for the 4IR.
4.12 The role of government in the 4IR

The 4IR has the capacity to shift economies and societies like never before. The
need to reorganise the workforce for the revolution is of utmost importance.
Consequently, governments will have to devote tune and energy in aligning
the workforce requirements for the 41R. The lack of government intervention
could lead to ‘a widening skills gap. greater inequality and broader polarisation'
(Hatting, 2018: 16). Roberge, in Service Delivery Review (2018: 10) is of the
view that the 41R will give governments the opportunity to evaluate the
way in which services will be delivered. Moreover, the role of governments
cannot be overemphasised given the crucial role that governments play in the
transformation of society. Governments will therefore have to structure the
‘debate [and ensure that] all segments of society are represented fairly, especially
since changes are likely to profoundly affect the way citizens live’ (Roberge in
Service Delivery Review, 2018: 10). The central challenge for governments is not
to let the private sector set the policy agenda, given that they are the innovators
and investors in an ever-evolving world of technology. According to Masala
(2018: 3) the model that is emerging for managing the 4IR that is beneficial to
all stakeholders is the public-private partnership model, which proposes that
the 41R cannot be obtained without the decisive contribution of the state,
which should produce the necessary infrastructure (internet and broadband are
examples), develop suitable norms and standards, and grant tax incentives.
In order for governments to benefit from the 41R they will have to meet
certain requirements. These are listed in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Requirements for governments to benefit from the 4IR
Require a full understanding of the impact and implications of the 4IR. Environment scanning is
important.
Countries need to have a full suite of infrastructure in order to benefit from the 4IR. Governments
need to be an enabler to adapt to change and disruption
Gain an understanding of the impact of the change and disruption on society and other stakeholders.
Maintain a revenue stream to keep abreast of change and disruption. The critical question that
governments need to answer is: What should digital government for the digital age look like?
Maintain social cohesion amidst change and disruption. For example, labour market stability,
wealth distribution, managing the effect of cybercrime, etc.
Sourer: Adapted from Lye, Internet: 2017
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Four possible scenarios could play our within governments. These scenarios
are depicted in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Possible scenarios for governments in the 4IR
Scenario 1 Managing This strategy is based on member states acting in unison to

the market reap the benefits of the 4IR For example, the European Union
has embarked on ‘A Digital Single Market’ to adapt to the 4IR.
With the exponential growth in institutions, managing the
market is of paramount importance.
Scenario 2 Taking Countries with a limited tradition of liberalism could use the
control technology for their own ends. It is argued that countries
with a more liberal tradition could harness technology for the
betterment of their societies.
Scenario 3 Open for Some countries may adopt the approach of being open for
business business in the 4IR, thereby attracting technological investment
into their countries.
Scenario 4 Hands-off Governments may decide to devolve more powers to provincial

and local authorities but control few key functions such as
defence and healthcare. The creation of jobs by technology and
the decimation of others will have to be carefully managed.
Source: Adapted from Lyc, Internet: 2017
The Human Resource Development Council of South Africa undertook an

exercise to review the 2010 Human Resource Development Strategy for South
Africa, given the vast changes in the country’s development. The strategy
needed to be revisited given the acknowledgement of the National Develop
ment Plan: Vision 2030 and the anticipated challenges and opportunities for
human resource in the 41R.
The changes proposed in South Africa's Human Resource Development

Strategy, focused on those challenges ‘that require[d] solutions that have
implications across government departments, agencies and other social
partners’ as a response to the 41R, and other critical developments in the
country (Human Resource Development Council ofSouth Africa, 2017: 7-9).
The revised strategy focuses on investing heavily in STEM subjects across
higher education, building and strengthening of capacity in science teaching
and learning at the school level.
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4.13 Skills and skills development for the 4IR

It is clear from the foregoing that each of the preceding revolutions had a
powerful impact on rhe type of worker that was essential to power them.
For example, the First Industrial Revolution required skills to operate basic
equipment such as mechanised textile looms, the Second Industrial Revolution
introduced the ’massification' of production, and the Third Industrial
Revolution required, for example, micro-processing skills. The 4lR also needs
workers with skill sets to adapt to this revolution. According to Caetano and
Charamba (2017: 28) the 4IR threatens low-skilled and labour-intensive jobs
in the agricultural and manufacturing sectors as robotic technology can
do these jobs. Moreover, the literature indicates that the 41R favours well-
resourced countries and countries that have good government regulatory
frameworks for the uptake of technology (Caetano & Charamba, 2017: 28).
k is posited that skills transferred to students exiting higher education may
be obsolete, as the technologies that will emerge in the coming years (two to
10 years) have not been developed yet. Put succinctly, ‘for students starting a
four-yea r technical degree this means that half of what they learn in their first
year of study will be outdated by their third year of study’ (Hatting, 2017: 22).
In South Africa, the challenge of unpacking the disruption brought by the
41R is further exacerbated by a lack of understanding the disruptive change
and ‘a workforce strategy that is not aligned to [an] innovation strategy’
(Hatting, 2017: 22). Table 4.3 captures some of the skills required during
each revolution.
Table 4.3: Skill- sets for each industrial revolution
First Industrial Revolution Practical trade and crafts
Second Industrial Revolution Technical skills and economic independence
Third Industrial Revolution Logical thinking and creative design
Fourth Industrial Revolution Accuracy, efficiency, agility
Source: Adapted from Caetano and Charamba (2017)
4.13.1 Definition of skill'

There is no universal definition of skill. Skills are related to competencies,
that is, the knowledge, values and attributes that one brings to a specific
occupation. Velada et al, in Van der Waldt, Fourie, Jordaan and Chitiga-
Mabugu (2018: 174) define the concept of skill as ‘[the] generally regarded
... ability to carry out a task with pre-determined results often within a
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given amount of time, energy, or both'. The overarching justification of the

concept of a skill is premised on an employer performing tasks effectively,
efficiently and sustainably. The challenge with developing skills for the 41 It
is complicated by the fact that most technologies and new jobs have nor been
identified, or do not exist yet.
4.13.2 Skills for the 4IR

The following key aspects must be considered in planning for skills in the
4IR. These aspects are crucial given that the jobs that exist today will be
different in the next five years, or perhaps they may not even exist within the
next 10 years. Hatting (2017: 22) considers the following questions critical in
developing skills for the future workforce:
• How can training be reconceptualised given that some occupations may
disappear by the time students graduate?
• How can the workforce be prepared for cross-cutting occupations?
• What skills will the workforce need for a world of constant change?
• What should the curriculum consider in education and training?
• I low will rhe workforce build skills for technologies that have nor yet been
invented?
• Will the new workforce be tech-fluent?
The Global Youth Survey of 531 youth (15 to 29-year-olds) across 45 countries
in 2018 paints a worrying picture of youth skills (Theirworld, 2018).
The findings are summarised as follows, 54% of youth respondents had not
heard of the 41R or the future of work; 79% reported that they had to go
outside of formal school to get skills for the jobs that they wanted. The youth
were employed across a range of sectors, for example, 37% were employed in
the private sector. 30% in NGOs, 19% were employed in the public sector, and
14% in other sectors.
From a South African perspective, the matter is much more complicated.

The level of unemployment among the youth is an area of concern, with
approximately 53% of the youth unemployed. Besides the legacy of apartheid,
the major contributing factor to youth unemployment revolves around
inadequate education, lack of skills, and poor levels of productivity. Given
this scenario, the South African government would have to invest heavily
in training and skills development and overhauling the current education
systems if it wants to participate effectively in the 41R.
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Chapter 4 The Fourth Industrial Revolution and human resource management
Table 4.4 provides a comparison of the top 10 skills that were relevant in 2018,
the skills that will be necessary for 2022 and the skills that are in decline.
Table 4.4: A comparison of the top 10 skills demands in 2018 and 2022
Today, 2018 Trending, 2022 Declining, 2020

Analytical thinking and Analytical thinking and Manual dexterity, endurance and
innovation innovation precision
Complex problem-solving Active learning and learning Memory, verbal auditory and
Critical thinking and analysis strategies spatial abilities
Active learning and learning Creativity, orginality and Management of financial,

strategies initiative material resources
Creativity, originality and Technology design and Technology installation and

initiative programming maintenance
Attention to detail, Critical thinking and analysis Reading, writing, math and active
trustworthiness Complex problem-solving listening
Emotional intelligence Leadership and social Management of personnel
Reasoning, problem-solving influence Quality control and safety

and ideation Emotional intelligence awareness
Leadership and social Reasoning, problem-solving Coordinaticn and time

influence and ideation management
Coordination and time System analysis and Visual, auditory and speech
management evaluation abilities
Technology use. monitoring and
control
Source: WEF (2018)
The WEF (2108) indicates that by 2022 ‘54% of all employees will require
significant re-and upskilling’. Moreover, 35% of them would require additional
training of up to six months. 9% would require reskilling of up to 12 months,
and 10% will require additional skills (raining of more than a year. Additionally,
skills in analytical thinking, technology design and programming will be in
high demand. The WEF (2018) indicates that ‘human skills such as creativity,
originality and initiative, critical thinking, persuasion and negotiation will
likewise retain or increase their value, as will attention to detail, resilience,
flexibility and complex problem-solving’.
Future-oriented leadership skills and emotional intelligence will also be in

high demand. The following skills, which are not exhaustive, are considered
essential for the 41R.
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4.13.2.1 Readiness for the ‘new’ world of work

The readiness for the ‘new’ world of work focuses on the building of basic
skill sets such as time management, attendance, personal presentation, social
intelligence and sense-making of what the expectations of the ‘new’ workplace
would look like. The need to adapt to thinking beyond a rule-based and rote
orientation is essential. The skills required would be literacy, numeracy,
digital literacy, self-presentation, the management of one’s time, and social
norms (Hatting, 2017: 23; Theirworld, 2018).
4.13.2.2 The building of soft skills

The ability to communicate across a wide range of role players and
stakeholders is essential for the 4IR. As humans work alongside robots and
complex machines, skills such as creativity and complex problem-solving
are essential. Skills such as communication, adaptability, social-emotional
learning, teamwork, cultural growth, new partnerships with machines and
essential skills need to be developed.
4.13.2.3 Technical skills

Technical skills include having the knowledge and capabilities to perform
specific tasks. Technology creates new jobs, so industry-specific technical skills
and training will be essential. Skills such as the development of computer
applications, coding, financial management, technology-based skills and job
specific skills, for example, legal skills are important.
4.13.2.4 Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship revolves around the ability to create opportunities using
technology. The growth of the gig economy, innovation and creativity
allows for entrepreneurial thinking. The skill sets that need to be developed
include initiative, creativity, risk-taking, courage, business acumen, strategy
execution, the ability to create new partnerships, etc.
The WEF (2017) indicates the following skills (Figure 4.2) as specifically
important for government employees.
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Technical
knowledge
Five Skills
Needed By
Open mind & High quality
Government
agile workplace data
Employees
In 4IR
Global networks Collaboration with

across sectors the public
Figure 4.2: Skills needed by government workers in the 4IR

Source: WEF (2017)
For public officials to engage in the 41R, the acquisition of technical skills is
important. Government sets the policy framework in which the private sector
operates and therefore public officials need to be technologically savvy. Further
to that, public officials must be equipped with an understanding of how big
data impacts on various aspects of society, they also need an understanding of
data analytics to take and make policy decisions. Additionally, collaboration
with key stakeholders, including the public, remains crucial, as the public
may want real-time solutions in instances of disaster management, and so
forth. Moreover, the 41R would require public officials to move from a silo
based mode of thinking to that of collaborative partnerships, after all the
world is interconnected by digitisation. Creativity requires an agile mindset,
the thinking of public servants should focus on the interconnectedness of the
world rather than viewing the world through a linear lens (WEF, Internet: 2017).
4.14 Challenges to skills development

The greatest challenge to skills development in the 4IR is many of the job
titles of tomorrow are unknown to human resource specialists today, making
skills planning extremely difficult. Technology, and not institutions, will
103
transform the workforce and the culture thereof. Given this scenario, the
future of work will not be conclusive. The challenges to skills development in
the 41R are listed below.
• Many citizens, especially the youth, do not know what the 41R entails.
Hatting (2017: 22) indicates that in South Africa there is‘insufficient (68%)
understanding of disruptive changes’ that emanate from the 41R and
‘workforce strategy is not aligned to innovation strategy (44%)’.
• The schooling system does not have digitally literate teachers to promote
interest in the 41R.
• The underfunding ofschools and a large backlog due to historical imbalances
are a challenge to promoting skills. Furthermore, the disparities in schooling
and associated infrastructure is a further challenge. Additionally, the lack
of building capacity in STEM subjects is a challenge to building skills for
the 41R.
• The lack of managerial response to a diverse workplace.
• There is a disconnect between educational standards and institutional
demand.
4.15 Opportunities provided by the 4IR

The South African government has adopted a policy of becoming active
participants in the 41R. The clarion call by the current government for
embracing the 41R to operationalise the National Development Plan:
Vision 2030, to use technology to grow the economy and to create jobs
has resulted in the Presidential Commission on the 4IR. Indeed, there
arc opportunities to harness the 4IR to improve the quality of lives of all
South Africans, the following are some thoughts on these opportunities.
4.15.1 Monitoring and evaluation will be a data-driven process

From a policy perspective, it is important that key government policies are
reviewed, and future policy development is responsive to the 4IR. The future
of policy monitoring and evaluation will be a data-driven process, where
political office bearers and senior administrators will need to be competent
in understanding big data, data analytics and how data can be used to set
policies that are beneficial to all stakeholders. Technology can be harnessed
to promote government’s core capabilities; for example, public participation
and engagement can be promoted through electronic service platforms within
104
government departments, provincial administrations and local governments.

Figure 4.3 demonstrates the core capabilities of using digital platforms to
effectively communicate and disseminate information.
Perform
Registration
Claim. Vehicle. Organisation.
Work seekers. Property
Policy Development
opportunities Process Declaration
Informed by Trends.
ROE. EE, Employment
Reporting, Analytics
and Earnings
opportunity
Citizen CORE BUSINESS

Engagement and CAPABILITIES Manage
Communication Contributions
Customer Engagement and Payment
Service Platform
Reporting and Process Claims/

Analytics Compensation
Report. Analyse. Measure, Lodge. Validate. Adjudicate.
predict performance Approve, Process Pay
Figure 4.3: Digital government trends

Source: Department of Public Service and Administration, National Risk Forum (2018)
4.15.2 Using the 4IR to improve human resource practice

The rationalisation of the public service offers governments a new opportunity
to bring young talented individuals into the public service. The future of the
public service has to be built on attracting skilled individuals to promote
digital citizenship.
As government seeks to bring more young people into the public service (while
offering older public servants the opportunity to take early retirement), it is
not unlikely that gig work will become more attractive to a new generation of
public servants - or perhaps a way to offer some employment, even if temporary,
to the growing ranks of unemployed youth. President Ramaphosa said that
‘we want to be a country where our people are digital citizens, our workforce
is skilled and empowered, and our youth enjoy the transformative benefits of
employment in a new world of work’ (Brookings, 2020; Raphulu, 2019).
105
Workers with critical skills will have to be nurtured and retained as the
war on talent becomes more intensified. The 2018 PWC Report (2018: 31)
puts it succinctly, ‘these are pivotal people those that contribute outsized
and absolutely crucial value to their institution’. If talent is to be retained,
the public sector will have to relook its talent management policies and
inevitably make the public service much more attractive than it currently is.
Furthermore, it is incumbent on managers to ensure that they understand
the machinations of the millennial in terms of the way they work, how they
work, and the value that they bring to rhe institution.
4.15.3 Auditing of skills

There must be a critical appraisal of the current skills level within the public
sector. Given that the 41R is exponential in both time and scope, there is a need
for decisive action in terms of determining the level of skills within the sector.
The limited literature on the public sector preparedness for the 4IR makes
it an urgent consideration to strategically manage and assess the human
resources at hand. An objective audit of the skills within the public sector will
assist to ascertain the preparedness of the public sector, and retrospectively
help plan through training, development, recruitment and talent acquisition.
Government’s National Skills Development Plan: 2030 ought to consider the
type of skills (hat are required for the 41R.
4.15.4 Moving from linear to complex planning for the 4IR

As a response to the 41R the South African government appointed a
Presidential Commission on the 4IR in 2018. The Commission will
coordinate the development of South Africa’s national response through a
comprehensive action plan to deal with the Fourth Industrial Revolution.
As part of this effort, the Commission will identify and recommend policies,
strategies and plans that are needed to position South Africa as one of the
leading countries in the evolution and development of the Fourth Industrial
Revolution (Ndabeni-Abrahams, 2018: 1).
Moreover, the Commission will focus on developing new policies and will place
government at the centre of leading in the 41R. The Commission presented its
first diagnostic report to the Presidency at the end of 2019, with a final report
expected in 2020. The report of the Commission will be based on various
work-streams, such as harnessing the role of the 41R to build infrastructure
and resources, technology enhancement, human capital, industrialisation,
policy and legislation.
106
The outmoded linear planning will not suffice for the 41R. Planning will
have to be robust, where a cross-section of leaders (public, private, technology
specialists, futurists, and so forth) will have to be consulted. Silo-based
planning will not suit the requirements of the 41R.
South Africa evidently wants co be part of the 41R. However, a critical issue
that must be addressed is the potential loss of jobs, how the 4IR will create
jobs and the skills that are required to harness the benefits of the 41R.
Figure 4.4 points to the fact that a well-planned strategy could result in
1.2 million technology-based jobs that will be created in South Africa by 2030.
Digitization, automation, and jobs in South Africa

Digitization and automation will both displace workers and generate jobs as productivity increases, technology-responsive policy is
enacted, and new occupations are created Asa result ot these processes. South Africa cou: 3 gain up to 1.2 million jobs by 2030.
Joos gaineo and ioos losl by 2030 as a resuB or ajtomattcn rndbons. md-pont scsaaro
Catalysts labour semard
• hwngmcow* ApnghaaMhurt •Eduuasa
• inr isvuout • FM ccnstrudiM uuikht ire iiurgyiraiKiticra
• Tecnratogyipand* Energy tnrtm
automation
Sourco Nomlanelo MigwixKthu st al Tto Futon o'io&umAhca DsrAZJton PwtocMi afltfjWC^OflUohanrosCurg McK may & Company, 2019)
11 (.wrath IraUWnr
Figure 4.4: The future of jobs in South Africa

Source: Magwentshu et al, in Brookings (2020)
4.16 Looking forward

The 41R presents the opportunity to ‘reinvent’ HRM. It allows for strategic
planners to ask critical questions about the resilience and adaptability of
human resource to align to the fast pace of change, to understand the bigger
picture and to plan for the coming together of people, machines and systems.
At the very same time, the opportunity must be seized to critically realise that a
linear career-path does not necessarily suit the 41R. The new norm will be that
of having a ‘portfolio career’, where workers have to adapt to changing situations
and career mobility, which is incentive-driven (PWC Report, 2018: 33).
107
The role of government in preventing job losses is also of paramount

importance, especially in a country like South Africa where jobs are being
shed at an exponential rate. Moreover, the global Covid-19 pandemic has
wreaked havoc across every facet of life. The impact of the pandemic has had
immense economic repercussions which governments have not quantified as
yet. One thing that is certain is that jobs will be shed in both the formal and
informal economy. The pandemic has also laid bare the lack of preparedness
of governments towards effectively dealing with the pandemic. The social
impact of the pandemic has yet to be realised, with most of the global
population in ’lockdown and working remotely. Technology such as Zoom,
Skype and Microsoft Teams have enabled workers to work remotely. The
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (hereafter referred to as MIT) (MIT
Review, Internet Source, 2020: 1) summarises the impact of the pandemic
on the world of work by indicating that, ‘in less than two months, Covid-19
has created arguably the world’s largest collective shift in social and working
practices. Research firm Global Workplace Analytics estimated in a 2018
report that 4.3 million people in the US worked remotely, representing just
3.2% of the country’s workforce. In a March 2020 survey of 464 executives by
MIT Technology Review Insights, over two-thirds reported that ‘more than
80% of their workforce is now working remotely’.
Adjusting to a post-Covid-19 world of work will require that human resource

specialists use technology such as planning and predictive analytics, driven
by Al. to plan and build multiple scenarios; and positioning technology to
enhance the business end of the strategy.
Governments will have to agree on a social compact to address unemployment

due to the 41R. It is argued that rather than displacing labour, the skills and
capacity of current public sector employees need to be upgraded through
training interventions to preserve jobs. Put simply the ‘public sector has [a] far
more important role to play in the uncertain future of the Fourth Industrial
Revolution as a source of employment as well as to deliver public services,
especially given the rising demand as a result of rising joblessness that
might be induced by new technologies (Public Servants Association |PSA|,
Internet: 2019).
Additional aspects that impact human resources management, such as hiring

the correct candidate (‘the disruptor ), retaining talented staff, empowering
staff, cultivating creativity, creating an adaptable workforce and moving away
from the traditional one-size-fits-all model to a model that embraces change,
disruption and the coming together of man and machine.
108
Challenges to traditional labour law in the 4IR
The agility and flexibility of the new world of work in the 4IR requires a
review of the legal framework governing employment. The WEF (2016; 2017)
has made it clear that technology, such as Al and robotics, will replace the
work that was traditionally done by humans.
These new technologies will require institutions to consider an investment
in technology-driven production that requires individuals that are
competent in these fields and to retrench staff that are incompatible
with the rapidly changing world of technology. Given this scenario, it is
important that organisations consider and anticipate the changes to the
labour market, and consequently legislation, to address the challenges.
An article published in the Norton Rose Fulbright Foundation, Internet
(2018), considers the example of the proposed legal changes to the
workplace in the Netherlands.
‘In the Netherlands the role of the works council (set out in the Dutch
Works Councils Act, a body representing employees) is especially relevant
concerning changes to the labour market. This includes:
• Discussing the general operation of the enterprise at least twice a
year in consultation meetings, including agreeing when and how the
works council will be involved in the decision-making process;
• Seeking prior advice from the works council about any significant
reduction, expansion or other change or any major investment by
the enterprise;
• Importantly in relation to the rise of Artificial Intelligence, seeking
prior advice from the works council in relation to the introduction
or alteration of an important technological provision;
• Requiring prior advice from the works council in relation to the
commissioning of an expert from outside the enterprise to advise
(sic) on any of the matters referred to above’.
What is clear from the above is that ongoing consultation with organised
labour is paramount to find solutions to the new world of work. The legal
framework surrounding labour in the 4IR will have to carefully consider
the ability of the employer to terminate services, to manage redundant
staff and to constantly consider the reskilling of staff.
109
The Norton Rose Fulbright Foundation, Internet (2018), further proposes

that the following tools be used ‘to force the employer to consider
alternatives now and to avoid unnecessary job cuts in the future:
• Demand continuous learning and reskilling;
• Unite and create groups of employees whose of positions are under
risk of displacement to discuss displacement risks and potential
solutions. This may require the prior consent of the works council;
• Request that trade unions and/works councils focus on the topic of
labour market changes in consultation meetings;
• Claim a social and employee-related paragraph in relation to the
board’s long-term vision/strategy as part of the annual report; The
Dutch Corporate Governance Code states that the management
board of listed companies is responsible for creating a culture
aimed at long-term value creation for the company and that it
should formulate a strategy in line with this’.
It is crucial that institutions consider the legal impact of the 4IR on jobs.
With anticipated job losses, the need for legal expertise/ guidance in
negotiating for a new landscape is important. Moreover, the need for
easy access to legal information to strategically manage the workforce is
paramount for decision-making in institutions. Finally, the need to keep
abreast with the rapidly changing requirements of the arbitration and legal
processes should be at the top of the list for human resource specialists
and legal advisors.
Source: Norton Rose Fulbright Foundation, Internet (2018)
4.17 Conclusion
This chapter set out to understand the concept of the 41R and how it would
impact HRM. It is evident from the literature that the impact of the 4IR,
especially that of the public sector, cannot be easily ascertained because the
literature is scant. Although none of us knows for certain what the world of
work will look like in the near future, it is clear that the 41R will change the
way we live and work. Given this certainty, it is important that governments’
and the private sector plan adequately to benefit from the 41R to promote a
better life for all something that we all yearn for. Finally, to achieve the full
benefit of the 41R for a better humanity; ethical leadership and the ethical use
of technology is an important prerequisite for accountable governance.
110

1. Discuss with the aid of suitable examples, the three revolutions that
preceded the 4IR.
2. Provide a concise description of the 4IR.
3. What are the important skills that have to be cultivated in order for
public servants to effectively participate in the 4IR?
4. What is government’s role in the 4IR?
5. Describe the challenges that the South African public sector faces in
implementing the 4IR.
Case study
Putting BIG DATA into action for Government

The age of big data creates new challenges and opportunities. Govern
ments need to develop strategies, tools and forms of engagement to
better understand dynamic forces and respond accordingly. The solutions
featured in this brief show how big data can tackle fraud and corruption,
generate administrative savings, and improve service delivery and
policymaking processes, making them smarter, more accountable and
more responsive to citizen feedback.
However, to realise value from bigdata, governments must strengthen technical
and legal frameworks to access and use data responsibly. Importantly, they
need to develop integrated capabilities co put big data insights into action
and to be responsive to citizen feedback on services and polices. Big data
innovation is a rich process of learning that will require perseverance as
solutions are tested, adapted and mainstreamed - but the potential value
from effectively using big data should make the effort worthwhile.
Big data has the potential to help shape the government of the future.
However, leveraging the opportunities brought about by big data also
requires a cultural shift within the public sector. Data needs to be seen as an
asset ratherthan a by-product ofadministrative activity, in order to be valued,
curated and shared where appropriate. This could be part of a broader
movement to transform the public sector away from the bureaucratic model
inherited from the nineteenth century and towards a more agile, twenty-first-
century version. Such a transformation could be key to restoring citizen trust
in government, which has eroded significantly in recent years.
111
Several key areas require government action if big data is to be used

effectively for better government:
1. Provide clear regulation and guidelines for data use: Governments
need to provide legal and policy guidelines on data ownership,
quality and sharing, privacy, civil liberties and equality. They must
make decisions on privacy in conjunction with public opinion,
informing citizens about the trade-offs between the privacy and
security risks of sharing data, versus the benefits.
2. Foster Public-Private Partnerships: The majority of high-value data
assets reside within the private sector. Public-private partnerships
can coordinate governments, businesses and non-profits to make
big data accessible for the public good. The Global Partnership
for Sustainable Development Data is a multi-stakeholder network
of over 150 organisations to promote the sharing and responsible
use of private-sector data.
3. Promotetransparencyinalgorithms:Governmentsmustencourage
good practices in the design and documentation of algorithms,
including transparency and accountability mechanisms to correct
and contest decisions based on algorithms.
4. Invest in big data capacities: Many datasets span departments,
meaning governments need to manage and integrate datasets
from departmental silos. Big data ‘control centres’ are needed for
implementing strategies and best practices and providing essential
resources in advanced computing technologies. Governments
also need change-management and data science skills to adapt
process, systems, and practices to put big data to action.
Source: World Bank Group, Internet: 2017
4.19 Further Self-evaluation question/s

1. Describe with the aid of suitable examples, the role that big data can
play in improving government service delivery.
2. Analyse the skills that a public sector HR office will require to benefit
from b g data analysis.
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Chapter
Workforce planning
Purpose
This chapter reflects on workforce planning in the public sector and will
provide an overview of the concept, importance, and process to give
the reader an understanding into the broader aspects of the strategic
machinery of an institution.
Learning outcomes
• Clarify the meaning of the concept ‘workforce planning’ in a nutshell.
• Understand the aim, objectives, importance and benefits.
• Explain how workforce planning forms part of corporate and
strategic planning.
• Comprehend the role of job analysis, job description and job
specification in workforce planning.
• Identify the key steps in the workforce planning process.
• Explain the importance of consulting the corporate/strategic plan.
• Draw up a workforce plan.
5.1 Introduction
Workforce planning is one of the key human resource (HR) activities and
gives value to strategic human resource management (SHRM). Once the
strategic plan (or framework of the institution) and talent management plans
are in place, in combination with well-defined potential risks, workforce
planning is needed. This is necessary to make certain that the institution
is adequately capacitated (for the present and the future) to appropriately
execute its strategic plan. Any institution needs a workforce plan that should
be created through an orderly process. In other words, an institution must

have a strategic view, clear intention and operationalised workforce plan to
manage the obtaining and provision of HR in achieving the overall public
sector and institutional goals (Meyer & Abbott, 2019: 115). The undertaking
of workforce planning becomes even more challenging when one examines the
features of public service delivery. The public sector is a large employer with
concerns unique to itself. Consider, for example, the numerical strength of its
workforce, the heterogeneity of its workers, and the significant variety of jobs
and professions (such as law enforcement officers, firefighters, doctors, coast
guards, teachers, social workers, public health nurse, lawyers, city planners,
engineersand homeless shelter managers) it incorporates. Workforce planning
is, therefore, an important component ofthe SH RM efforts in the public sector.
Without a meticulous and detailed workforce plan, public sector managers
will not be able to allocate resources effectively and reach the objectives of the
institution successfully.
If properly done, workforce planning should result in effective recruitment (see

Chapter 7) of suitably qualified workers, now and in the future, contributing
to a high-performing public sector.
This chapter focuses on what workforce planning in the public sector involves,
in particular the steps required in the planning process to ensure that the
right employees (talent), across occupations and hierarchies, are available
when needed.
5.2 Definition, aim, objectives, importance and

benefits
The parts below briefly summarise the definition, aim, objectives, importance
and benefits.
5.2.1 Definition
Generally, there is no consensus in the field about the meaning of the
concept of workforce planning. Different terms are associated with it in the
literature. It is for example, closely related to terms such as HR planning,
manpower planning and talent management. However, what is evident from
the literature is that talent management provides the strategic framework
within which workforce planning takes place. Workforce planning is seen as a
more generic approach to HRM, whereas talent management is more strategic
in nature. On the one hand, talent management mostly involves itself with
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Chapter 5: Workforce planning
distinct segments of the total workforce. On the other hand, workforce

planning includes rhe entire workforce (Nel & Werner, 2017: 78-79; Meyer
& Abbott. 2019: 125; Taylor, 2019: 97). Although workforce planning can be
defined in various ways the perspective taken here, in line with the viewpoint
of the Department of Public Service and Administration (DPSA). is that it is:
A process of systematically identifying, reviewing and analysing the workforce
needs culminating in a workforce plan to ensure sustainable institutional
capability in pursuit ofthe achievement ofits strategic and operational objectives
- also ensuringthat the composition ofthe workforce progressively becomes more
representative ofsociety.
The above definition implies the following: The primary aim is to ensure that
che light people (those workers with the skills and capabilities necessary foi
the work) are available in the right numbers, in the right employment types, in
the right place and at the right time to deliver the necessary strategic service
delivery outcomes. As a result, workforce planning should be connected to the
strategic goals of the institution and be closely linked with the institution’s
strategic planning process. Despite this, one could have cases where
workforce planning is integrated and aligned with strategic priorities, but in
practice, it is not always possible to reveal its effect on successful institutional
performance. In such cases, institutions can use metrics (which are discussed in
Chapter 18 human resource governance) to enable such visibility by exposing
the alignment of workforce planning activities with institutional goals.
5.2.2 Aim, objectives and importance

The majority of authors are of the view that the main aim of workforce
planning is to ensure that the institution has an adequate and sufficient
supply of people with the required knowledge, skills, experience and attitudes
required to accomplish its strategic objectives successfully, both in the short
and long term (Meyer & Abbott, 2019: 125-126). In this way, unnecessary
turnover, absence from the office, low labour outputs, and costs can be
reduced if workforce planning is implemented correctly. Dolan and Schuler in
Van der Westhuizen and Wessels (2011: 42) are of the view that the objectives
of workforce planning are, among others, more particularly to:
(1) reduce labour costs by assisting public managers to anticipate
shortages or surpluses and to adjust these imbalances in time;
(2) present a basis for planning employee development;
(3) improve the overall strategic and operational planning process;
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(4) offer more opportunities for minority groups and determine the
specific skills available (affirmative action); and
(5) provide a mechanism for assessing the effectiveness of different HR
planning actions.
With the backing and assistance of computer technology (even more so with the
Fourth Industrial Revolution (41R) in our midst), the above aim and objectives
are now certainly more easily achievable than before. Computers allow for
enormous numbers of job-related records to be maintained on each job and
employee. These records could include data on many different facets of HR
activities. For example, records could include facts and material on employees’
job preferences, qualifications, work experiences, performance appraisals, the
job history and a comprehensive list of information on the positions held in
the current institution or elsewhere (Van der Westhuizen & Wessels, 2011: 124;
Shava & Hofisi, 2017: 204-205; Schiemann & Schiemann, 2019: 33).
DID YOU KNOW?

The following key facts about workforce planning?
• Only 18% of chief executive officers are confident that they have the
right staff to execute the institutional strategy.
• Only 41% of institutions do workforce planning for the next one or
two years.
Source: Meyer & Abbot (2019: 119)
5.2.3 Importance
Anderson in Van der Westhuizen and Wessels (2011:125) writes that workforce
planning is thus important to the public sector for the following reasons:
• Labour costs represent a noteworthy item on the budget.
• Corporate planning is a strategic element of institutional success and
strategic planning must be accompanied by workforce planning.
• Varying service delivery pressures have immense social implications
(ranging from redundancy to retraining) and planning can help to
assist with this.
In addition, Whittington (2006:620) is of the view that environ mental influences

(for example, technological, political, social and economic) are becoming more
complex and challenging which makes planning critical. For example, there
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may be sectoral practices, such as the routines of environmental scanning

influencing strategy in terms of shared cognitive maps. The influence of the
environment also brings another element to the fore, namely the arrival of new
generations in the workplace. This does not only test the capacity for managing
a more diverse public workforce under threat but places the emphasis on equity
and inclusiveness (Get ha-Taylor. 2019: 772).
5.2.4 Benefits
According to the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (C1PD),
a professional association for HR management professionals in England, the
potential benefits of workforce planning for the respective stakeholders are
the following:
1. diminished risk of redundancy for employees;
2. decreased labour costs;
3. workforce deployment;
4. career path planning;
5. maintaining staff morale;
6. retaining productivity;
7. improving the quality of outputs;
8. lowering vacancy times; and
9. recovering work-life balance (CIPD, 2020).
Tucker (2019: 15) added to the work of the CIPD reporting many positive
outcomes from workforce planning such as reduced voluntary turnover,
greater workforce return on investment, more robust leadership pipeline,
better ability to address skills gaps, and HR seen as a strategic contributor
(adding value).
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5.3 Steps in the workforce planning process

The central task in the process of planning the workforce is to make certain
that there is a well-defined link between the general corporate plan (political
and executive level) and the strategic plan of the particular public sector
institution (first-line supervisors or junior managers, middle managers,
senior managers) and the human resource management (HRM) strategy of
the institution. Cognisance must thus be taken of the institutional goalsand,
more precisely of the HR consequences. Once the external and internal factors
and variables have been studied, the supply and demand of current and new
employees can be analysed. The external factors comprise aspects such as
labour market conditions, government policies and educational tendencies,
while the internal factors represent issues such as the number of employees
leaving the institution that must be replaced, the number of employees
retiring in the future and the career progression of existing employees
(succession planning).
An important facet of workforce planning to highlight here is the effect of the

Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998 (EEA) (Republic of South Africa, 1998a).
Affirmative action target alignment will have to be an important part and
key guiding influence behind workforce planning. Other factors to consider
include institutional reward systems, existing work practices, labour relations
climate and technology. All of the above issues are taken into consideration
to prepare and implement a workforce plan that can best utilise the effects
and outcomes these factors may have for a public sector institution. For the
remainder of this chapter, we shall elaborate on the five steps of the workforce
planning process. While it is useful to present workforce planning as a series
of steps, it is evenly important to realise that it is an iterative process, not
strictly a linear one.
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5.3.1 Step 1: Consulting the corporate/strategic plan

Workforce planning commences with the corporate plan of the public sector
(political and executive level). The corporate plan implies an ordered effort
to produce major decisions affecting the quality and focus of governmental
activities within the boundaries of the Constitution and the Public Finance
Management Act 1 of 1999 (Republic of South Africa, 1999). It is a plan
comprising information regarding the institution’s strategic thinking,
direction, and action leading to the achievement of consistent and planned
results. The National Treasury operates as an important role player in
assisting the national government to reform all aspects of the South African
public service to achieve quality service delivery. This Act enables the public
service to promote the objectives of good corporate governance.
The National Treasury compiled a Corporate Plan Framework for corporate

planning in the public service. This guide provides for the execution of
good corporate governance practices in all government entities through
the application of Part 9 of the Treasury Regulations (Republic of South
Africa, 2002a). It is developed to assist public managers at all levels to
prepare corporate plans and shareholder s compacts (expectations of each
party - executive authority and accounting authority - expressed in terms
of outcomes and outputs that need to be achieved) for their respective
institutions. Essentially, it marks government’s efforts to, among others:
(1) Establish a uniform planning framework. (2) Ensure that money was spent
to the benefit of the communities. (3) Enhance efficiency, effectiveness and
economical utilisation of all public resources.
Introducing this framework for corporate planning (new measurements of

economic and social successes) requires that the achievements of public entities
are measured as well (see Chapter 18 human resource governance). Hence, it
is expected of public managers to specify aspects such as economic value added
and social value added in measuring the effectiveness (service delivery) of their
different public institutions. In addition, the guide or framework specifically
stipulates that supporting plans should form part of the corporate plan.
The supporting framework for the corporate plan consists of the following
supportive plans which can be consulted for the workforce plan:
• Risk management and fraud prevention plans: These plans are
created to make certain that operative processes and procedures are in
place to put a stop to risk and fraud.
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• Financial plan: The financial plan includes adequate information to

allow the National Treasury to review the current financial health of a
public institution over a period of time.
• Borrowing plan: Section 29.1.3(4) of the Treasury Regulations of 2001
requires public institutions to submit three-year borrowing plans with
their corporate plans to the National Treasury.
• Environmental impact plan: Public institutions should have well
researched environmental plans, formulated within the framework of
the existing environmental protection laws of the country.
• Other support plans: Other supporting plans, such as an overall
marketing plan and a client service plan are created in support of the
corporate plan (Republic ofSouth Africa. 2002a).
After the details of the corporate plan has been retrieved it is necessary
to attend to the strategic plan. In fact, these two plans can be consulted
concurrently and in conjunction with each other (Republic of South Africa,
2008a; Republic of South Africa, 2008b; Republic of South Africa, 2015a).
The strategic plan is a broad statement of the institution’s vision, mission,
objectives and values. In reality, public managers at all levels are, in one
way or another, expected to take part in the institution’s strategic planning
processes. Most workforce planning endeavours involve forecasting of future
actions. Therefore, there will always be the likelihood of potential events that
you may not have foreseen. For example, consider the imminent developments
that are expected to transpire in the technological field over the next 20 years
(41R). Creating new technological systems and regulating them will to a great
extent be the responsibility of government. Because of all these changes,
workforce planning turns out to be a transforming process. This means
that a workforce plan developed in 2014. for example, could not be pursued
unquestioned until the year 2020.
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DID YOU KNOW?

The DPSA will specifically focus on the following strategic areas during the
implementation ofthe 2015/2020 strategic plan: (1) Promoting stability at
the political-administrative interface | for example, quality appointments at
the level of Heads of Department - HODs|. (2) Promoting a public service
that is a career of choice (2) Ensuring that there are efficient and effective
management and operations systems. (3) Increased responsiveness of
public servants and accountability to citizens. (4) Improved mechanisms
to promote ethical behaviour in the public service.
Source: Republic of South Africa (2015b)
Think about the type of information that senior management in a state

department (such as the Department of Correctional Services) will need to
work out for a strategic plan. Reflect also on the HR implications. In these
reflections, you will undoubtedly take account of a combination of factors.
Your list may include the following:
• Changes in all kinds of legislation, regulations, management guides,
collective agreements and instructions applicable to the Department of
Correctional Services.
• Latest developments in maintaining and protecting a just, peaceful and
safe society.
• Changes in the roles of correctional officers (for example, aid in
rehabilitation and counselling of offenders, search inmates for
contraband items, report on inmate conduct).
• Extension of the department’s correctional services' role at regional
and international level; and
• Economic conditions (in times of economic downturn, extensive cor
rectional employment and training programmes may have to be cut back).
In essence, all of the above factors have HR consequences. For example,

amendments in legislation and regulations, and the most recent changes
in correctional procedures call for comprehensive training interventions.
This is the reason why it is so essential that public managers should take in
HR specialists in the formulation of the corporate plan and strategic plan.
Moreover, this implies that HR implications can be studied strategically
and be incorporated into the process, while the ideas of management can
give guidance to the corporate plan for greater success (Van der Westhuizen
& Wessels, 2011: 130).
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A typical example with HR implications is presented as a retrenchment and

consultation case (a budget increase) and is covered in more detail in Spotlight
on the Law 5.1 below.
Retrenchment and consultation (increase in budget)
The increase of an institution’s budget many times need decisive

considerations in terms of workforce planning. For example, the
Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) decided to improve its marketing
and branding. To do this, it expanded the budget from R600 000 to R6
million. It also divded the then position of marketing manager into two
positions - one responsible for marketing and the other one for branding
- each position with similar status and salary. Ms Viljoen had until then
been employed as marketing manager. However, when she was requested
to apply for the new post of marketing manager, she was not prepared
to do that. The JSE consulted with her in terms of Section 189 of che
Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995 (Republic of South Africa, 1995). But
Viljoen would not budge from her original request that she be provided
with a severance package. TheJSE decided to retrench her. Viljoen claimed
that she had been unfairly dismissed. In Viljoen vJohannesburg Stock Exchange
Ltd (2017) 38 ILJ 671 (LC) the court observed a good reason for the
retrenchment of Viljoen. The main argument that was put forward is that
the new post was different from the one she had earlier occupied. The
court was further of the view that:
1. the JSE was allowed to fill the positions generated by the
restructuring by inviting anyone to apply for the new posts;
2. the selection criteria were fair and objective;
3. Viljoen could have prevented her own retrenchment - she alone is
responsible for what happened; and
4. her retrenchment was substantively fair and she also sacrificed her
right to severance pay. The application was dismissed with costs.
Grogan, Mascrumulc and Govindjcc (2017: 68)
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DID YOU KNOW?

The DPSA has established a Service Delivery Charter for the public service
with a strategic vision and mission to contribute towards improved public
administration in Africa and internationally through dialogue and sharing
of best practices. Principle values and strategic outcome goals include
among others the following: (1) creating a sense of belonging, caring and
serving; (2) establishing a public service that is a career of choice; (3)
strengthening of responsiveness towards the citizenry; and (4) improving
the integrity ofthe public service.
Source Republic of South Africa (2017)
5.3.2 Step 2: Gathering, analysing and forecasting workforce

supply and demand data
Step 2 involves several key phases to be followed and the methods and
techniques to be applied to make certain that workforce planning is
successfully implemented. These phases are as follows:
• Phase 1: Forecasting.
• Phase 2: Analysing the existing workforce.
• Phase 3: Workforce demand forecast.
• Phase 4: Budget considerations.
• Phase 5: Forecasting workforce supply (Goodman, French, & Battaglio,
2015: 137-138; Van der Westhuizen & Wessels, 2011: 130).
5.3.2.1 Phase 1: Forecasting

When forecasting is embarked on, the HR planner strives to determine estimations
of the supply and demand of different types of human resource inputs in terms
of the key performance areas (KPAs) that originate from the corporate plan and
strategic plan. The primary goal is to identify (forecast) those areas where there
maybe labour surpluses or shortages. Projecting (forecasting) on both the demand
and supply side can be done by, for example, statistical methods (see Phases 3
and 5 in this section). Usually, statistical methods are utilised generally to obtain
historic trends in a public institution’s demand for labour (Amos, Ristow &
Pearse, 2016: 136). The usefulness of a forecast should, however, be considered not
so much on its accuracy but on the degree to which it pushes public managers to
think and take into account different options. The vacant positions in the public
service are closely related to forecasting - see ‘Did You Know’ question below - an
example of vacancy rates during the 2018 financial year.
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DID YOU KNOW?

During the period ending 31 March 2018, the vacancy rate at a national
level decreased to 6.2%, which is an improvement from the previous
quarter, which was 7.6%.
Concerning national departments, the top four departments with the
highest vacancy rates are:
• Public Works, with 7,865 posts. Of these, 4 684 posts are filled.
A total of 3 181 posts are vacant (40% vacancy rate).
• Sport and Recreation, with 249 posts. Of these, 152 posts are filled
and 97 are vacant (39% vacancy rate).
• Transport, with 919 posts. Of these, 637 posts are filled and 282 are
vacant (31% vacancy rate).
• Social Development, with 939 vacant posts. Of these, 726 are filled
and 213 are vacant (23% vacancy rate).
5.3.2.2 Phase 2: Analysing the existing workforce

Phase 2 commences with an analysis of the supply of the existing workforce
and the current posts. More particularly, it comprises of an assessment of
the public institution’s current HR competencies. It intends to consider the
profile of your present HR in terms of aspects such as gender, race, disability,
competencies, occupational category, organisational component and salary
grade. Questions that need to be posed include, among others, the following:
1. Does the current workforce have the knowledge, skills, competencies and
attitudes that are required to deliver on the institution’s obligations?
2. Does the institution have the appropriate corresponding number of
public employees at the right levels and at the right units to deliver the
public services required of it?
3. Does the institution need more or fewer employees in a permanent or
temporary capacity?
4. What are the difficulties that may be responsible for the under
representation of employees from designated groups? (Republic of
South Africa 2002b).
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These are a few selected questions that have to be taken into consideration.
Eventually, the core purpose for posing these questions is to assist the
workforce planner to direct the kind of assessment envisaged in Chapter 3,
Part 1, Section 2 of the Public Service Regulations of 2016 (Republic of South
Africa, 2016 2016 PSRs). Supplement to the stipulations in the 2016 PSR’s the
assessment could support the planner to complete the analysis contemplated
in Chapter 3, Section 19 of the EE A. Section 54(2) of the EE A makes
provision for a Code of Good Practice on the Preparation, Implementation
and Monitoring of the Employment Equity Plan. Comprehensive guidelines
regarding the implementation of this Code and the Code of Good Practice
on Key Aspects of Disability in the Workplace can be obtained from the
Department of Labour (DoL) at www.labour.gov.za.
There are several employment equity implications for steering workforce analyses.
5.3.2.2.1 Organisational variables

Every public institution is distinctive in terms of the way it is structured. It is
expected of every institution to submit a report to the DoL about its current
structures, conceivable future changes to the present structures and every
new methodology in structuring job classifications. The ensuing aspects are
applicable in the context of handling a workforce analyses exercise that will
serve as inputs for the Employment Equity Plan: (1) organisational structures;
(2) job evaluation system(s); (3) job categories; and (4) the number of positions
per job category or occupational family (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1998a).
5.3.2.2.2 Occupational analysis

During workforce analysis, it will also be essential to investigate the
employment equity situation concerning the key competencies and job entry
requirements. The obligations of an occupational analysis include, among
others, the following:
1. job skills or competencies qualifications/experience required per job
category;
2. classification of job categories/occupations that are critical to the
overall success of the institution;
3. outline of education/training and development institutions respon
sible for the development of the skills or competencies; and
4. average cost estimates to acquire the required (critical) skills/com-
petencies (Republic ofSouth Africa. 1998a).
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5.32.2.3 Employee statistical analysis

Employee statistical analysis is understandably essential. It will offer the
Dot with an inclusive profile of the distribution within the relevant public
institution in terms of race, gender and people with disabilities. The following
parrs are, among others, included here:
1. employee complement versus strength per occupational level;
2. employee strength by race and gender per occupation level;
3. employee strength in terms of disabled employees per occupational
level (male or female); and
4. comparative statistics for representatives per occupational group versus
industry demographics, regional demographics, national demographics,
or economically active population (Republic of South Africa. 1998a).
Another strategic part to be thought through in workforce planning (analysing

the existing workforce) involves compiling a workplace skills plan. This plan
is required in terms of the Skills Development Act 97 of 1998 (Republic of
South Africa, 1998b). Simultaneously, workforce planners have to determine
the training needs of public employees. The following sources can assist
during this process:
1. Department of Labour the department responsible for matters
related to employment, including industrial relations, job creation,
unemployment insurance and occupational health and safety.
2. Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) - with a
differentiated post-school system for education and training.
3. Public Service Sector Education and Training Authority (PSETA) -
responsible for the development of a skilled and competent workforce
in the public sector.
Guidelines for the PSETA are available at http://www.labour.gov.za/services/

setacontacts.
Another essential area that needs to be taken into account when analysing the
existing workforce is the risk chat HIV/AIDS poses to the health and well-being
of public institutions. If this is not watchfully planned for from a workforce
planning perspective, it might give rise to a decrease in productivity, a decline
in efficiency levels, a decline in staff morale, higher staff turnover, and added
costs. A further strategic step to be considered is to consult the range of policy
guidelines on HIV/AIDS by the Department of Health and the DPSA. These
departments have published a variety of policy guidelines on HIV/AIDS. More
particularly, the DPSA has amended the Public Service Regulations of 2016
126
(Republic of South Africa. 2016 - Chapter 4, Part 3, Section 55) in such a way
that it provides for minimum standards in managing HIV/AIDS in the public
sector workplace. Also, consult the Code of Good Practice on HIV/AIDS and
the World of Work that was issued by the DoL. https:// www.labour.gov.za] in
terms of Section 54(1) of the EEA.
An additional challenge that workforce planners are confronted with in

completing the workforce analysis process is to establish the future supply
of people with scarce skills. In this regard, the relevant role players must
acquaint themselves with the availability of these skills. Take, for example,
the Department of Public Works and Infrastructure that requires staff in
professional areas, such as engineers. One of the dominant concerns here is
the under-representation of employees from designated groups. An analysis
of this scarce HR is essential since it is expected of public sector institutions,
in terms of Chapter 3. Part 1. Section 27 of the Public Service Regulations of
2016. as part of workforce planning, to develop and implement an employment
equity plan (Republic ofSouth Africa, 2016).
5.3.2.3 Phase 3: Workforce demand forecast

The significance ofthe workforce demand forecast can hardly be undervalued.
It comprises the assessment of the HR that will be required in terms of
skills and numbers of employees to accomplish the corporate and strategic
objectives. The workforce demand forecast expects of a workforce planner to
reflect on the mandated functions, new functions, and abolished functions
in the relevant public institution busy u ith forecasting. One more source of
data and information to use in the workforce demand forecast is offered in
the provisions of the service delivery improvement programme in Chapter 3,
Part 3, Section 38 of the Public Service Regulations of 2016 (Republic of
South Africa, 2016). The provisions of the service delivery improvement
programme imply that public sector employers, among other things, have
to identify the main services to be provided to several types of actual and
potential citizens or customers.
After the details of the service delivery improvement programme have

been determined, the workforce planner will be able to establish the HR
requirements. The next step is where one must analyse all newly envisaged
positions using the prescribed job analysis or evaluation system. Typical
questions to be asked are, among others, the following:
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1. What tasks have to be executed?

2. What knowledge, skills, and competencies are needed to perform these
tasks?
3. How should tasks be grouped?
4. How many employees will be involved to perform the tasks?
5. What compensation should be allocated to the posts concerned?
(Amos, Ristow & Pearse, 2016: 136 138; Ashraf. 2017: 2 3).
The answer to the above questions is referred to as ‘job analysis’ a general

explanation of this procedure is provided below.
5.3.2.3.1 Job analysis

It is necessary that, when jobs are designed, extreme care should be taken in
respect of the quantity and quality of public employees required to perform
the work. As was already indicated job analysis is the key to this process. It
is a specialised process that thoroughly collects information about duties,
responsibilities, the necessary skills, outcomes, and work environment of a
particular job (Amos, Ristow & Pearse, 2016: 136). The information collected
from a job analysis produces three outcomes - namely job descriptions and
job specifications and job evaluations. A job description outlines the nature of
the job content, the environment, and the conditions under which the work is
executed - who should do what (for example, job title, purpose of the job, main
duties and competencies). A job specification specifies the minimum adequate
characteristics a jobholder must possess that is necessary to perform the job
(for example, education, experience, aptitudes and skills). Job evaluation is a
systematic way of rating the value or worth of a job in comparison or relativity
to other jobs in an institution to establish a rational pay structure (Republic
of South Africa, 2016).
Different types of information can be attained through a job analysis project

- these are, among others, the following:
1. The job title, the department, and the number of employees doing
the job.
2. Reporting relationships (for example, direct manager and the
functional relationships between jobs).
3. Job content (for example, the main purpose of the job, its boundaries,
duties, and resources (such as budget, equipment, and material).
4. Required KPAs or outputs.
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5. Any constraints and limits of authority and decision making.

6 Required personal rhararrerisrirs (these include rhe knowledge,
skills, and experience required of the incumbent). [Republic ofSouth
Africa, 2016].
A number of job analysis methods are available for workforce planners to

obtain the job information these are, among others, the following:
• Individual interviews: This is a laborious but useful method and
is frequently used. The interview is, in a sense, an oral questionnaire.
Instead of writing the response, the interviewee provides the wanted
information verbally in a face-to-face relationship it is a direct method
of inquiry. /\ noteworthy disadvantage of this method is that workers
can inflate the worth of their jobs. Proper preparation of the interviewer
is the key to success here.
• Group interviews: Selected related principles to those that apply to
individual interviews relate to group interviews as well. However, the
difference here is that a number of jobholders are interviewed at the
same time. Interviewers play a key role and the management of group
dynamics may increase or decrease the success of this method.
• Direct observations: Observation requires watching public employees
while they execute their tasks. This can be done in a very practical way
through direct observation or videos. Observation seeks to discover
what people think and do by watching them in action as they express
themselves in various situations and activities. A problem is that certain
aspects of jobs cannot be observed all the time.
• Structured questionnaires: One of the methods most commonly used
to obtain job information is the questionnaire. Employees are provided
with a structured questionnaire on which they assess or grade duties
which they perform in the course of their work. A questionnaire offers
the most speedy and simple method of collecting data.
• Self-reports: In the event of self-reports, job holders are expected to
write their own job descriptions. It is, however, important to specify the
required training in advance. The success or failure of this method is to
a great extent determined by the report writing skills of the jobholder.
• Systematic activity logs: A systematic activity log is also known as a
‘jobholder’s diary.’ This method expects of the job occupant to keep a
diary of w ork activities. It is not a reliable method - employees may be
negligent in completing diaries (Van der Westhuizen & Wessels, 2011:
141-142; Nel. 2014: 53-60; Sharif& Karim. 2017: 1222-1224).
129
5.3.2.3.2 Job descriptions and job specifications

Workforce planners must always bear in mind chat the concent ofajob descript ion
and job specification will be subject to the nature of the job. the type of public
institution (for example, health) and the environment in which it operates.
A job description mostly comprises identification information, a job summary,
job duties or tasks and responsibilities. More specifically, it contains infor
mation such as job title; job identification details; the name of the current
jobholder; reporting lines; the main purpose oft he job; tasksand responsibilities
(KPAs); relation to other positions; subordinate positions; financial and statis
tical data required to do the job; knowledge, skills and experience required;
competencies; and signature and date (Pontika,2019: 1 10).
The information, data and evidence required co write a job specification are as
a rule attained during the job analysis process. In addition, it is often portrayed
as part of the job description document. Generally, job specifications are
utilised largely to facilitate the talent management processes of recruitment
and selection. Without the details of a job specification, the attributes
of the ideal job incumbent are unspecified, and it is not possible to make
comparisons between job applicants. Job specifications should be linked to
the actual job requirements, k should also be consistent with the specific
duties and responsibilities of the job. For example, when a qualification is
required for a job, it is necessary to determine if that qualification is really
necessary. Throughout the entire job specification process, it is important
not to lose sight of the possibility of indirect discrimination owing to biased
and deep-rooted prejudices and negative assumptions. (Van der Westhuizen
& Wessels, 2011: 143-144; Moon. 2018: 219-221).
5.3.2.3.3 Job evaluations

When a job analysis of each post has been concluded, the evaluation process
can be embarked upon. The main purpose of (he application of this activity
is that a monetary value can be allocated to each post. Job analysis and job
descriptions focus on the essence ofwhat is demanded in a job. Public managers
should therefore understand how important (he specialised execution of
a professional job analysis and description is. These two activities form an
intrinsic part of the methods by which a public sector institution’s work
is arranged, and, to a substantial degree, it also affects the organisational
structures. In addition, it will play a central role in the formulation and
execution of recruitment and selection policies and practices respectively, as
well as in training and promotion decisions (Republic ofSouth Africa, 2016 -
Chapter 4. Part 1. Section 41).
130
Effective actions must also be taken at this stage to make certain the pro
motion of equity, affirmative action, and the employment of new generation
workers (generational cohorts) takes place. Every category of workers has
its own reasons for uniting or leaving the institution. There is increasing
recognition chat the baby boomers who are retirement eligible have much more
loyalty to their employers than do the so-called millennials (born between
1981 and 1996). As part of demand forecast, it is important that public
employers determine (he characteristics of the different generational cohorts
to ensure that compensation packages are structured in such a way that
individual needs are satisfied. Compensation has always been a focal point in
any employment relationship. Essentially, the relationship is an economically
motivated one where certain inputs (physical and mental work behaviour)
are exchanged for certain outputs (rewards). These outputs/rewards arc
categorised as extrinsic (for example, bonuses, merit pay, incentive schemes)
versus intrinsic (more responsibility and accountability, opportunities for
personal growth, autonomy). The use of rewards can. therefore, play a very
significant role and be used as a formidable mechanism to retain the different
generational workers while simultaneously striving for the achievement of
the objectives of the public institution (Nel & Werner. 2017: 190-192). Hence,
the importance of dealing with this matter at a strategic level. Table 5.1 below
provides the characteristics of each generational cohort.
Table 5.1: Generational cohortsand characteristics
Cohort Title Born Between Characteristics

Baby boomers 1946-1964 Driven micromanagers; lack of respect for
authority: positive stance for the future;
respect money and recognition; value
education and new technology; team-
oriented
Generation X 1965-1980 Cynical: individually oriented; contented

with transformation and change; regard
career security more important than job
security, education necessary; technology
anticipated
Generation Y 1981-1999 Treasure higher salaries; more flexible

and accommodating office arrangements;
speedy feedback; knowledgeable and
well-educated; scarcer problem-solving
skills; assume to change jobs; ambitious
and motivated
131
Cohort Title Born Between Characteristics

Generation Z 1997 and 2012 Media consumption behaviours vary from
other generations: favour ‘cool’ products
over ‘cool’ experiences; react to edgy
campaigns; want to participate in the
creation of organisation culture
Generation Alpha (first Born from 2010 Io On the whole, the most technological -
letter of the Greek alphabet) 2025 infused generation to date; guessed
to be the wealthiest, value education;
technologically - a very connected group:
interacting with Al and robots
Adapted from Naff, Riccucci and Frcyss (2014: 119-121); Kahn and Louw (2016: 745-747);
Arrington, and Dwyer (2018: 4-7); Viechnicki (2020).
Now chat one has acquainted oneself with the fundamentals of job analysis,
let us briefly turn the attention to budget considerations.
5.3.2.4 Phase 4: Budget considerations

Budgeting is the process ofgenerating a plan to spend a public institution’s money
- the spending plan is referred to as a ‘budget’ - and it is considered a contract
between a government and its citizenry. In broader public administration terms,
the most important objectives of a government budget are to:
1. re-allocate the resources;
2. reduce the inequities and imbalances in terms of earning and wealth;
3. provide a way for economic stability;
4. administer and manage public enterprises; and
5. support economic growth (Jimenez, 2020: 162-165).
By merging workforce planning and budgeting, the entire exercise is located

into a financial perspective. When it is budgeted fora new project (for example,
the building of a new hospital) public managers have to specify the need for
additional personnel in the future. During this process, accurate estimations
must be made. This forecasting method is very much judgemental in nature,
varying from a botcom-up approach (public managers on junior levels own
needs) to a top-down strategy (senior managers - broader institutional view)
where constraints are placed in terms of budget allocations (for example,
numbers of employees).
The workforce forecast must be articulated in monetary terms and must be

consistent with the institution’s monetary, fiscal and economic objectives,
more in particular with the budget limitations. The budget reconciliation
132
process may also specify that the budget has to be altered to have capacity for
the workforce plan. In Chapter 3, Part 1, Section 25(a) and (b) of the Public
Service Regulationsof 2016 it is stipulated that public service institutions have
to do workforce planning within the available budget funds. This planning
needs also to be done for the current budget and the remaining period of the
Medium-Term Expenditure Framework of the relevant institution (Republic
of South Africa, 2016). More specifically, it is required to be done in terms of
recruitment, retention, deployment, and development of all HR.
5.3.2.5 Phase 5: Forecasting workforce supply

Workforce forecasting is one of the basic instruments for successful workforce
planning and the focus may be internal or external. This implies that workers
can be obtained from internal or external sources. An external supply is based
on the availability of labour in the market and is usually supplied through
new recruitment efforts. The internal source is largely the most eminent and
the most easily accessible. There are mainly two categories of techniques to
help forecast internal workforce supply, namely judgemental and statistical.
5.3.2.5.1 Judgemental techniques

Judgemental forecasting techniques have as a feature instinctive judgements,
views and subjective probability assessments or guesses. Judgemental
forecasting is usually used in situations where there is a shortage of historical
information or data. Two typical judgemental techniques are replacement
planning and succession planning. Replacement planning is a reasonably
short-term technique which uses replacement diagrams to display the names
of the existing occupants of positions in the institution, jointly with the
names of possible replacements. It typically recognises ‘backups’ for all top
positions in a public institution. Succession planning, in comparison, is a
longer-term, and a more flexible technique. It centres on the development
of public managers rather than merely naming them as replacements
(Donner 111, Gridley, Ulreich, & Bluth, 2017: 26 127).
The following differences can be distinguished between replacement planning

and succession planning see Table 5.2 below:
133
Table 5.2: Differences between replacement planning and succession planning
Replacement Planning Succession Planning

Deal with a short time span (lor example, up to More long term and the candidate with the
12 months) best potential development is se ected
Adaptable but can be limited by the structure Adaptable but is expected to promote the
ofthe plan development and thinking about different
candidates
Development planning is normally informal Formal and extensive
Identified candidate will fill a vacant post All candidates are considered to fill the
post because a pool of candidates has been
identified
Van der Westhuizen and Wessels (2011: 147-148).
5.3.2.5.2 Statistical techniques

The most important statistical techniques for forecasting of workforce supply
are Markov analysis, simulation, renewal analysis and goal programming
described below:
• Markov analysis: With Markov analysis, the workforce planner
projects future flows of employees to obtain availability estimates
through a direct presentation of historical transition rates. Historical
transition rates come from an analysis of personnel data pertaining to
losses, promotions, transfers, demotions and recruitment.
• Simulation (based on Markov analysis): Alternative (rather than
historical) flows are studied for effects of future HR availabilities.
Alternative flows expose the projected results of policy changes relating
to voluntary and involuntary turnover, retirement and promotion.
• Renewal analysis: Renewal analysis estimates flow from availabilities
by calculating vacancies as created by institutional growth, personnel
losses, internal movements and the results of decision rules governing
the filling of vacancies. Alternative models may consider the effects of
changes in turnover, promotions or decision rules.
• Goal programming: Goal programming focuses on the optimising
of goals. Desired staffing patterns are verified, given a set of limits
concerning such things as the upper limits on staff flows, the percentage
of new recruits and total salary budgets (Van der Westhuizen & Wessels,
2011: 148; Lunenburg, 2012: 4-7).
134
5.3.3 Step 3: Reconciling of demand and supply

The third step in the workforce planning process will be to concentrate on the
process of reconciliation of demand and supply. In essence, the reconciliation
of demand and supply involves the facilitation of the planning process to
ascertain the roles needed to meet the institutional objectives and financial
forecasts to push the public institution forward. More particularly, supply and
demand planning centres on talent gains and workforce balancing to meet
future needs. In practice, a mismatch is demanded by the differences between
the quantitative and qualitative pressures based on the future plans of the
institution and on current projections of employee availability (that is, the
supply of employees). The imbalances will be revealed by a numerical shortfall
or surplus in employees that is likely to occur in the future. On the one hand,
gaps or shortages may give rise to sections or units running at overloading
due to employee shortages with associated long-term problems. Oversupplies
of public employees may, on the other hand, result in low productivity,
financial losses and to the ultimate closing of the public institution. Hence,
appropriate workforce planning is imperative to sustain an accurate balance
in the number of employees needed by the institution (Lunenburg, 2012: 4-9;
Ishikawa, Nakao, Fujiwara et.al 2019: 5 11).
The supply forecast, when complete, can be matched with the workforce
demand forecast to help establish action programming required to identify
workforce talent and tocompare the supply and demand forecast. Nevertheless,
it must be borne in mind that generally the scope of current forecasting of
labour supply and demand is limited and is regularly used for budgeting and
cost control.
Which makes matters even more complex is the fact that suitable public
employees cannot always be found co meet the needs of a specific public
institution. Hence, there is always rhe possibility of a supply problem. In the
end, a workforce planner is confronted with three options namely, supply
matches demand, supply is more than demand, and supply is smaller than
demand. In a situation where supply matches demand - internal transfers
and redeployment. However, the other two options are more difficult to
manage. For example, if supply is more than demand, workforce plans have to
be created to do away with surplus employees dismissals. Other options are
work sharing, voluntary early departures, pay cuts or downsizings. When
supply is smaller than demand, workforce plans have to be developed to
recruit new workers (Naff. Riccucci & Freyss, 2014: 121 123; Ishikawa, Nakao,
Fujiwara etal 2019: 5-6).
135
These gaps are established by rhe difference between what was considered
in the workforce demand forecast in Phase 3 (see section 5.3.2.3) and the
workforce supply forecast in Phase 5 (see section 5.3.2.5). If these forecasts
have been made comprehensively, it will offer more than enough quantitative
and qualitative data to make proper workforce planning decisions. On the
one hand, quantitative data will, for example, include data on race, gender,
and disability. Qualitative data, on the other hand, will underline any
flaws and errors in procedures and practices such as retention strategies
and remuneration policies. An illustration of a retention strategy question
is: Does the institution have strategies in place which help to minimise the
loss in investment that was made in developing employees? An example
of a remuneration policy question is: Does the public institution have a
remuneration policy that specifies an understanding of gender and race wage
issues? (Republic of South Africa. 1999: 32). Two specific aspects that need
attention here are the following:
1. The gaps in numbers, competencies, and employment equity targets
that need to be filled.
2. The existing HR capacity match future requirements? (Republic of
South Africa 2002b: 14).
As soon as the gaps between demand and supply have been determined, the
workforce planner should assess the situation in terms of the following: (1)
The skills and competency levels of the employees. (2) The areas of under
representation in the different occupational groups. (3) Salary levels of the
institution in terms of race, gender, and people with disabilities. (4) The status
of health levels in the institution, more particularly the effect of HIV/AIDS.
The fourth step in the workforce planning process will be the compilation
and implementation of a workforce plan.
5.3.4 Step 4: Compilation and implementation of a

workforce plan
The outcomes of workforce demand and supply forecast determine the
actions that must be planned compiling and implementing of the workforce
plan. This implies developing a plan or strategy to attend to the gap between
current HR capacity and future HR obligations. Understandably, this needs
to be done within the budget allocations. In this regard, a workforce planner
may ask pertinent questions about what one considers to be important. The
scope of questions that can be asked includes, among others, the following:
136
1. What are che major actions a workforce planner should embark on

co guarantee a better match between che HR requirements and the
available employees?
2. How can the institution make certain that it will have highly skilled
employees in future co address the changing needs?
3. How can the institution make sure that it will attract employees with
the appropriate skills in critical work areas?
4. How can under-representation be addressed in the institution?
5. How can the efficiency and effectiveness of current employees be
improved?
6. What can be done to limit the effect of H1V/A1DS and other life-
threatening diseases on the health and well-being of staff and the quality
of services that are supplied? (Republic of South Africa 2002b: 15).
Table 5.3 below presents a concise outline of some of the dimensions that
might be considered in the workforce plan concerning filling the gaps that
have been identified.
Table 5.3: Dimensions of a workforce plan
Nature Of Gap Options On Bridging The Gap

Skills deficits • Conduct training needs analysis
• Rank training needs
• Ascertain most cost-effective training
approaches
• Identify potential training providers
Over-supply of certain skills • Recognise surplus employees

Under-representation of employees • Delegate the responsibility for employment
from designated groups equity to someone
• Create a more diverse workforce
Source: Guidelines on Integrated Human Resource Planning in the Public Service

(Republic of South Africa, 2002b).
Several steps need to be taken into consideration during the implementation

of the workforce plan these are as follows:
1. Consensus. All stakeholders must be involved in the process. This will
ensure that there is a mutual comprehension of the plan.
137
2. Clear responsibilities. Workforce planning is done throughout the

entire institution involving many employees (from operational,
tactical, and strategic level) to HR specialists and professionals. Hence,
all role players must be clear about their responsibilities.
3. Supporting managers. It is clear that workforce planning has
implications for public managers on all levels. For that reason, line
function employees (mostly managers) need the support of HR staff
and also senior management. This is to ensure that they have the skills
to participate in the planning process and the knowledge to act on the
outcomes of the process.
4. Reviewing and capturing learning. /\ strategic outcome of workforce
planning relates to the achievement of desired institutional outcomes
and establishing the accurateness of the prediction. In practice,
this implies whether the right people were available to do what the
institution needed.
5. Providing feedback. It is key to the success of workforce planning that
feedback is done in order to keep the plan and process meaningful
(Nienaber in Van der Westhuizen, 2016: 86-87).
5.3.5 Step 5: Monitoring, evaluating and reporting

Public institutions should constantly monitor and evaluate their activities
(including HR activities) in order to make certain that there is feedback from
these assessments into the corporate and strategic plan. This should be done
annually. In addition, it is essential that, after it has been done, corrective
steps should be taken where necessary. Some important questions to ask are
the following:
• What goals were met?
• What are the actual staffing levels against established staffing
requirements?
• Have the strategies of the particular institution achieved the intended
results?
• What are the actual personnel flow rates against desired rates?
• What are the labour and programme costs against budgets?
• Are there indicators of change and is there a need for the goals to be
realigned? (Van der Westhuizen, 2016: 88: Nel & Werner, 2017: 86).
Workforce planners must ensure that reporting is done to the legislature on

the results ofthe workforce planning processes. In addition, reporting must
138
be done to rhe DoL as well. Workforce plans should be communicated co all

the employees and the public where it can be easily accessed, for example, via
the Intranet/! nternet, notice boards, and boardrooms.
5.4 Conclusion
In this chapter, we have discussed workforce planning and the job analysis
process. As such, workforce planning starts with the corporate plan and
strategic plan of the institution and it is essential chat the HR people
(specialists) are involved in the planning process. The concept of workforce
planning was defined, followed by a discussion of its aim, objectives,
importance, and benefits. The steps in the workforce planning process were
also described in detail. Though the workforce plan is ‘future focused’ to
assist the institution to deliver on the corporate strategy, it should remain
flexible to deal with constant change. Workforce planning is a robust process
and should be exposed to constant assessment to remain appropriate in an
ever-changing environment.

1. What is meant by the concept of‘workforce planning’?
2. What is the aim, objectives and benefits of workforce planning? Why
is it important?
3. Identify the steps in the workforce planning process outlined in this
chapter and explain what each step entails.
4. What are the potential challenges in workforce planning?
139
Part 3
Obtaining suitable talent
Personnel administration lies at the very core of administrative
management. Its thrust should be positive not negative, and protective,
not procedural as had been the emphasis ... It should operate primarily
as a service to managers up and down the line, not as a watchdog
and controller.
Frederick Mosher, 1982
When public institutions are in a position ro fill available positions, they
become fully involved in the hiring process. This has three components
recruitment, selection and retention and is a strategic process that lies at
the heart of successful human resource management (HRM).
It is not a simple task to secure a highly qualified and dedicated workforce.

What makes it even more complex is that the hiring process nowadays
takes place within the context of equal employment opportunity (EEO)
requirements and affirmative action policy guidelines for the purpose
of creating a representative bureaucracy. These requirements and policy
guidelines create both obligations and constraints for public managers and
HR specialists. Those involved in the hiring process are obliged to comply
with the law (for example, the Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998), to protect
employee rights (for example, rights regarding sexual behaviour when off
duty) and to deal with complaints such as discrimination on the basis of race.
To be effective, the hiring process should be tied to the objectives of achieving

and sustaining a workforce that is representative of the diversity of society.
Some public sector employers may see this as a huge constraint and would
therefore discount the ideas, perspectives and interventions of EEO and
affirmative action (AA). Although employers may disagree with specific
applications of EEO and AA, compliance with the law is not only the right thing
to do but minimises potential financial and legal liability. The application of
EEO requirements and AA policies is very much part of the daily work of public
managers and HR specialists in the hiring process.
Successful institutions need to equalise opportunities in the workplace but

also ensure that they develop the talent capacity to deal with the challenges at
hand. In the milieu of the global ‘war for talent there is intense competition
and increased levels of uncertainty. HR specialists need to facilitate a
blueprint of a people strategy that captures a talent strategy, both of which
are closely related to the overall business strategy. Talent management implies
that institutions are strategic and careful in how they attract, select, train,
develop, retain, promote and move employees through the institution.
With all this in mind, we have incorporated in Part 3 a chapter on equalising

employment opportunities and a chapter on talent management, which forms
a strategic part of the hiring process.
Chapter
Equalising opportunities by
means of affirmative action
Mike van Heerden
Purpose
This chapter clarifies the application of affirmative action as a means of
equalising opportunities in the public service.
Learning outcomes
• Define and differentiate between the concepts of affirmative action,
reverse discrimination, equality of opportunity, formal employment
equity and substantive employment equity.
• Describe sources of discrimination in South African society past and
present.
• Explain the organisational and employment equity plan.
• Explain which legislation and policies underlie affirmative action in
the South African public service.
• Explain how public institutions could go about implementing
affirmative action.
6.1 Introduction
The idea of a representative bureaucracy is well established in the public
administration discourse (Muthien. 1999: 207 224; Riccucci & Saidel, 1997:
423 430). The value of this idea exists at a symbolic level: a representative
bureaucracy legitimises government policies and programmes in that diverse
communities feel a greater sense of fairness when officials at the point of
service delivery are visibly representative.
Due co the growing impatience with the slow pace of voluntary change, gender
quotas are now coming into focus in South Africa. Women are the majority of
all graduates almost everywhere in the developed world but make up a smaller
share of the workforce the further up the corporate ladder they go. The demand
for greater gender equality is higher than ever before (Hills 2015: 153). Elements
that need to be applied at an organisational level include, among others, senior
leadership, communication and transparent recruitment, promotion and
development. Employment equity experiences are connected to racial, gender
and age groups (Oosthuizen, Tonelli & Mayer 2019).
The pre-1994 South African public service was characterised primarily by its
division on the basis of race and gender and a lack of representativeness. This
would today be in contravention of Section 195(l)(i) of the Constitution of
the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Republic of South Africa. 1996a), which
states that public administration must be broadly representative of the South
African people'. Accordingly, affirmative action policies for the public service
were introduced in 1998 (Republic of South Africa, 1998c).
To analyse and clarify the use of affirmative action as a means of equalising

opportunities in the public service, this chapter is directed by the following
key questions:
• What is the origin of affirmative action?
• Which concepts are related to the concept of affirmative action?
• What is the nature of affirmative action?
• Which legislation and policies underlie affirmative action in the South
African public service?
• How can an affirmative action programme be implemented in the
public sector?
6.2 Origin of affirmative action

The concept of affirmative action was first used in the United States of
America in the Wagner Act of 1935. The Civil Rights Act, 1964, laid the
foundations of affirmative action law in the USrX and, by the time Congress
enacted the Equal Opportunities Act, 1972, it clearly authorised preferential,
results-orientated affirmative action. The primary US federal legislation
that prohibits discrimination in employment is Title VII of the Civil Rights
Act, 1964. Earlier, in 1941, President Roosevelt’s Executive Order 8802
prohibited discrimination based on race, creed, colour or national origin by
the federal government and by private employers in defence industries.
144
Chapter 6: Equalising opportunities by means of affirmative action
One year after Title VII was enacted. President Johnson signed Executive
Order 11246, which required federal contractors to ‘take affirmative action
to ensure that applicants were employed and treated during employment
without regard to their race, colour, religion, sex or national origin’. The Labour
Department had to define the specifics and enforcement of affirmative action.
Title VII created a five-member Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

(EEOC), authorised to hear complaints of discrimination from individuals
and to investigate and eliminate the practice by means ofinformal negotiation,
conciliation and persuasion. If conciliation failed, the complainant could
bring a civil action against the employer or trade union.
In the lace 1990s, opposition co affirmative action in the USA increased

and certain states (for example, California) adopted legislation to prohibit
affirmative action, allowing only for protection against unfair discrimination.
This could transpire because the beneficiaries of affirmative action in the
USA are a minority (politically non-dominant).
6.3 Which concepts are related to affirmative action?

The concept of affirmative action is used with other concepts that refer to
various processes that make bureaucracies more representative ofthe societies
that they serve. Some such concepts are equal opportunity, black advancement,
black empowerment, reverse discrimination, social responsibility and
managing diversity. This chapter focuses only on the concepts of affirmative
action, equality of opportunity and reverse discrimination.
Equal employment opportunities and transformation
In an article entitled Equal employment opportunities: A conceptual

puzzle’ (Wessels, 2005), a conceptual framework is offered to untangle
the major transformation-related concepts in the public service. Another
article by the same author, entitled Transforming the public service to serve
a diverse society: Can representativeness be the most decisive criterion?’
(Wessels, 2008), concludes that equality and equal opportunities
cannot be achieved for all members of a diverse South African society
if representativeness is regarded as a sufficient condition for public
service employment.
145
DID YOU KNOW?

Affirmative action as a policy intervention is defined as a strategy for the
achievement of employment equity by redressing imbalances, and as a
means of enabling the disadvantaged to compete with the advantaged.
It appears to be a policy intervention intended, among other things, to
remove barriers to equality and equal employment.
Source: Wessels (2008: 28)
6.3.1 Concept of ‘affirmative action'

Affirmative action is used in different pretexts. The following statements are
indicative of a general understanding of the concept.
/.../ affirmative action is generally designed to eliminate existing discrimination
against minorities and women; to remedy the lingeringeffect ofpast discrimination
against these groups; and to prevent future discrimination against these groups
(Starks, 1992: 940).
Affirmative action is a temporary intervention designed to achieve equal
employment opportunity without lowering standards and without unduly
trammelling the career aspirations or expectations of current organisational
members who are competent in their jobs (Human, 1993: 3).
IAJffirmative action is defined as additional corrective steps to be taken so that those
historically disadvantaged by unfair discrimination are able to derive full benefit
from an equitable employment environment (Republic of South Africa, 1998a).
For the purposes of this book, affirmative action is considered as proactive

and remedial measures designed to bridge the gap between formal equality of
employment opportunity and substantive equality ofopportunity. Affirmative
action can thus feature in a society where the law does not discriminate but
societal discrimination still prevails.
The following steps reflect a move from a state of employment inequity to one
of employment equity:
• Discriminatory laws and societal discrimination exist (state of
employment inequity).
• Anti-discriminatory laws are enacted (formal equity but societal
discrimination is still present).
• Affirmative action programmes and laws are enacted (striving towards
substantive employment equity).
146
6.3.2 Equality of opportunity

Equality of opportunity aims to provide opportunities to members of specific
groups, who are either absent from or under-represented in certain areas of
employment, to compete with applicants and employees from more privileged
groups. An equal opportunity programme acknowledges the value of objective
employment standards and can be part of an organisation’s management style
by acknowledging the diversity of its personnel and providing for employee
empowerment and advancement and enabling training (Wessels, 1992: 46).
The inherent paradox of affirmative action is to move away from previous

unfair discrimination by applying fair di sen mi nation (reverse discrimination).
The progress from employment inequity to employment equity is depicted
in Figure 6.1.
Apartheid laws and societal prejudices -------- ► Employment inequality
Anti-discriminiation laws -------- ► Legal equity (formal equality of opportunity)
Affirmative action laws -------- ► Formal organisational equity
Human resource management

interventions (change and altitudes in -------- ► True employment equity
decision-making processes)
Figure 6.1: From apartheid to true or substantive employment equity.

Source: Wessels (1992: 46)
Figure 6.1 reflects (he fact that anti-discrimination laws remove legal barriers
to employment but are not able to eradicate historical inequalities still
prevalent. Affirmative action lawscan cause organisations to hire and promote
historically disadvantaged people but cannot remove societal barriers arising
from people’s attitudes. To achieve ‘substantive’ employment equity requires
a fundamental change of attitude and an acceptance of people, irrespective of
their gender, culture, ethnicity or language.
147
6.3.3 Equality and affirmative action

The objective of affirmative action within the South African context is the
removal of inequalities. Human diversity will inevitably result in equality in
one respect but will give rise to inequality in another.
6.3.4 Reverse discrimination versus affirmative action

Affirmative action is not discrimination in reverse. First, discrimination aims to
exclude whereas affirmative action aims to include. Second, affirmative action
requires positive action to overcome systemic, institutionalised discrimination
whereas anti-discrimination laws are passive as they proscribe certain types of
behaviour. Anti-discrimination laws perpetuate the concept of discrimination
rather than eliminate it. However, an affirmative action programme could be
unfair and unconstitutional (should it. for example, amount to ‘no white males
need apply’) and it may be criticised as reverse discrimination.
6.4 Nature of affirmative action

Affirmative action has various dimensions and patterns but remains a
controversial policy option. This section focuses on the diverse modalities of
affirmative action. It is essential to determine the type of affirmative action
that forms the organisations affirmative action policy. Should a form of
preferential promotion be used that falls outside the ambit of the employer's
objectives, such promotion could be unfair. The fairness of preferential
promotions should be found in the employer s objectives.
Three modalities of affirmative action ran be distinguished:
1. A strong variant: an employee qualifies for preferential treatment
solely on the grounds that he or she possesses an immutable
characteristic, for example, being promoted because she is female but
without satisfying the job specifications.
2. An inter med iate/moderate variant: the person meets the minimum
standards/qualification and because of some immutable characteristic
t hat he or she possesses, is given preference over the other better qualified
candidate: for example, a matric is the specified minimum qualification,
though preferably a bachelor’s degree and a black matriculant is
promoted rather than the white male graduate candidate.
3. A weak variant: a black/female/handicapped employee is promoted
in preference to an able-bodied white male only if both candidates are
equally qualified.
148
6.5 How intense is the need tor affirmative action in

the South African public service?
Ta determine the extent of unfair discrimination in the public service that
necessitated the introduction of affirmative action, a brief historical overview
ofthe recruitment, appointment and utilisation policies in the public service
is given here. This is followed by a comparison between the composition of
the South African population and that of the public service to determine the
extent to which the public service reflects the composition of the country’s
population.
6.5.1 Historical overview of employment policies in the South

African public service
The 1910 to 1994 South African public service was predominantly for white
people. Although there was an acute shortage of skilled personnel between
1910 and 1924, ‘non-whites’ were only employed where ‘whites’ were either
unobtainable or in cases where the particular position was no longer reserved
for whites only. Furthermore, non-whites did not generally have the education
and skills to be employed in administrative, professional, technical and
clerical positions (Sharpe, 1982: 20-21).
Between 1924 and 1939 the public service employment policy was part of
the government's general racial policy and included job reservation. Very
few qualified non-whites applied for appointment. There were always long
waiting lists for white candidates for clerical and even lower-graded posts
(Sharpe, 1982: 36-37).
From 1939 to 1948, the public service experienced shortages of messengers

and nurses. In 1946. white married women were encouraged to temporarily
re-join the public service: employment policies prior to 1961 did not permit
white married women to be permanently employed (Sharpe, 1982: 59-61) in
the public service. In 1961, the Public Service Joint Advisory Council proposed
that women officials continue to be retained in a permanent capacity after
marriage (Muthien, 1999: 213 214). The permanent employment of ‘non-
whites’ in (‘white’) vacancies was not considered (Sharpe. 1982: 71) and the
employment of non-whites on equal terms with whites or in positions of
authority over whites was prohibited (Sharpe, 1982: 114).
The view from 1954 to 1966 that non-whites should render services to their
own people led to the establishment of a Department of Coloured Affairs and
a Department of Indian Affairs. Black people were granted self-government in
149
their own areas. Non-white personnel were not afforded the same conditions
of service (such as being members of a pension fund) as white personnel
(Sharpe, 1982: 149-152).
The shortage of (white) personnel worsened in the early 1970s (Brand.

1982: 97), and in 1972 the government concluded that non-whites could be
employed in positions that had hitherto been closed to them. In 1977, the
Cabinet approved a policy on the ad hoc accommodation of‘non-whites’ in
the ‘white’ public service (Sharpe, 1982: 210 212).
From 1978 to 1981. ‘non-white posts' were gradually classified in the same
divisions as corresponding ‘white posts’. The wage gap between whites and
non-whites was also narrowed (Sharpe, 1982: 248 250). In its annual report
of 1987, the Commission for Administration reported that ‘all disparities
among population groups [would] be eliminated with effect from 1 March
1988’ (Republic ofSouth Africa. 1988: 21). The next annual report (Republic
of South Africa, 1989: 9-10) stated that there was a more representative
utilisation of all population groups and women in the public service.
Although women could compete freely with men for posts in the public
service (Republic of South Africa. 1990: 27), women were still confined to
lower skill levels and to nurturing professions in the health and education
sectors (Muthien, 1999: 214). The number of women was still low in the late
1980s and the Commission was eager to remove obstacles to their upward
mobility (Republic of South Africa. 1990: 27). The Transitional Executive
Council (TEC) was established to oversee the process of transition after the
successful multiparty negotiations prior to the 1994 elections.
Table 6.1: Comparison of South African population and public service by population group
as a percentage in 1995 and 2010.
SA population (%) Public service (%)
Population group 1995 2010 1995 2010
African 76 79.6 64 80
Coloured 9 8.8 9 9
Indian 2 26 2 3
White 13 9.2 25 9
Sources: Republic of South Africa (1996b); Republic of South Africa (2006: 86);
Republic of South Africa (2010)
150
6.5.2 Comparison of the composition of South African

population and public service
In 1994, the composition of the public service, with regard to race and gender,
did not reflect the composition of the South African population (see Table 6.1)
and the public service lacked legitimacy and credibility (Republic of South
Africa. 1998a: 1.2). Affirmative action policies were introduced to change this
demographic profile. The changes were especially visible in the composition
of personnel at management level (see Table 6.2).
According to Muthien (1999), the gender distribution may seem to be

fairly equal (Table 6.3), but women are largely confined to lower skill levels.
Programmes of equity and redress need to address the foundations of public
institutions (Muthien, 1999: 209 215).
Table 6.2: Managers at all levels, by population group, as a pe centage of total managers in
the public service, 1995-2002.
South Managers Managers Managers South

African in SA public in SA public in SA public African
Population population service service service population
group 1995 (%) 1995 (%) 1997 (%) 2002 (%) 2002 (%)
African 76 30.0 38.2 51.1 79.0
Coloured 9 67 57 6.6 8.9
Indian 2 3.4 4.4 5.7 2.5

White 13 59.9 51.7 36.6 9.6
Source: Naidoo (2008)
Table 6.3: Female managers at all levels, by population group, as a percentage of total
managers in the public service per race group, 1995-2002.
Mid-year estimates
1995 1997 1999 2000 2001 for female SA
(%)___ I <% > (%)___ (%)____(%) population 2002 (%)
African 20.3 26.8 36.3 360 33.7 50.6
Coloured 9.9 15.4 26.6 268 236 51.0
Indian 18.9 23.8 32.6 30.1 29.7 51.0
White 16.0 21.2 35.3 32.9 293 51.0
Total 17.0 23.1 35.0 33.8 312 50.7
Source: Naidoo (2008)
151
6.6 What legislation and policies underlie affirmative

action in the South African public service?
Affirmative action programmes in the public service are determined by,
primarily, the following eight legislative measures and policy documents
relevant to human resource management (HRM).
6.6.1 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996

The Bill of Rights in the Constitution provides for equality and
representativeness in the workplace in general (Section 9), and specifically in
the public service (Section 195(l)(i)). Section 9(1) states that everyone is equal
before the law and has the right to equal protection and benefit of the law.
Section 9(2) declares that equality includes the full and equal enjoyment of
all rights and freedoms.
Section 195(l)(i) is explicit that the public service be governed by the principle
of broad representativeness and personnel management practices that are
based on the need to redress the imbalances of the past. National legislation
should ensure the promotion of these principles (Section 195(3)). In this
regard, the Public Service Laws Amendment Act of 1997, the Employment
Equity Act 55 of 1998 and the Public Service Regulations of 2001 have come
into effect.
6.6.2 White Paper on the Transformation of the Public Service

of 1995
This White Paper focuses on representativeness and affirmative action in the
public service and states that ‘representativeness is (...) a necessary precondition
for legitimising the public service and driving it towards equitable service
delivery’ (Republic of South Africa, 1995: 10). Primary target groups for
affirmative action programmes are black people, women and people with
disabilities. The following targets and time frames have been set (Republic of
South Africa, 1995: 10.6):
Within fouryears all departmental establishments must endeavour to be at least
50% black at management level. At least 30% ofnew recruits to the middle and
senior management echelons should be women. Within ten years, people with
disabilities should comprise two percent ofpublic service personnel.
152
Every national and provincial government department is required to have

detailed affirmative action plans to meet the specific needs of black people,
women and people with disabilities (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1995: 10.7).
6.6.3 Public Service Laws Amendment Act 47 of 1997

Section 11 of the Public Service Act 103 of 1994. as substituted by the Public
Service Laws Amendment Act 47 of 1997, states: ‘In the making of appoint
ments and the filling of posts in che public service due regard shall be had to
equality and the other democratic principles enshrined in the Constitution.’
This implies that the evaluation of persons is based on ‘the need to redress the
imbalances of the past to achieve a public service broadly representative of the
South African people, including representation according to race, gender and
disability’ (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1997a: 8).
This amendment enables the implementation of affirmative action targets

as envisaged in the White Paper on the Transformation of the Public Service.
6.6.4 White Paper on Human Resource Management in the

Public Service of 1997
Human resource management (HRM) is one of the strategic instruments
used to transform the public service (Republic of South Africa, 1997b:
1.1.3). In 1997, although 79% of public servants were black, only 38% were at
management level (directorand above) (RepublicofSouth Africa, 1997b: 1.3.1).
Furthermore, formal barriers to advancement for previously disadvantaged
groups had already been removed but various levels were still ‘effectively
closed to external applicants’ (Republic of South Africa, 1997b: 1.3.3).
The White Paper proposed the following main aims for a diversity management
strategy (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1997b: 3.4.1):
• Identifvand raise awareness ofcultural differences within the workforce.
• Analyse the existing corporate culture and identify practices and
behaviour that (a) support and (b) undermine cultural diversity.
• Develop processes and behavioural norms to manage diversity
that strengthen the positive and redress the negative aspects of the
existing culture.
• Institutionalise diversity management by integrating it with the organi
sation’s management practices.
153
Seven principles were identified for rhe development of individual diversity

management programmes (Republic of South Africa, 1997b: 3.4.3). The
White Paper formulated four basic principles for recruitment and promotion
by national departments and provincial administrations (Republic ofSouth
Africa, 1997b: 4.7). National departments and provincial administrations
are required to set targets co achieve the required race, gender and disability
balance (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1997b: 5.1.1).
National departments, provincial administrations and the Department of

Public Service and Administration (DPSA) are required to implement these
policies. The Public Service Commission (PSC) is required to monitor and
evaluate the implementation (Republic of South Africa, 1997b: 7.1).

Education of 1997
The implementation of a diversity management strategy and a sound
affirmative action policy needs a skilled and well-equipped workforce. This
White Paper contributes to the goals of ‘public service transformation’
(Republic of South Africa, 1997c: 1.1.3) and ensures that high-quality
personnel are recruited, ‘particularly from historically disadvantaged sectors’
(Republic of South Africa, 1997c: 1.3.4).
The White Paper envisages that training and education can increase the
representivity of the public service in terms of race, gender and disability
(Republic ofSouth Africa. 1997c: 3.1.4; 3.1.3).
6.6.6 White Paper on Affirmative Action in the Public

Service of 1998
On 31 May 1997, the Green Paper on a Conceptual Framework for Affirmative
Action and the Management of Diversity in the Public Service was published
(Republic of South Africa, 1997d). It expressed the view that affirmative
action will ‘facilitate the development of an equitable, service-orientated
public service that is effective, efficient, accountable and affirming of the
disadvantaged' (Republic of South Africa, 1997d: 5). On 23 April 1998,
the White Paper on Affirmative Action in the Public Service was published
(Republic ofSouth Africa. 1998c). It is a product of consultation with a wide
range of stakeholders (Republic of South Africa, 1998c: Foreword).
154
The main aspects of the White Paper may be described as follows:

• Purpose: The White Paper deals with rhe implementation ofaffirmative
action programmes in the public service, sets out the mandatory
requirements and provides guidance to national departments
and provincial administrations in developing affirmative action
programmes. It also outlines the accountability, monitoring, reporting
and co-ordinating responsibilities of role players (Republic of South
Africa, 1998c: 1.1). The White Paper focuses on HRM and targets three
groups, namely, black people, women and people with disabilities.
The term ‘black people’ refers to African, Coloured and Indian people
(Republic of South Africa. 1998c: 1.20).
• Objectives of affirmative action in the public service: The goal
of affirmative action (Republic of South Africa, 1998c: 2.1) is to
create a representative and equitable public service and co build an
environment that supports and enables those who have been historically
disadvantaged by unfair discrimination so that the public service may
derive the maximum benefit of their diverse skills and talents to improve
service delivery. To reach this goal, three objectives were formulated:
1. to enhance the capacities of the historically disadvantaged;
2. to inculcate a culture that values diversity and supports the
affirmation of those unfairly disadvantaged; and
3. to achieve the numeric targets set out in the White Paper (Republic
ofSouth Africa, 1995: 2.2).
• Mandatory requirements: The White Paper suggests that affirmative
action should be an integral element of every aspect of management
practices in national departments and provincial administrations.
Affirmative action programmes are thus the responsibility of every
manager, supervisor and HR practitioner in the public service (Republic
of South Africa, 1995: 3.1-3.2). The White Paper sets the following
minimum requirements for affirmative action programmes (Republic
of South Africa, 1995: 3.4-3.14):
1. The broad numeric targets set out by the White Paper must be
translated by each department and administration into strategically
prioritised, time-bound targets.
2. Departments and administrations must keep and annually update
accurate and comprehensive statistics on all personnel.
3. The needs, priorities and perceptions of all staff must be assessed
annually.
155
4. The management practices of departments and administrations

should be reviewed regularly.
5. The performance assessment criteria for each employee must be set.
6. A derailed affirmative action plan must be prepared.
7. The responsibilities of key role players must be identified.
8. The programme must include a policy statement.
• Role of the Department of Public Service and Administration: The
DPSA has a supportive role to play towards national departments and
provincial administrations (Republic of South Africa. 1995: 4.3 4.7) in
that it must:
■ explain the goals, objectives and principles of the White Paper;
■ develop practical guidelines for affirmative action programmes;
■ establish a network of affirmative action practitioners;
■ abolish or amend rules and regulations that unnecessarily restrict
affirmative action activities and initiatives;
■ evaluate the effectiveness of the policy and report on it to the
Parliamentary Portfolio Committee on Public Service and
Administration: and
■ assist, coordinate or facilitate individual departments and admini
strations to develop the special affirmative measures which are needed.
• Accountability for implementation: Responsibility and accoun
tability to draw up and implement affirmative action plans rests with
national departments and provincial administrations. Individual
managers will ultimately be held responsible for the success of
affirmative action (Republic of South Africa, 1995: 4.8). The PSC,
Department of Labour. DPSA and rhe Parliamentary Committee on
the Public Service and Administration are responsible for monitoring
progress and reporting to Parliament on the effectiveness of the policies
(Republic ofSouth Africa, 1995: 4.9-4.10).
6.6.7 Public Service Regulations of 2001 and 2016

The Public Service Regulations (PSR) came into operation on 1 January
2001. Regulation 111 DlfcJ of Chapter 1 stipulates that an executive authority
(national department or provincial administration) should plan for the
recruitment of human resources using realistic goals and measurable targets
to achieve representativeness and make specific plans to meet the training
needs of persons historically disadvantaged (Republic ofSouth Africa. 2001).
Regulation D2 of Chapter 1 stipulates that each ‘executing authority' must
156
develop and implement an affirmative action programme that contains

at least:
• a policy statement;
• numeric and time-bound targets;
• annual statistics of persons historically disadvantaged; and
• a plan to redress numeric under-representation and support the advance
ment of historically disadvantaged persons.
The outcomes of these plans and programmes must be communicated

within departments (Republic of South Africa, 2001: Regulation D3). The
Regulations also stipulate that, from 1 April 2001, the annual report of each
department and administration should include details on the progress made
with the institution’s affirmative action programme (Republic of South
Africa, 2001: Annexure 1).
The 2001 Regulations were repealed by the Public Service Regulations of 2016
which came into operation on 1 August 2016. The matters covered above are
now included in Part 1 of the 2016 Regulations.
6.6.8 Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998

Two chapters in the Employment Equity Act (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1998a)
are devoted to achieving employment equity:
• Chapter 11 deals with unfair discrimination and is applicable to all
employers and employees (white males are also protected against
unfair discrimination and employers are prohibited from unfairly
discriminating against employees and job applicants).
• Chapter III deals with affirmative action and is applicable only to
‘designated employers’ and people from ‘designated groups’ (only
employers who meet certain requirements have a duty to implement
affirmative action measures, and able-bodied white males cannot be
the beneficiaries of affirmative action measures).
There may be tension between these two ‘pillars’ because anti-discriminatory

measures protect and promote ‘formal equality’ whereas the affirmative
action measures allow for unequal treatment that is deemed to be ‘fair
discrimination'. Non-beneficiaries of affirmative action may seek support
from Chapter II when claiming that an employer’s affirmative action
measures amount to unfair discrimination, while employers and beneficiaries
of affirmative action measures could justify their actions on the permissible
deviations from formal equality provided for under Chapter III. Figure 6.2
depicts the main provisions relating to these two chapters.
157
Prohibition of unfair discrimination Affirmative duties of designated

(Chapter II) employers
Applicable to all employees, All ‘designated employers’
except the NDF, NIA and SASS (21 + S14 + s49(2)(d)
I I
Process duties
Dispute resolution process
In consultation with employers and representatives an
organisational analysis is undertaken and an employment
equity plan developed
Unfair Other unfair
discriminatory discrimination
dismissal disputes Process duties
Analysis
I I • Identify • Aimed at the elimination
Dealt with in Referral to organisational of organisational barriers
terms of the CCMA within barriers to and the achievement of a
LRA six months advancement of representative workforce
ol dispute designated groups, across all occupational
arising i.e. Black (Africans, categor es and levels
I Coloureds and
Indians), women
• Include preferential measures
in appointments, promotions
Conciliation and training and development
and people with
by CCMA disabilities schemes targeted at
• Compile a workforce ‘designated groups'
F profile within each • Annual goals must be set
Adjudication Arbitration occupational category and reported on
by Labour (if all the and level to determine • A plan may not he for more
Court parties agree) representatives of than five years (successive
designated gropus plans tc be submitted)
4 I
Sanctions Sanctions
• Compensation • No public sector tenders will be
• Damages considered or awarded
• Ordei employer to take • Non-compliance with equity
preventative steps plan (by an employer who was But an employer is not
awarded a public sector contract) required to:
• Removal from register
constitutes material breach of the
• Take any decision
• Ordei to make non contract (e g. public sector party concerning an employment
designated employer may resign and claim damages)
policy or practice that
subject to Chapter II
• Fines up to a maximum would establish an absolute
of R900 000 barrier to the employment
• Compliance orders • Set quotas
Figure 6.2: Non-discrimination versus affirmative action.

Source: Du Plessis, Fouche & Van Wyk(1998: 411)
158
The Act may be described in terms of its purpose, scope and provisions
regarding unfair discrimination and affirmative action.
• Purpose: Section 2 contains the two primary aims:
1. To achieve employment equity by promoting equal opportunity and
fair treatment in employment through the elimination of unfair
discrimination.
2. By implementing affirmative action measures, to redress the
disadvantages in employment experienced by designated groups, in
order to ensure their equitable representation in all occupational
categories and levels in the workforce.
• Scope: Members of the SA National Defence Force, the National
Intelligence Agency and the SA Secret Service are wholly excluded from
the Act as they are not defined as ‘employees’ under the Labour Relations
Act 66 of 1995 (LRA). However, they could bring a charge of unfair
discrimination before the Constitutional Court or lodge complaints with
the Human Rights Commission. The anti-discriminatory provisions of the
Act apply to all other employers and employees, whereas the affirmative
action provisions apply only to ‘designated employers’ and members of
‘designated groups'. The public sector in general and national departments
and provincial administrations, specifically, are ‘designated employers’.
• Prohibition of unfair discrimination: Section 6 of the Act prohibits
discrimination on grounds of race, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status,
family responsibility, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age,
disability, religion. Hl Vstatus,conscience, belief, political opinion, culture,
language and birth. By definition, harassment of an employee on any of the
above-mentioned grounds is regarded as a form of unfair discrimination.
Although the Act does not specify what ‘harassment’ constitutes, a ‘Code
of Good Practice on the Handling of Sexual Harassment Cases’ was issued
in 1998. According to the Act, it will not be unfair discrimination to take
affirmative action measures consistent with the purpose of the Act, or to
distinguish, exclude or prefer any person based on an inherent requirement
of a job. Testing of an employee to determine the employee’s HIV status is
specifically prohibited unless determined to be justifiable by the Labour
Court. Psychological testing and other similar assessments are prohibited
unless the test or assessment being used has been scientifically shown to be
valid and reliable, can be applied fairly to all employees, and is not biased
against any employee or group. Whenever unfair discrimination is alleged
on one of the listed grounds, the burden to prove that the discrimination
was fair shifts to the employer.
159
• Procedure for dealing with unfair discrimination disputes:

Section 10 of the Act provides that the applicant has six months within
which to report the incident to the Commission forConciliation, Mediation
and Arbitration (CCMA). The Commission must try to conciliate
the dispute, failing which the dispute may be referred to the Labour
Court for adjudication, or. if both parties agree, the dispute may be referred
for arbitration.
If an employee is dismissed for allegedly unfair discriminatory reasons,

Chapter VIII of the LRA applies and not this procedure. In cases where a
person alleges that he or she was subjected to an unfair labour practice that
does not amount to unfair discrimination, the LRA will apply. Since the time
periods, remedies and procedures differ for the three categories of offences,
namely unfair discriminatory dismissals, unfair labour practices and unfair
discrimination, it is imperative to ascertain the exact basis of a person's claim
against an employer.
6.7 Affirmative action provisions of the Employment

Equity Act 55 of 1998
The following sections cover some relevant provisions of Chapter III of the Act.
6.7.1 General
The Act requires that:
1. The employer must conduct an audit of its workforce composition in
terms of race, gender and disabilities, as well as employment practices
and policies that may hinder the employment and/or advancement of
people from designated groups.
2. The employer must then formulate an employment equity plan of how
the employment prospects of people from designated groups will be
promoted. This plan must include progressive targets for achieving
employment equity in the organisation.
3. The employer must submit annual reports (if it has 150 or more
employees) or bi-annual reports (if it has fewer than 150 employees) to
the Director-General of Labour to show what progress has been made
in achieving targets.
These three steps must be taken in consultation with the workforce and/or its
representatives.
150
6.7.2 Duties of designated employers

In terms of rhe Act, the duties of a designated employer are as follows:
• The employer must consult with its employees about conducting the
employment equity analysis and its employment equity plan, as well as
the progress reports that the employer must compile and submit.
• The employer must conduct an analysis of its employment policies,
practices, procedures, and the work environment, in order to identify
employment barriers l hat adversely affect people from designated groups,
and must include a profile of its workforce within each occupational
category and level to determine the degree of under-representation
of people from designated groups in various occupational categories
and levels.
• The employer must prepare an employment equity plan and report to
the Director-General on their progress in implementing it.
6.7.3 Affirmative action measures

In terms of the Act, affirmative action measures are designed to ensure that
suitably qualified people from designated groups have equal employment
opportunities, and are equitably represented in all occupational categories
and levels in the workforce of a designated employer. It is required of employers
that they:
• identify and eliminate employment barriers, including unfair discrimi
nation, which adversely affect people from designated groups;
• promote diversity in the workplace based on equal dignity and respect
of all people;
• accommodate people from designated groups to ensure that they enjoy
equal opportunities and are equitably represented in the workforce of a
designated employer;
• ensure the equitable representation of suitably qualified people from
designated groups in all occupational categories and levels in the
workforce; and
• retain and develop people from designated groups and implement appro
priate training as in terms of the Skills Development Act 97 of 1998.
6.7.4 Quotas and reverse discrimination

The Act envisages that an employer’s employment equity plan will include
preferential treatment measures and numerical goals but explicitly excludes
161
quotas. A designated employer is not compelled to take any decision

concerning an employment practice that would establish an absolute barrier
to the prospective or continued employment or advancement of people who
are not from designated groups.
6.7.5 Meaning of ‘suitably qualified’

For the purposes of the Act, a person may be suitably qualified for a job as a
result of any one of, or any combination of, that person's formal qualifications,
prior learning, relevant experience, or capacity to acquire, within a reasonable
time, the ability to do the job.
6.7.6 Income differentials

The Act requires ofevery designated employer ro submit, together with its report,
a statement on the remuneration and benefits received in each occupational
category and level of its workforce. If disproportionate income differentials
are reflected, these must be progressively reduced. These measures may include
collective bargaining, compliance with sectoral determinations, applying the
norms and benchmarks set by the Employment Conditions Commission and/
or relevant measures contained in the Skills Development Act.
6.7.7 Commission for Employment Equity

Chapter IV of the Act makes provision for a Commission for Employment
Equity. This Commission consists of a chairperson and eight other members
appointed by the Minister of Labour to hold office on a part-time basis. The
members include two people who represent organised labour, two people
who represent organised business, two people who represent the state and
two people who represent the interests of community and development
organisations.
The functions of the Commission are to advise the Minister of Labour.

It may also make awards recognising achievements of employers in
furthering the purpose of the Act. It researches and reports to the Minister
on matters relating to the application of the Act, including appropriate
and well-researched norms and benchmarks for setting numerical goals
in various sectors. The Commission must submit an annual report to the
Minister of Labour.
162
6.7.8 Compliance, monitoring, enforcement and legal

proceedings
General monitoring of an employer’s compliance with Chapter V of the Act is
left primarily to employees, shop stewards, trade unions, workplace forums,
labour inspectors and the Director-General of Labour. A labour inspector
must request and obtain a ‘written undertaking from an employer if he or
she has reasonable grounds to believe that a designated employer has failed
to comply with its affirmative action duties.
A labour inspector may issue a compliance order to a designated employer

who has refused to give a written undertaking when requested or failed
to comply with a written undertaking. A compliance order must include
che following:
• Those provisions of Chapter 111 with which the employer has not
complied and details of the conduct constituting non-compliance.
• Any written undertaking by the employer and any failure to comply
with the written undertaking.
• Any steps that the employer must take, and the period within which
those steps must be taken.
• The maximum fine, if any, that may be imposed on the employer for
failing to comply with the order.
A designated employer must adhere to the compliance order within the time
stated, unless the employer lodges an objection with the Director-General
within 21 days after receiving the order. If the employer is aggrieved by the
Director-General’s decision, the employer can appeal to the Labour Court. If a
designated employer does nor comply with an order within the period stated,
or does not object to that order, the Director-General may apply to the Labour
Court to make the compliance order an order of the Labour Court.
6.7.9 Assessment of compliance

To determine whether a designated employer is implementing employment
equity in compliance with the Act, the Director-General of Labour must
take into account all of the factors listed in the Act. Based on the Director-
General’s assessment of an employers employment equity plan or the
employer’s non-compliance with the Act. the Director-General may make a
recommendation to the employer. Should the employer fail to comply with
the Director-General’s recommendation, the Director-General may refer the
employer’s non-compliance to the Labour Court for adjudication.
163
6.8 Implementation of an affirmative action

programme in the South African public service
The following key questions direct this section:
• How does one measure the implementation of an affirmative action
programme?
• Has the South African public service met its first affirmative action
targets?
• Why do affirmative action programmes sometimes fail?
6.8.1 Measuring the implementation of an affirmative action

programme
In her book Employers guide to the Employment Equity Act, Simona Tinarelli
(2000: 61-62) identifies three phases of an affirmative action programme:
1. preparation of the employment equity plan;
2. implementing the plan; and
3. monitoring the plan.
A valid measurement of the affirmative action programmes in the public

service should take into consideration all three phases of the programme.
The formulation of affirmative action programmes can be regarded as the

preparation phase during which the implementation phase is planned.
Steps 1 to 4 form the preparation phase (Tinarelli, 2000: 61).
Step 1. Assigning responsibility and accountability to one or more

senior managers: Assigning responsibilities occurs on two levels. On the
macro-institutional level, responsibility and accountability are assigned
to the DPSA and directors-general of national departments and provincial
administrations. On the institutional level, directors-general or heads
of departments and all managers, supervisors and HR practitioners are
responsible for the success of affirmative action in the part of the institution
for which they are individually responsible. The day-to-day responsibility
for managing the programme is assigned to a designated person within the
department (Republic ofSouth Africa. 1997b: 7.1; Republic ofSouth Africa
1998a: 3.1-3.2, 4.2, 4.8).
Step 2. Conducting communication, awareness and training pro

grammes: The Code of Good Practice (Republic of South Africa, 1999a)
expects employers to make their employees aware of the preparation and
164
implementation of an affirmative action programme in the workplace. In the

public service, it is the responsibility of the DPSA to make public servants
and the public, in general, aware of affirmative action programmes. Openness
and accountability are essential for the involvement and support of relevant
stakeholders (Republic of South Africa. 1997b: 7.2; Republic of South Africa
1998a: 2.8, 3.25-3.26, 4.3-4.7).
Step 3. Consulting with relevant stakeholders: The development and

monitoring of the government s affirmative action policy is a product of
consultation with stakeholders, such as national departments, provincial
administrations, organised labour via the public service’s central bargaining
chamber, non-governmental organisations, disability organisations and experts
in the field of affirmative action (Republic of South Africa, 1998a: Foreword).
Step 4. Analysing the existing workforce profile and relevant demo

graphic information: The White Paper on Affirmative Action in the Public
Service (Republic of South Africa. 1998c: 1.8) provides a brief analysis of
the workforce profile and relevant demographic information. The same is
required of national departments and provincial administrations.
Steps 5 to 11 form the implementation phase (Tinarelli, 2000: 62).
Step 5. Setting objectives and corrective measures: According to the Code

of Good Practice (Republic of South Africa. 1999a), an affirmative action
programme should specify the broad objectives of the plan. For the public
service, the objectives (Republic of South Africa. 1998c: 2.2) are to:
• enhance the capacities of the historically disadvantaged;
• inculcate a culture of diversity;
• support the affirmation of those previously unfairly disadvantaged; and
• speed up the achievement and progressive improvement of set
numeric targets.
Step 6. Establishing time frames: Both the Employment Equity Act

(Republic of South Africa, 1998a) and the Code of Good Practice (Republic of
South Africa, 1999a) make provision for setting time frames for employers to
achieve the objectives of employment equity plans (Tinarelli, 2000: 76).
Step 7. Setting numerical goals: According to Tinarelli (2000: 76), the

purpose of numerical goals is to ‘increase the representation of people from
designated groups in each occupational level and category in the employer’s
workforce where under-representation has been identified’ and to ‘make the
165
workforce reflect the relevant demographics’. Numerical goals have been set
for the public service in the White Paper on the Transformation of the Public
Service (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1995).
Step 8. /Allocating resources: An affirmative action programme needs

specific resources, such as separate budgets for employment equity purposes,
an affirmative action officer/manager, time allocated to role players and
infrastructure (Tinarelli, 2000: 77). In the public service, financial and
other resources are allocated for achieving affirmative action objectives and
targets (Republic of South Africa. 1998a: 3.11). A manager of the affirmative
action programme maybe appointed in each department and administration
(Republic ofSouth Africa. 1998c: 3.12).
Step 9. Assigning responsibilities: The White Paper on Affirmative Action

in the Public Service identifies role players such as d irectors-general or heads of
departments, line managers, heads of human resources and heads of training
or human resource development for the implementation and monitoring of
affirmative action programmes (Republic ofSouth Africa. 1998c: 3.12).
Step 10. Agreeing on dispute resolution procedures: The Employment

Equity Act does not specify a dispute resolution procedure for the government
as an employer and its employees (Tinarelli. 2000: 77). To deal with unfair
discrimination disputes (see 6.6.8), the applicant must report the incident to
the CCMA within six months. The CCMA must try to conciliate the dispute
or refer it to the Labour Court for adjudication. The government is not in
favour of legalistic, confrontational procedures'. Its policy is that, where
employees believe that their conditions of service have been infringed or that
management has acted in a discriminatory manner, the employee is entitled
to raise a grievance and to have it dealt with as promptly and objectively as
possible (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1997b: 5.12).
Step 11. Communication plans: An affirmative action programme should

be appropriately and comprehensively communicated to all employees and
stakeholders (Tinarelli, 2000: 78). The Employment Equity Act User Guide
(Republic ofSouth Africa. 1999b) details how this communication should be
dealt with. Departments and administrations must develop a:
sustained, effective marketing and communication programme which enables
staff to see affirmative action as a positive tool for achieving their institution's
core business goals. A two-way communication system ensures that staff at all
levels are kept informed ofplans and achievements and also that the views ofstaff
members are taken into account (Republic of South Africa, 1998a: 3.25).
166
Steps 12 and 13 form the last phase in the development of an employment

equity plan (Tinarelli, 2000: 62), namely the monitoring of the plan.
Step 12. Evaluation and review: To monitor, evaluate and review affirmative
action programmes, the Code of Good Practice (Republic of South Africa,
1999a) requires the following from employers:
• record keeping;
• mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating affirmative action
• programmes;
• regular evaluations;
• adequate tune to deal with these requirements;
• regular consultative meetings; and
• reviewing and revising of affirmative action programmes.
The public service complies with these requirements and reports regularly
to the PSC, Department of Labour, DPSA and the relevant parliamentary
portfolio committee (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1998c: 4.8-4.11).
Step 13. Reporting: The Department of Labour is responsible for

implementing the Employment Equity Act and receives voluntary reports
(on an EEA2 form) from all designated employers on their progress in the
implementation of the Act.
6.8.2 Representativeness in the South African public service

The White Paper on the Transformation of the Public Service, supported by
rhe White Paper on Affirmative Action in the Public Service, sets targets for
affirmative action in the public service. The first target date was the end of 1999.
An evaluation of che extent to which these targets have been achieved was made
by the PSC and the results were reported as ‘the state of representativeness in
the public service’ (Republic of South Africa, 2000). Analysis of this report
raises the following questions:
• Does at least 50% of management personnel of all national departments
and provincial administrations consist of black employees?
• Are at least 30% of new recruits to middle and senior management levels
women?
• What is the representation of disabled persons?
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The PSC (RepublicofSouth Africa, 2000:7) reported chat 54.5%ofmanagement

personnel was black by che end of 1999 - 4.5% above che target sec in 1995. Of
che middle and senior management levels, 18.28% were women. New recruits co
management from 1995 co 1999 were unknown. Disabled persons comprised
only 0.1% of persons in che public service by che end of 1999 (shore of che
cargec of 2% co be achieved by che end of 2005). The Commission encouraged
departments co ‘vigorously embark upon a recruitment programme co reach
sec targets’ (Republic of South Africa, 2000: 30).
Audit of affirmative action in the public service
The Public Service Commission (PSC) published a report in 2006 enticled

‘An audit of affirmative action in the public service’ (available on the PSC
website http://www.psc.gov.za/home_docs/Low-rez%20Document.pdf).
I he project was undertaken to fulfil the PSC’s mandate of promoting
the constitutional principles and values governing public administration,
as well as to investigate, monitor and evaluate the organisation,
administration and personnel practices of the public service. The Ford
Foundation provided funding, which the Institute for International
Education (HE) administered.
In its Annual Report to the Citizens 2013/2014 (Republic of South Africa,
2015: 6), the PSC reported that as at 31 March 2014 the staff breakdown
of employees at the Commission, per gender and race in all occupational
categories, showed a total of 109 males (90 black males) and 126 females
(103 black females). These figures include 3 disabled employees.
As a comparison, in its last report in this regard, the PSC reported in its
Annual Report to Citizens 2016/2017 (Republic of South Africa, 2017: 13)
that as on 31 March 2017, the staff breakdown of employees at the PSC, per
gender and race in all occupational categories, showed a total of 112 males
(102 black males) and 146 females (137 black females). These figures include
6 disabled employees.
168
DID YOU KNOW?

Statistics gathered by the Department of Public Service and Administration
(DPSA) indicate a total of 1 326 182 officials employed in the public service
(national departments and provincial administrations) as at 31 December
2014.
Of the total of 9 595 officials in senior management, 3 879 were female
and 5 716 were male.
Of the total of 17 248 officials in middle management, 7 575 were female
and 9 673 were male.
There were 1 055 958 Africans employed in the public service (6 852 in
senior management); 115 776 whites (1 336 in senior management);
42 670 Asians (598 in senior management); and 110 699 Coloureds
(809 in senior management).
Further information is available on the DPSA website ar http://www.dpsa.
gov.za/
6.8.3 Why affirmative action programmes sometimes fail

Institutions that try a quick-fix route co affirmative action (Gerber, Nel &
Van Dyk, 1995: 205-206; Charlton & Van Niekerk, 1994: 79-82) often find the
following:
• Strategic planning for affirmative action is not implemented effectively.
Successful implementation requires commitment from the head of the
institution and the support of employees at all organisational levels.
• Staff do not know how to implement affirmative action initiatives.
• HR planning is not carried out.
• Attitudes remain negative and rooted in the status quo. Control remains
with while managers, and black employees are regarded as incapable of
taking responsibility and accountability.
• Concerns are not clarified and problems are not addressed because of a
lack of two-way communication.
• The formal but obsolete training methods used do not equip people
with skills to cope with the challenges of affirmative action. Trainers
do not have the required skills.
• Line management shuns ownership of and responsibility for the
programme.
169
• There is a lack ofcommitment by top management to invest time, effort

and public support in the programme. This (modelling) behaviour
communicates the message that the failure to reach departmental
targets will be condoned because management is only going through
the motions out of necessity.
• The programme lacks a clearly communicated objective and targets
with timetables.
• Recruitment and selection methods are not adapted to attract and to
screen suitable black people.
• Assumptions about the abilities and qualifications necessary to do a
specific task are presumed to be valid.
The foregoing shows that the removal of substantive employment inequalities

cannot be resolved easily. Programmes implemented without proper planning
will prove to be costly and entrench negativity between groups.
6.8.4 Strategic approach to affirmative action in public

institutions
Affirmative action forms an integral part and key focus area of HRM in the
public sector in South Africa. An affirmative action strategy should be an
integral part of the overall policy aims and HR strategy of a public institution.
Affirmative action should be part of a strategic plan to ensure effective and
efficient public services.
A strategic approach to affirmative action could have nine distinguishable phases:

1. Noting the challenge for public institutions to fulfil society’s need
for public services, such as the protection of life, property and other
fundamental rights of’the good life (Loxton, 1993: 60) in accordance
with the principles in the Constitution.
2. Observing the prescriptive influence of the national executive authority.
3. Considering the implications of the national policy framework for the
affirmative action of (he specific institution. This framework includes
(he White Paper on the Transformation of the Public Service, 1995;
White Paper on Public Service Training and Education, 1997; White
Paper on Human Resource Management in the Public Service, 1997;
and White Paper on Affirmative Action in the Public Service of 1998.
4. Developing an institutional business plan for the goal and key
functions of the institution. The institution’s affirmative action plan
should be an integral part of this business plan.
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5. Developing an institutional HR plan that comprises an HR stra

tegy and workforce plan, the identification of competencies and
underpinning successes, and the determination of the gap between
supply and demand for human competence.
6. Preparing the actual affirmative action plan. This involves assigning
responsibility and accountability to one or more senior managers,
conducting communication, awareness and training programmes,
and consulting with relevant stakeholders.
7. Implementing the affirmative action plan. Set objectives and
corrective measures, establish time frames, set numerical goals,
allocate resources, assign responsibilities, agree on dispute resolution
procedures, and communicate the plans.
8. Monitoring, evaluating and reviewing affirmative action. The insti
tution must report to the various monitoring institutions.
9. Determining whether numerical targetsand society’s needs for quality
public services, rendered by a representative public service, have
been met.
Right to equality
The constitutionality of the equal protection and discrimination doctrine

is one of the key topics that have been challenged on the basis of the
right to equality in the Constitution (cf Chapter 2, Section 9 of the
Constitution). Obviously, this raises the issue of discrimination, which is
prohibited in Section 9 of the Constitution, in particular discrimination
on grounds of race, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social
origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience,
belief, culture, language and birth. Several ground-breaking CC cases
after 1994 emphasised how the right to equality has been neglected,
for example: National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian v Minister of Home Affairs
(2005) CCT 10/05 - the complaint was that Section 30(1) of the Marriage
Act 25 of 1961 excludes two gay parties from publicly celebrating their
love and commitment to each other in marriage. The Court established
that the failure of the common law and the Marriage Act to offer the
means whereby same-sex couples can enjoy the same standing, privileges
and responsibilities rendered to heterosexual couples through marriage
constitutes an indefensible infringement on their rights.
Source: CCT 11/98 (2005)
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6.9 Conclusion
Affirmative action in the South African public service cannot be evaluated
appropriately without reflecting on the origin of the practice of affirmative
action in the United States of America. The American history of this practice,
as well as the application of related concepts in the discourse on affirmative
action, serves as a background to the practice of affirmative action in the
South African public service.
Owing to specific historical developments in employment policies in the South

African public service, as well as a discrepancy between the composition of
South Africa’s population and the composition of the public service, it was
necessary to transform the public service. A number of legislative measures
and policies have been adopted to give strategic direction to affirmative
action in the South African public service.
A strategic perspective on affirmative action in the public service reveals that

it should not be an end in itself, k should be seen as part of a bigger process of
providing quality services through a truly representative public service.

1. What are the origins of affirmative action?
2. What is meant by the concepts ‘affirmative action’ and ‘equality of
opportunity’?
3. What is the relationship between affirmative action and equality?
4. What are the different modalities of affirmative action?
5. What is an ‘organisational audit and employment equity plan’?
6. What have been the developments in and experiences of affirmative
action in the South African public service?
7. Why do affirmative action programmes often fail?
8. What are the implications of affirmative action for other HRM
practices?
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Chapter
Talent management: Recruitment,
7 selection and appointment
Purpose
This chapter considers some of the key elements of talent management
(TM) in the public sector. The focus will specifically be on the recruitment,
selection and appointment processes ofTM and how it affects institutional
success.
Learning outcomes
• Define and differentiate the concepts ‘talent* and 'talent
management’.
• Examine the roles of the different role players in TM.
• Compile a recruitment policy and procedures for a public sector
institution.
• Identify the external and internal factors influencing recruitment.
• Structure decisions regarding internal or external recruitment sources
and methods.
• Write out a primary aim and objectives for selection.
• Design a selection policy and procedures to guide those that are
involved in the selection process.
• List the various steps that can be taken in the selection process.
• Apply selection strategies to manage the process of a selection more
confidently.
• Describe the various employment tests that can be used in the
selection process.
• Practise the steps in placing the new public sector employee.
7.1 Introduction
Not many people would consider TM a fundamental and strategic area in
the human resource management (HRM) field. At the same time research
reveals that one of the basic reasons for inadequate public service delivery in
South Africa is the application of ineffective TM strategies that turn a blind
eye to finding key talent. In fact, one of the core tasks in public institutions
is to retain human resources. Along with the need to retain talents, recruit,
select and appoint people, institutions have realised that talents are
essential resources demanding appropriate management to be successful.
Moreover, TM is a key ingredient in the competition for quality employees.
The subject of TM has also been prevalent in academic literature for more
than a decade and it remains to maintain momentum. Obtaining talented
people is one of the central managerial concerns and public institutions are
challenged with increasing competition for talent some at the same time
experience a continuing scarcity of talented staff. By tradition, public sector
institutions have done fairly little to recruit talented employees. Nevertheless,
three factors are now replacing the public sector’s inactive attitude towards
recruitment with a more active one. Many public institutions are recruiting
more adamantly to meet equal employment opportunity requirements and to
conform to affirmative action policy guidelines.
Selection can be expressed as the practice of attempting to decide which

individuals may best fit particular jobs in the public sector institutional
context. This is done in such a wavz that it ensures individual differences, the
requirements ofthejob, and the institution’s internal and external environments
are provided for. Clearly this is not an easy task. Given the difficulty of the task,
it needs to be taken seriously. This means that the selection process should be
purposefully planned. In light of the above this chapter addresses TM and, in
particular, will be focusing on recruitment and selection.
7.2 Defining talent and talent management

Within the wide variety of TM definitions, authors ascribed different
meanings to the term ‘talent. In this regard, they made use of terms such
as ‘excellent abilities,' ‘key employees’ or ‘high potentials.’ The diversity of
terms used to describe talent revealed a key debate in TM whether it is an
inclusive or exclusive approach. On the one hand, the inclusive approach is
founded on the principle that all employees have abilities that can add value
to the institution. On the other hand, the exclusive approach is more selective.
Here the focus is on a particular group of employees whose talents, skills,
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Chapter 7: Talent management: recruitment, selection and appointment
and capabilities are regarded as unique and very valuable for the institution.
The argument goes further by claiming that these employees also occupy
important jobs in the institution which is strategically very essential to ensure
successful delivery of public services. In a study done by Gallardo-Gallardo
and Thunnissen (2016: 32-36), it was found that the academic debate of talent
seems to move more towards an exclusive approach. Then again, in many
public sector institutions, the principle of equality and affirmative action
is regarded as more important, managing the philosophies of the exclusive
approach differently. In this way it is reasoned that all employees should receive
equal chances to develop and grow, including equal promotion opportunities.
According to this approach, it implies that the inclusive approach would be
more promising in the public sector. However, the literature shows that both
inclusive and exclusive approaches are used in the public sector (Macfarlane
etal, 2012: 446 450). Unfortunately, the justification behind these approaches
remains unclear. Thunnissen er4/(2013: 1745 1750) suggest a more multilevel
orientation toward the outcomes of TM. They argue that the economic and
noneconomic benefits and aspirations of multiple stakeholders - employee,
institution, and even society - need to be considered and integrated with
equal TM objectives. Obviously, this more comprehensive orientation is
specifically applicable for public sector institutions, since the public sector
employer plays such a key role in society.
During the last few years, different authors have done intensive research on TM.
In the main it is accepted that TM is a systematic and integrated process with
specific efforts to identify, recruit, attract, develop, engage, deploy and retain
talents to ensure successful institutional performance (Collings, Mellahi &
Cascio, 2017: 393-394; Taylor, 2019: 7). This explanation clearly indicates that
it involves a strategic activity, and that ‘talent is seen as an essential, scarce
and remarkably valuable resource for the public sector. It is further argued in
the literature that talent is present in only a fairly small number of employees
(gifted/exceprional people or highest achievers) and potential employees.
Often this exclusive view is directed at the more senior levels employed in
the institution who have the potential to add value to public service delivery
(using appropriate human resource (HR) metrics). However, there is another
(more inclusive) view that extends its understanding of talent to include
professional groups as well - for example, people with good technical skills
whose talents are available in limited quantities. This view sees everyone (with
the potential) as part ofthe talent pool that can contribute to the achievement
of institutional objectives. The extent of the contribution may, however,
vary from individual to individual, with the exclusion of poor performers.
Nevertheless, TM policies and practices should cover the talent pool as widely
175
as possible. As far as this book is concerned it will take the perspective of

Taylor (2019: 8-9) and follow a blended approach (a mixture of exclusive and
inclusive elements) that is neither too narrow in its comprehension of what
constitutes ‘talent’ nor excessively exclusive of who comprises an institution’s
talent pool. The blended approach further makes provision for a strategic
perspective that is aligned with the institutional objectives and suits the
public sector context best, ensuring that the best performance is achieved
from its employees, thereby gaining a (competitive) transient advantage. It
also stands to reason that the treatment of‘talent management' and ‘talent’
impacts the recruitment, development and retention efforts of the institution
(Van der Westhuizen, 2016: 123).
7.3 Role players in talent management

The key role players in the decision-making processes of TM are located
on an operational, tactical and strategic level. However, managers on the
operational and tactical levels as well as HR specialists are more dominant
and directly involved (Thunnissen & Buttiens, 2017: 397). The first step in
TM is to identify and find talent. A key question to ask during this phase
is: ‘talent for what?’ In this regard, it is expected of line function staff to do
several things. Usually, the focus here is on the different roles to be played and
more specifically as talent identifiers, career negotiators, career developers
and collective discussers (Hirsh, 2015: 1-6; Collings, Mellahi & Cascio, 2017:
11-12; Taylor, 2019: 7-12).
As ‘talent identifier’ several things are required. These can be roughly classified
as follows:
1. Identify those individuals showing high potential.
2. Spot workers that exhibit the ability and ambition to move up a level
in the institution.
3. Recognise people demonstrating potential in the same position or in
a position at a comparable level to their current job.
HR specialists can undoubtedly assist in the identification of talent by offering

managers with uncomplicated guidelines and criteria, but also by helping line
managers to see how talent spotting relates to other everyday behaviours they
need anyway. Line function managers also have a role as ‘career negotiator.’
More particularly, in assisting individual workers to communicate their career
needs. In this regard, personal factors must be taken into consideration by
the manager, for example, how flexible an individual can be geographically.
176
Hence, it is essential that line function managers open up a career dialogue

with employees (start the conversations). Managers will need help from HR
specialists in the following areas:
1. Grasping a conception of what an operational career conversation
might look like.
2. Guiding managers in effective career conversations.
3. Helping them to practice these conversations.
A further role is that of‘career developer.' Some workable things managers

ought to do here include:
1. Facilitating development.
2. Helping the individual worker to get access to different work
experiences. Here HR may help to identify and access the appropriate
opportu nities.
3. Nominating individuals for more formal opportunities, for example,
corporate talent programmes or support with external qualifications.
As ‘collective discussers' managers should apply collective management

interventions. Collective discussions such as succession forums, talent
reviews or people reviews can be used. Collective action is sometimes necessary
to identify career opportunities across the institution. HR specialists
play a fundamental role in these collective activities. This can be done by
coordinating discussions and simultaneously making it easier for managers
to follow up on agreed actions.
7.4 Recruitment policy and procedures for talent

management
The recruitment policy of government outlines general standards,
parameters, and instructions regarding recruitment in the public sector
for TM. In essence, a recruitment policy is a framework that delineates the
recruitment practices of a public sector institution. The purpose of the
policy is to promote reliability, uniformity, transparency, consistency, and
obedience to legislation (more particularly, labour laws). In the main, the
recruitment policy must specify the institution's position in relation to the
broad objectives of recruitment and the principle of employment equity.
The Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998 (EEA) (Republic of South Africa.
1998) prevents employers from discriminating against employees and job
applicants. There is a possibility that public sector employers can discriminate,
177
even unintentionally, at several points during the recruitment and selection

process, for example, when writing a job description for a job offer. By using an
appropriate recruitment policy government can place themselves as possible
employers, offering potential employees prospects to be employed in the
public sector and at the same time contributing to service delivery in society.
Clearly the general objectives of a recruitment policy are not enough and
require more detail concerning the way in which recruitment should be dealt
with in the public sector workplace. For example, what practical steps can be
taken to have a positive effect on the image of the public sector? The only way
to make certain that the recruitment process is successful in achieving these
objectives is to compile and implement appropriate recruitment policies and
procedures. A basic recruitment policy and procedures should give answers to
aspects such as:
1. The objectives of recruitment.
2. Legal and regulatory instructions on fairness.
3. Details on the resolutions in collective agreements with public sector
unions.
4. Targets in terms of employment equity (race, gender, and disability).
5. Budget limitations.
6. Which unit or person (designated title) will be responsible for the
execution of the policy.
7. Will promotions from within the institution take preference.
8. May part-time employees be employed? (Van der Westhuizen & Wessels,
2011: 207).
As a rule, most public sector employers would like to see that the existing
employees have the first option to apply for a position. However, the main
concern in such a case is whether the applicant is the most appropriate
candidate. It is imperative to be conscious of the effect of such a strategy
since it may have equal employment opportunity consequences. For that
reason, well-defined guidelines on internal appointments must be covered in
the recruitment policy and procedures. One of the most important aspects
to be taken into account in the compilation of recruitment policy and
procedures is to reflect on the content of government policy and regulations.
Current legislation that is in place to manage and administer recruitment
is, among others, the Constitution, Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995 (LRA)
(Republic of South Africa, 1995), EEA. Public Service Act 103 of 1994 (PSA)
and the Public Service Regulations of 2016 (Republic of South Africa,
178
2016 - 2016 PSRs). Public employers are responding co che equity provisions of
che above legislation in many ways. For example, arranging of disadvantaged
craining opportunities (such as che development of mathematical skills) and
introducing mentoring openings.
7.5 Key research findings in talent management on

recruitment and selection
There are a few important things that stand out in research currently that
could change and improve TM in the recruitment and selection results
of public sector employers these are social recruiting instruments and
platforms, proactive recruitment and selection and creating a better candidate
experience or care. In contemporary times, the immense growth of social
recruiting instruments and platforms have added various other staffing
options to public institutions. Examples are internet job boards (internet sites
that admit institutions to upload their vacancies), internet data mining and
web crawlers (programmes that constantly search the web for information
about potential employees - other possibilities include flip searching (where
specific internet sites search for passive and semi-passive candidates) and
social networking such as Linkedln Recruiter, Talent Hook. Swoop Talent,
YouTube and social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter (Koch,
Gerber & De Klerk, 2018: 4). Nowadays with public employers accepting
the value of a candidate oversupply (‘bursting with talent ) the recruitment
and selection domain has changed somewhat. What is now experienced
is that employers take a more proactive approach (last thing). A proactive
recruitment and selection strategy is when one actively seeks candidates that
may be appropriate to fit in for roles within the institution even when there
are no roles to fill. Basically, proactive recruitment and selection imply the
identification of potential candidates (and engagement with them/build
relationships with them nurturing them). In other words, there is a reach
out to the worthiest possible candidates that will hypothetically fit in with
the institution’s work culture (Wilkinson etal, 2010: 140; Koch, Gerber, &
De Klerk, 2018: 4).
Another development in the recruitment area of the HR field is the part

that candidate care plays in the final decisions of appointments. Usually,
when there is a recruitment crisis, employers fail to notice the exchanges
and collaborations that take place during the recruitment process. Hence,
it is wise for employers to engage in mindful efforts while simultaneously
creating a better candidate experience. This approach will probably assist
179
employers co prevent losing quality candidates and result in an improved

institutional image and employer branding and reputation. It is always
good to be responsive to candidates. For example, be quick to acknowledge
receipt of resumes and to notify candidates who will not be interviewed,
reduce inefficiencies and things that could upset and frustrate candidates
(Wilkinson, Bacon, Redman & Snell. 2010: 139-140).
Indeed, employing the right employees in the right positions at the right time
is central to successful public service delivery and HR processes. Therefore, it
is important to allocate time to make changes in the recruitment practices
of the public sector that will, in reality, be the source of measurable results
originating from suitable recruiting and hiring.
7.6 Objectives of recruitment

It is clear-cut that the public sector would not want to waste public funds on
unnecessary recruitment actions. It is therefore important to put together
clear objectives for the recruitment process. This requires that public managers
on the operational and tactical levels, as well as HR specialists, should make
certain that the recruitment process, for example, meets the requirements
of relevant legislation and prevents unfair discrimination taking place in
the workplace. More specifically, these objectives are to make sure that all
recruitment efforts:
• Generate a positive image for the institution.
• Guide the recruitment process fairly and equitably.
• Create a large talent pool of potential candidates.
• Meet the institution’s diversity commitments (apply merit principles).
• Improve the institution’s reputation using fair, impartial and unpre
judiced hiring practices (Van der Westhuizen. 2015: 78).
7.7 Factors influencing recruitment

Several factors influence recruitment in direct or indirect ways. These may
be separated into two broad categories, namely external and internal factors.
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7.7.1 External factors

External factors are factors outside the institution and cannot always be
controlled. Van der Westhuizen and Wessels (2011: 208 212) refer to aspects
such as labour market conditions, government policy and legislation, and
trade unions.
7.7.1.1 Labour market conditions

If there is a large number of qualified candidates who comply with the job
specification requirements, it is evident that limited recruiting efforts will
be necessary. In such a situation where there is an oversupply of applicants,
it follows logically that minimum recruitment interventions may generate
many applications. Obviously when there is an undersupply in the job market,
more imaginative and inventive recruitment efforts will be necessary. The
unavailability of certain skills (shortages) will demand larger compensation
packages to attract suitable candidates. HR specialists should stay well-
informed of current trends and movements within the labour market to put
to use the right recruitment policy. The Department of Labour has statistics
available for different sectors of the labour market (http://www.labour.gov.za ).
7.7.1.2 Government policy and legislation

Government policy plays an important role in the formulation of a public
institution’s internal recruitment policy and procedures for TM. Many
different measures are prescribed by law and regulations to prevent
discriminatory recruitment practices. The legal framework for recruitment is
provided by, among others, in the Constitution, the PSA, the LRA, the EEA,
the PSRs. the White Paper on the Transformation of the Public Service of 1995
and the White Paper on Affirmative Action for the Public Service of 1998.
Although white papers have no legal status, it should serve as a broad policy
background. Section 9 of the Constitution, for example, clearly stipulates that
everybody is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection. More
specifically. Section 9(3) explicitly outlaws discrimination against anybody
on the grounds of race, gender, pregnancy, language, ethnicity, marital status,
sexual preference, age, religion, and disability.
7.7.1.3 Trade unions

A typical characteristic of many trade unions in South Africa is to persuade
public sector employers to enter into closed shop agreements. Generally, the
trade unions strive for agreements stipulating that only union members
will be employed by the institution concerned. Likewise, trade unions seek
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increased participation in recruitment and selection processes opting for a

greater say in decision making. Senior management must take cognisance
of the influence of unions and agree to recruitment practices which are
appropriate to all the stakeholders.
7.7.2 Internal factors

Internal factors can to a great extent be controlled by the institution and refer
to aspects such as strategic plans, institutional policy and recruitment criteria.
7.7.2.1 Strategic plans

Public institutions are increasingly acknowledging rhe importance of
managing their HR as effectively as possible and admit that strategic
recruitment and selection play a key role in this regard. Recruitment
should therefore not be seen as a remote and isolated HR activity. This
implies the strategic incorporation of recruitment with a long-term focus
and opportunity for interpretation of strategic mandates and pressures
into an appropriate recruitment and selection design (Argue, 2015: 18-22).
Certainly, the recruitment and selection of human resources have a central
impact on how well a public institution can successfully execute its strategic
plan. In this regard, the long-term plans of the institution are the starting
point for the in-depth shorter-term plans on which the recruitment efforts
are based. Hence, the HR department must use the corporate plan (such as
the government’s vision, mission, and objectives) and the business plans of
the relevant public sector institution to ensure strategic recruitment. To be
even more successful it may be necessary to bring in a futurist or economist
who has an understanding of the talent issues the world faces and invite a
strategist from government to come and speak about emerging governmental
directions that might affect the talent in the public sector.
7.7.2.2 Institutional policy

It is of strategic importance that the recruitment policy of the institution
should be refined and finalised as soon as possible. The South African public
sector sets the example as an equal opportunity employer and thus intends
to do away with all forms of unfair discrimination in the recruitment and
selection of staff. In practice, it means that preference should be given to
affirmative action candidates. In addition, the policy should be clear on
promotions (from within or outside) or the employment of the handicapped.
The institutional policy must state this clearly. Certain procedures should
also be implemented to ensure the execution ofthe policy.
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77.2.3 Recruitment criteria

Essentially, recruitment criteria are standards used to measure all candidates
and their ability to perform a job. The public sector is a labour-intensive employer
and the quality of its services is clearly dependent on the quality and performance
of its employees. Considered from this viewpoint, recruitment and selection
jointly signifies one of the most important HR practices. The Public Service
Commission has a toolkit on recruitment and selection available for the public
service on its website (http: www.psc.gov.za). Abnormally rigid and inflexible
criteria will get in the way of well-intended recruitment efforts. Appropriate job
descriptions and specifications will help to establish accurate requirements to
enable effective recruitment. Accurate recruitment criteria should also be drawn
up to prevent any discriminatory practices. Generally, there are basic ‘rules’ that
have to be adhered to in designing these criteria, namely:
1. Accessibility - reaching the widest possible pool of available potential
applicants.
2. Positive image - presenting the programme in such a way that the
image of the relevant public service institution will be elevated.
3. Equity the guiding principle of employment equity should support
all recruitment efforts.
4. Efficiency - ensuring the acquisition and retention of human
resources with appropriate knowledge, skills, and competencies (Van
der Westhuizen & Wessels, 2011: 213).
7.8 Recruitment sources

The searching for appropriate candidates and notifying them about the
opportunities in the institution is probably the most prominent part of
recruitment. Talent may be available inside (internal) or outside (external)
rhe institution.
7.8.1 Internal sources

Let us now focus briefly on the internal sources of recruitment. According to
Van der Westhuizen and Wessels (2011: 216) and Van der Westhuizen (2016:
127-128), internal sources refer to the following:
• Skills inventories: /\ skills inventory is a collation of the knowledge,
skills, education, and capabilities of current employees. Usually,
institutions use these inventories to assess whether existing employees
can meet institutional goals.
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• Talent pools: A talent pool is a group of employees that is mostly

categorised as the top talent within an institution. They can be a
restricted to a group with a certain area of know-how, or a broad group
talented in executing a variety of tasks. Internal talent pools make
available opportunities for development and career progression, which
may add to improved levels of employee engagement and retention.
• Job posting: Job posting involves the publishing of a job offer within a
specific recruitment channel to close a vacancy. Job posting provides an
opportunity for the public employer to make the job and the institution
stand out. Classic examples of recruitment channels to post a job arc
job boards, notice boards or in information bulletins.
• Inside moonlighting: In the event of a short-term or temporary need
or a small job which does not comprise a great deal of additional work,
a public employer could make use of moonlighting to pay bonuses of
various types to people not on a time payroll. Usually, moonlighting
implies the method of working a second job outside normal office hours.
7.8.2 External sources

Various external sources can be used. This section focuses on some of the
more important ones.
7.8.2.1 Employment agencies

The relevant public institution requests the employment agency to recruit
suitable potential candidates. The agency advertises or makes use of its
placement database. r\ database for recruitment refers to persons who have
made available data and information to the agency (such as a curricula vitae)
which then seeks employment forthem. After the collection of the information
on rhe potential candidates by the agency the institution may decide to do its
own selection or can leave this task in the hands of the agency.
7.8 2.2 Radio advertising, newspaper advertising and telecasting

Attracting suitable candidates is demanding enough but making contact with
them can make recruitment a real struggle. Radio poses a wide and targeted
reach plus it can be regarded as a trusted advertisement setting. This makes it a
solid platform to engage and urge action from potential candidates. In addition,
it can be used to reach rural communities. Newspaper advertising can be done
through specialised agencies that advertise positions in leading newspapers.
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Box number advertisements - this is done without the employer’s name. Usually,
this type of recruitment does not attract good candidates. Telecasting is another
external source of recruitment and is getting more attention nowadays. A telecast
is a programme that is broadcasted or advertised on television (live broadcast).
Telecasting recruitment activities that are used refer to special programmes such
as ‘job watch4, ‘youth pulse’ and ‘employment news’ over the television. However,
one should take note that telecasting is an expensive medium.
7.8.2.3 Study aids

The leadingaim with study aids is to recruit potential candidates externally in
those areas of public sector employment where difficulties and complexities are
experienced appointing appropriately qualified candidates. With study aids,
employers enter into a written agreement with a candidate for employment
upon the successful completion of their studies. In the case where study aids
are employed, it is important that the aid schemes are advertised as broadly
as possible. The reason for this requirement is to provide a reasonable and
equitable opportunity to all potential candidates for the application of the
available bursaries.
7.8.2.4 Walk-ins
A walk-in is regarded as an opportunity where the candidate comes in for
an interview and usually reaches the respective employer without any prior
appointment. One of the advantages of walk-in interviews is that it provides
opportunities to many different people to apply for a position and get
interviewed. Generally, walk-in applicants do not apply online or through
mail - it takes place in person.
7.8.2.5 Professional bodies

Accounting, engineering, and scientific institutes look after the interests
of their members by allowing vacancy advertisements in their publications.
Networking opportunities are also afforded through academic and
professional conventions.
7.8.2.6 Head-hunting
Head-hunting is the process of recruiting individuals to fill senior positions in
public institutions. This type of external recruiting may be undertaken by an
institution's management committee, HR specialists or by external recruitment
agencies known as headhunters. The candidates are approached personally
with an offer to fill a vacancy (Van der Westhuizen & Wessels, 2011: 216 218;
Asseburg, Homberg & Vogel, 2018: 705: Kravariti & Johnston, 2019: 80-82).
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7.9 Recruitment, selection and appointment

All TM endeavours start with the recruitment of employees. As was indicated
in Chapter 5 (workforce planning) recruitment is a strategic activity for all
stakeholders in the institution. Different steps are usually pursued in the
recruitment process and this can be used as a model approach to recruitment
in the public sector. It should, though, be mentioned that, since public
institutions have different objectives and needs, the process will have to be
adjusted to fit each institution’s specific requirements.
7.9.1 Recruitment
We will now focus on the key steps in the recruitment process.
Step 1: Determine the exact need

Before any action of recruitment can take place, it is important to determine
if a real and valid need exists for the post to be filled. In this regard, one must
consider the broader circumstances under which the need for recruitment
resulted. It is the responsibility of HR specialists to make certain that the
recruitment decision can be confirmed and supported by facts acquired from
valid management information. Typical questions to ask here are:
1. Why is a new person required?
2. What duties, skills, abilities and responsibilities will the successful
candidate have?
3. Where does this position fit within the wider organisational structure
of the institution?
In Section 26 of the PSRs, it is formally stipulated that HR planning should

precede any recruitment action in the public service (Republic of South
Africa, 2016). When compiling an HR plan, an HR specialist should, for
example, assess existing human resources by race, gender, disability, age, and
any other relevant criteria; consider the employment equity plan; and take
into consideration the available budgeted funds. As far as need determination
ofthe exact need is concerned potential unfair labour practices should always
be kept in mind potential court cases. This aspect is illustrated in Spotlight
on the Law 7.1.
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Unfair labour practice (appointment)
The Department of Health (Eastern Cape Province), advertised the post of

Deputy Director: Clinical Support Services. One of the requirements stated
in the advertisement was that potential candidates be registered with
the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA). The individual
appellants applied for the position. Although all were registered as
required, no one was successful with the application. However, they later
found out that the successful candidate was not registered with the HPCSA
but only with the South African Nursing Council. A bargaining council
arbitrator determined that the Department of Health could not justify
the deviation under any circumstances. It was ruled that the department
performed an unfair labour practice. The respondent was instructed to
re-advertise the post. The Labour Court reviewed the case and the award
was put aside. It was later forwarded to the council. The court found in
Health & Other Services Personnel Trade Union ofSouth Africa & Others v MEC for
Health, Eastern Cape & Others (2017) 38 ILJ 890 (LAC) that the department
had not justified departing from the requirements set for the position. The
deviation not only prejudiced the individual appellants but disqualified
potential candidates from applying - appeal was upheld with costs.
Source: Grogan, Maserumule and Govindjee (2017: 15)
Step 2: Obtain approval in terms ofthe human resource budget

An important aspect of recruitment is how the budget and plan is aligned
with the key goals of the institution. Approval can ultimately boil down to
return on investment - the cost of the recruitment project assessed to the
value of its results. The appointment of a person is a major cost for a public
institution. The recruitment budget may include costs such as advertising
expenses, travel, meals, lodging moving expenditure and background checks.
As (his can result in considerable expenses, approval must be obtained at the
highest level (senior management level). If done this way, it will make certain
that recruitment is fitting with the broad institutional and HR plans.
Step 3: Compile or update job descriptions and job specifications

We have already explained the role and nature of job descriptions and
specifications and how it can improve the institution’s ability to manage
people and roles in ways such as clarification of employer expectations for
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employees, provision of continuity of role boundaries irrespective of manager

interpretation and facilitation of pay and grading systems to be structured
fairly and logically. Job descriptions and job specifications are the point of
departure for all recruitment activities and if poorly written could attract
unqualified candidates. On the one hand, a job description will support
the public sector recruiter to determine the precise nature of the vacant job,
for example, spelling out the purpose, duties and responsibilities. The job
specification, on the other hand, helps the recruiter to make a profile of the
job elements such as experience, qualifications and communication abilities
(Van der Westhuizen & Wessels, 2011: 223).
Step 4: Determine the key performance areas for the job

Key performance areas (KPAs) are those factors (metrics) that play a key role
in the success of the institution and is a natural outflow of the previous step.
It is one of the most essential indicators of the current performance level of
an individual worker. The formulation of KPAs needs to be done accurately,
quantitatively, impartially and without bias. This is to enable the recruiter
and the person(s) responsible for interviewing and selection with insight and
awareness regarding the real job requirements. The preparation and drawing
up of KPAs may form part of the job description process.
Step 5: Consult the recruitment policy and procedures (see section 7.4)
As was indicated in section 7.4 the recruitment policy and procedures
contain specific guidelines regarding recruitment in the public sector for
TM. This document reflects the institution's views regarding the approach
and procedures to be followed and is usually clear on whether recruitment
should be done internally or externally, employment equity and budget
limitations. The recruitment policy and procedures document should be seen
as a dynamic instrument to ensure that employees are appointed with the
appropriate qualifications, skills and experiences. If a well thought out and
well-formulated document is in place it should ensure that the recruitment
process is conducted fairly and transparently and that during no stage of
recruitment will (here be any discriminatory behaviour (Van der Westhuizen
& Wessels, 2011:223).
Step 6: Choose the source(s) and method(s)

In section 7.8 it was explained that the public employer has two main
categories of recruitment sources to choose from, namely internal or external.
Knowing what recruiting sources are at ones disposal and how to control
them is a key first step to make the most of talent acquisition. Historical data
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and information on the success rate of certain sources could be very beneficial
in this regard.
It is always good practice to try to recruit from internal sources first. If not
successful internally external sources may be used in addition to internal
sou rces.
Step 7: Screen responses and draw up an initial shortlist of candidates

Many employers make use of pre-employment screening as a part of the
recruitment process. There are many possible benefits attached to this
approach. One such benefit is a general improvement in the quality of
applicants. This could, in the long run. be the forerunner for higher
productivity levels, improvement in the delivery of public services and a
decrease in staff resignations. In the ideal work situation, it is the ultimate
to invite all candidates for an interview. Then again in the real world, which
is characteristic of high stress, this approach is not realistic nor suitable.
In today’s competitive world, one needs to decide on a selected number of
interviewees early in the shortlisting process. Begin by selecting a few key
qualities (‘topmost’) that you would like the ideal candidate to have. These
are the traits, abilities and talents that can give a suitable candidate an
advantage over all other candidates. There is an extensive list of qualities the
HR recruiter could use for screening but realistically only a few are relevant.
All top talent should possess qualities such as:
1. Perseverance (trait underlining an employee’s ambition and readiness
to resolve work challenges irrespective of the time and effort).
2. Confidence (confident workers can initiate and facilitate difficult
discussions and attend to the anxieties of staff members).
3. Emotional intelligence - El (the capacity to be conscious of and be
in charge of one’s emotions and make a mindful effort co appreciate
contemplate, and have compassion for the opinions, behaviours, and
choices of their colleagues). Key elements of a person with high El
levels are self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, and social skills.
4. Integrity (the quality of being honest and adherence to strong moral
principles). Attributes of a person having strong ethical principles are,
among others, humility, respect, reliability and kindness.
Creating a sound shortlist of possible successful candidates is a decisive step

during the recruitment process. There are some straightforward steps to help
the recruiter to get it right here. Telephonic screening can often help to acquire
important information which can further exclude unsuitable candidates.
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k is also imperative that the shortlist of potentially suitable applicants must

be redirected and deliberated with the relevant department or unit head
before advancing to the selection interviews. Major warning indicators and
pointers like a weakly presented resume or too much job-hopping should
certainly set off alarm bells ringing. However, red Hags can also indicate the
reasons an employee left the last job (Van der Westhuizen & Wessels, 2011:
225). In addition, there are some basic requirements to comply with when
compiling a short list: At least two staff members must be involved separately in
compiling the shortlist and during the process of classifying the applications
into predetermined categories of ‘acceptable’, possibly acceptable’, and
‘unacceptable’. Finally, they should rank the acceptable applications in order
of suitability (Foot & Hook 2016: 118).
Step 8: Notify applicants of the outcome

It is essential to notify all applicants as soon as possible of the outcome
of their applications. This will involve those who were unsuccessful and
those who may be invited for interviews. The golden rule is to inform the
successful candidate first. The candidate should be given an opportunity to
decide if they accept the offer or not. If not interested there may always be
the possibility of another candidate attracted to the position. As soon as the
offer is accepted, the rest of the candidates will be notified as such. When
creating communication to the successful applicant, make sure to include
the following:
1. The name of the institution and the job title they have applied for.
2. The next step in the hiring process.
3. /\ cut-off date for a response.
4. Contact information of the recruiter in command.
5. Candidates must be advised specifically (where, when, and for how
long) char they are invited to an interview.
6. Indicate all the requirements of the interview to the candidates
(qualification certificates, a medical examination must be undergone,
selection tests must be written, etc.).
7. Give complete information to the candidates about the payment of
transport, subsistence allowance, what receipts should be kept for
later payment (Van der Westhuizen & Wessels, 2011: 226).
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Some things that should be included in the communication to unsuccessful

candidates are:
• The name of the institution and the job title they have applied for.
• A thank you note for the application.
• A brief account about not carrying on with the hiring process.
• An offer to offer the applicant feedback about their application.
• Personalise the communication by using the applicant’s first name/
surname instead of addressing the person as ‘Dear Applicant.’
Step 9: Evaluation of recruitment - strategic approach

Recruitment is one of the most ‘visible' HR activities and recruitment costs
are hardly ever low. It is regarded as an expensive process that involves such
expenses as salaries of recruiters, time spent on preparing job descriptions, job
specifications and the costs of advertisements and supporting literature (such
as brochures and placards). Hence, it is important to make timely and relevant
assessments of recruitment so that it can make a positive contribution to the
institution. Evaluate recruitment practices regularly to ensure they comply
with legislation (such as equal opportunity and workplace health and safety)
are cost-effective and resources for it are allocated realistically. In terms of
equal opportunity, the recruiter can. for example, categorise the various
applicants according to categories of race, gender, religion, and disability
status. Evaluation is also necessary to retain a strong employment brand.
From a strategic point of view recruitment methods and tactics will have to
change substantially to enable public institutions to compete on a global level
for talent. The global environment requires a strategic approach to recruitment.
This implies, for example, that job descriptions and job specifications should
be compiled in such a way that it is in line with the broad strategic focus of
the institution. There are many routes one can follow to manage recruitment
strategically. Van der Westhuizen and Wessels (2011: 228-229) are of rhe view
that the following strategic approach to recruitment can be adopted:
1. Review the purpose of the recruitment function within the broader
framework of the institutional strategy and HRM strategy.
2. Assess the present strengths and weaknesses of the institution's
recruitment approach constantly.
3. Examine the trends in the external and internal environments and
how they will influence the recruitment function?
4. Consider the ranges of recruitment strategies that are available?
5. Determine in detail how the new recruitment strategy is implemented.
6. Decide what criteria should be used to evaluate recruitment.
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Human Resource Manacement in Government
7.9.2 Selection and appointment

As was already emphasised recruitment is focused on getting together a
large group of suitable applicants from which to select and appoint the best
employees. It is sometimes difficult to draw a clear line between the steps of the
recruitment and the selection and appointment process. The selection process
is completed after a candidate has been given a job offer and accepts it.
7.9.2.1 Aim and objectives

The central aim of selection is evidently to select the best candidate for the
post who meets all the selection criteria. Van der Westhuizen and Wessels
(2011:234) and Foot, Hook and Jenkins (2016: 78-85) opine that rhe following
objectives will lead to the achievement of the aforementioned aim:
1. Collection as much as possible applicable information about the
candidate.
2. Assessment of each candidate as factually and impartially as possible
by considering equal employment opportunity requirements and
affirmative action policies as well.
3. Provision of the accumulated information to successful candidates so
that they can be in a position to decide whether to accept an offer of
employment.
4. Ascertain who will fit best into the culture of the institution (culture fit).
5. Predict potential job performance.
6. Eliminate ineligible employees from the list of potential candidates.
7. Staff the institution with qualified and high-quality candidates.
7.9.2.2 Selection policy and procedures

Generally, selection is a complex task. Hence, it is important that the
institution should make certain there are clear selection guidelines available
for the selector. Every attempt should thus be made to design and implement
an appropriate policy and procedures to guide those involved in the selection
process. According to Van der Westhuizen (2017: 95) and Foot, Hook and
Jenkins (2016: 80-90) good selection policies and procedures should include
items such as the following:
• Specified selection principles.
• Set entry requirements.
• Prescribed qualifications.
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• Seeps, methods and techniques to be used.

• Qualified personnel to be involved in assessing candidates.
• The relevant administrative procedures (for example, record keeping).
7.9.2.3 The selection process

The selection process has a prominent place in the entire HR process. To
realise its importance, consider for a moment the potential errors that may
creep in that an HR specialist should try to avoid in this regard. Appointing
an unsuitable person for the job can have serious effects not only can it
compromise the morale of the rest of the work team, but it may increase levels
of absenteeism, bring down productivity levels, result in court cases because of
discriminatory actions and ultimately affect public service delivery. Authors
are very clear on the different phases (indicated in Figure 7.1) a selector could
make use of to ensure success during the selection process - after each phase,
the applicant can either be rejected or accepted.
Phase 1 Deciding on a selection strategy
I
Phase 2 Conducting a preliminary interview
I
Phase 3 Collecting information
I
Phase 4 Making a selection decision
I
Phase 5 Placing the candidate
Figure 7.1: The selection process
7.9.2.3.1 Phase 1: Deciding on a selection strategy

/X selection strategy demarcates basic principles that should be applied to
any selection and appointment process that is aimed at finding talent for
an institution. As with recruitment, selection is a multifaceted and complex
task. It is difficult because it is expected of the selector to predict future work
performance centred on evidence that comes from the past. In practice, it
comes down to a selection between eight selection strategies:
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• The knowledge, skills and abilities strategy: This strategy mainly

encompasses a review of rhe applicant’s qualifications background
and work experience. Data and information for this strategy can be
assembled primarily from the application form, personal resume or
testing of applicants for specific knowledge, skills or abilities.
• Track record strategy: The track record strategy relies on the notion
that past work performance is the best forecaster of future performance.
There are two methods the selector can use to put together data and
information with this strategy assessing application forms and using
interviews. It is not appropriate to use this strategy for entry-level posts.
• Learning/intelligence strategy: This strategy utilises employment
tests to determine the employment abilities of candidates. More
specifically, these tests measure general mental abilities and also
benchmark common criteria such as verbal comprehension, inductive
reasoning, associative memory, reasoning ability and numerical ability.
The strategy has potential but nowadays there are doubts about the
validity of intelligence tests - they are seldom used in the public sector.
• Aptitude strategy: The aptitude strategy also makes use of a test,
namely the aptitude test. The objective of this test is to determine
certain individual traits necessary for the post. Using this test, the
employer assumes that candidates who have an interest in a certain
type of work (aptitude) will be more focused on performing better than
those who are not interested.
• Personality trait strategy: This strategy focuses on the use of
standardised tests to create a personality profile of the candidate.
Personality traits reflect people’s characteristic patterns of elements
such as honesty, adaptability, compatibility, compassion, patience,
courage, flexibility, and self-confidence are tested. This strategy aims
to recognise a candidate’s personal qualities rather than to determine
knowledge, skills, and abilities. Needless to say, this strategy depends
strongly on the interpretations of the test results.
• Work sample strategy: The work sample strategy involves the
measuring of a candidate s performance on some of the job’s basic
tasks. For example, a candidate applying for a secretarial position may
be tasked to complete a typing test. This strategy is receiving increased
attention because it pictures future work performance more accurately.
• Networking strategy: By and large, this strategy includes the urging
on of current employees to recognise potential candidates who they
have confidence in will make a valuable contribution to a public
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institution. This strategy has the potential to benefit the institution

in many different ways. For example, it may sometimes result in the
appointment of very capable employees and also promote employment
equity. Regrettably, if managed incorrectly this strategy can have the
opposite effect. It may also happen that the networking strategy can be
used to select individuals with similar backgrounds this is a matter
of enforcing a homogeneous group of individuals' ideas on others.
A typical example of this is the creating of‘old-boy networks’ (side
stepping the merit system) inevitably contradicting the principle of
employment equity.
• Situational strategy: By making use of the situational strategy the
selector identifies critical behaviours in the individual to possibly
guarantee successful job performance (using tests and interviews).
These tests and interviews (in a particular job-specific situation) reveal
whether an applicant is able and competent to display such behaviours.
For example, an accountant may be asked to solve an accountancy
problem (Tompkins, 1995: 187-192; Van der Westhuizen, 2017: 98).
7.9.2.3.2 Phase 2: Conducting a preliminary interview

Although the choice of a selection strategy is handled in this book as the first
phase of the selection process it does not in reality form part the selection
process. Truly the selection process starts with a brief preliminary interview.
A preliminary interview is an initial meeting to collect basic information and
determine in what way a candidate can do good to an institution’s service
delivery needs. The outcome of such an interview can be a ‘no’ decision, but
nor result in a final ‘yes’ decision its purpose is to eliminate unsuitable or
unqualified candidates. It usually happens over the telephone where a phone
interviewer wants to determine if it is worth the time to bring the candidate in
for a face-to-face meeting. The phone call can go on anywhere from a couple
of minutes to more than an hour. Uncomplicated questions are asked around
such areas as qualifications, experience, and salary. The interviewer should be
cautious for selective perceptions during the interview (Van der Westhuizen
& Wessels, 2011:239).
7.9.2.3 3 Phase 3: Collecting information

Most employers use interviews as part of the selection process to gather data
and information on potential candidates (guidance on recruitment in the
public service can be obtained from: ‘A toolkit on recruitment and selection’
at http://www.psc.gov.za/docs/guidelines ). However, there are many other
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methods a public employer may use as well - in this book, we shall look at the
most commonly used methods which are the following:
• Reviewing letters of recommendation.
• Reviewing biodata.
• Setting up employment tests.
• Interviewing the candidates.
• Conducting reference checks.
Reviewing letters of recommendation

Letters of recommendation (references and pre-employment checks) offer a
means of expression for a former employer to provide the employer with a
credible history of the candidates, strengths, abilities, and competencies. It
is possible that the potential employer may also ask for character references
confirming aspects such as the candidates work ethic, reliability and trust
worthiness. More often than not. these letters are written positively. Hence, it
cannot always be regarded as a helpful indicator of work performance. Reflection
must also be given to a poor letter of recommendation because it may be predictive
of future work performance (Gomez-Mejia. Balkin & Cardy, 2013: 160).
Reviewing biodata
Biodata processes include details about past events and behaviours exposing
items such as personality features, attitudes, experiences and interests
substantiated as predictorsofoverall performance for a given job. Biographical
details (biodata) can be obtained through, among others, an application
blank (form), curriculum vitae (CV) and a portfolio of evidence.
Application blanks provide an opportunity for a public employer to collect

information about an applicant in a short period of time. It is a form completed
by the applicant providing information such as education, work history,
some personal data, medical history and hobbies. Usually, the application
blank indicates an applicant’s suitability for a job. What basic items need to
be on a job application form? /\ basic job application form should include
the applicant's name, home address, contact information, nationality,
health condition, education, court convictions, work history, membership of
professional associations, if applicants are required to work particular shifts
ask for availability too (Van der Westhuizen and Wessels, 2011: 241). The
certification of qualifications forms an important part during the selection
process. The Minister of Public Service and Administration has on occasion
(2005) requested that the qualifications of middle managers on levels 11
196
and 12 in rhe public service be investigated (verified) by che Public Service

Commission. The research results revealed that 8 123 middle managers
submitted 24 604 qualifications for verification. Of these qualifications,
22 021 (89%) were verified. Further responses indicated that, of the 22 021
verified qualifications, 21 973 qualifications from a pool of 7 541 middle
managers were positively verified. Read more about the verification of
qualifications in the public service in a report published by the Public Service
Commission entitled ‘Oversight report on the verification of qualifications
in the public service’. This report is available at: http://www.info.gov.za/
ocherdocs/2007/psc_verification-qualifications. In the context ofemployment
equity and affirmative action, public managers will also have to examine their
institution’s application blanks to ensure that these do not lead to unfair
discrimination claims.
The CV is a written overview of someone’s course of life. CV’s typically

include information like rhe applicant’s education, qualifications, previous
occupations (career history) and make it possible for the applicant to present
himself or herself to a potential employer without first securing a face-to-face
discussion. By tradition, CV’s were long documents, but during recent years,
with the training focus in South Africa more on ‘outcomes-based training,’
the focus has changed. The National Qualifications Framework has been
instituted to control this new phenomenon (see Chapter 10). The focus is
now on what applicants can do rather on what they have learned. Another
reason for this change in focus is that there has been a transformation in the
environment that specifies employment conditions. New legislation makes it
unnecessary for applicants to provide certain information. The Constitution,
the LRA and the EE/\ are determined on doing away with discrimination
in all its forms. In terms of these pieces of legislation, certain information
(that is discriminatory in nature) no longer needs to be disclosed (Van der
Westhuizen, 2017: 100).
The portfolio of evidence is a showcase of the applicant’s skills and

accomplishments to fit the specific position that is applied for. It can include
anything from the applicant’s most brilliant qualities, characteristics,
attributes and past experiences, to real examples of work that were completed.
Subsequently, there is a good reason for employing a portfolio of evidence in
collecting biographical details. Perhaps, the need for this is as a result of the
implementation of legislation. When the government introduced the National
Qualifications Framework of outcomes-based training, the understanding was
that people should benefit from attending particular training courses. In fact,
the portfolio of evidence looks back a long way into the life of an applicant.
197
For example, while ar high school, the applicant may have played cricket for
the first team and may have captained the team as well. The selector can use
this information by considering what a cricket captain does in the playing field.
The applicant could be asked several questions that are related to his or her
performance as cricket captain for example, decisions about the toss, bowling,
field placing, tactics, declaration (Van der Westhuizen, 2017: 243 244).
Setting up employment tests

Employment testing is talent tests and examinations that help a public
institution predict the potential success of a candidate. In the modern
workforce, these tests are used to reveal which employees might have
undesirable personality traits (such as anger problems). The EEA requires that
selection instruments should comply with established scientific principles
such as reliability (consistency and trustworthiness of a measure), objectivity
(accurately measures the technical skills and mental abilities to occupy a
post successfully not influenced by race, religion, gender or age) and validity
(measure what it purports to measure - the test may show consistency, but
may not be able to tell about how well a candidate will perform, for example,
as a police officer). There are several employment tests at the disposal of a
public employer. There are listed below:
Cognitive ability (intelligence) tests assess abilities in thinking - such tests ask
questions to establish applicants’ potential to use mental processes to solve
work-related problems. It indicates general intelligence by means of a single
score - not always free from cultural influences. The following intelligence
tests are used in South Africa:
• The South African Wechsler Individual Intelligence Scale for Adults.
• The Mental Alertness Scale of the National Institute for Personnel
Research.
• The New South African Group test.
• The senior and junior South African Individual Intelligence Scale (for
use with children).
Apt itude tests are designed to assess what a person is capable of doing or to
predict what a person can learn. Most aptitude tests, such as the High Level
Scales and the Senior Aptitude Test, are based on Thurstone’s primary group
factors such as verbal ability word fluency memory deductive reasoning,
inductive reasoning, numerical ability, perceptual speed, form perception,
spatial aptitude and coordination.
198
Personality tests. The personality of an individual employee has without

a doubt an influence on work performance. The following are examples of
personality tests used in South Africa:
• Projective techniques.
• The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
• The Rorschach Test.
• The Structured Objective Rorschach Test (SORT).
• Self-report questionnaires.
• The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF).
• The Jung Personality Questionnaire (JPQ).
• The South African Personality Questionnaire (SAPQ).
• The Occupational Personality Questionnaire (OPQ).
Assessment centres. Although not regarded as a test, assessment centres are

often used to assess (knowledge, skills and competencies) the suitability of the
candidates in unique work circumstances. An assessment is based on several
tests and practical simulations that are meant to show whether a person is a right
fit for a particular position. Applicants are requested to complete tasks within
a simulated work environment and trained assessors are employed to measure
the applicants' job behaviours. This test is typically used to select people in
the public sector who are required to plan, guide, control and make strategic
decisions (under stressful conditions) about operations. Assessment centres can
also be used for team selection. Team selection techniques include, among others,
competency modelling, behavioural interview, brainstorming, and Hersey and
Blanchard s modelling (Van der Westhuizen & Wessels, 2011: 244-248).
Interviewing the candidates

An employment interview is a communication process (exchange) between
a potential candidate and a possible future employer. It is one of the most
familiar assessment tools for selecting candidates. Different role players
can participate in the interview. This implies that the candidate could be
interviewed by role players such as HR specialists, senior managers, worker
representatives or special affirmative action committee members. There
arc several common types of interviews such as the traditional one on one
interview, panel interviews, group interviews, phone interviews and lunch
interviews. The interview may range from an unstructured (unplanned and
poorly organised) to a structured one (questions are planned and created in
advance). Since the structured interview is the one most commonly used, we
shall now mention a few steps that can be taken in preparing for it:
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1. Appointing a selection committee. The selection committee should

consist of at least three members and could include persons from
outside the public service.
2. Scrutinising all written material. The golden rule for an interview
is to be prepared scrutinise relevant documents such as letters of
recommendation, application blanks, biodata forms, CVs, portfolios
of evidence and reference checks.
3. Planning the opening of the interview. An interview is a stressful
situation put the candidate at ease. A nameplate can be put in front
of the interviewers. Give an idea of the degree of formality expected,
for example using first names and establish rapport - create a friendly
and relaxed atmosphere.
4. Preparing questions in advance. Make use of open-ended questions.
Concentrate on real job experiences. Be careful not to be too direct in
the questioning. Avoid asking questions such as the following: How
old are you? Are you living with anyone? Do you have any plans for
marriage? Are you considering having any children in the future?
What is your religion? Have you ever been a member of a trade union?
5. Setting up a timetable.
6. Arranging to receive the candidate. At all tunes keep in mind the old
saying: ‘First impressions are lasting.’ Someone should receive the
candidate - make certain this person is informed about the names of
all the candidates, arrival times, arrange for refreshments.
7. Preparing a private room so that no disturbances will occur - make
sure there are enough chairs and other furniture and ask the secretary
to put flowers in the room.
8. Closing the interview. Bear in mind that the applicant will also have
to ask specific questions - gram the applicant the opportunity. Also
indicate when an answer may be expected from the institution in terms
of the outcome of the application (Van der Westhuizen 8c Wessels,
2011:248-253).
Conducting reference checks

Reference checks are usually done after the employment interview to collect more
specific information in terms of the applicant’s employment record, education
and training, and behavioural patterns. It will be required of candidates to
provide the names and contact numbers of previous employers and other people
of interest. Reference checks are useful if the person providing the reference: (1)
has observed the candidate in a relevant situation: (2) is capable of judging the
200
candidates performance appropriately; (3) is prepared to articulate his or her

honest opinion; and (4) his or her opinion is not misinterpreted. The prevalence of
scams regarding educational qualifications (for example, fake degrees) confirms
the importance of checking and ensuring that all educational particulars are
verified as valid (Van der Westhuizen, 2017: 100 102).
7.9.2.3.4 Phase 4: Making a selection decision

Certainly, one of the most important sets of decisions an institution makes
is the decision to employ personnel. Predictions of future job performance of
candidates will always be a complex task and many problems can occur curing
the decision-making phase of the selection process - for example, if selectors
have to make decisions under conditions of time pressure and when there is an
overload of information. Evidently, following the last interview (after the last
candidate has been interviewed), the interviewer and the selection committee
(where applicable) should make a decision and agree on the most appropriate
candidate for the post. When the final decision is made to choose the most
appropriate candidate it is important to consider the following aspects:
1. Information applied is based on reliable, objective and valid selection
methods.
2. Criteria employed are free from prejudice and discrimination.
3. The representativeness and affirmative action requirements of the
unit where the post is situated are studied.
4. The information presented by the candidate is verified.
In addition, when a decision is taken to turn down a candidate, the following

are important (more particularly, from an equity point of view):
1. To retain written records indicating why applicants have been rejected.
2. To have valid reasons available when asked for them (for the turn
down) - the major reason (or two) should be offered and specific care
should be taken to ensure that the reason(s) given are based strictly on
objective and unbiased criteria (Van der Westhuizen, 2017: 102).
7.9.23.5 Phase 5: Placing the candidate

The last phase of the selection process involves the placement of the candidate.
Four steps can essentially be followed.
• Offer the position. Discuss a provisional offer with the potential
employee; this can be done telephonically and is regarded as a formal
contract. However, the White Paper on Human Resource Management
in the Public Service of 1997 (White Paper) stipulates a written contract.
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The White Paper further provides for one of the following types of
employment contracts: (1) Continuous employment contract; (2) fixed-
term employment contract; and (3) temporary employment contract
(Republic of South Africa, 1997).
• Confirm employment particulars. The following elements need to
be considered: particulars of the post (title and duties); remuneration
(salary, deductions); hours of work: leave arrangements; medical
benefits; outside work arrangements: pension benefits; personnel
evaluation; termination of service; and confirmation by the candidate
(signing a letter of appointment).
• Enter probation period. The probation period varies with nature of
post - normally between three and six months. One way to ensure that
an employee performs in a way that is consistent with the requirements
of a post is to let the person undergo a period of probation. According
to the PSRs, the following requirements for managing the probationary
period apply to the public service, namely that the probationer must:
■ be familiar with performance requirements for obtaining confir
mation of probation;
■ receive written feedback every quarter on the performance level
acquired;
■ receive training (including induction training), counselling, or other
assistance when needed;
■ receive written confirmation of appointment at the end of the
probationary period: and
■ be afforded the opportunity for defence if dismissed as a result of
poor performance.
• Orientate the new employee. This is a structured process that involves
welcoming, receiving and introducing the newly appointed person and
the attendance of an orientation programme (Van der Westhuizen,
2017: 102).
7.10 Conclusion
This chapter has acquainted the reader with TM in the context of recruitment
and selection. Attention has been given to the meaning of talent and TM.
It was also emphasised that before a public institution can start recruiting,
it must decide on a recruitment policy, considering various external and
internal factors. Once these factors have been considered, the institution
can utilise various employment sources. The chapter also discussed the steps
202
in the recruitment process, as well as the evaluation of recruitment, and

concluded with a brief discussion on a Strategic approach to recruitment.
Selection is the process of making decisions about matching individuals
to jobs, taking into account individual differences and the requirements of
the job. The selection process consists of five phases and by continuously
improving each phase, the success of the whole process can be improved. The
first phase is deciding on a selection strategy, the purpose of which is to give
direction to the entire selection process. Second, a preliminary interview,
where unqualified candidates are eliminated, is conducted. The third phase
involves collecting information. This step entails such methods as reviewing
letters of recommendation and biodata, setting up employment tests, and
interviewing the candidate. The fourth phase is making a selection decision.
The selection decision must be made on information that is based on reliable,
objective, and valid selection methods and on criteria that are free from any
bias and discrimination. The fifth phase is placing the candidate, whereby
the post is offered to the candidate, employment particulars are confirmed
in writing, the candidate is entered into a probationary period, and the new
employee familiarises him- or herself with the new working environment.
203

1. Define talent and TM.
2. Identify the role players in TM.
3. Focus on the keyresearch findings inTM on recruitment and selection.
4. Describe the various sources of recruitment.
5. Explain the objectives of recruitment.
6. Advise your HR manager how to draw up a recruitment policy and
procedures.
7. Discuss the various internal and external factors that influence
recruitment.
8. What methods do you think should be used for recruitment in the
public sector?
9. Describe the aim and objectives of the selection and appointment
processes.
10. Elaborate on the composition of selection policy and pr ocedures.
11. Outline the steps in the selection process.

12. What are some of the selection strategies one can adopt to direct the
selection process?
13. What methods would you suggest one can use for collecting
information on potential candidates? Whatrole would the interviewing
of candidates play in the selection process?
204
Part 4
Performance and career development
Management:... judicious use ofmeans to accomplish an end...
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary
So far, we have concentrated on those human resource (HR) activities that
are directed at employing a strategic approach towards human resource
management (HRM), workforce planning and obtaining suitable talent.
Sooner or later, the task arises of finding out whether the people that are
selected and appointed are performing well enough to deliver efficient and
effective services. In Part 4 the emphasis is on how to manage appraisal and
learning and career development processes.
Parts 2 and 3 showed that recruiting suitable and competent employees is

essential for effective HRM. However, it is also clear that those employees
who staff the offices of the public sector should be responsive to the public.
To meet this goal, employees need to be appraised, promoted, trained,
disciplined and even demoted. All of these HR activities help to ensure that
the quality of the individual worker’s performance is at a high level. In Part 4.
we learn how appraisals, career management and the structuring of learning
programmes are vital to the effective utilisation and development of public
service employees.
Chapter Appraising and managing
employees' performance in the
8 public service
Shepherd R Malefane
Purpose
This chapter aims to impart knowledge about the appraisal and
management of public service employees’ performance.
Learning outcomes
• Define and distinguish between the concepts ‘performance appraisal’
(PA) and performance management’ (PM).
• Compare the purposes of PAs and PM.
• Explain how the purposes of PA can be classified.
• Discuss the regulatory framework for appraising performance in the
South African public service.
• Distinguish between the different types of performance appraisers.
• Discuss the problems that are associated with the utilisation of PAs
by public institutions.
• Identify the steps in the PA phase of the PM cycle.
• Describe how performance is rewarded in the South African
public service.
8.1 Introduction
The institution by governments of measures to appraise and manage
performance is an indicator of their aim to improve the delivery of goods
and services to satisfy the needs of their customers (citizens). These measures
are commonly instituted to counteract the systemic challenges inherent in
government performance which inhibit the delivery of goods and services in
terms of the prescribed performance standards. Although these measures

have long been implemented successfully in Western countries, they have not
yet yielded the anticipated outcomes in most democracies. PAs in the South
African public service are carried out as part of PM to counteract the legacy
of poorly performing public institutions and. in particular, to reduce the
occurrence of service delivery protests that characterise the public service.
Despite the correlation that exists between government performance and

service delivery protests, the South African government is slow to link the
two. Research on PA and PM as part of public human resource management
(HRM) may provide insight into factors that inhibit effective government
performance and whether or not service delivery protests are the authentic
result. This chapter focuses on the appraisal and management of work
performance in the public service. It considers the definition of PA and PM.
the relationship and difference between PA and PM, the purpose of PAs,
the regulatory framework, types of performance appraisers, problems that
are associated with PAs, and steps in the PA phase. Lastly, it discusses how
performance is rewarded in the South African public service.
8.2 Definition of ‘performance appraisal’ and

‘performance management’
Insight into the meanings of PA and PM is a critical theoretical aspect
that underlies how they are practised. PA, sometimes called performance
evaluation, performance measurement, performance review or performance
assessment (So, Fo & Oa, 2015: 1; Aggarwal & Thakur, 2013: 617), is the most
common phase of the PM process and one with which most employees are
familiar. It is both an interesting and contentious topic (Nassar & Zaitouni,
2015: 330). PA is defined as a part, phase, activity or tool (Ismail, Mohamed
& Rayee, 2016: 15: Bayo-Monones, Galdon-Sanchez & Martinez-de-Morentin,
2019: 1 & Idowu, 2019: 1) of PM through which the performance of an
employee is appraised and a ‘performance score or rating’ that indicates the
level of performance is decided upon (Lunenburg, 2012: 1; Makhubela, Botha
& Swanepoel, 2016: 3: DeNisi, 2017: 421). It refers to the activities by which the
PM process is integrated and through which employees work performance
and competence are developed (Subekti & Setyadi, 2016: 18). Through PA
activities, the strengths and weaknesses that are associated with employee
performance are identified, observed, appraised, recorded and developed.
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Chapter 8: Appraising and managing employees' performance in the public service
PM in the public sector context is a complex feature of the employment

contract in which employers, employees and citizens (as consumers) share
a reciprocal relationship - an exchange in which they have complementary
rights, duties and responsibilities. PM is defined as a continuous, systematic
and integrated process of identifying, appraising, managing and developing
employees’ performance (Munzhedzi & Phago, 2014: 1085; Makhubela, Botha
& Swanepoel, 2016: 2; Ndevu & Muller. 2017: 15; Sachane, Bezuidenhout 8c
Botha, 2018:2). It refers to a strategic process that helps to create a climate that
is conducive to motivating employees to develop and achieve high standards
of performance. /Xs a system, it helps with the management and integration
of the employees’ and institutions’ performance. PM refers to a variety of
activities that are conducted to improve the performance of employees, with
the ultimate purpose of improving rhe success of a public institution.
8.3 Relationship and differences between

performance appraisal and performance
management
The definitions in rhe previous section give some insight into how PA and PM
relate and differ and the nature of outputs and outcomes that each strives to
achieve. It emerges from these definitions that PA cannot be detached from
PM. A PA is a part of PM and is undertaken to achieve holistic PM goals. For
a PM process to be complete, it must include activities by which managers
appraise employees’ performance (Fatile. 2014: 81). The two are intertwined
(DeNisi & Murphy, 2017: 421). As shown in Figure 8.1. PA is a third phase of
the PM process.
209
Needs of consumer or community

Vision & Mission
Institution's strategy
Phase 1:
Performance planning - Performance
agreements, work-plans
Phase 2:
Review and feedback - coaching
and counselling
Phase 3:
Performance appraisal
Phase 4:
Rewarding performance or
managing poor performance
Figure 8.1: Phases of the performance management cycle of a public institution.

Source: Adapted from Public Service Commission (2007: 6)
In terms of Figure 8.1. Pz\ is carried out as a phase of a PM cycle of a public

institution. According to the Public Service Commission (PSC) (2018: 11), the
performance cycle commences on the first day of April of each year and ends
on the last day of March of the subsequent year. The performance cycle is
therefore linked to a financial year. During a performance cycle, the phases
that reflect on Figure 8.1 must be conducted in quarterly intervals (Makamu
& Mello, 2014: 125; National Treasury. 2010: 7). Therefore, a PA consists of
actions or steps while PM is implemented over multiple performance cycles.
Without PA, the process of PM is deficient. Depending on policy provisions,
a performance cycle consists of two PA phases, one conducted during mid
year and another towards the end of a performance cycle (year-end). PA is,
therefore, not PM, but a small fraction of a comprehensive, integrated and
systematic process of PM (cf Mosoge & Pilane, 2014: 5).
In the context of public service institutions, the activities that are undertaken
during the performance cycle are informed by the needs of consumers
(citizens). These needs, as illustrated in Figure 8.1. are processed into policy
goals that public institutions should strive to achieve over a performance
cycle. Essentially, this means that needs inform or influence the strategic
goals of public institutions, from which job descriptions that describe the
roles of employees arc developed (National Treasury. 2010: 3). The needs of the
210
consumers influence I’M whereas P/\ is informed by decisions in other phases

of the performance cycle, for example, key performance areas (KPAs) and
performance standards. If KPAs that are developed during phase one in the
diagrammatic illustration are not linked to properly developed performance
indicators and standards, the effectiveness of PA is limited and vice versa.
This difference is substantiated by the nature of outputs and outcomes that

PA and PM anticipate achieving. The objectives of PM surpass those of PA
in that the impact of PM goes beyond the boundaries of public institutions.
This means that if a public institution implements PM effectively, it satisfies
the needs of consumers, whereas the outcomes of PAs are consumed within
public institutions to make operational and HRM decisions.
FOCUS ON RESEARCH
History of performance appraisals

• The PA of an individual began in the Wei dynasty (AD 261-265) in
China, where an Imperial Rater appraised the performance of members
of the official family.
• In 1648 the Dublin (Ireland) Evening Post evaluated legislators by using
a rating scale based upon personal qualities.
• In the 1800s the New York City Civil Service in the United States of
America introduced a formal appraisal programme shortly before the
First World War. However, formal PA is believed to have started for the
first time during the First World War, when at the instance of Walter
Dill Scatt, the US Army: adopted the ‘Man-to-man’ rating system for
evaluating military personnel.
• From the army, the use of PAs entered the business field but was
restricted to hourly-paid workers.
• During the 1920s, relational wage structures for hourly-paid workers
were adopted in industrial units and each worker was used to be rated
in comparison to others for determining wage rates.
• In the 1940s behavioural methods were developed using a motivational
approach. These included behavioural anchored rating scales (BARS),
behavioural observation scales (BOS), behavioural evaluation scales
(BES), critical incident and job simulation. All these judgments were
used to determine the specific levels of performance criteria to specific
issues such as customer service and rated in factors such as ‘excellent’,
‘average’, ‘need to improve’ or poor’.
211
• Post-1945 PA developed into results-oriented approaches and led to

the development of management by objectives.
• In the 1960s the development of self-appraisal by discussion led to
a specific time and opportunity for the appraisee to evaluate their
performance reflectively in the discussion and the interview developed
into a conversation on a range of topics that the appraiser needed to
discuss in the interview.
• In the 1990s 360-degree appraisal developed, where feedback was
sought from a wider range of sources and was no longer dependent on
the supervisor-subordinate power relationship.
• Since the 1940s, the philosophy of PA has undergone tremendous changes.
Source: Toppo and Prusty(2012: 2); Ismail, Mohamed and Rayee (2016: 15)
8.4 Purpose of performance appraisals

There is abundant literature that explains the purpose of PAs (Daoanis, 2012:
56; Aggarwal & Thakur. 2013: 617; Dustcrhoff, Cunningham &, McGregor,
2013: 269; Gupta & Kumar, 2013: 61; Elliott, 2015: 102; So, Fo & Oa, 2015: 2).
Although the literature is derived from the use of PAs in both the public and
private sectors, it classifies the purpose of PAs into three categories, namely,
administrative, employee development and institutional development (Iqbal,
Akbar & Budhwar, 2014: 514), all of which are reflected in the definitions of
PA and PM and the relationship and differences between them.
8.4.1 Performance appraisals as administrative instruments

PAs are important administrative instruments that help public managers to
make significant operational and HRM decisions (Ghosh, 2014: 78; Onyije,
2015: 664; Lin & Kellough, 2019: 180). Administratively, PAs make available
performance information that may be used to administer decisions about the
following:
• Communication: PAs facilitate and improve communication between
appraisers and appraisees (Ismail, Mohamed & Rayee, 2016: 16; Brefo-
Manuh, Anlesinya, Odoi & Owusu, 2016: 21). Employees can obtain
valuable feedback through which they can improve their performance.
P/\ communication also enhances role clarity and trust.
• Career management and HR planning: Through the use of PAs,
appraisers gain insight into employees’ career prospects and the types
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Chapter 8: Appraising and managing employees’ performance in the public service
of skills and support they need to achieve their career goals (Iqbal,
Akba, Budhwar & Shah, 2019: 289). The knowledge of employees’ skills
and competence may also be used for succession planning and career
pathing (Djufri, Tambi, Mamat, Sukono, Budiono & Hadi, 2018: 2 &
Ali, Mahmood and Mehreen, 2019: 113).
• Financial rewards: The ratings in PAs are used as a determining factor
in financial rewards, such as annual salary increases, pay progressions
and performance bonuses (Karkoulian, Assaker & Hallak, 2016: 1863;
Zondo, 2018 6 & Bayo-Moriones, Galdon, et al, 2019: 1).
• Management ofdiscipline: PAs help appraisers to identify and manage
unsatisfactory (poor) performance or destructive behaviour in order to
institute appropriate corrective action through coaching, counselling,
referrals to employee assistance services (EAS) and institute disciplinary
measures such as demotions or dismissals (Nassar & Zaitouni, 2015:
329; Makhubela, Botha & Swanepoel, 2016: 5). Employees whose
performance is outstanding may be recognised through, for example,
non-financial rewards.
• Employee placement decisions: Appraisers gain knowledge about
the disciplines in which employees are qualified or interested, which
they may use to facilitate transfer to functional areas related to such
disciplines. Performance ratings may also be used in determining
whether employees that are on probation are suitable for permanent
appointment or not (Daoanis, 2012: 56; Brefo-Manuh, et al, 2016: &
Poongavanam & Jivita. 2019: 296).
• Workforce research: The information that is gained through PAs
may be used to examine or compare employees’, teams’ or institutional
performance over multiple periods. This information may be helpful
in reviewing policies for employee retention, grievances, promotions or
skills development (Gupta & Kumar. 2013: 62; Bayo-Moriones, Galdon,
era/, 2019: 8).
8.4.2 Employee development

PAs help employees to develop professionally in their chosen careers
(Iqbal, et al, 2014: 516). As a development instrument, PA facilitates activities
through which employees can achieve their personal development goals
(Espinilla, Andres, Martinez & Martinez, 2013: 459; Nassar & Zaitouni,
2015: 331; So, Fo & Oa 2015: 1; Meinecke & Kauffeld 2019: 485). In this
regard, PAs give employees an opportunity to:
213
• appraise their own performance (self-appraisal) co determine how it

contributes to institutional performance;
• receive regular performance feedback from appraisers (supervisors,
peers, subordinates, consumers);
• initiate training interventions to improve skills and performance;
• respond to feedback about their performance and identify performance
gaps and barriers that are beyond their control; and
• agree or disagree with an appraisal outcome (performance rating) that
reflects on their level of performance.
8.4.3 Institutional development

The purpose of PAs in enhancing institutional development cannot be
explained in isolation from their administrative purpose and employee
development. These three purposes are interlinked in that administrative
decisions are essentially about employee development. If employees are able
to predict their career development and are rewarded on merit and placed in
appropriate positions, they tend to be productive, committed, motivated and
satisfied with their work (Nassar & Zaitouni. 2015: 331). In this way. employee
performance enables public institutions to achieve their performance goals.
PAs enable employers and employees to communicate and review expectations,
goals, and progress towards achieving strategic objectives. In this regard,
the purpose of PAs is to improve efficiency and effectiveness (Dusterhoff,
Cunningham & McGregor, 2013: 266). In addition, PA enhances role clarity
(Iqba, etal. 2019: 289) and creates a common vision amongst employees, which
is necessary to achieve the goals of the institution.
By helping to improve employee discipline, PAs enable public institutions

to retain trustworthy and loyal employees the institution's assets. Work
performance is appraised against pre-determined performance standards
and as such, PAs enhances compliance with legislation, thereby improving
the quality of outputs and value for money.
8.5 Regulatory framework

All the activities that are carried out in public institutions are regulated. Even
though che regulations are not prescriptive, they impart knowledge about
existing regulatory gaps, the roles and responsibilities of persons in positions
of authority and the goals that should be achieved. Regulations enforce a
chain of accountability through which public officials are held answerable.
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Because PA is part of PM, it is logical that legislation that governs the

implementation of PM makes concurrent provision for PA. Although the
regulatory framework for PA is discussed in this section, the list is not
exhaustive as many policy guidelines make indirect provision for and by
implication require that PA be instituted (see PSC, 2018). The implementation
of PA in the South African public service is guided by the Public Service
Act 103 of 1994 (PSA), Public Service Regulations (PSR), resolutions by the
Public Service Coordinating Bargaining Council (PSCBC) and Treasury
Regulations. Before embarking on a discussion of the regulatory framework,
it is incumbent to highlight the significance and status of the Constitution as
far as PAs are concerned.

The Constitution as the supreme law of the country gives effect to other laws
that are discussed subsequently. Its relevance to instituting PAs is embedded
in Section 195(1), which provides for promotion of the efficient, economic
and effective use of resources, a development-oriented and accountable
public administration and cultivation of good HRM and career-development
practices to maximise the potential of employees. Read together with the
constitutional requirement that peoples’ needs are responded to’, these
values and principles are important standards against which to appraise the
performance of public officials.
Additionally, the Constitution, in Section 196(4)fc) provides for the func

tioning of the PSC, whose powers and functions, among others, are to
propose measures to ensure effective and efficient performance within the
South African public service and to ensure that public institutions adhere to
the basic values and principles of public administration.
8.5.2 Public Service Act as amended

The PSA as amended was passed co uphold the requirements of the
Constitution. It regulates the organisation and administration of the public
service, in particular, the conditions of employment in which issues that relate
to PM are a critical part. ‘Conditions of employment refer to performance
agreements and terms and conditions of employment in general regarding
annual salary increases, performance bonuses, pay progression, service
benefits, work facility practices and financial allowances.’ The conditions of
employment are important aspects of the relationship between employees
and the state (as employer). They are of mutual interest to employees and the
state and. as such, issues pertaining to them are resolved by the PSCBC.
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Section 12(4)(b) of the PSA requires that the criteria for appraising the
performance of heads of department be contained in employment contracts.
Section 7(3) (b) of this Act obliges heads of departments to efficiently manage
and administer their departments, including the utilisation and training of
employees and maintenance of discipline. This mandate, which is clarified by
Section B.2.1 of the PSR, implies that by virtue of their leadership position,
heads of department shall delegate public service activities vertically to
middle and junior managers to create a chain of accountability whereby all
employee performance will be appraised. Section 13(5)(ty ofthe PSA proposes
stringent disciplinary action, such as dismissal or discharge on the basis of
unsatisfactory or poor performance.
8.5.3 White Paper on Human Resource Management in the

Public Service
The White Paper is consistent with the requirements of the PSA in that the
policies that are set out in it apply to public institutions identified in the PSA.
Chapter 3 of this White Paper states rhe need to change the HRM culture of
the South African public service to one in which line managers have greater
responsibilities in managing the performance of their subordinates. Chapter 4,
part 4.1.4 requires the implementation ofa PM system that will help managers to
recognise and reward outstanding performance and manage poor performance.
Chapter 5, part 5.9.2 of the White Paper identifies PM as an integral part of
an effective HRM and development strategy in terms of which the employee
and employer strive constantly to improve the employee's performance and
his or her contribution to the institutions wider objectives. It sets forth five
principles that must be borne in mind in PM, namely results orientation;
training and development; rewarding outstanding performance; managing
poor performance; and openness, fairness and transparency.
8.5.4 Public Service Regulations of 2016

The PSR are read in conjunction with and are authorised by Section 41 of
the PSA. They were enacted to simplify compliance with the legislative
requirements of the PSA. Prior to 2016 PSR. PM was regulated through the
2001 PSR that was amended on numerous occasions and later repealed in 2016
(PSC, 2018: 10). Unlike the PSA. where PA is pitched at the level of political
office bearers and senior managers, the PSR focuses on employees who are
appointed permanently. Chapter 1, Section B (Part VIII) is devoted to PM.
These regulations oblige the executing authority, in consultation with senior
managers, to determine a system for PM and development for employees
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Chapter 8: Appraising and managing employees' performance in the piblic service
in general. By making provision for the determination of this system, the

regulations in Section B2(j) of Part VIII provide for a performance cycle
that is divided into phases and in which supervisors are entrusted with the
responsibility to monitor and give feedback on employees’ performance.
Performance ratings, as explained in Part VIII, Section C of the PSR, must

be used to inform decisions about probation, rewards, promotion and skills
development of employees. As in the case of the White Paper on Human
Resource Management in the Public Service of 1997 (Republic of South
Africa, 1997), these regulations provide for a framework in Part VIII section E,
whereby unsatisfactory performance can be managed and, in Section F, a
framework whereby outstanding performance can be recognised and rewarded
financially. Unlike the PSA, the PSR introduces systems and procedures
that must be carried out and states the responsibilities of supervisors and
employees in the performance cycle.
8.5.5 Resolutions by the Public Service Coordinating

Bargaining Council
Resolutions that are entered into by parties to the PSCBC are often referred
to as ‘collective agreements’. They are known as ‘public service resolutions
because they regulate activities of the South African public service. These
resolutions are officiated by Chapter 1, Part 1(c) and (f) of the PSR to regulate
matters of mutual interest to employees and the state as employer. They
regulate the conditions of employment in which the role of the PSCBC is
critical. Chapter 1, Part II and Part X of the PSR assign to heads of department
the responsibility to ensure that employees in their department comply with
the requirements of these resolutions and institute disciplinary sanctions for
any breach thereof. The most referred-to resolutions that regulate PAs in the
South African public sector are Resolutions 13 of 1998 and 9 of 2000, which
are briefly explained below.
• Resolution 13 of 1998 establishes a framework for senior managers
to determine annual salary increments vis-a-vis individual performance
agreements. It was agreed on by parties to the PSCBC subsequent to the
enactment of the PS/Xand before the adoption of the PSR. The resolution
was at the time the only source of guidance on contractual agreements
between heads of department and other senior managers. It was a guide
for heads of department in cascading public service activities down to
senior managers to expand the chain of accountability. The PAs entered
into by heads of department and senior managers had to specify:
■ duties and responsibilities of the senior manager;
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■ criteria used co appraise performance;

■ dates at which appraisals are conducted;
■ mechanisms for resolving disputes about appraisals; and
■ the date at which an increment is paid to deserving senior managers.
In terms of this resolution, a senior manager who signs a PzX at the tune
specified in the resolution qualifies automatically to receive an annual
increase of 5.5%.
• Resolution 9 of 2000 expands and amends Resolution 13. Although
dated 2000, it came into effect in the same year as che PSR(in 2001). In the
interval, the Department of Public Service and Administration (DPSA)
was engaged in negotiations with trade unions and was training senior
managers and professionals from national and provincial departments
in the then-new PM system. This resolution was seen as building on
what had been achieved. W’hile translating remuneration packages of
senior managers into more transparent ‘total cost to employer' and
making certain portions of their remunerations flexible, this resolution
expanded the scope of PM to professionals, who were not provided
for in the PSA and Resolution 13. Through this resolution, senior
managers were required to monitor and appraise the performance of
employees to ensure that such performance helped achieve the goals of
the institutions in which they were employed.
8.5.6 The Treasury Regulations

In addition to bestowing upon the PSC the powers to guide che application
of PA in the public service, Section 216(1) of the Constitution provides for
the establishment, through national legislation, of a National Treasury to
prescribe control measures to ensure compliance. The Treasury Regulations
of 2001 in particular, regulate public institutions to budget for projected
performance-related salary increments and rewards that may be allocated to
deserving public officials at the end of the financial year. This regulation is
necessitated by the financial implications of PAs, which must be budgeted for.
Other regulations
In addition to the regulations that have been discussed above, there are other
regulations the significance of which is highlighted in the PSC’s Report on
the Evaluation of the Performance Management and Development System
for the Public Service (EPMDS) (2018). Although this report is limited to
the implementation of EPMDS, it is relevant to PAs in that PAs are used
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co achieve PM goals. Equally significant regulations that are discussed in this

report include:
• Labour Relations Amendment Act 6 of 1995, as amended;
• White Paper on the Transformation of the Public Service, 1995;
• White Paper on Transforming Public Service Delivery (Batho Pele), 1997;
• White Paper on Public Service Training and Education, 1997;
• Skills Development /\ct 97 of 1998, as amended, and the Employment
Equity Act 55 of 1998. as amended.
Because local government is a critical component of the public service in

South Africa, examples of legislation that pertain to the institution of PM
and PAs in municipalities include:
• Local Government: Municipal Systems Act 32 of 2000;
• Local Government: Municipal Planning and Performance Management
Regulations;
• The Local Government: Municipal Finance Management Act 56 of
2003; and
• Municipal Performance Regulations for Municipal Managers and
Managers directly accountable to Municipal Managers, 2006.
8.6 Types of performance appraisers

Because of a growing research interest in PA, new types of PAs are being
discovered. Studies show that it is possible to distinguish between traditional
and non-traditional PAs (Barimah, 2019: 2; Aggarwal & Thakur, 2013:
617). Examples of traditional PAs include supervisor-subordinate and self
appraisals, while non-traditional types include PAs by peers, subordinates,
consumers and 360-degrees PAs. Furthermore, they show that non-traditional
PAs emerge as a means to reduce errors that are associated with traditional
PAs and to give recognition to external stakeholders that are privy to the
performance of public institutions
8.6.1 Appraisal by supervisors

A PA that is conducted by a supervisor or line manager is an example of a
‘downward’ or ‘top-down’ appraisal in that it focuses on the vertical power
relationship between the supervisor as a superior and the employee as a
subordinate. Because of emphasis by legislation on the dual responsibilities
of supervisors and employees. PAs that are conducted by supervisors are
common in the South African public service. These types of PAs are justified
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since supervisors by designation, play a leading role in developing and

implementing plans, allocating resources and determining performance
standards (Farndale & Kelliher, 2013: 881; Sun, Pan & Chow, 2014: 213).
Supervisors also play an important role in coaching and mentoring employees.
In addition to conducting PAs, they are directly involved in other phases of
the performance cycle, for example, performance planning and feedback (Lin
& Kellough, 2019: 180; Ryu & Hong, 2019: 1). Therefore, in comparison to
other types of appraisers, supervisors are more consistent and knowledgeable
of events that may have transpired during the performance cycle.
8.6.2 Appraisal by peers

A peer-appraisal is an example of a lateral PA as it is conducted by an employee
who interacts on the same level as the appraisee (Panek & Phugat, 2019:
1562). Peer appraisals emerge as a result of problems that are associated with
appraisals by supervisors. Although they are the norm in higher education
institutions (Alhassan & Ali, 2019: 303), they are virtually absent in the public
service. Peer appraisals are as important as appraisals that are conducted by
supervisors and are justified by the proximity of peers to each other and the
valuable, accurate and comprehensive performance feedback they provide
(Middlemass & Siriwardena. 2003: 782; Manti, 2019: 16). Their use is also
justified by decentralised work structures in which the roles of supervisors
are becoming less effective in employee-level activities (Ziema, 2019: 206).
Although they are a useful source of performance feedback, they need to be
managed sensibly by developing reliable performance criterion and selecting
constructive peers. Most employees accept them when they are used for
communicating constructive performance feedback but may contribute to
mistrust and subjectivity when used for purposes such as awarding financial
rewards and promotions.
8.6.3 Appraisal by subordinates

An appraisal by a subordinate or subordinate-supervisor appraisal refers to a
PA in which a subordinate appraises the performance of a supervisor (Parick
& Phugat, 2019: 1562). Appraisals by subordinates are an example of‘upward’
or ‘bottom-up' appraisals and are the direct opposite of supervisor-employee
PAs. According to (Greguras, Ford & Brutus, 2003: 350), they are a useful
source of performance feedback to supervisors. Like peer appraisals, they
arc not common in the South African public service. The factors that inhibit
the use of subordinate-supervisor appraisals are linked to the formalised
institutional structure of public institutions in which authority plays a
220
critical role. Although appraisals by subordinates may give new insight into
managerial practices (Lussier & Hendon, 2015:302), they are viewed negatively
because they contravene rhe tasks that subordinates should perform as
part of work-plans. They have the potential to undermine the authority of
supervisors, to nurture defensive reactions among subordinates and to
jeopardise good working relationships. The disadvantage of subordinate
appraisals is that subordinates may feel uncomfortable or afraid to openly
appraise their supervisor’s performance. The best way of minimising the risk
to subordinates is to maintain their anonymity.
8.6.4 Appraisal by oneself/self-appraisal

Self-appraisals as the source of PA are expressly provided for in the regulatory
framework for PAs in the South African public service. Together with
supervisor appraisals, they are necessitated by regulatory emphasis on shared
responsibilities between supervisors and subordinates in the PM process.
According to Mariti (2019: 16) and Ziema (2019: 206), self-appraisals are
justified in that employees understand their work better than supervisors,
peers or anyone else. I n general, they are used as a basis to guard against abuse
of PAs by supervisors and the need for both to ‘agree’ on a common rating,
failing which the supervisor’s superior should intervene. The advantage of
self-appraisals is that they allow for fairness, objectivity and equity. The
disadvantage of self-appraisals, according to Lussier and Hendon (2015:
303), is that employees may distort their ratings if self-appraisals are used to
determine financial rewards and promotions, as opposed to when they are
purely used to improve performance.
8.6.5 Appraisal by consumers/citizens

Public goods and services, whether they are provided by public institutions,
private companies (service provider) or a partnership of both, are meant to
benefit consumers. In rhe context of a social contract between governments
and citizens, citizens are consumers of goods and services that are provided
by public institutions (Loga, 2019: 975). Including the Consumer Protection
Act 68 of 2008 legislation initiates basic principles that public institutions
should observe in their contact with consumers. Initiatives that have evolved
from this legislation include the creation of Customer Service Centres
(e.g. Thusong Service Centres), front-door complaints or compliments
management systems (CCMSs), online websites, newspaper consumer columns
and other social media platforms through which consumers (Donoghue 6c
De Klerk, 2013: 214: Musakwa, 2014: 722) can lodge complaints against or
221
compliment the performance of public officials. The right to engage in service

delivery protests, as provided for in Section 17 of the Constitution, gives
citizens, as consumers of goods and services that are rendered by government,
the power to express dissatisfaction about a public institution or governmental
performance in general (Mamokhere, 2019: 2). The data derived from CCMSs
and protests by customers is useful in appraising the performance not only
of individual employees but of public institutions and government in general.
Supervisors must make use of such objective sources of information in PAs.
8.6.6 360-degree performance appraisals

The 360-degree PA or multi-source PA is embraced to minimise errors
that arise from PAs by supervisors, peers, subordinates and consumers
(Palshikar, Apte, Pawar & Ramrakhiyani. 2019: 95). It is gaining popularity
as an alternative source to contain criticism levelled against traditional
forms of PAs for being subjective and prejudiced (Minakshi, 2012: 93:
Espinilla ct al, 2013: 459; Kim & Holzer, 2016: 32; Olivier, 2019: 1). Unlike
traditional performance appraisals, 360-degree PAs combine multiple sources
of feedback from internal (supervisors, peers and subordinates) and external
appraisers (consumers, suppliers and auditors) who are privy to a public
institution’s performance information (Maronga, Muathe, Nyabwanga &,
Ronoh, 2012: 40; Haines III & St-Onge. 2012: 1160; Avazpour, Ebrahimi. Fathi
2013: 970; So, Fo & Oa 2015: 4 & Zondo, 2018: 2). In contrast to traditional
PAs, 360-degree PAs are purported to be efficient, accurate and fair and to
trigger positive employee behaviour, transparency, trust and equity. Because
they provide extensive, balanced and holistic performance feedback which can
be used for multiple purposes (Karkouhan, Assaker & Hallak, 2016: 1863),
they are more reliable than the traditional PAs that were discussed earlier.
Despite the existence of evidence that necessitates the use of 360-degree PAs
in the South African public service, for example, service delivery protests and
criticism by service providers and non-government organisations towards
public institutions, they do not enjoy legislative support.
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The need to amend the regulatory framework for PM and PA
Although there is widespread dissatisfaction with government’s

performance in the delivery of public goods and services, the regulatory
framework of the South African public service only makes provision for
appraisals by supervisor and oneself. This transpires irrespective of high
employee grievances lodged to appeal ratings allocated by supervisors,
service delivery protests by citizens and tensions between the government
and its stakeholders (labour unions and service providers). Other types of
PAs (e.g. those conducted by peers, subordinates, citizens and 360-degree)
do not enjoy the support of the regulatory framework. Although some
public service institutions have well-established CCMSs that provide
valuable data about the degree of satisfaction with service provision, data
obtained from them is not officially integrated into PM and PAs. This, as
a result, necessitates the need to review some regulatory frameworks to
give effect to other types of PAs and to keep the public service abreast with
international trends and developments.
8.7 Problems associated with performance

appraisals
The problems that are associated with the implementation of PM and PA in the
South African public service are captured in the PSC Report on the evaluation
of the effectiveness of the performance management and development system
(2018). In addition to being resisted (Makamu & Mello, 2014: 107; Kim &
Holzer, 2016:32), perceived as being subjective (Frederiksen, Lange & Kriechel,
2017: 409) and unfair (De Clercq, Haq & Azeem, 2019: 151), vulnerable to
workplace politics (Rosen, Kacmar, Harris, Gavin & Hochwarter, 2017: 23)
and conducted by appraisers that are inadequately skilled to implement
them successfully (Makamu & Mello, 2014: 108: Bayo-Moriones, Galdon etal,
2019: 8). PAs are implemented erroneously. Managers need to be conscious of
rating errors that are associated with PAs and must take measures to alleviate
them to improve the integrity and legitimacy of HRM decisions.
8.7.1 Rating errors

Performance appraisers are human beings and as such they err. It is therefore
necessary to create awareness of rating errors that are associated with PAs
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and rhe devastating impacts they (errors) could have on employees and public
institutions. Since the data that is generated from PAs is used to inform
decisions on how to allocate rewards, promote and discipline employees,
erroneous PAs could lead to undesired and costly decisions (Ghosh, 2014: 784;
Obidinnu & Ekechukwu, 2014: 44; Javidmehr & Ebrahimpour, 2015: 290).
The most common rating errors that are associated with PAs are:
• Personal bias: Involving preferential and nepotistic practices (Yasmeen,
Bibi & Raza, 2019: 44), personal bias is the most common rating
error and derives from bias either in favour of or against an employee
(Javidmehr & Ebrahimpour. 2015: 294; Uddin, 2019: 1). It is not
performance related, may be committed consciously or unconsciously,
and is related to factors such as race, class, religion, gender, age, disability
and level of self-confidence, or to institutional characteristics such as
seniority (Palshikar et aL 2019: 97). When it occurs in the workplace,
subordinates whom the appraiser likes are ranked highly and those
he or she dislikes obtain lower ratings. Personal bias in a work setting
creates discrimination of various forms and diminishes the appraiser’s
accuracy (Jansen & Hlongwane. 2019: 95).
• Stereotyping: Appraiser error mayanse when an employee is generalised
as belonging to an affinity group or identified as possessing the
same presumed characteristics as the group. Different types of stereo
types exist, for example, race, class, ethnicity, gender and age
stereotypes (Lussier & Hendon. 2015: 306; Smith, Rosenstein, Nikolov &
Chaney, 2018: 160; Rossem, 2018:450). An example of a gender stereotype
is perceiving pregnant women as sluggish regardless ofwhat differentiates
them from other employees. Obviously, a stereotypic generalisation like
this may influence the PAs of pregnant women negatively, regardless of
how they have performed over the period in question.
• Halo or horn error/effect: With (he halo effect, the appraiser ascribes
too much importance to a single KPA and rates other KPAs similarly
(Javidmehr & Ebrahimpour. 2015: 290; Naseer & Ahmad. 2016: 76 &
Idowu, 2019: 4). As a result, the overall appraisal is unduly influenced
by a single KPA. For example, a receptionist’s work plan may include
KPAs such as answering the telephone, resolving queries, capturing
data, keeping the reception area tidy and performing duties that may
be prescribed by other managers. The appraiser may ascribe too much
importance to telephone etiquette, which in turn is overly or negatively
rated, while other KPAs are neglected but rated like telephone etiquette.
Appraisals of this nature are inaccurate since they do not consider
across-the-board performance.
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• (Dis)similarity error: Sometimes referred co as the ‘similar to me’

effect (Lin & Kellough, 2019: 181), the similarity error occurs when
the appraiser allocates high ratings to employees perceived as similar
to them (Naseer & Ahmad, 2016: 77). This error is influenced by the
propensity of individuals to feel comfortable with those who share
similar attitudes, characteristics or behaviour, physical appearance, tem
perament, hobbies, personality, race or gender. In contrast, appraisers
consider employees who are dissimilar to them as poor performers and
as such, allocate low ratings to them (Iqbal etal, 2014: 522).
• Distributional error: This occurs in three forms, namely, strictness,
central tendency and leniency (Obidinnu, Ejiofor & Ekechukwu,
2014: 43). Strictness is deliberate and is often used by appraisers
to settle personal scores. With the strictness error, appraisals are
negatively skewed and the performance of all employees is regarded
as not meeting required performance standards (Iqbal, et al, 2014: 521;
Naseer & Ahmad, 2016: 76). In the case of central tendency, all or most
employees are appraised as performing at an average level or as meeting
required performance standards (Obidinnu, Ejiofor & Ekechukwu.
2014: 43). Appraisers may deliberately refrain from allocating extreme
performance ratings to evade being questioned or instructed to
justify the ratings by moderators. With the leniency error, employees’
performance is exaggerated as most or all employees are allocated high
ratings regardless of the differences in actual performance (Obidinnu.
Ejiofor & Ekechukwu. 2014: 43; Javidmehr & Ebrahimpour, 2015: 293).
Most appraisers who allocate lenient ratings attempt to avoid conflict,
desire to gain the support of subordinates or allocate generous ratings
to create a positive impression of themselves to their superiors.
• Recency error: Instead of observing employee performance over a
performance cycle and using evidence gathered during this period,
the appraiser considers only recent negative or positive events and
uses (hem as the basis of the PA rating (Javidmehr & Ebrahimpour,
2015: 293; Marchegiani, Reggiani & Rizzolli. 2016: 184). Such errors
may influence rating patterns positively or negatively. A typical
example is (hat of an employee being appraised negatively for having
reported late for duty recently, or a police officer being allocated a
high rating for having recently arrested the most wanted criminal.
The error here is that recent events are considered to the detriment of
consistently excellent performance or in abeyance of poor performance
over a long period.
225
• Contrast error: This tends to occur when an appraiser is conducting

successive PAs and a rating allocated during one appraisal influences
the rating that is allocated in a subsequent PAs (Naseer & Ahmad,
2016: 77). Appraisers in this case contrast (compare) performances
of different employees instead of using performance standards
consistently to appraise the performance of each employee (Lussier Sc
Hendon, 2015: 307& Javidmehr & Ebrahimpour, 2015: 292). Comparing
the performances of employees creates bias because the performance
standards that are agreed to between the parties may be different even
though the employees perform the same tasks.
DID YOU KNOW?

Grievance trends in the South African public service
Of all the seven categories of causes of grievances in the South African

public service, the highest are grievances that relate to PAs, particularly
in which complaints are aggrieved of having been rated unfairly by their
supervisors during the PA. The pattern of these grievances has remained
relatively the same since the financial years 2006/7 to 2016/17. The only
exception was during the 2017/18 financial year, in which grievances that
relate to unfair treatment were the highest.
Source: PSC, 2008 and 2018
8.7.2 Development of performance standards

Another problem that characterises PAs is the supervisors’ inability
to facilitate the development of appropriate performance standards.
Performance standards are an important feature of a successful PA because
they are the instruments with which actual performance is measured.
Inappropriately developed performance standards increase the likelihood
of rating errors and vice versa this can be assigned to the frequent new
deployments, new appointments, promotions and transfers, employee
populations and management arrangements in public institutions changing
endlessly. New supervisors must be orientated during probationary periods to
general government standards. It is also important to familiarise them with
the standards of the public institution in which they are employed and with
standards relevant to the performance of those who report to them.
New supervisors should also be encouraged to collaborate with their

subordinates when developing performance standards. This is necessary
226
because supervisors are not formally trained to develop performance

standards or appointed based on their ability to do so. It is important to
institute methods by which they are trained to develop new or review old
performance standards to help them keep pace with changes in the nature
and complexity of work performed by subordinates.
Because of supervisors’ lack of skill in this respect, performance standards

are often found to be poorly developed in the sense that they do not specify
quantity, quality, standard procedures and cost. The literature describes the
failure to comply with the SMART principle Simple, Measurable, Achievable,
Reliable, Time-bound. KPAs that are developed in abeyance of this principle
make appraising work performance difficult.
8.8 Steps in the performance appraisal phase

PA is sometimes interpreted as an interview (Meinecke & Kauffeld, 2019: 485),
a meeting (Krause, 2004: 40) a process or system (Palshikar et al, 2019: 96),
all of which are inappropriate and inconsistent with what is entailed.
Attributing to a PA the status of an interview reduces it to a face-to-face
interaction in which rhe role of the appraiser is dominant and conclusive.
This interpretation invalidates the rationale of parties to the PA ‘agreeing’
on a common performance rating. It makes PAs susceptible to use instructive
instruments in which the role of the employee is inferior, thus allowing the
appraiser to exercise personal bias. As illustrated in Figure 8.2, PAs involve
steps that go beyond the scope of a meeting, for example, prior preparations
by the parties, recording of PA data and future performance planning.
Interpreting PAs as a process or system derives from the confusion in the

literature between PA and PM. As a process or system, a PA is exposed to the
risk of being ‘a process in a process' or a ‘system in a system’. The interpretation
of PA in this chapter is consistent with its definition as a distinct part, segment
or phase of PM. To consider it as an interview, a meeting or process or system is
inconsistent with the guidelines offered by the PSC (Public Service Commission,
2007: 6) and the, sometimes contradictory. South African literature.
As a phase of PM. a P/\ involves seven steps, some of which are concluded
during other phases of PM. Although the steps that are carried out during
the PA phase are dependent on the complexity of the work in question and
the level of interaction with other employees, PAs include, as illustrated in
Figure 8.2, steps that fall out of and within the scope of a meeting:
227
1. Preparing well in advance: Prior preparation occurs out of the scope

of a meeting and helps avoid interruptions during the PA. Preparation
may include gathering evidence of performance to justify ratings and
the parties acquainting themselves with KPAs, tasks and performance
standards against which actual performance will be appraised.
2. Creating a suitable appraisal environment: Participating in a PA
makes most employees nervous. It is essential to create an environment
in which the employee feels comfortable, for example by explaining
the purpose of the appraisal and inviting the employee to participate.
Unlike preparing for the PA. this step and the next three occur within
the scope of a meeting.
3. Jointly appraising actual performance against performance
standards: Appraising performance ‘jointly’ is a requirement of South
African regulations because it is procedurally fair and helps to guard
against bias. During this step, it may be best if the employee is invited
to present his or her self-appraisal first, after which the appraiser’s
may commence, k is necessary co allow enough nine co appraise each
KPA.
4. Giving feedback and allowing consent: As illustrated in Figure 8.2,
it is important for the appraiser, after performance has been jointly
appraised, to give performance feedback co guide future performance
and to allow an employee to consent on the basis of the feedback.
The guiding principle during this step is that feedback is not about
the employee but his or her work performance. Feedback must be
meaningful, constructive, and comprehensive (positive and negative).
Outstanding performance needs to be commended and corrective
action instituted for poor performance.
5. Jointly deciding on the overall performance rating: After both
parties have appraised performance and the evidence of observed
performance, they must jointly consent to a performance rating.
Parties must reasonably ensure that the rating is a true reflection of
actual performance over the performance cycle.
6. Dispute resolution: Not all PAs result in an amicable agreement about
a performance rating, something that most PM guidelines provide for.
A dispute, in this case, must be declared and resolution mechanisms
put in place by the appraiser s superior, k is important to ensure that
PA disputes are resolved sensibly and as soon as possible as they may
incur large costs if they are referred to an external arbitrator.
228
7. Recording of performance appraisal data for future use:

Institutions in both the public and private sectors record PA data for
future use. In the South African public sector, institutions at national
and provincial levels of government capture this data into the
personnel and salaries management system (PERSAL) for future use
by, for example, internal auditors and the Auditor-General. In order to
ensure data integrity, data must be recorded on PERSAL as soon as it
becomes available.
Steps that are out of the Steps that are within the
scope of a meeting scope of a meeting
1. Preparing for a performance .................. 2. Creating a suitable appraisal

appraisal environment
f
3. Jointly appraising performance
against performance standards
7. Recording performance appraisal
data for future use *
A 4. Giving performance feedback and
< allowing consent
I
I •
f
6. Dispute resolution in case ..............5. Jointly agreeing on overall
agreement is not reached performance rating
Figure 8.2: Steps in the performance appraisal phase.
The outcome of the PA may necessitate certain types of action, for example,
to reward and encourage outstanding performance or to rectify under
achievement. How poor performance is identified and managed is illustrated
in ‘Spotlight on the law 8.1'.
DID YOU KNOW?

Budget for performance bonuses
According to the Minister of Finance, Mr Tito Mboweni, the South African

government pays over R2bn rands per year for performance bonuses to
public servants.
Mboweni, 2019
229
8.9 Rewarding performance in the public service

Rewarding performance in the South African public service is gradually
becoming a contentious issue, especially amidst growing frustrations by
consumers and stakeholders about poor service delivery (Chikulo, 2016: 53;
De Rack & Lieberman, 2017: 15). It becomes even more questionable amidst
concerns of abuse of PAs by supervisors (Jansen & Hlongwane, 2019: 96;
Kenyatta, 2016: 39; Loga, 2019: 978), impacts of the Covid-19 lockdown of
non-essential public institutions, which restricted and disrupted access to
public goods and services. More so as a result of growing unemployment
and the inability of the government to collect revenue (Mtshali, 2019). In
the nearby future, it is going to be difficult to justify why public institutions
should budget enormous amounts of funds to reward employee’s performance.
Although it may be justifiable at a micro (individual) level, it is going to be
difficult at the macro (collective institutional) level. Nonetheless, rewarding
performance in the South African public service is legislated and therefore an
integral part of the conditions of employment that must be deliberated upon
at an appropriate bargaining council.
Consistent with a diagrammatical representation in Figure 8.1, PAs are

used as a means to reward outstanding performance. Rewards may either be
financial (extrinsic) or non-financial (intrinsic), (Subekti & Setyadi, 2016: 18),
therefore they are budgeted for. These rewards are administered as part of
a holistic strategy to attract and retain employees in scarce-skills categories
(Onyije, 2015: 74; Kossivi, Xu & Kalgora, 2016: 263) and in particular to give
recognition for outstanding performance.
In addition to a cost-of-living salary adjustment which public officials who

serve national and provincial departments are entitled to receive annually
(MPSA, 2002: 25), regulations (MPSA. 2002: 25; Republic of South Africa,
2001) provide for performance-related salary increases, such as performance
rewards (cash bonuses) and pay progressions determined by the outcome of
PAs. Senior managers, for example, receive a cash bonus that is calculated up
to a maximum of 5% of their total remuneration package for a performance
rating of 80-84% (performance significantly above expectations). For a
senior manager whose performance rating is 85% and above (outstanding
performance), a cash bonus calculated up to a maximum of 8% of his or her
remuneration package is awarded.
Salary, or pay progression, defined as upward progression in remuneration

from a lower to a higher remuneration package, is another form of
230
performance-related reward which is awarded based on che performance

rating achieved by a senior manager or professional in the South African
public sector, It accrues to an employee who has served a public institution
for an uninterrupted period of 24 months and whose performance has during
this period been satisfactory, significantly above expectations or outstanding
(performance ratings of 65% and above).
Besides performance-related salary increases, the South African public sector

regulations provide for non-monetary awards. Examples for senior managers
are (M PSA, 2002: 26):
• more freedom to organise own work and resources;
• explicit acknowledgement and recognition in government publications
or other publicity material; and
• public awards made by senior leadership in recognition of specific
achievement or innovation for consistent achievement over a specific
period of time.
The regulations further require that decisions about awarding performance

rewards be moderated by a committee whose roles are to ensure fairness,
transparency and consistency.
8.10 Conclusion
The foregoing discussion reveals that PAs are a significant part of PM and help
managers in public institutions to determine critical administrative areas. In
the public sector context, the benefits of instituting PAs accrue to consumers
of goods and services rendered by public institutions (the citizens), the state
as employer and to employees in general. PA enjoys regulatory support, the
foundation of which is the Constitution. It was instituted to resolve historic
systemic challenges inherent in government performance and to help achieve
the goals of a new democratic order. Because of an expanding knowledge
base deriving from research. PAs are now embraced by public institutions,
demonstrating the need to involve appraisers who traditionally were perceived
to be insignificant. The citizen’s role, which, under the apartheid government,
was considered passive, is increasingly emerging through service delivery
protests, which are provided for in the Constitution.
Although success in the implementation of PM, and therefore PA. is recorded

in reports of the DPSA and PSC, whose role is critical in improving public
service excellence in South Africa, two key problems in this area are rating
231
errors and the development of performance standards. These issues, if not

resolved, may cancel out the good intentions behind instituting PAs. To
achieve reliable, accurate and meaningful information from which adequate
HRM decisions can be made and to help appraisers and employees engage in
PAs flawlessly, managers in public institutions need to ensure that proactive
steps are carried out to overcome the problems associated with PAs. Because
the outcomes of PAs are also used to recognise and reward outstanding
performance, solving these problems will create a more equitable system and
help to identify poor as well as good performers.

1. What are PA and PM?
2. Into which three categories can the purpose of PAs be classified?
3. What legislation relates to PA in the South African public service?
4. Discuss the different types of performance appraisers that can be
used to expand the scope of PAs in any public service?
5. Why should the PA phase be disassociated from its traditional
interpretation as an interview, meeting or process or system?
6. What problems are associated with the utilisation of PAs by
institutions?
7. Describe the steps in the PA phase (with the aid of a diagram).
8. Explain how performance is rewarded in the South African public
sector (with reference to both financial and non-financial rewards).
232
Chapter
Career management
Luni Vermeulen
Purpose
This chapter exposes you to a range of factors related to the management
of public employees’ careers.
Learning outcomes
• Distinguish and establish the links between ‘career planning’, ‘career
development, ‘career pathing’ and ‘career management’.
• Define and differentiate between ‘protean career’, boundaryless
career’ and ‘portfolio career’.
• Explain che significance of‘psychological contract’.
• Interpret the career theories of Super and Holland.
• Discuss che various career anchors.
• Display an understanding of career patterns.
• Give an overview of career plateaumg.
• Consider the meaning and implications of obsolescence.
• Assess the various human resource management (HRM) practices
that support career management programmes.
• Provide a critical overview of career management in the public sector.
9.1 Introduction
The essential role of competent, motivated and skilled public officials in the
success of the public service is described as follows:
As the biggest employer in the country, the role ofthe South African public service
in developing, motivatmgand retaining its employees is critical to the effectiveness
of the state, since the public service, as the executive authority of the state, is
dependent on its employees ' skills, competencies, commitment and attributes to
successfully achieve its service delivery mandate (Vermeulen, 2015: 483).
Considering the aim of career management to inter aha increase the develop
ment, growth, motivation and retention of employees, it is evident that career
management can be a valuable HRM practice for the public service. Further,
if the status of South Africa as a developmental state is considered, it becomes
clear that the ongoing growth and development of public officials is needed
to guarantee the realisation of the state’s objectives (Vermeulen. 2015: 483).
The need to foster suitable career development practices that advance

employees’ capabilities, is enshrined in the in Section 195(1)(7>) of the
Constitution as a fundamental value and principle of public administration.
The Public Administration Management Act, 2014, which objective is to
give effect to the values and principles in Section 195(1) of the Constitution,
reiterates the necessity to develop the capability of public servants to
contribute to continuous and increased levels of performance, efficiency,
effectiveness and accountability in the public service (Republic of South
Africa. 2014: 14). In addition. South Africa’s leading policy on socio-economic
development, the National Development Plan (NDP): Vision for 2030, calls
for the professionalisation of the public service. To accomplish this vision,
the skills and professionalism of public servants are imperative and a clear
direction in public service career paths is required (Republic of South Africa,
2011: 372). Information about opportunities in the public service and the
provision of techniques to facilitate the career planning process are two
important aids in this process.
This chapter commences with an overview of the concepts inherent to and

typically associated with career management. Thereafter, a number of career
theories, as well as career anchors and career patterns are explored. The focus
is also placed on HRM practices, related to career management. Furthermore,
attention is given to the meaning and implications of career plateauing and
obsolescence. Finally, a critical overview of career management in the public
service is provided.
234
Chapter 9: Career management
9.2 Career management concepts

‘Career management’ encompasses three common components, namely,
‘career development’, ‘career planning’ and ‘career pathing’ (Republic of
South Africa, 2000; Republic of South Africa, 2010). This implies that an
employee’s career has to be planned in conjunction with the employer to
create a career path, and career development should be included in the career
plan to enhance the employee’s progress and growth on the career path. These
concepts are further described below:
• Career development is a process through which progression and growth
in a sequence of jobs and phases are realised (Hommelhoflf, Schroder &
Niessen. 2020:5). Each of these phases is characterised by a new set of ideas
and tasks, continuously involving more advanced and diverse activities,
resulting in wider or improved skills, growth, greater responsibility
and prestige (Hommelhoflf etal, 2020: 5). Career development involves a
lasting perspective and therefore expands beyond an employee’s present
job satisfaction and performance to view career effectiveness as the
realisation of social affirmation or the achievement of senior positions
(Napitupulo, Haryono, Riani, Sawitri & Harsono, 2017: 277).
• Career planning is an organised practice that is undertaken to
identify employees' goals, skills, abilities, strengths, weaknesses and
preferences, asapai cofcheii career management (cf Business Dictionary,
2015). An employee's career planning involves career discussions that
concentrate on attainable career goals for potential career prospects
and opportunities. Career plans incite (1) an employee's ‘perceived
sense of control’ in regards to future career choices and achievements;
(2) a consideration of opportunities and possible future positions; and
(3) self-confidence in pursuing suitable activities to attain career goals
(Coetzee & Stolz, 2015: 89).
• Career pathing is the route used by an employee to map a path within
an institution for his or her development (Heathfield. 2015). Career
pathing also encompasses an understanding of the knowledge, skills,
personal attributes and experience that is necessary for an employee to
advance in his or her career laterally, vertically (through promotions) or
horizontally (through transfers) (Heathfield. 2015).
• Career management is a process in which planning is done for an
employee’s progression and development in an institution (Republic of
South Africa, 2000). In this process, the employee’s goals, performance
potential and preferences are aligned with institutional goals and
objectives (Republic of South Africa. 2000). The career management
235
Human Resource Manacement in Government
process serves as a basis for employees to plan their careers, set career
goals and develop and implement a strategy that is designed to realise
goals (Coetzee &. Stolz, 2015: 89).
Career management used to be regarded as the responsibility of the employer

whereas it is now seen as the responsibility of the employee (Republic of South
Africa, 2000). Further concepts related in this regard to the practice of career
management are ‘employability’, 'psychological contract*, ‘protean career*
and 'boundaryless career*.
• Employability refers to an individual's potential (skills, personal attributes,
networks and professional identity) to obtain employment, be successful
in the workplace and sustain a career (Rowe & Zegwaard, 2017: 88).
Employability involves increasing individuals' career adaptability to be
‘employable’, as opposed to merely finding employment and staying with
one organisation for their entire work lives (Maree, 2017: 4). This implies
that individuals need to be flexible and willing to adapt to various career
environments. The ability of individuals to sustain their employability in
the ever-changing and unpredictable contemporary work environment
has become imperative for enduring in the twenty-first-century work
context (Coetzee, 2017: 295). Employees are expected to cake responsibility
for being employable but they expect support and guidance from their
employers, amounting to a psychological contract.
• Psychological contract refers ro an unarticulated combination of beliefs
held by an employee and employer about their mutual obligations and
what they expect of each other (Rousseau, 1989: 121). With regard to career
management, the more assistance an employee receives from the institution,
the greater the perception of fulfilment of the psychological contract
(Sturges et al, 2005: 821). In turn, the achievement of the psychological
contract is connected to institutional commitment on the part of employees
and is related to work behaviours (Armstrong, 2006: 226, 228). Sturges etal
(2005: 821) point to the following concerning career management:
... first, it shows that both individual and institutional career management
behaviours are linked to psychological contract fulfilment; second, career
management help is associated with affective commitment and job
performance; third, psychological contract fidfilment plays a key role in
mediatingthe relationship between career management help and such attitudes
and behaviours; and fourth, organisational commitment may mediate
between psychological contract fulfilment and individual career management
behaviour aimed atfurthering the career outside the organisation.
236
In a continuously changing work environment, the psychological contract,

however, was replaced with a new approach, grounded in lifelong learning
and a transformation of the individual in the workplace. In 1996, Douglas
Hall coined this approach, ‘protean career’. A traditional career, in which
an individual joined an organisation, laboured faithfully with unwavering
loyalty, acquired incentives, and obtained job security, was replaced by the
protean career (Hall, 1996: 8; Hommelhoff et al, 2020:5):
• A protean career is ‘a career that is driven by the person, not the
organization, and that will be reinvented by the person from time
to time, as the person and the environment change’ (Hall, 1996: 8).
Therefore, the protean career is characterised by the ability of employees
to reinvent themselves and proactively self-direct their careers, based on
their personal values (Yokoi, 2020).
• A boundaryless career extends beyond the boundary of a single employer
or organisation (Abessolo, Hirschi & Rossier, 2017: 245). A traditional
career model involves primarily one organisation and establishes
individual career achievement through promotion, power and income’,
and bases organisational effects ‘such as employee loyalty, commitment
and citizenship behaviours' on solid organisational boundaries
(Rodrigues, Guest & Budjanovcamn, 2016: 670). With the boundaryless
career, however, boundaries no longer create a separation between the
known and unknown employment spaces (Rodrigues et al, 2016: 670).
A Public Service Commission (PSC) report highlights the following
benefits of boundaryless career paths that relate to lateral transfers
and/or upward movement within an organisation (Republic of South
Africa, 2017: 16):
■ Boundaryless career paths allow for the development of employees
in a variety of career options while still retained in the organisation.
■ Boundaryless career paths provide employees with the opportunity
to enhance and/or expand their knowledge and skills, while
employers save considerable costs on the recruitment and training
of new employees: thus, benefitting both the employer and employee.
■ Boundaryless career paths lower the risks associated with career
plateau ingor obsolescence by increasing employee and organisational
relevance, success and productivity.
• A portfolio career entails several part-time jobs. A portfolio career is,
however, not temporary positions, but ‘a full-time commitment which
comprises of a balance of freelance work, consulting, personal projects,
board membership and other activities that demand expertise under
flexible conditions’ (Mqamelo, 2019).
237
DID YOU KNOW?

Career goals are connected to career competencies
A person’s career goals are achieved through the self-management of three

‘knowing’ career competencies:
• Career insight - ‘knowing why’ (mirroring a person’s inspiration and
identity);
• Networking - ‘knowing whom (demonstrating one’s relationships,
internal and external to the work environment); and
• Career/Work-related skills - ‘knowing how’ (displaying a person’s
work-related skills, abilities and competence).
Source: Sultana & Malik (2019: 1-2; 9)
9.3 Career theories

Career theories consider the context of the individual’s preferences,
orientation and aspirations, as well as economic conditions and sociological
factors such as family and education (Patton & McMahon, 2014: 95). Since
the 1950s, different theories of career choice have been formulated to explain
how individuals choose careers. These theories can be divided into content
theories (which describe career choice in terms of specific factors, such as
individual characteristics or the psychological phenomena that are involved
in choice) and the process theories (which describe career choice as a dynamic
process that evolves over stages of development) (Patton St McMahon, 2014:
95; 121). Career choice maybe better understood with the help of two theories,
namely Super's process theory and Holland’s content theory.
9.3.1 Super’s process theory

According to Super (1980: 282), career choice refers to a whole series of related
decisions that are made during a development process covering five life stages
from childhood to old age. The following career stages are identified:
• Growth (birth to puberty, from 0 to about 14 years of age): Although
careers have not yet become a relevant factor during childhood, it is
now generally believed that children explore their environment out of
curiosity, all the while gathering information, particularly through
contact with adults whom they adopt as role models. During these
years they ought to develop certain visions of their future roles as
adults: autonomy, self-esteem, a perspective on the future, and a feeling
of being in charge of their lives.
238
• Exploration (adolescence, from about 14 ro 25 years of age): While the

only type of systematic exploration during this stage is provided by
school, an adolescent’s social exploration is stimulated by his or her
parents and peer group. This may lead to the first tentative attempts at
career exploration, which later become more focused.
• Establishment (early adulthood, from about 25 to 45 years of age): As
early adulthood is reached, some individuals stabilise as far as their
career exploration is concerned: others continue to change careers, their
field of activity and their level of employment throughout their lives. It
has been found, however, that children of well-educated parents tend to
be well educated themselves and are employed at higher levels than the
children of people with a low level of education.
• Maintenance (middle-age, from about 45 to 65 years of age): Those
adults who have previously stabilised in a career now attempt to
maintain their position in the workplace in the face of competition
from younger people whose more up-to-date training may pose a threat
to the advancement of their older counterparts. Those who fail to
advance tend to stagnate and become disillusioned.
• Decline (old age, from about 65 years onwards): As people age, they often
grow to resent their physical and mental decline and the implications
that this has for their future. In fact, the process of decline already
begins around the age of 25. This is particularly apparent in physically-
oriented careers, such as in sport. As older people become aware of their
declining powers, they tend to slow down, disengaging themselves from
some areas of life.
9.3.2 Holland's theory

According to Holland (1973: 14), personality (including values, driving forces
and needs) is an important determinant of career choice. He says that the choice
of career is. an expression of personality and that there is an interaction between
personality and the environment, individuals being attracted by environments
that correlate with their personal orientation. Holland found it necessary
to categorise people according to their personality types and to associate
these personality types with specific environmental models. He describes the
characteristics of the personality types as follows (Holland, 1973: 14 17):
• The realistic personality type develops a preference for the clear and
orderly manipulation of tools, machinery and animals, among other
things, through which mechanical, electrical, technical and manual
skills can be acquired. This personality type prefers practical careers,
such as craftsman, farmer and so forth, and avoids socially-oriented
careers such as barman and social worker.
239
• The investigative personality type develops a preference for the

observation and creative investigation of physical, biological and
cultural phenomena, with the aim of understanding and controlling
these phenomena. This personality type prefers investigative careers in
fields such as economics, engineering, psychology, veterinary science,
computer programming and tool-making.
• The social personality type develops a pattern ofbehaviour preferences
that include the manipulation of people through activities such as
training and assistance. This type of person usually prefers socially-
oriented careers, such as social worker and teacher, and avoids practical
careers such as mechanical engineer and plumber.
• The conventional personality type displays a pattern of preference
for orderly, systematic jobs, such as keeping records, filing and so
forth, through which clerical and accountancy skills, for example,
are acquired. This type of person prefers conventional careers such as
that of record keeper and typist and avoids careers in the arts such as
photographer and musician.
• The enterprising personality type develops a pattern of preference
for activities that entail the manipulation of people in the pursuit
of institutional objectives or economic advantages, through which
leadership and interpersonal and persuasive skills are acquired.
This type of person prefers careers and situations that demand an
enterprising nature, such as banker and estate agent, and avoids careers
requiring analytical skills, such as economist and actuary.
• The artistic personality type develops a pattern of preference for free,
unsystematised activities that involve the manipulation of human,
physical and verbal material and acquisition of skills in the fields of
language, art, music, drama and writing. This type of person prefers a
career in the arts, such as language teacher and dramatist, and keeps
away from conventional activities such as typist and accountant.
9.4 Career anchors

Edgar Schein (1990: 58-60) identified eight career anchors in a number of
publications dating back to t he 1970s and 1980s. He relates career anchors to
individuals’ career orientations. He also describes them as configurations of
individuals’ perceptions of their talents and abilities. Career anchors are thus
telling of a person’s personal perspective on the direction of his or her career
240
(Vermeulen, 2015: 291). Schein’s eight career anchors are as follows (Schein,
1996: 83-85):
• Technical/functional competence: Employees for whom technical/
functional competence is a career anchor attempt to find ways in which
they can use skills to improve their competence. They are self-confident
and enjoy challenges. Such employees are usually competent leaders in
their own fields of specialisation but tend to avoid general management,
which usually involves leaving their field of expertise.
• Managerial competence: Employees for whom general managerial
competence is a career anchor like to co-ordinate the activities of other
employees and want to be seen to be making a positive contribution
to the success of the institution for which they work. As a manager, a
person with this type of anchor can give expression to interpersonal
skills (influencing and controlling people), analytical skills (identifying
and solving problems in uncertain situations) and emotional stability
(stimulation by emotional and interpersonal crises, rather than
experiencing these as tiresome).
• Autonomy/indcpendence: Employees for whom autonomy/independence
is a career anchor like to carry out their work in their own way. They
enjoy variety and flexibility and are unsuited to strictly regulated jobs
or jobs that require them to exercise control over others. If forced into
such positions, they may well decide to start a business of their own.
• Security/stability: Employees for whom security/stability is a career
anchor consider both financial and job security to be important. They
like to settle at an institution and are prepared to employ their skills
in any manner required of them. If such an employee changes from
one institution to another, he or she always chooses a similar type of
institution and a similar type of work.
• Entrepreneurial creativity: Employees for whom entrepreneurial
creativity is a career anchor would jump at the opportunity to create a
business of their own. They want to show the world that they can create
a business that is the result of their own efforts. These people often
work for a company initially to gain the experience that they need to go
out on their own. Current developments in the working environment
are convincing more and more people that they can develop their
own business. The opportunities for people who are anchored in
entrepreneurial creativity will probably increase greatly in the future.
241
• Lifestyle: Employees for whom lifestyle is a career anchor like to

find a compromise between their personal needs, family needs and
the requirements of their career. Schein (1990: 60) explains this as
follows: ’You want to make all of the major sectors of your life work
together toward an integrated whole and you therefore need a career
situation that provides enough flexibility to achieve such integration.’
Sometimes, such employees have to sacrifice certain aspects of their
careers (for example, if they are reluctant to accept a transfer to another
city or country).
• Sense of service/dedication to a cause: Employees for whom service/
dedication is a career anchor are always prepared to do something
to improve life in general by, for example, upgrading the state of the
environment or promoting peace. They may even change employers in
order to carry on doing this kind of job and do not accept promotion
unless the new position meets the requirements of their value system.
• Challenge: Employees for whom pure challenge is a career anchor enjoy
undertaking difficult tasks and solving complex problems. They never
choose the easy way out of a problem and like to ‘achieve the impossible'.
They tend to grow bored quickly when the job holds no challenge
for them.
9.5 Career patterns

Success and advancement are indicative of an individual’s career anchor
(Schein. 1993) and of the career patterns that individuals follow (Brousseau.
1990: 47-58). In his Career Concepts Model, Driver (1979) explained that
a person’s career pattern involves job positions, activities, growth, and
development throughout the progression of their employment cycle. Driver’s
(1979) model suggests that individuals possess unique views about the way in
which their careers should develop: for some, success may mean promotion:
for some, it is recognition in a field of expertise; while others seek to live a life
of social contribution or to move frequently from one challenge to another.
Indeed, *|s|ome individuals flourish by being creative and innovative, others
prefer stability and steadiness; challenges and continuous stimulation may be
important to one person while creating a work/life balance is vital to another’
(Vermeulen. 2015: 493).
Driver’s (1979) model can be used to identify an individual’s preferred career

pattern and also to provide a basis for career decisions. The following four
career patterns describe different types of careers and provide a means of
242
describing the ideal career. Each career pattern is based on underlying motives
(Brousseau, 1990: 47-58):
• Linear career pattern: Employees who prefer a linear career pattern like
to progress within the institutional hierarchy and be rewarded with
promotion and instant recognition, as well as with financial rewards
such as high salaries, perks and incentive schemes. They are usually in
managerial positions and hold power, achievement, status and money
in high regard.
• Expert career pattern: These employees work within their chosen
career field for their entire careers. They identify themselves with
their fields of expertise, and aspects such as expertise, security and
stability are strongly correlated with this pattern. Their emphasis is
on the acquisition of special skills. Medical practitioners, engineers
and lawyers are examples of this career pattern. These people prefer
to be rewarded by speciality assignments and skills training and by
recognition of their expertise in a specific field.
• Spiral career pattern: Employees who prefer a spiral career partem rend
to change their career fields periodically. These changes are major,
allowing them to acquire new skills and capabilities while using their
previous experience. The spiral career person highly regards motives
such as self-development and creativity.
• Transitory career pattern: Employees with a transitory career pattern
tend to change career fields every two to four years. This pattern
has been referred to as a ‘consistent pattern of inconsistency’.
They are independent and like variety in life Their most favoured
rewards are immediate financial rewards, flexible working hours, job
rotation and autonomy.
9.6 Career plateauing

Career plateauing refers to the point in ones career where the likelihood of
advancement or motivation co progress is reduced (Greenhaus, Callanan &
Godshalk, 2019). A distinction may be made between structural and content
plateauing: structural plateauing refers to a situation in which opportunities
for promotion are restricted by the structure (pyramid) of the institution;
and content plateauing occurs when an employee knows the job too well and
no challenges are left (Greenhaus et al. 2019). The challenge for managers
is to address at least the problems of content plateauing as it is the easier
one to avoid (Leibowitz, Kaye & Farren, 1990: 28). Four kinds of plateaued
243
performers are identified by Leibowitz etal (1990: 30), namely productively

plateaued. partially plateaued, passively plateaued and pleasantly plateaued.
• Productively plateaued employees experience job satisfaction and feel
that they have achieved their ambitions. They are loyal to the institution
because they feel that the institution supports them in achieving their
personal goals and recognises their contributions. They are productive,
high performers but occasionally require motivation.
• Partially plateaued employees feel that the institution does not do much
for them but continue to maintain job involvement. These people are
usually specialists in a certain field but feel that their jobs lack excitement
and that their institution does not support them enough in acquiring new
skills. They value any opportunity to acquire new skills.
• Passively plateaued employees feel that they have been in their jobs for too
long and know them too well. They lack challenge and display no interest
in additional training in their fields. However, they also feel unable to
change their situation.
• Pleasantly plateaued employees do not aim for promotion and change and
prefer to remain where they are. They are unlikely to be innovative and
usually stay with one institution.
The institution can take certain actions to address the problem of career
plateauing. The following are possible solutions (Leibowitz etal, 1990: 32):
• change the structure of the institution;
• pay for performance;
• set up job rotation programmes to create lateral movement and broaden
skills;
• give candid feedback;
• establish a career plan and goals;
• provide individual career planning opportunities (for example, career
planning workshops and self-assessment of skills);
• encourage career exploration; and
• encourage further education.
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Career plateauing, internal employability and the psychological contract
A study exploring the connection between career plateauing, internal

employability and psychological contract, found a relationship between
these three phenomena. The results of the study revealed that career
plateauing (structural and content plateauing) can be a considerable
precursor of internal employability. Furthermore, the negative association
between career plateauing and internal employability will be more
significant for employees who experience a high level of psychological
contract breach.
The study also revealed that psychological contract breach will cause
plateaued individuals to be reluctant to remain with their employer.
Psychological contract breach notably increased the negative relationship
between career plateauing (structural and content plateauing) and
internal employability.
Source: Lin et al (2018: 986)
9.7 Obsolescence
Employees can only endure in the workplace if they constantly familiarise
themselves with the changing contexts and adapt to it (Jain. 2013: 82).
Obsolescence thus refers to the extent to which employees lack the competencies
related to current developments, necessary to maintain successful performance
in either present or future work roles (Greenhaus et al, 2019). Employee
obsolescence can also be described as thecontinuous process in which the balance
between the employee and the work is upset, for instance, by technological
factors such as computerisation (Greenhaus et al, 2019). The contemporary
work environment, with increased digitalisation, new technologies, artificial
intelligence, data analytics and The Internet of Things (Ludike, 2019: 285),
has been an advantage for employees equipped with cutting-edge skills and in
developing professions, but a quandary for others with low or obsolete skills.
'People are living and working longer but facing more frequent job changes and
the risk of skills obsolescence’ (OECD. 2019: 6).
Obsolescence can also be caused by institutional factors such as restructuring,

or even by an action on the part of the employee (Bracket & Pearson,
1986: 113). Once the balance has been disturbed, symptoms such as frustration,
hostility or resistance to change may result. Once the symptoms have been
245
identified, treatment in the form of training courses, institutional changes or

career counselling may follow to restore the balance between the employee and
his/her job, unt il the cycle is repeated (Bracket & Pearson, 1986: 113).
A paradigm shift by public managers and employees from once-off learning

to lifelong learning is probably the most sustainable solution to this challenge
(Van Jaarsveldt, 2016: 184). This shift implies that individual employees
should start taking responsibility for their own learning by adopting a
learning approach to life, drawing on a wide range of resources to enable
them to support their lifestyle practices. Public servants need to refresh and
supplement their knowledge regularly to meet the challenge of a constantly
changing work and world environment.
Managers can take certain actions to prevent employee obsolescence and to

reduce feelings of obsolescence. These include, among others (De Raphelis
Soissan, 2015):
• providing continuous training and education;
• offer cross-disciplinary careers to become experience-centric instead of
skills-centnc
• encouraging continuous learning, expose employees to work with
different people and increase their flexibility; and
• providing challenging work and the means to continuously adapt to
new circumstances.
DID YOU KNOW?

Employee obsolescence due to digitalisation
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

estimates that 14% of existing occupations could disappear in the next
two decades as a result of digitalisation and the continuous emergence of
new technologies. A further 32% of occupations could also be significantly
transformed as work is computerised or mechanised.
Source: (OECD. 2019: 3)
9.8 Practices that support career management

programmes
A career management programme in a public institution is part ofthe broader
HRM system. It should be integrated with and supported by other HRM
246
practices, such as performance management, training, affirmative action,

talent management, succession planning, employee coaching and mentoring.
The relation of these HRM practices to career management is dealt with in
the discussion that follows.
It makes sense to synchronise activities relating to career planning with

feedback on performance. An employee’s performance in his or her current
position has a decisive impact on management’s perception of his or her
potential for further progression. In fact, one can argue that sustained high-
quality performance is key to fulfil an employee’s aspirations for higher
positions. It is necessary to determine how employees can improve their
performance in their current positions. Proper feedback by management to
employees is thus essential (Republic ofSouth Africa, 2000).
Owing to the size of the public service, it does not always seem practical to
address the development needs of employees on an individual basis. That
is why training interventions are usually identified and scheduled in a
coordinated way by the training component of public institutions. In order to
support the career management programmes of departments, these training
components are usually assigned the duty of developing a career development
programme. The PSC suggests that these programmes:
should take the line functional needs of departments into consideration and
could comprise the development of a set of standard courses which employees at
different levels and occupations in the department can attend on an annual basis
(Republic ofSouth Africa, 2010).
A public institution’s affirmative action programme is supposed to be closely

integrated with its career management programme. The two programmes
depend on each other for their success. A department's career management
programme is expected to support the affirmative action objectives of the
particular institution. All stakeholders should be made aware of posts that
have been targeted to promote representativeness. The requirements attached
to such posts must be taken into consideration in the career planning of
employees of under-represented population groups (such as black people,
women, and people with disabilities).
Talent management refers to a strategic integrated approach to managing

human resources throughout the careercycle: recruiting, developing, retaining
and rewarding (Acar& Yener, 2016: 285). Both talent management and career
management aim to develop employees’ skills for growth, development,
progression and increased performance (Hommelhoff et al, 2020: 5) and if
247
done correctly, culminate into job satisfaction (Napitupulo etal, 2017: 277)
and the attainment of career goals (Coetzee & Stolz, 2015: 89).
An institution should have long term leadership plans in place to ensure

the institution develops and prepares a pool of skilled employees with the
necessary capabilities to replace senior management (Republic of South
Africa. 2011: 378). Succession planning, therefore, involves the identification
and development of future leaders in an organisation (Half, 2020).
The Public Service Mentorship Programme defines mentoring as a process of

deploying ‘experienced individuals to provide guidance and advice that will
help to develop the careers of proteges allocated to them' (Republic of South
Africa. 2006). A mentor, therefore, provides guidance on career paths and
development opportunities.
Coaching is described as a process that makes it possible for employees to

learn and develop skills they may be lacking from an experienced colleague
to enhance their performance (Palmer & Whybrow, 2018: 9). Coaching thus
also provides growth and development opportunities that can be employed
towards career development and the achievement of career goals.
Coaching, mentoring and networking in the career and leadership

advancement of Generation X women
Research revealed that the best approach co support and bolster the
career and leadership advancement of Generation X women is through
development interventions, intended to reinforce career planning through
coaching and mentoring. Coaching and mencoring are valuable practices
in the establishment of leadership competence, self-efficacy and career
planning capability.
A study conducted on the career advancement of Generation X women
found that career planning, through coaching and mentoring, as well
as networking, are most relevant to develop and advance their careers.
However, the study implied that women may not be adequately aware of
the role of networking in career progression.
Source: Flippin (2017: 34; 40-41)
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9.9 Overview of career management in the public

service
In Chapter 13 oft he NDP, it is mentioned that the provision of career paths at a
junior level is absent. This shortcoming hinders the strengthening of skills and
fails to promote a sense of professional common purpose. Moreover, the NDP
states that the government should have a clear vision of the next generation
of public servants, as well as the expertise to bolster quality professional
skills. It is suggested that this should receive priority in the public service to
ensure a continuous succession pipeline for middle and senior management
(Republic of South Africa, 2011: 364). It is furthermore advised that career
paths are ensured by resolving the weaknesses in standard practices of the
public service, the provision of training, effective management, and a less
hierarchical approach (Republic of South Africa, 2011: 377).
Despite the noble intentions outlined in the NDP, various investigations

and studies conducted by the PSC revealed that career management is not
effectively implemented in the public service. In 2010, the PSC issued a report
on the state of HRM in the public service. In this report, the Commission
established and applied indicators to evaluate the HR function in the
public service. The report set the following as indicators relating to career
management in departments (Republic of South Africa, 2010):
• A succession management system must be in place to guarantee a
seamless replacement of employees who occupy strategic positions.
• Career pathing and career management systems should be initiated
and implemented.
• Six months after employees have received training of any nature, they
should be exposed to post-training evaluation.
• All employees should have personal development plans (PDPs) that
are aligned with career goals and the operational requirements of the
department.
• Capacity building must take precedence.
• Employees should continuously be informed of career opportunities.
• Development and mentorship programmes must be established to
direct employees in accurate career pathing.
• An official performance management and development system aligned
with the priorities, objectives, pointers and aims contained in the
strategic plan of a department should be implemented for employees
at all levels.
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The PSC report revealed that neither career management nor other HRM
practices related to career management were effectively implemented in the
public service. In this regard, the Commission made certain recommendations,
including the following (Republic of South Africa, 2010):
• Training courses that employees undergo should speak to the skills
requirements of the departments.
• Departments should pay special attention to the core management
criteria relating to employee management and enablement. There
should be well-defined goals and measures in the performance contracts
of all managers who have employees reporting to them. These goals
and measures should be rigorously assessed during the mid-term and
annual reviews.
A 2016 PSC discussion document also identified specific shortcomings in the

career management of public servants, with specific recommendations being
made for the mitigation of these shortcomings (Republic of South Africa,
2016: vii-viii):
Table 9.1: Shortcomings and recommendations for career management in the public service
Shortcomings Recommendations
Careers are unstructured with Career paths should be structured by establishing
no synchronised probation, task (and assessing) task competency, promotion,
competency, promotion and continued continued professional development and
professional development requirements. prescribed training requirements.
All senior posts are advertised outside the The open career system, of advertising all senior
public service (open career system), with posts outside the public service should change to
neither internal nor external candidates include internal advertisements.
assessed against objective criteria.
Departments do not build a pool ot Preference should be given to promotions from

skills in a structured manner to promote a pool of candidates that were exposed to a
candidates from the pool. Instead, prescribed training programme and are qualified
employees build their careers by applying and competent to perform a predetermined scope
for posts at various organisations. of work.
Employees do not build their careers in A structured internship for candidates aspiring to
a specific department. Simultaneously, the middle and senior management service should
work-integrated learning is not well be introduced.
enough structured to enable the inter
departmental transfer of skills.
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Shortcomings Recommendations
Employees move between positions A promotion exam for entry into the middle and/or
within the public service (e.g. through senior management services should be considered
a promotion), before becoming (As opposed to an entry-level exan, a promotion
competent in specific tasks. exam is proposed because an entry examination may
unfairly discriminate between cancidates because of
highly unequal educational backgrounds). A prescribed
course (or courses) in relevant fields of study.
designed by the National School ol Government (NSG),
can also be considered as a requirement for promotion
into the middle and/or senior management services.
In 2017 the PSC released a report on the recruitment, retention, career-pathing

and utilisation of specifically senior management service members’ expertise
and skills in the public service. The report is based on a study that was
conducted with national and provincial departments, as well as State-Owned
Enterprises (SOEs). The report identified various reasons for the absence of
career management programmes and effective career pat hi ng in the public
service, including the following (Republic ofSouth Africa, 2017: 1; 3; 33-34; 36):
• Career management is not made a priority in the public service.
• A lack of soft skills is experienced at the executive and administrative
level which may require the introduction of training, coaching
and mentoring.
• No comprehensive discussions concerning career development are held
between managers, supervisors and employees.
• There is a lack of clear policies or guidelines on career management.
• Training and development in the public service usually relate to
the employees’ performance agreements and PDPs, as opposed to
occupations and career paths that are relevant to the department.
• Due to limited opportunities for upward mobility in the public service,
the effective completion of training and development does not often
translate into career progression.
• Numerous impromptu deadlines or meetings and interruptions by
some senior managers during training limits the availability to attend
developmental short courses.
• After training, employees are not provided with the opportunity to
apply the skills obtained during the training.
• A lack of coaching and mentoring is prevalent and has a discouraging
effect on public servants, negatively influencing retention in the
public service.
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Considering the aforementioned challenges to successfully implement career

management practices in the public service, a number of recommendations
were made by the PSC. It was recommended that the public service should
ensure the following in terms of the career management and development of
Heads of Departments (HoDs) (Republic ofSouth Africa, 2017: 35):
• the opportunity to participate in skills and professional development
programmes that will create opportunities for their employability in
the future, particularly after the conclusion of their contracts or when
a change of government administration or reshuffling occurs;
• the establishment of career paths and policy frameworks to enable the
retention, rotation, deployment and utilisation of HoDs in different
departments, SOEs, different spheres of government, other public
institutions and specialised structures/committees;
• the creation of networks by the PSC and NSG to enable and promote
collegial support and the sharing of knowledge and experience; and
• the establishment of an independent structure or procedure that will
support HoDs to deal with their work-related challenges, specifically in
instances where there is conflict and disagreements.
From the PSC reports, published in 2010. 2016 and 2017, it is clear that
career management in the public service is flawed. The public service is not
prioritising the career development of public servants, thereby not actively
and effectively contributing to the creation of their career paths and the
opportunity for upward mobility. The management of employees’ careers
requires an integrated approach, wherein all undertakings affecting career
management are correctly implemented to enhance career management in the
public service. It is, however, evident that the HRM practices supporting career
management (such as training and development, coaching and mentoring
and succession planning), are also not receiving enough priority in the public
service. As stated in the introduction of this chapter, the public service is the
largest employer in the country and. as the executive authority of the state,
has a significant role and responsibility to ensure that its employees are
skilled, competent and committed to contributing to the success of the public
service in terms of service delivery. Further, considering that South Africa is a
developmental state, the ongoing growth and development of public officials
are necessary to guarantee the realisation of the objectives of the state. In this
regard, career management can be a valuable HRM practice for public service.
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9.10 Conclusion
This chapter has introduced you to career management in the public service
and examined various aspects of the management of employees’ careers,
Specific attention has been given to concepts, theories and processes, relating
to career management. Different career theories have illustrated the process
of career choice.
We have established that career management in the South African public

service is supported by other HRM practices, currently not adequately and
effectively practised. Finally, it has been affirmed that public institutions
should follow an integrated HRM approach to optimise the practice of career
management.

1. What are the primary differences between a traditional, protean and
boundaryless career?
2. Which stages can be identified in Super’s career theory?
3. Which personality types have been identified by Holland?
4. Which of Schein’s eight career anchors are most suitable to public
service positions?
5. What is the connection/s between boundaryless career and particular
career patterns?
6. Which types of career plateauing can occur?
7. What are the differences between structural career plateauing,
content career plateauing and obsolescence?
8. Which actions can be undertaken by organisations to prevent
obsolescence?
9. How would an integrated HRM approach enhance the practice of
career management in the public service?
10. What is the nature of career management in the public service?
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Chapter
4Q Reflections on learning
IU programmes
Liza Ceciel van Jaarsveldt
Purpose
This chapter allows you to reflect on the importance of education and
training programmes to develop public official’s capacity in a complex
and fast-changing world and work environment.
Learning outcomes
• Explain the importance of educated and trained public officials.
• Understand the different theories that support adult education and
training.
• Explain why lifelong learning is important.
• Identify different education and training strategies that can support
the development of public officials.
• Explain the importance of e-learning and m-learning.
• Evaluate the role of social media in education and training.
• Analyse the requirements for the education and training of public
officials in South Africa.
10.1 Introduction
Rosenbaum (2015: 35) states that governments around the world are
functioning in an environment of rapid change, increased complexity and
ambiguity. Public officials have to take on tasks and solve problems that
previously did not exist. According to Rosenbaum (2015: 35), governments
and the work they do will continue to become more complex, unpredictable
and demanding, and problems will become more complex and per
implication difficult to solve. The increasingly complex nature of government
requires a workforce that will be able to face new challenges, solve problems
and understand complexity while serving the needs of citizens. In many
instances, public officials must address unexpected challenges and provide
services that were not required previously. Consequently, public officials are,
in effect, required to demonstrate new insight, knowledge, skills and abilities.
To be able to do this, public officials will need to upskill which will require
education and training.
Erasmus and Loedolff (2019: 46) state that ‘the purpose of training and
development of human resources in an organisation ... is to equip those
people working in organisations with the requisite knowledge, skills and
attitudes to achieve organisational objectives'. Education is described by
Erasmus and Loedolff (2019: 3) as ‘the deliberate, systematic and sustained
effort to transmit, evoke or acquire knowledge, attitudes, values, skills
and sensibilities’. Education can also be described as the process by which
an individual is encouraged and enabled to develop knowledge and skills.
Gravett (2010: viii) view education as the development of the mind to reach a
specific level of competency. In addition, education is a universal practice that
takes place in all societies, at all stages of development to advance knowledge
and understanding. As far as training is concerned Wilson (1999: 5) views
the concept as ‘a planned process to modify attitudes, knowledge or skill
behaviour through learning experience to achieve effective performance in
an activity or range of activities'. Erasmus and Loedolff (2019: 3) state that
training refers to the planned acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities.
Consequently, education and training assists to promote the conditions in
which an employee, for example, a public official can apply rhe new knowledge
and skills gained in rhe public service. Given that education and training
have, the ability to improve the knowledge, skills, ability and the performance
of public officials it is important that it should form a regular part of every
public official’s career. Therefore, this chapter will focus on the importance
of education and training programmes that can assist with the upskilling of
public officials in a fast-changing world and work environment.
10.2 The importance of a professional educated and

trained public workforce
The concept ‘professional’ focuses on unique skills, based on a corpus
of knowledge and theories that a person has (Larson, 1977; Louw, 1990;
Pauw, 1995: 8-9; Van Jaarsveldt & Wessels, 2015: 416-417). Competence refers
to ‘what a person knows and can do under ideal circumstances’ and embraces
256
Chapter 10: Reflections on learning programmes
the structure of knowledge, competence and capabilities (Messick, in Eraut,

1994: 179). To become a professional, it is generally accepted a person for
example a public official will undergo some form of education and training.
Education and training provide professionals with a degree of autonomy,

control and power - the power that results from knowledge (Clapper.
1999: 141). In reality, although professions are characterised largely by the
best available technology and knowledge, it is the skills, the ‘tricks of the
trade’ and capacity as well as aptitude that distinguish professionals (Pauw,
1995: 8; Wessels, 2000: 313). Skills acquired and the mastery of knowledge
as a professional does not only have an impact on the work environment
according to Johanson and Adams (2004: 15 16) but also on the surrounding
community. Therefore, education and training is a form of investment that
supports the economy, the development of human capital, job mobility, the
labour market and innovation. If there is, no investment in education and
training government will not be able to respond to new challenges and adapt
to a fast-changing globalised world.
In terms of public officials, Kuman and Kumar (2019) state that training
and education assist them to enhance their actual capacity and performance.
In addition, public officials will through education and training develop
skills, improve their capabilities and the quality of their work and learn new
technology, processes, and procedures that will benefit the public service.
Education and training can be viewed as necessary since it assists public
officials to grow and develop by taking on more responsibility and becoming
future leaders that can assist the public service to fulfil its mandate of serving
the public. Public officials that are educated and trained are more likely to be
effective, have less absenteeism, have better morale, communicate better with
citizens and have improved interpersonal relationships.
257
DID YOU KNOW?

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
is an intergovernmental economic organisation with 37 member countries,
founded in 1961. Some of the members of the OECD include Australia,
Belgium, Chile, Germany, France, Ireland, Japan, Mexico and Turkey. For
a complete list of members, please visit the following link: https://www.
oecd.org/about/document/list-oecd-member-countries.htm
According to the OECD (2016), public service delivery in all countries have
increased in nature and have become increasingly complex. Cue to this
complexity, public officials require new knowledge, a better understanding
of communities and citizens and the responsibilities of government. Public
officials need to be professional, communicate well, be innovative, take
a leadership role, and have the ability to achieve results, work in teams
and must be willing to learn. Additional benefits of education and training
for public officials according to the OECD (2016) include the ability to
understand government reforms, the ability to adapt to changing work
environments, providing services while reducing costs and improving
the responsiveness of public officials to serve the needs of citizens. It is
specifically the aspect of responsiveness and serving the public that is
an important aspect relevant to the South African public service. In this
regard, the Minister for Public Service and Administration (2018) stated
that the public service needs professionalisation and new skills, education
and training. In addition, the Minister stated that education, training and
skills development are critical to ensure socio-economic development,
poverty reduction, development and being a part of the Fourth Industrial
Revolution. Public officials need to be fit-for-purpose in the twenty-first
century and this can only be done through carefully planned educational
and training programmes that meet the needs of an ever-changing and
increasingly complex public service.
10.3 Theories relevant to adult education and training

Theories support che learning process and help individuals to understand how
learning occurs in different settings and different environments such as the
public service. The Cambridge Dictionary, Internet (2020) states that a theory
is a formal statement or the rules a subject or study is based on. Higgs and
Smith (2006: 8) state chat theories are similar to factual statements but are
258
more complex. A theory assists to explain factual statements. In this instance,

the theories explained are factual statements relevant to the education and
training of adults such as public officials.
DID YOU KNOW?

There is no theory that is better than another. The value of a theory is
dependent on how you use the theory. It is also important to study different
theories since it helps to explain why they were formulated. Theories are
not cast in stone they can be tested and proven right or wrong (Higgs &
Smith 2006: 8). Theories also adapt and change as new factual statements,
knowledge and information are discovered.
According to Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner, (2007: 27) theories
based on adult education provides orientation and insight into how adults
learn. It is important to remember that adults come to education and
training with experience and pre-existing knowledge that they gained from
their work environment, previous experiences and education and training
that they completed (Merriam, Caffarella &. Baumgartner, 2007: 27-28).
Since adult learners already have experience for example of working in the
public sector they expect to learn something useful that they can immediately
implement and use in their work environment to solve problems.
Table 10.1: Theories relevant to adult education and training
Name: Explanation:
Andragogy Malcolm Knowles (1913-1997) is the theorist responsible for the
theory of andragogy. Knowles postulates that there is a difference
between how adults and children learn. Andragogy refers to the
art and science of helping adults learn. According to the theory of
andragogy adults are self-directed, ready to learn, motivated to learn,
have already developed their self-concept, are orientated to learn
and have prior knowledge that they bring to the education process.
Knowles state that adult learners are autonomous, and growth
orientated. Adult learners should also be involved in the planning and
development of their education or training programmes since they
know what they want Io focus on. Andragogy can also be referred to
as Andragogical learning.
259
Name: Explanation:
Experiential Learning Experiential learning views learning as a process whereby knowledge
is created through the transformation of experiences. Adults learn
from their own experiences. Learning is a continues process
grounded in experience. Learning can happen formally through
education or training or informally by talking to friends or colleagues.
It is a way that allows adults to understand their experiences and
thereafter modify their behaviour Observation and reflections form
an important part of this theory. Experiential learning relates to the
recognition of prior learning where adults' previous experience is
recognised and acknowledged. Four steps form part of experiential
learning namely: concrete experience, observation and reflection, the
formation of abstract concepts and the testing of new concepts.
Constructivism Constructivism is not a single, homogeneous theory of learning.

According to constructivism, adults learn through experiences
that become the basis for assimilating new knowledge. This theory
focuses on the construction of knowledge through lived experiences.
The learning taking place is active and contextualised rather than
simply acquired. Meaning is made out of the critical reflection of
concrete experiences. Learners connect any new information or ideas
to their existing knowledge. For example, experiences as a South
African public official will be different from the experiences of an
American or European public official. Therefor a South African public
official should build on his/her work experiences while undergoing
education and training.
Self-directed Learning Approximately 70% of adult learning is self-directed. Self-directed

learning is in many instances an informal process. Self-directed
learning (SDL) is a process in which individuals undertake learning
without the help of others. Self-directed learners are mature, set
their own goals, and determine their own need according to their own
daily routine. Self-directed learners are excited and positive about
learning. SDL can include the search for information on the Internet,
communicating with peers or experts or self-study.
260
Name: Explanation:
Transformational Transformational learning can be looked at through different
Learning lenses namely the psychocritical, psychodevelopmental and
psychoanalytical perspectives. Transformational learning refers to
learning that changes how adults think about themselves, their world,
and involves a shift of consciousness This is a shift in priorities
due to the experiences a person goes through. Transformational
learning is emancipating. Transformational learning requires a climate
that is trusting, empathic, caring, and sincere and has a high level
of integrity. New ideas are developed after engaging in reflective
discourse. The learning activities followed should explore different
points of view. The use of movies or short stories that engage
learners can be used as well as journal writing that supports reflective
discourse: the analysis of theoretical perspectives from different
perspectives can also support transformational learning.
Social Learning Theory This theory of social learning suggests that people learn by
observing or imitating other people. This theory is also known as
modelling. Social learning theory explains how people learn new
behaviours, values, and attitudes. This theory makes use of:
• Attention - looking at the behaviour of others
• Retention - remembering the behaviour to use in the future
• Behavioural rehearsal - repeating the behaviour
• Motivation - a reason to follow on the behaviour.
Conscientisation Created by Paulo Freire this theory focuses on the idea of developing,
Theory strengthening and changing consciousness. This theory is based
on the premise that education should engage the learner in problem
solving that could lead to empowerment. Although this theory
is learner centred, ‘banking’ education should be avoided where
information is simply deposited into the minds of learners. Learning
should not be a passive process. Learners should observe, think,
plan, explain, reflect and be critically aware of their learning The
experience that some learners already have should be acknowledged.
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Name: Explanation:
Three Dimensions of Created by Knud llleris who views learning as a holistic human
Leaning process. The three dimensions referred to in this theory that should
be taken into consideration during the learning process include:
• Cognition-knowledgeand skills
• Emotion - feelings, motivation and attitude
• Society - the environment, participants, communication and
the social context that assist to shape the learning process.
In addition, learning requires the following processes: perception,
transmission, experience, imitation and activity or participation that
leads to transformational learning.
Theory of Margin The theory of margin was presented in 1963 by McClusky. This
theory is grounded in the notion that adulthood is a time of growth;
change and integration where adults constantly seek balance.
Balance is viewed as a ratio load’ (L) and ‘power’ (P) The margin
of life is the ratio of load to power. More power means a greater
margin to participate in learning. The theory of margin is a theoretical
framework that refers to the changes that an adult has to make if he or
she decides to continue with education and training.
Learning Process According to the learning process theory, learning always begins
Theory with experience. This theory states that all learning begins with the
five human sensations namely sight, smell, taste, sound and touch.
Jarvis believes that learning is dependent on an individual's body
and biology due to the way that our senses function. Sensations are
transformed into knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and emotions
all experiences a person brings to the learning process. In addition,
the learner is an individual that consists of mind and body and comes
to the learning situation with a history, biographies and experiences
which generates and contributes to learning. The learning process
happens if a person's body, mind and soul (including emotions,
thought and actions) derive experiences into useful encounters and
learns and grows from them.
Adapted from: Merriam, Caffarella and Baumgartner (2007); Higgs and Smith (2020);
Gravett (2010); Lemmcr and van Wyk (2010) and Gravett and Geyser (2014).
Although some of these theories may sound complicated, they assist to

explain how learning takes place. Depending on the situation, not all theories
might be applicable, but it is possible to use some aspects of these theories in
practice. For example:
• Ask learners to undertake self-reflection of their learning. Reflections
do not necessarily have to be formal it can be a short paragraph or
quick notes on what was learnt during the day. Reflections can include
262
Improving public
policy for good
governance
FOURTH EDITION
Fanie Cloete
Christo de Coning
Henry Wissink &
Babette Rabie
[Editors]
Van Schaik
PUBLISHERS
Published by Van Schaik Publishers

A division of Media24 Books
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All rights reserved
Copyright © 2018 Van Schaik Publishers
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

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Please contact DALRO for information regarding copyright clearance for

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First edition 2000

Second edition 2006
Third edition 2011
Fourth edition 2018
ISBN 978 0 627 03513 5
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This book has been reviewed by independent peer reviewers.
Preface
Good governance is the essential mission of the public sector, and effective policy
management to achieve desired improvements in society is a crucial component of
good governance. An understanding of the nature, content, processes and outcomes
learning challenges, accomplishments, and aspects of resilience in

learning or areas that should be focused on to improve learning.
• Create communities or groups where SDL can take place. Learners can
read articles together and share views and opinions in the group. In the
group, learners can learn from each other.
• Provide feedback that will challenge learners to deepen their critical
thinking.
• Explain to learners how what they will be learning is relevant to the
work environment. How will they be able to use the new knowledge they
gain in practice.
• Focus on real problems that are being experienced in the work
environment, for example, current problems in the public service.
• Engage with learners and find out what experience they bring to the
education or training that is taking place. Acknowledge the pre-existing
experience that they have.
It will be beneficial for adult learners such as public servants to focus on the
competencies and skills that can be used in their work environment instead
of simply receiving information that is ‘dumped’ on them while undergoing
education and training. Various strategies can be used to make the education
and training process more rewarding as will be seen next.
10.4 Reflections on education and training

According to Subban and Vyas-Doorgapersad (2014:503) appropriate training
and development tools are needed to achieve the objectives of a developing
government and economy. Especially when educating and training current or
future public officials since, as according to Subban and Vyas-Doorgapersad
(2014: 499) current teaching practices tend to be too descriptive and lack
application and understanding of the complex nature of the public service.
Education and training is not always an easy process. In many instances,
creative strategies need to be used to ensure that learning takes place and
learners stay engaged. Some of the strategies that can be considered to
facilitate education and training are listed below.
10.4.1 Problem-based learning

Problem-based learning (PEL) encourages critical thinking and problem
solving skills. PBL is learner-centred and empowers learners to integrate
263
theory and practice to solve problems. During a training session participants

will, for example, confront ill-structured messy real-world problems in their
work environment and strive to find solutions (Walker, Leary, Hmelo-Selvir
& Ertmer 2015: 5).
10.4.2 Case studies

Case studies are narratives, situations or statements that present unresolved
issues, statements or questions from the real world. >\ good case study
represents an event or situation that the learner can relate to. The use of a case
study can assist learners to draw from their own experiences before studying
a topic and can serve as a springboard to what should be studied. A case study
does not necessarily have to be written but can also be presented orally to a
group of learners to stimulate discussion. Case studies allow for analyses,
making judgements, speculating and the expression of opinions. Case studies
promote active participation and innovative solutions (Gravet 2010: 73-74).
10.4.3 Portfolios
A portfolio is a structured collection of documents that provides evidence
of learning experiences and competencies. A portfolio shows how learning
took place by reflecting on what has been learnt. A portfolio is not a
curriculum vitae that simply mentions qualifications. By using a portfolio,
development is demonstrated. Therefore, a portfolio can be viewed as a record
of professional development. Achievements, future goals, job applications,
promotions, awards, events, products and accreditations by external bodies
can be included in a portfolio (Gravet & Geyser 2014: 181 183).
10.4.4 Storytelling
Storytelling is a narrative account of learners’ experiences related to a specific
topic being studied. Stories can be presented individually or in groups
followed by questions and observations about what happened in the story.
After analysing the stories, insights can be drawn relevant to the learning
content (Malamed. Internet: 2011).
10.4.5 Role-play
Role-play refers to acting out a possible situation or scenario. Role-play assists
the learning process by allowing participants to experience a specific situation
which contains two or more different viewpoints or perspectives. A specific
situation can be written as a prepared brief and different perspectives or roles
264
are handed out. The situation should be realistic and relevant. The purpose
of the role-play should be clear for example to practice communication skills
with citizens (Gravet 2010: 74).
10.4.6 Mentoring
/X mentor can be viewed as a wise and experienced person, an advisor or an
education leader that supports one on one development with a younger more
inexperienced person. As a developmental strategy, mentoring includes two
unequal levels with one person being the expert and the other person learning
from the expert. A mentor can be viewed as a trusted advisor. Mentoring plays
an important role to ensure that knowledge and experience are shared to
support development and learning (Erasmus & Loedolff 2019: 202).
10.4.7 Demonstrations
A demonstration is a presentation that shows a learner how to perform a
specific act or how to use specific equipment. The use of demonstrations
supports visual learning. A demonstration can be used to teach a specific skill,
for example, the use of a computer program. Providing explanations during
the demonstration is important to ensure understanding. Allow learners to
practice the demonstrated skill, behaviour or process as soon as possible after
the demonstration to ensure proper comprehension (Gravet 2010: 75).
10.4.8 Group work

Although not al ways popular with learners, group work assists to increase social
interaction. Group work can encourage active learning and communication
skills. Group work allows learners to share their experiences and views about
the topic being learnt. To ensure successful group work scaffolding should be
used to divide the learning task before handing it out. All the aspects of the
learning task should be interdepended with an equal amount of work that
needs to be completed by each group member (Knutson, Internet: 2018).
10.4.9 Critical debate

A critical debate gives learners the opportunity to engage deeply in familiar
ideas. A topic will be provided, and learners will have to argue strongly
for or against the topic. Critical debates support critical thinking and
active learning. Learners get the opportunity to present arguments and
communicate viewpoints to others, explain their thinking about a specific
topic and to generate their own new ideas (Williams-Brown, Internet: 2015).
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10.4.10 Professional enquiry

Professional enquiries focus on professional growth and development. Khalaf
and Zin (2018: 550-560) state that this form of enquiry-based learning is
focused on problem solving. Questioning and finding ways to improve practice
and solving problems while being ethical. Professional enquiry can be seen as
a process of collaborative sense making where justification and arguments
are an important part of the process. Ownership of the learning process is
taken by the learner. This process of learning is not driven by the lecturer or
instructor who is only supporting the learner through the learning process.
The learner must discover his or her own knowledge and understanding. Key
aspects of professional enquiry include:
• The student will be concerned with his/her own development.
• Professional development, identity and practice of enquiry is central to
the process.
• Professional enquiry is a way of being - supporting someone that is
open to change and innovation.
• Education is problem focused.
• It is an ongoing process of transformation where all the parameters
within the context are changing all the time.
• The context is holistic rather than partial.
• It is a naturalistic enquiry that builds upon available data.
• Makes use of tools such as conceptualisation, and socialisation.
• Professional enquiry develops self-confidence while actively engaging in
professional practice.
10.4.11 Lifelong learning

Much has been written about lifelong learning. Lifelong learning is focused
on creating and maintaining a positive attitude towards learning, both for
personal and professional development. It is a continuous process of creating
new knowledge and gaining new ideas and insight which forms part of
education and training. Leaning does not end when an individual leaves school
or university. Lifelong learning can take place through formal, non-formal
and informal education and training. Lifelong learning can be described as an
all-purposeful learning activity undertaken on an ongoing basis to improve
knowledge, skills and competence. Lifelong learning provides better and new
opportunities and an improved quality of life. Lifelong learners are willing to
invest time and energy into learning and making learning part of their everyday
266
work and life, regardless of how it takes place. Lifelong learning promotes
employability. Lifelong learners are motivated to learn and develop because they
want to enhance their understanding of the world around them (Steyn 2016: 3).
Remember the saying ‘You can t teach an old dog new tricks’ - generations
grew up with this saying. However, its message did not survive the transition
from an industrial to a knowledge-based society. Lifelong learning has become
the paradigm of today’s education policy. Lifelong learning has become one
of the most researched topics in education (Heuchemer, Internet: 2020).
10.5 The virtual world of education and training

Education and training has undergone fundamental differences in the 21st
century due to the development of technology. Traditional education and
training is no longer the rule given the advent of Web2.0 and the Fourth
Industrial Revolution. The speed of development is unprecedented. As
information and knowledge expand, new skills are required which means that
education and training needs to be innovative, creative and forward thinking
to keep up with technological developments. Outside of the traditional
classroom, a lot of learning is taking place on new platforms. Knowledge itself
does not stand alone anymore but is connected to learning environments
where learners are constantly connected. According to O’Connell and Groom
(2012: 16), connectivism provides a learning paradigm for the twenty-first
century, in many instances, learning is taking place in networks created by
digital natives rather than webpages. The virtual environment is global and
always available as opposed to traditional classroom education. Examples of
education and training in the virtual world include the following:
10.5.1 E-learning
According to Erasmus and Loedolff (2019: 203), the term e-learning
(electronic learning) refers to the delivery and administration of learning
by making use of a computer, network or web-based technology to support
the growth and development of individuals. Shelly, Gunter and Gunter
(2010: 519) is of the view that e-learning can also be referred to as online
learning, distributed learning, virtual learning or distance learning. In its
broadest form, e-learning is undertaken at two levels:
267
1. Provision of information via information or communication techno

logics in a very accessible and immediate way which enables individuals
to refresh or extend their knowledge and improve their performance.
2. Provision of interactive learning materials and packages designed to
facilitate skills or wider personal development. The actual courses
focus mainly on IT skillsand, to a lesser extent, on softer skills (people-
to-people training) such as general management skills, or more
specific aspects of management such as interviewing, negotiation and
conducting meetings.
At the third level of application, e-learning is multi-dimensional and

embraces both the above levels in a wider performance-support framework.
This is coupled with processes to administer and monitor learning provision
and outcomes and to provide learners with various forms of support from
experts and peers. In terms of administration, e-learning can provide access
to learning resources, including previews, registration and tracking of user
history. This can be done to a greater or lesser extent, either through passive
portals or simply through learning management systems (Pollard & Hillage,
Inlei net. 2001 and Erasmus &. Loedolff, 2019. 203). Emerging technology
continues to influence the way e-learning is created, designed, developed
and implemented. Many education and training institutions make use of
e-learning which is delivered completely online or by a blended, hybrid, web-
enhanced or mixed mode depending on their capacity and recourses. The
difference between these different modes of delivery include the following:
Table 10.2: Modes of education and training delivery
Mode: Description:
In class/face to face/ This mode of delivery includes no technology or online
traditional learning resources. Instruction takes place in a traditional classroom.
Web-enhanced or mediated Limited technology is being used. A web page will be used to
learning post the schedule or assignments and due dates for a course
with the actual education or training still :aking place in class.
Blended/hybrid or mixed This mode of delivery blends online and face-to-face

methods instruction techniques. Online discussions and content will
take place with limited face-to-face meetings a few times
during a semester/year.
Fully cnlme All the learning is interactive, activities take place online
including discussions and assessments.
Adapted from: Shelly, Gunter and Gunter (2010: 519-521)
268
Fully online e-learning has various advantages, for example, learners can be
self-paced and learn when it is convenient for them, it is cost effective, learning
can take place at any location where it is convenient, slow learners can learn
at their own pace and learning can be customised. The disadvantage is that
learners have to be self-motivated, it is important to have access to technology
and have updated computer skills and since learning takes place remotely
some learners might feel isolated and alone in their studies.
10.5.2 Mobile learning

Mobile learning is also known as m-learning and refers to any teaching
and learning that takes place with the use of mobile devices and
platforms. Mobile learning devices can include mobile phones, tablets or
laptops. Mobile learning has been around since the early 2000s however
due to the increased development of smartphones and devices this mode
of learning has become very popular. This resulted in learners studying
presentations on their tablet, looking at the instructional video, taking a
multiple-choice test on their mobile phones, or participating in massive
online open courses (MOOCs) without attending a formal class (Gautein,
Internet: 2018). According to Erasmus and Loedolff (2019: 270), mobile
technology represents the latest tools that are being used for communication,
education and training. Employees can upskill anywhere and at any time with
learning material that can be downloaded. Mobile technology can empower
employees with ready to use information.
DID YOU KNOW?

There is an application (app) for just about everything that can simply be
downloaded. This includes apps focused on education and training. The
public service spend a lot of time and money to ensure public officials
have the knowledge and skills they require. Instead, an app could be used
for example TalentUP, Skill Pill, Coursera: Learn new Skills or Mobile Soft
Skills. Many apps are available focused on a verity of skills for example
leadership, management or public speaking. TalentUP includes information
about learnerships that are available in South Africa apart from providing
skills development (The skills portal, Internet: 2020). The app iMantri can
be used to find a mentor for a mentee with the same goals and interests.
iMantri will then facilitate the mentor process (iMantri, Internet: 2020).
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10.5.3 Social media

Social media refers to online technology that includes the use of interactive
communication tools which allows users to create, share and exchange
information and ideas. Social media is characterised by faster communication,
information sharing, user-centred design and web-based communities. By
making use of Facebook, Twitter, Wikipedia, Linkedln, Reddit. Pinterest,
YouTube, Flicker, Instagram, LearnCentral, Academia.edu, ResearchGate,
Ted Ed, WriterFace, Good Reads and Smart.fm public officials can collaborate
online, share ideas, communicate with citizens, create online profiles, start
blogs, share information and continue with their education and gain new
knowledge. Examples of this include:
• al kiwi ng learners to share their learning experiences on Snapchat;
• making use of free virtual bulletin boards on Pinterest and asking
learners to pin videos, links to interesting articles, lesson plans,
podcasts or images relating to the subject they have learnt;
• sending weekly thought-provoking questions to learners through
Twitter;
• creating a word cloud on Wordle.net where learners indicate what they
have learnt on a specific topic;
• creating a Facebook group for a specific topic and asking learners to
share their views;
• asking learners to brainstorm their expectations for a class by making
use of Padlet or Global2.vic.edu.au:
• including relevant videos from YouTube in the course content. Learners
can post videos about what they have learnt on the site;
• asking learners to post photos relevant to their topic of study on
Instagram;
• asking learners to look for relevant resources or even to create course
concent on LearnCentral; and
• using Skype or Zoom co broadcast or record a lecture to learners.
270
DID YOU KNOW?

By following a blog, you get the opportunity to learn from someone else’s
experience. There are on average 78 million new blog posts every month
throughout the world according to Lin (Internet: 2020). Some of the most
popular bogs include fashion, food, travel, lifestyle, music, sports and
politics. However, since there is a blog for almost everything you might be
interested in the following:
• Twenty-first century public servant - available at: https://21stcentury
publicservant.wordpress.com/blog/
• PolicyandPoliticsJournal-availableat:https://policyandpoliticsblog.
com/
• Public Administration - available at: https://publicadministration
theone.blogspot.com/
• The journal of public policy - available at: https://jpublicpolicy.
com/blog-posts-2/
• GOVGIRL - available at: https://www.govtech.com/govgirl/
• Cities Speak - available at: https://citiesspeak.org/
10.5.4 Massive open online courses

MOOCs are free online courses where anyone can enrol. MOOCs offer the
opportunity to gain new skills and knowledge. MOOCs provide opportunities
for lifelong learning and include a verity of topics, for example. leadership
development, ethics, economics, food security and management. Research
published by Zhenghao, Alconrn, Christensen, Eriksson, Koller and Emanuel
(Internet: 2015) found that people from developing countries more frequently
report benefits from taking MOOCs than people in developed countries. This
indicates the benefit that MOOCs have for people who might not have access to
education and training due to finances, location or access.
10.5.5 Open Educational Resources

Open Education Resources(OER) are teaching and learning materials that are
available freely online for everyone to use. The availability and use of these free
resources are supported greatly by the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, Internet: 2015), which believes that
the availability of high-quality education resources can play an important
role in building societies, peace, sustainability and economic growth. OERs
271
help with sharing knowledge and capacity-building and includes textbooks,

research articles, course information, learning content, games, puzzles, and
other material which can be used for educational purposes. Examples ofOER
are Creative Commons, M ER LOT Content Builder, Curriki. Wikibooks, Open
Stax and Connexions.
10.5.6 Educational games

Educational games also known as game-based learning or gamification
assists to make education fun. Games can include simulations to model
real-life problems or situations. Educational games are interactive and have
outcomes that must be achieved. The subject matter is combined with a game
therefore playing and learning is synonymous. Educational games encourage
participants to confront their decision-making, problem-solving skills and
their reaction to problems. z\ccording to Erasmus and Loedolff (2019: 279),
educational games provide a sense of achievement and motivation while
undertaking training.
10.5.7 Webinars
A webinar is a combination of the words ‘web’ and ‘seminar’. A webinar takes
place in real time on the Internet. A webinar can include an online meeting, a
lecture, a debate, e-conference or presentation that can be attended by anyone
throughout the world. The main feature of a webinar is interactivity, or the
ability to discuss, send and receive information in real time. Webinars are
becoming very popular due to their ability to host real-time events at any
time and in any place. In addition, the cost of hosting a webinar is minimal
(Alscher, Internet: 2020).
10.6 Requirements for the education and training of

public officials in South Africa
The Higher Education Act 101 of 1997 provides for the establishment of
quality assurance bodies for higher education in South Africa (Republic of
South Africa, 1997). These bodies include the Higher Education Quality
Committee (HEQC) and the South African Qualification Authority (SAQA),
which are responsible for regulating higher education qualifications and
improving the quality of higher education provided in South Africa.
272
10.6.1 Higher Education Quality Committee

The HEQC is a permanent committee of the Council on Higher Education
(CHE). The functions of the HEQC arc to promote quality in higher
education; audit the quality assurance of higher education institutions; and
accredit programmes of higher education. zXll higher education programmes,
including Public Administration programmes, must be accredited by the
HEQC before they can be offered by a public or private higher education
institution (Republic of South Africa. Internet 2015). The HEQC defines a
programme as a purposeful and structured set of learning experiences that
leads to a qualification. The HEQC also describes a programme as a planned
combination of learning outcomes leading to a qualification registered at the
National Qualifications Framework (NQF).
A qualification is a formal recognition and certification of learning

achievement awarded by the accredited provider. To be accredited by the
H EQC, a programme must be a full qualification complying with the rules and
regulations stipulated by SAQA (Gravett & Geyser. 2014: 13-14). Information
about the HEQC is available at https://heqc-online-l.che.ac.za/
10.6.2 South African Qualification Authority

SAQA was established as the administrative body responsible for the NQF.
SAQA has to provide for an integrated qualifications framework and
functions as set out in the South African Qualification Authority Act 58 of
1995 (Republic of South Africa, 1995). SAQA has formulated two categories
of generic outcomes, applicable to all learning, namely, critical cross-field
education and training outcomes (the critical outcomes) and developmental
outcomes. The critical outcomes are as follows:
• identify and solve problems in which responses demonstrate that
responsible decisions using critical and creative thinking have been made;
• work effectively with others as a member of a team, group, organisation
or community;
• organise and manage oneself and one’s activities responsibly and
effectively;
• collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information;
• communicate effectively using visual, mathematical and/or language
skills in the modes of oral and/or written presentation;
• use scienceand technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility
towards the environment and health of others; and
273
• demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems

by recognising that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation
(developing a macro-vision).
The developmental outcomes are as follows:

• reflect on and explore a variety of strategies to learn more effectively;
• participate as responsible citizens in the life of local, national and
global communities;
• be culturally and aesthetically sensitive across a range of social contexts;
• explore education and career opportunities; and
• develop entrepreneurial opportunities.
These outcomes are conceived to prepare learners not only for their careers
but for success in their personal, civic and economic lives. The emphasis is on
the complete person. Contrary to what some people may fear, these outcomes
are open and are not time and context specific. Unlike the learning of theories,
facts and procedures that will quickly become obsolete, they are supposed to
remain valid for all learners, regardless of their present or future careers and
despite changes in their milieu (Wessels, 2000: 319). Information regarding
SAQA is available at http://www.saqa.org.za/
10.6.3 National Qualifications Framework

The NQF is a structure on which all qualifications, regardless of their origin
in education or in the workplace or community-based training initiatives
are registered. Registration takes place in three different bands. These bands
include general education and training, further education and training and
higher education and training. Therefore, the NQF comprises registered
standards, units and qualifications at different levels of learning (Republic of
South Africa. 2008). SAQA is responsible for overseeing the development and
implementation of the NQF. The objectives of the NQF are to:
• create an integrated national framework for learning achievements;
• facilitate access to and mobility and progression within education,
training and career paths;
• enhance the quality of education and training;
• accelerate the redress of past unfair discrimination in education,
training and employment opportunities; and
• contribute to the full personal development of each learner and the
social and economic development of the country at large.
For more information on the NQF go to https://www.saqa.org.za/nqf-history-

and-objectives
274

Education ot 1997
This White Paper on Public Service Training and Education of 1997 is aimed
at transforming public service education and training. It states that all public
service training should be based on:
• clear learning objectives;
• modular-based training;
• provision of feedback to trainees;
• purposeful planning and use of a variety of teaching and learning
methods;
• accommodation of diversity through the use of flexible materials;
• treating trainees democratically, with active participation and group
working;
• giving trainees active practice in the skills to be acquired;
• experiential training;
• a total systems approach which enables trainees to understand how
different elements of a system relate to each other;
• relevant and challenging course content, and meaningful materials;
• organisational development that complements training; and
• formative and summative evaluation (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1997b).
The White Paper on Public Service Training and Education of 1997 (Republic
of South Africa, 1997b: 68) states that public officials should have the
following competencies: basic literacy, numeracy, communication skills,
judgement, integrity, self-confidence, flexibility, perseverance, creativity,
leadership, thinking skills, organisational awareness, interpersonal relations,
action management skills and knowledge. For more information about the
White Paper on Public Service Training and Education, visit: https://www.
gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/pstel997.pdf
10.6.5 Public Service Sector Education and Training Authority

The South African Public Service Education and Training Authority (PSETA)
plays a crucial role in the creation of a model or system for systematic learning
in the public sector. PSETA was established in accordance with Sections 9
and 13 of the Skills Development Act 97 of 1998 and was promulgated by the
Department of Labour on 20 March 2000. It develops sector skills plans and
submits them to the Department of Labour. It also trains and registers both
national and provincial skills development facilitators to develop workplace
275
skills plans, which are expected to reflect individual needs and departmental
strategic objectives. Furthermore, it advises departments on sector skills and
workplace skills plans. For more information about the role and function
of PSETA with regard to the education, training and skills development of
public officials, visit: http://www.pseca.org.za/
10.7 Conclusion
Given the rapid pace of change not only in the world of work but also
with regard to technology, the upskilling of public officials is important.
Various theories support the education and training of adult learners that
can be considered to support the upskilling of public officials. In addition,
strategies, for example, PBL, group work, storytelling or demonstrations can
be considered. Technology, for example, the use of applications can support
the development of skills and knowledge of public officials that will not only
benefit their work environment but also their community.

1. Why does a country like South Africa require professional educated
and trained public officials?
2. What is meant by the term education theory?
3. What theories support the education and training of public officials?
4. What is meant by the concept of‘lifelong learning’?
5. What learning strategies can be used to support adult education and
training?
6. Explain the difference between SDL, social learning theory and
transformation learning?
7. What is the benefit of e-learning?
8. How can mobile learning benefit public officials?
9. What is the difference between a MOOC and a webinar?
10. What is the role of social media in education and training?
11. How can OERs benefit education and training?
12. What are the requirements for education and training in South Africa?
276
Part 5
Compensating and caring
V7e know that the organization is rapidly shifting front one of manual
workers to knowledge workers. But we know pitifully little about
managing knowledge workers and knowledge work, about productivity
with knowledge work ... we really so far know very much about how to
quench motivation and very little about how to kindle it.
Peter Drucker, 1986
In referring co its staff as human resources’, a public institution clearly
indicates that its employees are regarded as ‘assets’. The human part indicates
that this‘asset’ has freedom of choice. This freedom ofchoice implies that staff
can decide unilaterally to leave the employment of the particular institution
for anot her one. In order to retain their employees, especially those who can be
regarded by the institution as‘assets’, public institutions need to compensate
them adequately for the service they render to the institution, and to care for
them in various other ways.
In this part of the book, we focus on the basic aspects of compensation and
wellness. We believe that sound compensation programmes are of critical
importance to public institutions as well as to public officials. Special care
must therefore be taken in the design and administration of these programmes
to ascertain the commitment on the part of employees to the objectives of
public service delivery. Finally, we regard the comprehensive field of employee
wellness promotion as very important.
Chapters lOand 11 examine issues such as the different forms ofcompensation

and provide specific guidance on the necessity of a holistic and proactive
approach to promoting and maintaining the complete wellbeing of a public
institution’s personnel.
Chapter
Compensation in the public sector

Purpose
The purpose of this chapter is to facilitate learning about compensation

which is used to reward exceptional work performance in order to achieve
institutional goals with the ultimate aim at advancing the quality of life of
public employees.
Learning outcomes
• Define the concept of compensation and d stinguish between
different types of institutional rewards.
• Explain the objectives of compensation systems.
• Determine a compensation policy.
• Distinguish between the external and internal factors influencing the
design of compensation systems.
• Reflect on the key elements of a compensation system.
11.1 Introduction
Broadly speaking, there are essentially three things that are expected of a
public official. They need to be politically responsive to the public, have a
profound and insightful understanding of the societies’ needs and skilful
(qualified) of guiding high-performing public institutions to deliver effective
public services to the citizenry. Their salary packages (compensation levels)
is an indicator of the value placed on the positions they occupy and play a
vital role in the attraction and retention of highly skilled individuals. The
most fundamental element of any employment relationship is the economic
component and compensation has always been a controversial aspect (in
the news and constantly under public scrutiny) in government circles. The
relationship is in its simplest format is as a rule founded on an economically
motivated process where several inputs from an individual worker (such as
physical and mental work behaviour) are exchanged for specific outputs (such
as rewards) that are taken into account to be suitable in satisfying individual
needs or goals. The use of rewards can therefore be an invaluable and dominant
mechanism for influencing work behaviour intended to achieve the strategic
objectives of a public institution.
The satisfaction of individual needs can vary from the most basic human
needs for food and shelter to those more elevated needs of achievement and
status (such as luxury cars) that may be acquired if adequately high levels
of compensation are received. From the public employer’s point of view,
compensation is of notable importance, since it is often experienced as one
of the largest cost items on an institution’s budget. The total operating costs
of compensation and rewards can have a definitive effect on an institution’s
competitive position. Hence, it requires careful and sensible attention.
This chapter briefly defines the concept of‘compensation’ with due attention
to the objectives of compensation and the formulation of a compensation
policy and the factors influencing it. Key elements of a compensation system
will also be discussed.
11.2 Concept of compensation

Concepts that are from time to time used as more or less similar to
compensation are reward management, remuneration management, salary
and wage administration or pay administration. Van der Westhuizen and
Wessels (2011: 348) define ‘compensation’ as ‘the financial and non-financial
extrinsic rewards provided by an employer for the time, skills, and effort made
available by the employee in fulfilling job requirements aimed at achieving
institutional objectives.' In fact, compensation is referred to as an ‘intrinsic/
extrinsic’ typology defining the field of compensation management. On the
one side, intrinsic is seen as a self-administered activity and associated with
the job itself leaving little scope for direct control by public managers. This
implies the opportunity to, for example, perform meaningful work, grow
personally, and enjoy autonomy. On the other side extrinsic is concerned with
all those rewards an employee receives from sources other than the job itself
that an institution has a large degree of control over. Control by the employer
creates the opportunity to manipulate these external rewards in such a way to
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Chapter 11: Compensation in the public sector
influence employee behaviour. Extrinsic rewards are classified into financial

and non-financial rewards.
The results of a human resources management (HRM) audit conducted by

the South African Board for People Practices on rewards and recognition are
revealed in Focus on Research 11.1’ below.
Lessons learned from HRM audits on reward and recognition
The majority of private-sector companies and state-owned agencies

audited met the set standards while few of the government institutions
met the requirements. The pre-audit self-assessments of human resources
(HR) specialists produced an average rating of 47%, whereas the median
audit outcomes have been 62% in the private sector, 60.3% in state-owned
agencies and 51% in the government sector.
Source: Adapted from Meyer and Abbot (2019: 189-190)
Financial rewards are categorised as performance related and membership

related. Performance-related rewards include items such as performance
bonuses, incentive schemes and achievement awards) and membership related
rewards refer to, among others, the basic salary, retirement benefits and
medical aid.
Non-financial rewards are also grouped into two groups, namely status
rewards (location ofthe office, own secretary and office furnishings) and social
rewards (praise, compliments and social gatherings) (Van der Westhuizen,
2017: 142).
In Figure 11.1 below is a concise summary of the typesand structure of rewards.
281
Intrinsic
• More responsible
</> • Opportunities lor personal growth
s • More interesting work

<D
cc • Autonomy
• Task completion
Extrinsic
Financial Non-financial
Performance Membership Status rewards Social rewards

related related • Location of office • Praise
• Commission • Basic salary • Office furnishing • Compliments
• Performance • Retirement benefits • Assigned parking • Friendly greetings
bonuses • Car allowances • Own secretary • Dinner invitation
• Mem pay • Medical aid • Public recognition • Pat on back
• Incentive schemes • Thirteenth cheque • Commendations • Social gatherings
• Achievement • Subsidised • Convenience
awards canteen services
• Stock ownership • Vacation
• Share options • Profit sharing
• Work-life
programmes
Figure 11.1 Types and structure of rewards

Source: Adapted from Van der Westhuizen and Wessels (2011: 349);
De Cenzo, Robbins and Verhulst (2016: 240-241).
11.3 Compensation objectives

Compensation objectives are those guidelines that determine the nature of a
reward system. They also serve as standards against which the effectiveness
of the system is evaluated (Cascio & Aguinis 2013: 42). There are four basic
(classical) objectives of compensation: focusing on your employees’ efforts,
attracting quality and skilful employees, retaining top performers, and
motivating your workers also referred to with the acronym FARM: focus,
attract, retain, motivate. Many more objectives may be formulated to
ensure that the compensation system contributes to the institution’s overall
282
objectives. The following are some common objectives of an effective reward

system (Van der Westhuizen, 2017: 142-143):
• Attracts the right quality (qualified) of applicants: Hiring the right
employees for the institution is important no matter what kind of
public service the institution delivers. Hence, the HR specialist needs to
make certain that appropriate strategies are in place to help weed out
candidates who will not add value and are not a good fit.
• Retains suitable employees: Compensation systems must offer
adequate rewards (competitive) for public employees. This is to ensure
that they feel satisfied when their salary packages are compared related
jobs in other institutions.
• Maintains equity among employees: To administer compensation
successfully a public institution should apply external (comparisons
of rewards across similar jobs in the labour market) and internal
(comparisons of rewards across different jobs within the same
institution) equity to ensure that employees are rewarded fairly - being
fair in this context implies that compensation was impartially and
honestly determined in an objective manner.
• Inspires and motivates (to higher levels) employees: Non-monetary
rewards are just as motivating as monetary ones to employees. Studies
showed that the factors that most influence employee motivation
levels are: (1) role design; and (2) institutional identity. In basic terms,
employees want to know what they must do to be successful. Then they
expect of the employer to empower (among other things, earning good
compensation packages) them to do it.
• Provides evidence of compensation patterns: The provision of
evidence of compensation patterns are important to serve as evidence
to draw an efficient and adequate personnel corps.
• Presents an incentive to employees: This to remain in employment and
to offer their services for the compensation they perceive as ’satisfactory?
• Provides employees with suitable compensation and incentives
to ensure sustained performance: One of the main reasons for this
approach is to increase productivity and promote dedication.
• Enables public employers to provide comparable compensation
for comparable work: Comparative compensation also enables
public employers to differentiate between various hierarchic levels of
management.
283
• Maintains cost-effectiveness: Compensation often represents the

single largest operating cost of a public institution’s budget. Therefore,
the compensation system should be designed in such a way that it
reflects cost-effectiveness benefits. A logical, meticulous and methodical
pay structure is therefore needed to prevent unnecessary expenses and
possible over- or underpayment of employees.
• Complies with legal requirements: There is always the possibility that
compensation systems could possibly face legal constraints. For this
reason, it must comply with legislative regulations, policies, directives,
management guides and collectively bargained agreements.
11.4 Compensation policy

The compensation policy describes the details of the compensation
components in the institution. These policies are formalised documents and
serve as guidelines for compensation-related decision making by manage
ment. Against this background. Public managers need to take note that
compensation policies must be comprehensive if it is to obtain its fair share
of the available talent in the market. Such a compensation policy should
also be transparent, easy for interpretation and provide clear parameters
for compiling a compensation plan. The Department of Public Service
and Administration (DPSA) is the government department responsible for
compensation in the public service, more particularly overall policymaking.
It gets its legislative mandate from Section 195(1) of the Constitution of the
Republic ofSouth Africa, 1996. The Constitution spells out basic values and
principles that the public service should adhere to. These values include,
among others, the efficient, economic and effective use of resources and
good HRM and career-development practices. In terms of Section 41 of the
Public Service Act 103 of 1994 (subject to the Labour Relations Act 55 of 1998
(LRA) and any collective agreement), the Minister for the Public Service and
Administration is responsible for, among others, the conditions of public
service employees, including determinations regarding salary scales and
allowances for particular categories of employees.
The compensation policy also needs to make provision for certain policy
areas - these are the following:
• Salary level: This area involves external competitiveness. A typical
question to ask here is - should the level of pay be above, below or at the
level of the dominant market rate?
284
• Equity: An employer can ask the following question regarding equity

to what degree (intensity level) is the institution going to strive for
internal equity?
• Performance-related rewards: Type of question to ask in terms of
performance-related rewards - how should achievements be rewarded
and what part should incentive and bonus schemes play in this regard?
• Market rate policy: Different questions can be asked here. One
question that is usually asked is to what level should market rate
pressures (for example, scarce skills) be allowed to have an effect on or
possibly interfere with the salary structure?
• Salary structure: Salary structures form a key part of the compensation
policy and the information that will be used must be correct. Two types
of questions - is a formal prescribed structure required and what type
of structure is necessary to ensure consistency and equity? Important
note - public service salary structures should be formal - DPSA.
• Control: Control overcompensation policy is a controversial aspect in
the public service. Important question what should be the amount of
flexibility given to senior public managers to influence the salaries of staff?
Again control of compensation policy is mainly assigned to the DPSA.
• Total package: Perhaps the most important policy area in the
compensation policy. What is a respectable reward mix of basic salary,
employee benefits and incentives?
• Communication: The communication of the compensation policy
(and the different areas) is a strategic activity. The question is how much
information about the compensation system should be made available
and what degree of salary secrecy should be applied? An important
principle here is that almost all public sector information regarding
compensation should be made freely available.
The correct interpretation and application of compensation-related policy

documents and agreements are central to efficient HRM practices. This is
illustrated in ‘Spotlight on the Law 11.1’ below.
285
Incorrect referral
After an extended dispute over Ms Farre’s job re-classification from

‘administrative’ to ‘scientific,’ for which she received a salary hike, she
was informed that the conversion was incorrect. Ms Farre’s employer,
the Department of Defence, confirmed that it intended to recover an
‘overpayment* of R180 000. Farre commenced with an urgent application
to stop the deductions. The deductions had the result that she was left
with almost no take-home salary. The Labour Court approved of an interim
order reinstating her ‘administrative’ salary. However, this was subject
to the outcome of an application reviewing the decision to reclassify her
position. Farre’s employer was ofthe viewthat the court lacked jurisdiction
regarding this matter. In Farre v Minister of Defence and Others (2017) 38
ILJ 174 (LC), the court confirmed the recognised principle that the
jurisdiction is established by the pleadings. The case pleaded and defended
by Farre involved the interpretation and application of the Occupation
Specific Dispensation (OSD) collective agreement. Based on Farre’s
pleadings, the jurisdiction the court would have enjoyed under Section
158( 1 )(h) of the LRA was ousted by the fact that the real dispute between
the two parties related to the interpretation and application ofthe OSD.
The application was dismissed. The court ordered that in the interests
of justice the interim order (requiring Farre to be paid her administrative
salary) is binding until the finalisation of arbitration proceedings by the
bargaining council.
Source: Grogan, Maserumule & Govindjee (2017: 2)
11.5 External and internal factors influencing the

design of compensation systems
Compensation is a complex HR activity and one of the main reasons for
potential dispute between public employers and their employees. Employees
offer their abilities, time, skills, knowledge, creativity, innovative ideas and
energy to the institution. In consideration of this devotion and commitment,
employers provide compensation to employees. Moreover, various interacting
factors affect the design of the compensation system. Some of these are
external influences, while others are a function of the internal circumstances
of the institution.
286
11.5.1 External factors

Some of the external factors affecting employee compensation are the following:
• Government legislation and regulations: The following are, among
others, some of the government legislation and regulations:
1. The Constitution.
2. The Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995.
3. The Basic Conditions of Employment Act 75 of 1997 (BCEA).
4. The Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998 (EEA).
5. Skills Development Act 97 of 1998.
6. Skills Development Levies Act 9 of 1999.
7. National Minimum Wage Act 9 of 2018
8. Public Service Act 103 of 1994.
9. Public Service Regulations of 2016.
• Economy: Mixing economic conditions such as high levels of inflation,
recessionary periods, consumer price index, increase (differences) in
the cost of living in different parts of the country, the general level of
employment, and competitiveness in the local or international product
market (globalisation - salary booms in sectors such as technology,
biotechnology, electronics and so on) can deeply affect the general level
of compensation. Employers showing outstanding productivity records
and revealing higher operational efficiency can be better paymasters.
• Labour market: The influences of demand and supply play a key
role in compensation decisions. Employees with extraordinary, scarce
and unique skill sets and know-how (capabilities) obtained through
different learning interactions and practical experiences require higher
salary packages than the ones with conventional skills available in
large quantities in the job market. However, an increased supply of HR
for certain jobs may not automatically lead to a reduction of salaries
beyond a floor level due to government’s instructions/directives of
minimum compensation levels.
• Unions: The collective bargaining strength of the trade unions can
also have a substantial influence on compensation levels. Therefore,
compensation systems should be negotiated and revised in consultation
with the unions, safeguarding sound employer/employee relations in
the public sector workplace.
287
11.5.2 Internal factors

There are also internal factors influencing employee compensation - these are:
Ability to pay: Obviously, an institution’s ability to pay has a large effect
on its general level of compensation. Compensation is one of the largest
components of public spending. Usually, government workers receive
higher salaries compared to other employees who do not work for the
state. There are currently approximately 1.2 million workers employed in
the public service, including jobs such as doctors, nurses, teachers, and
police. Interestingly, the number of senior managers working at national
and provincial level are roughly 28 000.
Employee needs: Employees differ on what their preferences are in
terms of what they receive as compensation. After all, it makes sense
that younger workers may have a higher cash need than older employees.
Highly compensated senior managers’ needs will also differ from those of
operational workers at the lower levels of employment. This implies that
there is a need to build choices into the compensation system. Salaries
tend to be higher for jobs involving the exercise of more brainpower,
responsibility laden jobs, and creativity-oriented jobs. The important
performance ‘rule’ here is that the employee’s salary should always be
directly related to their level of productivity.
Strategy, culture and values: The method of compensation followed by
an institution depends to a large extent on the strategy. A typical public
service strategy or culture is one that government is an opportunity for
service rather than private gam. It is expected of public service employees
to go into public service because of a need they want fulfilled. However,
even if this is a strong idea, practices are still mainly grounded in providing
monetary rewards rather than purposive or social rewards. Compensation
systems should further be supportive of the institution’s strategic objectives.
In addition, institutional values such as decision-making style, openness
regarding communication, and social responsibility may have a bearing
on compensation policies. For example, institutions that are sensitive to
the needs of female employees may adopt policies of fully paid extended
maternity leave (Van der Westhuizen & Wessels, 2011: 353-355; Urbancova
& Snydrova, 2017: 364-367; Van der Westhuizen, 2017: 145-147).
288
DID YOU KNOW?

The compensation ofSouth African public servants is explained extensively
in a booklet on ‘salaries and benefits in the public service/ released by the
DPSA. The purpose of this booklet is to explain the salaries and benefits
that government is offering to public servants - for example, pension bene
fits, medical benefits, housing benefits and service bonuses. The booklet is
available online at the DPSA website.
| http://www.dpsa.gov.za/dpsa2g/documents/rp/2009/salaries.pdf ]. All
other documents relevant to the compensation of South African public
servants are available online at http://www.dpsa.gov.za/dpsa2g/r_
documents.asp.
11.6 Elements of a compensation system

Having planned and established the overall objectives and determined the
guiding policies of the compensation system, compensation specialists can
now set out to put the plans into practice and construct the system. The
key point of departure in creating a compensation system is to make sure
that there is equal pay for equal work. But. many other elements need to be
considered as well.
11.6.1 Applying particular criteria for determining

compensation levels
Different criteria should be considered when determining compensation
levels.
11.6.1.1 Compensation levels should promote efficiency

k cannot simply be assumed that increased productivity will guarantee
higher compensation. The payment of higher salaries may imply that the
required number of public employees are recruited but it definitely does not
ensure efficiency. It is well known that people do not necessarily enter the
public service merely for the sake of good compensation. Many other factors
also play a role such as family background, professional pride, and security.
The mere fact that an adequate number of people are recruited and employed
does not imply that compensation is acceptable. The theory of ‘efficiency
compensation’ is the idea that it might be beneficial for employers to pay
public employees more than the equilibrium salary (salary level dictated by
289
rhe supply and demand factor) in some cases. Efficiency compensation is only
possible if certain requirements are met - these requirements include, among
others a culture that supports pay for performance: fair and reasonable
supervision; a professional performance evaluation system; adequate funding
is available; outstanding performers receive the highest rewards; and average
performers receive smaller salary increases (Van der Westhuizen, 2017: 147).
11.6.1.2 Fair and reasonable correspondence between

compensation of employees in the public and private
sector
The current economic decline and resulting fiscal difficulties faced by national,
provincial and local governments have refreshed interest in the compensation
of the public workforce. Excessive levels of compensation usually result in
a waste of resources, denying governments of the prospects to address
other valuable public service delivery objectives or to decrease obligations
to taxpayers. Taxpayers are not in favour of government spending excessive
amounts on the compensation of public servants. At the same time, public
servants do not like to feel that they are treated unfairly. Levels of comparison
on compensation therefore help to determine both the competency and
efficiency levels of public employees and governmental services. Clearly,
insufficient compensation levels will make it difficult to attract workers with
acceptable knowledge and skills required to provide the services wanted by
the citizenry. Comparability with the private sector is the most common and
conventional standard by which economists and compensation specialists
assess whether the processes for determining compensation in the public
sector are working. In a study done by academics for the United States Bureau
of Labor Statistics, it was reported that:
1. Public and private workforces differ in many ways. For instance, jobs in
the public sector require much more education on average than those in
the private sector. Employees in government sectors are twice as likely as
their private-sector colleagues to have a college or advanced degree.
2. Salaries of public employees are lower than those for private-sector
employees with comparable earning elements (for example, education
level).
3. Benefits (for example, pensions and medical benefits) cover a larger share
of compensation in the public sector (Bender & Heywood, 2010: 3).
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Chapter 11: Compensation in :he public sector
11.6.1.3 Compensation correlations should he realistic

Arguably, the determination of compensation correlations is one of the most
prominent responsibilities of the compensation specialist. When this is done
it is important that the horizontal and vertical relations between grades or
sectors, and the relevant qualifications, should be taken into account. But
what are horizontal and vertical correlations in terms of compensation
management? From a practical perspective, this question is crucial because
public employees are central to service delivery success. On the one hand,
horizontal comparisons should be made only between occupational
classes that are grouped together in a job family on the grounds of certain
correspondences between them. On the other hand, vertical correlations relate
to grades within occupational classes. Horizontal correlations further refer
to comparable ranks at the same level of different hierarchies, for example,
when architects are compared to engineers.
Another question that arises when dealing with compensation in the public
sector is whether managers should be paid more than their subordinates. The
logical answer, of course, is in favour of this question. However, it is important
to keep in mind that just because someone is a manager does not make them
superior or mere effective than the people that report to them. It is just a
separate position, with different required knowledge, skills and abilities.
These skills could be more or less valuable than the skills of the people
reporting to rhe manager. There are many professions where it is common for
subordinates to be paid more than managers. A salary is technically based
on the amount of value established by the skills of an employee, not by their
position in the organisational structure. The danger of vertical compensation
correlations is that compensation increases often cause discontent, especially
when subordinates and managers do not receive the same increases in terms
of percentages (Van der Westhuizen 2017: 148).
11.6.1.4 Cooperation of interest groups

It is increasingly accepted that interest groups such as personnel associations
do play a major role in determining the compensation levels of public
employees. In a study conducted by Bryson and Forth (2017: 5 8) it was
found that workplaces with active interest groups are more likely to have
the following outcomes for employees, namely that union members earn
approximately 5% more than equivalent non-members; enjoy longer paid
holiday entitlements, extra-statutory sick pay, employer-provided pensions,
special paid leave for emergencies and subsidised childcare. They further
receive five percentage points higher for off-the-job training as a non-union
291
member and have the benefit of better equity treatment in relation to non
union members. However, one should remember that the compensation of
public servants is exposed to the decisions of the executive or legislative
authorities. Although public servants and their associations will never have
a decisive voice in the matter of compensation, they could provide inputs to
the relevant authorities on changes or adjustments to compensation levels
by means of suggestions based on factual data. South Africa’s public service
makes provision for annual inputs from personnel associations concerning
the advancements and improvements in the service dispensation (Van der
Westhuizen 2017: 148 149).
11.6.1.5 Compensation should be governed by a central human

resource office
The task of a central human resource office (such as the DPSA - see
section 1.6) is made less problematic if it is empowered with the authority to
play a key role in the determination of compensation levels in the public service.
In other words, the absence of a central human resource office could result
in fragmentation, insufficient coordination and a lack of common values in
general HRM (more specifically, compensation management). Centralisation
could ensure the revision of compensation practices periodically. It could
further make certain that suitable compensation dispensations are designed.
It can also pay the required attention to all relevant factors, such as work
conditions and comparable compensation activities elsewhere. In addition,
a central human resource office in control of compensation simplifies
the task of the legislative authority by affording the latter insight into the
purposes for which funds are requested. The Minister of Public Service and
Administration has to appear frequently before the Parliament Portfolio
Committee on Public Service and Administration to report and provide
answers to representatives of the different political parties on HR matters
(for example, compensation) in the public service. Since the legislative body
is responsible for advancing and promoting the economy, it is in a position
to decide whether compensation changes are necessary at a given moment or
whether different measures should be taken (Van der Westhuizen 2017: 149).
11.6.1.6 Constructing the compensation system

Having planned and determined the overall objectives of compensation and
the guiding policies, compensation specialists can now construct the system.
This is done through obtaining information on salary structures, developing
of a salary structure, locating details on incentive schemes and determining
which employee benefits are available.
292
Obtaining information on salary structures

Salary structures are an important element of compensation systems and
help to ensure that salary levels for groups of jobs are competitive externally
and equitable internally. A well-developed salary structure allows public
managers to reward performance and at the same time to exercise control
over base salary costs.
The two most conventional salary structures institutions use are traditional
salary structures and broadband salary structures. On the one hand, traditional
salary structures are formed with numerous layers and range structures (or
salary grades) with a relatively small space between each range. A salary range is
the span between the minimum and maximum base salary an institution will
pay for a specific job or group of jobs. Salary structures are usually articulated
as pay grades or job grades that reflect the value of a job in the external market
and/or the internal value to an institution. On the other hand, broadband
salary structures are more flexible and secure pay grades into fewer structures
with wider salary ranges (Van der Westhuizen & Wessels, 2011: 361). Broadband
salary structures amalgamate the many salary grades found in a traditional
salary structure into a few wider salary bands. In broadband salary structures,
the salary ranges are wider than in grade-range compensation structures.
Broadband salary structures tend to put more emphasis on career development
rather than job promotion (Van der Westhuizen 2017: 150).
Developing of a salary structure

A salary structure represents the process where information obtained from
the job evaluation exercise (the relative monetary value of each job) is merged
with the information acquired from salary surveys (market values of jobs).
In practice, this implies that compensation specialists use the information
(outcomes) collected by job evaluations to establish salary rates for the
different grades. The compensation instrument to position the monetary
worth of jobs is referred to as the ‘salary survey.' In essence, a salary survey
is a collection of hourly wage figures and annual salary numbers for a
given industry. Salary surveys help discover wage trends or variabilities and
flexibilities in compensation. /\ salary survey makes accessible information
on how other employers compensate for comparable jobs in the labour
market. In other words, salary surveys make it possible for an institution to
maintain external equity. A public institution can obtain salary survey data
by proceeding with its own surveys. Then again, the institution can also go
along with various external surveys that are conducted by large consultancies
(Van der Westhuizen & Wessels, 2011: 358).
293
The flexible portion of the compensation/salary structure of the South

African Senior Management Service may be structured into the following
items - examples of the bands are listed below.
Structure of the compensation system of the South African

Public Service
• A car allowance to a maximum amount of 25% of the total package
per annum.
• A thirteenth cheque equal to one-twelfth of the basic salary.
• Contribution to a medical aid scheme.
• A housing allowance.
• An entertainment allowance.
• A newspaper and periodical allowance.
• A computer allowance.
• A non-pensionable cash allowance.
In terms of Section 27 of the EEA. every designated employer must include in its
annual affirmative action report a statement on the compensation and benefits
received in each occupational category and level of that employer’s workforce.
Where disproportionate income differentials are reflected, a designated
employer must take measures to progressively reduce such differentials.
Locating details on incentive schemes

Incentive compensation refers to the part of an employees salary that is
related to superior performance, and not a guaranteed payment. Incentive
compensation is additional money or ocher rewards of value that are
supplementary to base salary. It is in addition to the basic salary and is aimed
at the accomplishment of quantified results, outputs or productivity targets.
Conventional reasons for establishing incentive compensation plans are,
among others, to:
1. increase the institution’s competitiveness in the labour market in
drawing and holding on to talent;
2. encourage individual, team or institutional performance by making
incentive rewards related to agreed targets or work;
3. inspire employee identification with the institution’s objectives and
values.
294
The subjective nature of performance assessment usually sets up the risk of

salary differences that cannot be validated all the nine. This can create many
problems for compensation specialists. Two such problems are the lack of
objective, quantitative performance measures for many jobs and poorly perceived
links between performance and pay. Although there is no distinct formula for
deciding on the most fitting strategy and operational procedure for a successful
incentive scheme, there are a few commonly established leading guidelines that
are relevant to all schemes - these are. amongst others, the following:
1. Establish a pay-for-performance work culture.
2. Lay down high but attainable standards of performance.
Incentive schemes are generally classified as individual, group or institution

wide. Individual incentive approaches include piece-rate plans (link individual
pay directly to the number of units produced), standard-hour plans (similar
to piece-rate plans except - productivity standard is not measured in terms of
output units but in time units) and individual bonuses plans (once-off rewards
for high performance). Group or institution incentive schemes provide incentive
pay to all group members, based on the performance of the entire group (for
example, suggestion systems) (Van der Wesrhuizen, 2016: 210-218).
Determining which employee benefits are available

Employee benefits are defined as indirect forms of compensation (intended
to attract, retain and motivate employees) that employers pay to public
employees over and above regular salaries and forms an important part of
the overall compensation package. Benefits form a considerable portion of
the total compensation package and are regarded as one of the strongest
motivators in the public sector workplace. Typical examples are pension
schemes, compulsory life insurance, accident insurance, a car, free housing,
various allowances, a medical aid fund and low-interest loans.
Some benefits offered by South African institutions are mandated by law.

Some of these are:
• Leave provisions stipulated by the BCEA for example, annual leave
(21 consecutive days).
• Paid public holidays as stipulated by the Public Holidays Act 36 of 1994.
• Unemployment insurance benefits as stipulated by the Unemployment
1 nsurance Act 30 of 1996.
• Compensation for injuries or diseases contracted while working, as
stipulated by the Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases
Act 130 of 1993.
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11.7 Conclusion
Sound compensation systems are of critical importance to public institutions
because the way they are designed and managed can have a meaningful
influence on employees’ behaviour and on their commitment to achieving
institutional objectives. Compensation systems can be designed in many ways
and the challenge for the institution lies in the development of a system that
is best suited to its own particular objectives. In this chapter, we have focused
on the concept and objectives of compensation.
The formulation of compensation policies and the external and internal

factors influencing the design of compensation systems have also been
explored in some detail. It was also indicated that a compensation policy
needs to make provision for certain policy areas. Finally, we have considered
the elements of a compensation system.

1. 'Compensation has always stood at the heart of any employment
relationship.’ Discuss this statement critically.
2. Explain the concept and objectives of compensation systems.
3. Write brief notes on the determination of a compensation policy.
4. Describe the basic elements of a compensation system.
5. Explain what 'salary structuring’ entails.
6. Elaborate on the construction of a compensation system.
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Chapter
4Q Establishing and maintaining
I wellness
Luni Vermeulen
Purpose
This chapter focuses on the establishment and maintenance of optimal
states of employee wellness that are beneficial to both the employee and
the institution.
Learning outcomes
• Analyse the theories that underlie health promotion and disease
prevention.
• Explain the right to occupational health and safety.
• Discuss what is meant by employee wellness and employee wellness
programmes.
• Give an overview ofthe statutory and regulatory framework
governing occupational health, safety and wellness in South Africa.
• Assess the role of psychosocial hazards in employee wellness.
12.1 Introduction
Management's efforts should be directed at eliciting from employees the
behaviour and performance that will best achieve the institution’s mission
and objectives. Apart from attracting and appointing skilled, capable and
competent employees, deploying strategies and practices that unlock their
potential, and making provision for remuneration and benefits, management
needs to promote and maintain the wellbeing of the institution’s employees.
All things being equal, an employee who is well and healthy will usually
perform better than one who is not.
Employee wellness emails a holistic approach to the physical, psychological

and social needs of employees. This chapter explores typical theories
explaining health promotion and disease prevention; various statutory
and regulatory requirements that provide for (he management of employee
wellness in the public service; the need for and structuring of employee
wellness programmes; and certain practical matters to be considered in the
management of employee wellness, especially the risks posed by psychosocial
hazards in the workplace.
12.2 Theoretical perspectives on health behaviour

Theories and models are used in the planning of health promotion and disease
prevention programmes to understand, clarify and/or predict health behaviour
and to guide the identification, development, and implementation of health
interventions. An array of elements is deliberated before deciding on the use of
a theory or model. These include considering the particular health challenge
being attended to, the community being served, and the contexts within which
the programme will be implemented (Rural Health Information Hub, 2020).
Two of the most used theories/models are discussed below, namely the Health
Belief Model (HBM) and Social Cognitive Theory (SCT).
12.2.1 Health Belief Model

The Health Belief Model is a universally used theoretical model to manage
health promotion and disease prevention programmes. It is specifically
utilised to clarify and forecast individual variations in health behaviours
(Rural Health Information Hub. 2020). The HBM posits that a person’s belief
in the personal danger of an illness or disease, combined with a person’s belief
in the usefulness of the proposed health measures and behaviour, will predict
the probability of the person adopting the behaviour. People’s chosen course of
action is often rooted in their beliefs about the advantages and disadvantages
related to health behaviour (Boston University. 2019).
The HBM comprises six factors, concentrating on individual beliefs about

health conditions that forecast individual health-related behaviours. The six
factors, predicting health behaviour include (Jones, Jensen. Scherr, Brown,
Christy & Weaver, 2015: 566-567; Boston University, 2019):
1. Perceived threat to illness or disease (perceived susceptibility) refers
to a subjective perception concerning the risk of contracting an illness
or disease.
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Chapter 12: Establishing and maintaining wellness
2. Belief of consequence (perceived risk severity) - refers co notions

concerning the seriousness of catching an illness or d isease (or leaving
the illness or disease untreated).
3. Possible positive advantages of action (perceived benefits) - refers co a
belief of the usefulness and value of behaviour changes co reduce the
threat of illness or disease (or to cure illness or disease).
4. Perceived barriers co action refer to beliefs on the obstacles to perform
a recommended health action.
5. Exposure to aspects chat prompt action (cues to action) - the
impetus needed to activate the decision-making process to accept a
recommended health action.
6. Belief in the ability to succeed (self-efficacy) refers to the level of
confidence in the ability to effectively execute a behaviour.
The HBM can be used to design both short- and long-term interventions.
12.2.2 Health promotion by Social Cognitive Theory

Models grounded in SCT afford a foundation co inform the development of
behavioural interventions, designed co predict and promote health behaviour
(Sniehotta,Presseau& Araujo-Soares, 2015). SCT explains the effect ofindividual
experiences, the activities and efforts of others, as well as contextual influences
on individual health behaviours (Rural Health Information Hub, 2020). Health
promoting endeavours greatly lean on individual cognitions (e.g. attitudes) as
well as social cognitive factors in the workplace (e.g. leadership and support)
(Roctger, Maier, Krex-Brinkmann, Kowalski, Krick. Felfe & Stein, 2017: 104).
Aspects, central to SCT. and associated with individual behaviour change,

include (Rural Health Information Hub, 2020):
• Self-efficacy: The perception of an individual on his/her ability to
perform a behaviour.
• Behavioural capability: The ability to implement a behaviour.
• Expectations: Establishing the results of behaviour change.
• Expectancies: Assessing the merit of behavioural change results.
• Self-control: Evaluating and directing individual behaviour.
• Observational learning: Inspecting and assessing the outcomes of
others executing or demonstrating the required behaviour.
• Reinforcements: Providing rewards and encouragements that promote
behaviour change.
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SCT may be especially suitable for use in rural communities for assessing the
interaction between people and their environment.
Health promotion and disease prevention - Covid-19
Much of the required measures to prevent people from getting infected

with Covid-19 involve health behaviour change such as regular hand
washing, wearing face masks and keeping a social distance. Health
behaviour change is one ofthe core components ofthe theories and models
of health promotion and disease prevention. Thus, authorities aimed to
increase protective behaviour among citizens to suppress the spread of the
Coronavirus. This commenced with cautioning and advising the public
about the virus, followed by instituting legal constraints. Globally, some
of these restrictions involved complete national or sectoral lockdowns.
These actions were, however, not always effective and citizens’ reaction
to warnings were often unsatisfactory and unsuccessful, therefore failing
to make use of opportunities to successfully contain the spread of the
disease. Even with the escalation of the situation to a global pandemic, a
substantial number of people did not effectively follow directions.
Behaviour relating to health promotion and disease prevention is guided
by theories and models such as the HBM. Research in this respect revealed
that people will only adhere to health measures if they believe that they
are vulnerable to contract the disease, belief the illness or disease is acute;
belief the protective action is effective in lowering the risk, and believe
they can execute the protective action. It is evident that in the case of
I Covid-19 these beliefs were not always satisfied. People may not consider
themselves at risk (e.g. if they have not been in contact with others who
have been contaminated), may underestimate the severity of the virus (e.g.
when they are told that most deaths are among the elderly or people with
pre-existing illnesses) or may not see themselves as able to perform the
protective behaviours.
Changing people’s health-related behaviours continues to be imperative
to curb the outbreak. In this regard, Van den Broucke (2020) advised that
to contain Covid-19 in society, the following recommendations should be
made to changing health behaviour:
300
• encourage people to adopt preventative behaviour by providing

them with a strong motivation, preferably using a cognitive model;
• generate social standards and customs that promote protective
behaviour, through campaigns that focus on people’s self-identity;
• generate the correct level and type of reaction by combining health
warnings with solid information for preventative action;
• make recommendations on how hazardous behaviours can be
exchanged for more effective ones, rather than just asking to stop
them; and
• make the behaviour stress-free and simple, for instance by including
it in already existing practices or by means of nudges.
Source: Van den Broucke (2020)
12.3 Occupational health and safety

Under the Bill of Rights in the Constitution, every citizen has the right to
health, including the right to occupational health. International frameworks
and institutions such as the International Labour Organization (1LO), the
United Nations (UN) and the World Health Organization (WHO) support
the right to health.
The UN’s Human Rights Council (HRC) calls on governments to ‘formulate,

implement, monitor and evaluate national occupational health laws and
policies’ (United Nations. 2012). The HRC specifies that the right to health
in the workplace encompasses not only injuries but diseases in the workplace,
environmental and occupational hygiene, toxic substances, psychosocial
hazards and the provision of occupational health services (United Nations,
2012). This is supported by article 3(e) of the ILO’s Occupational Safety and
Health Convention. No. 155 of 1981. which describes the right of employees
to a safe and healthy working environment, as well as to protection against
sicknesses, disease and injuries resulting from their occupation. In addition,
the ILO’s centenary declaration for the future of work emphasised the need
for a safe and healthy work environment as integral to the ‘decent work'
agenda (International Labour Organization, 2019b).
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The WHO (2010: 6) defines a healthy workplace as:

A work environment where managers and employees cooperate to
continuously enhance, promote and safeguard the health, safety and
wellbeing of all employees and the endurability of the workplace by
attention the following:
• health and safety in the physical work environment;
• health, safety and wellbeing in the psychosocial work environment;
• personal health resources (health services, information, opportunities,
and flexibility) in the workplace; and
• ways of participating in society to improve employee health, as well as
the health of their families and other members of the community.
DID YOU KNOW?

The ILO released the following disheartening occupational health and
safety estimates:
• annually, 2.8 million people die globally from work-related causes,
of which 2.4 million are disease-related; and
• daily, 1 000 employees die due to work accidents and another 6 500
from work-related diseases.
Source: International Labour Organization (2019a: 1; 3)
12.4 Employee wellness and employee wellness

programmes
Employee wellness is a somewhat broader concept than that of occupational
health and safety. It entails a holistic approach to the wellbeing, happiness,
safety, health and comfort of all employees in an institution. A holistic approach
requires that care be taken of che ‘whole person and recognises that multiple
factors in a person’s life contribute to their health and wellness. Whereas
employee wellness traditionally focused on physical factors such as exercise,
diet, nutrition and smoking, it now considers aspects such as work-life balance
(work, family, friends), stress management, mental health, physical wellbeing
and sometimes even spiritual health (Ohrt. Clarke & Conley, 2018: 8).
The WHO also promotes and employee wellness approach that focuses on, not
only individual interventions but initiatives that support an all-inclusive holistic
approach which recognises the joint effect and interdependency of personal,
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environmental, workplace, emotional, social and societal factors on employee

wellbeing. A holistic approach to employee wellness involves a focus on the
following aspects of the employee’s life (Republic ofSouth Africa, 2019b: 10 11):
• Career wellbeing: how employees’ time is spent to pursue values, ideals
and purpose in the workplace to gain professional fulfilment.
• Social wellbeing: the ability to have good relationships and com
municate well.
• Emotional/Mental wellbeing: the ability to manage thoughts,
feelings, behaviour, stress, anxiety, etc.
• Financial wellbeing: the ability to manage ones economic life to
reduce stress and increase security.
• Physical wellbeing: good health, vitality and sufficient energy for
daily work.
• Societal wellbeing: engagement within the community, culture and
environment.
Institutions must take cognisance of the interrelation and interdependence

of employees’ career, emotional, social, physical and financial health.
Employees' wellness is related to diet, exercise routines, stress levels, mental
health, chronic illness, disease, financial situation, and personal and family
challenges. For an institution to take care of its employees' wellness, it must
follow a holistic approach. For instance, financial difficulties may influence
an employee’s emotional and physical wellness (e.g. stress) and cause his/
her health to deteriorate even if the employee eats healthily and exercises
regularly. When one component of an employee’s wellness is wanting, it
becomes challenging to feel their best and perform optimally. This calls for
institutions to reconsider a traditional approach to employee wellness in
favour of a holistic approach.
12.4.1 Approaches to employee wellness programmes

The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (2016) in the United States
describes an employee wellness programme as:
a coordinated and comprehensive set of [health promotion and protection]
strategies [implemented at the worksite] which include programs, policies,
benefits, environmental supports, and links to the surrounding community
designed to meet the health and safety needs ofall employees.
The primary aims of an employee wellness programme usually are to advance

employee health and the reduction of health costs, but there are also several
303
additional ways in which institutions can benefit from investing in employee

wellness programmes (Baicker, Culler & Song, 2015: 304):
• Employee wellness programmes can lead to a substantial decline in
health care expenses and costs related to workplace injury (Song 8c
Baicker. 2019: 1491).
• Employee wellness programmes can enhance the health and resilience
of employees and healthier employees are likely to be more productive
and less absent from work.
• Wellness programmes build trust and loyalty among employees and the
institution (Alesso-Bendisch, 2020).
• Healthy employees are likely to have higher morale, reduced stress levels
and enhanced liveliness and energy.
• Employee wellness programmes may increase an institution’s ability to
recruit and retain employees.
For an institution to reap the aforementioned benefits in terms of employee

wellness, it is necessary co establish and maintain an employee wellness
programme in such a way that it will hold long-term benefits for employees’
health and wellness. Research studies revealed the following aspects were
included in the employee wellness strategies of institutions that effectively
managed employee wellness:
• Employee wellness programmes should follow a preventative approach,
aimed at supporting safe and healthy practices and behaviours in the
work environment to attain optimal levels of physical and mental
health (ILO, 2019a: 20).
• Employee wellness programmes should be proactive. Employees should
acknowledge that they have mental, physical and social needs to function
at their best. As part of an employee wellness programme, training and
employee workshops may be provided, including fitness programmes
and recreation facilities, nutrition programmes, smoking policies and
substance abuse awareness and support (Bean-Mellinger, 2019).
• Employee wellness programmes that take an organised, planned or
integrated approach to lessen health threats to employees are more
effective than traditional programmes that function in silos (Ablah.
Wilcox & Honn, 2019: 319 320). An all-inclusive approach attempts
to put interventions in place which address several risk factors and
health conditions simultaneously and acknowledges that the selected
interventions and approaches impact various levels of the institution,
including the individual employee and the institution as a whole
(Centre for Disease Control and Prevention. 2016: 1).
304
• Effective employee wellness programmes view wellness as inherent

to the organisation’s culture (De la Torre & Goetzel, 2016). Healthy
employee behaviour cannot be expected when excessive working hours
are required or unrealistic levels of output are demanded and once-off
health assessments will not contribute to a long-term focus on healthy
behaviours (Dodds, 2020). An employee wellness programme should
therefore be a logical extension ofan institution's character and objectives.
• An employee wellness programme should be guided by policies,
systems, regulations and practices, aimed at addressing the health
and safety needs of all employees. A focus on organised approaches and
risk management, with the identification, assessment and control of
risks for both significantly hazardous institutions, as well as in general
workplace practice is necessary (WHO, 2020a).
• Management at all levels in the institution must provide passionate,
consistent and persuasive leadership to establish a culture of health.
Employees who deal with employee wellness as part of their job
descriptions should also demonstrate such passion, persistence and
tenacity (Hoert, Herd & Hambrick, 2018: 1054).
• Communication: The manner in which an employee wellness
program me is com nni n icated plays a sign i ficant role i n t he com in it men t
of employees and (he outcomes of the programme. The cornerstones
of such a programme should be understanding, thoughtfulness,
innovation and diversity (WHO, 2020a).
The WHO (2020a) mentions a few additional factors that should be focused
on in respect of employee wellness programmes:
• Multiple factors: While some health advancement activities in the
workplace focus on a single disease or risk factor (e.g. prevention of
heart disease) or on the modification of health behaviours (e.g. smoking,
diet), there are multiple elements in employee health and wellness.
• Participation: Employees, management and other role players should
participate in the realisation of collectively agreed initiatives to improve
their health.
• Rewards: Competitions and incentives are valuable in engaging
employees in health and safety activities.
In the public service, employee wellness programmes are swiftly changing the
nature of support offered to employees. These programmes aim to guarantee
risk management, occupational health, safety, productivity and wellness for
not only public employees but their families and to ensure the safety of the
community in the public service environment (Republic of South Africa,
2019a: 9), discussed in section 12.5.3 below.
305
DID YOU KNOW?

It has become increasingly evident that serious diseases (e.g. AIDS, heart
disease) need workplace programmes as part of the disease control
strategy. Occupational health is therefore essential to public health.
Source: World Health Organization (2020a)
The relation between employee wellness and productivity
In a study conducted on employee wellness programmes, a definite

relation between effectively implemented employee wellness programmes
and employee productivity was found. It was established that productivity
improved, based on employees’ participation in the wellness programmes,
as well as the health and wellbeing changes, they continue to make after
the completon of the programme. The productivity of both the ill and
healthy employees, who developed their health, increased with roughly
10%, based on improved diet and exercise.
Source: Gubier, Larkin and Pierce (2018: 4967)
12.5 Statutory and regulatory framework

Government has placed broad statutory and regulatory guidelines in place
to guide public institutions in developing plans, strategies, programmes and
policies to optimally and effectively manage employee wellness. These are aligned
with the Constitution. They are also aligned with international frameworks
and requirements perraining to employee wellness, health and safety, such as
the Sustainable Development Goals, requirements and frameworks of the ILO,
and WHO’s Global Framework for Health and Safety, 2010.
Significant elements of some of the legislation, policies and frameworks are

highlighted in the sections that follow.

The Constitution is the supreme law of the country and its Bill of Rights is
the cornerstone of democracy in South Africa. The Bill of Rights enshrines
certain rights that relate to the health and/or safety of employees:
306
• Section 9: Everyone is equal before the law and has che right co
equal protection and benefit of che law’. This includes health and
safecy measures in che workplace. This right implies chat no employee
suffering from mental or physical illness may be discriminated against.
• Section 10: ‘Everyone has inherent dignity and che right co have their
dignity respected and protected.’ The dignity of an employee should be
considered in the workplace when he/she suffers any physical or mental
disease. Such an employee should not be treated differently or in a
derogatory manner.
• Section 24(4): the right of every citizen to ‘an environment that is not
harmful co their health or wellbeing’, including the work environment.
• Section 27(4): the right co ‘health care services’, including health care
in the workplace.
In Section 195(h) of Chapter 10 of the Constitution, one of che basic values

and principles required for the governing of public administration is ‘good
human resource management practices’. Public institutions should provide
human resource management practices such as employee safecy. healch and
wellness programmes to care for and support employees.
12.5.2 Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 ot 1993

The overall aim of the Occupational Healch and Safecy Act (OHSA) is
co provide for rhe healch and safecy of employees at work. The Act is also
applicable to public officials: Part VI (D) of the Public Service Regulations
of 2001 stipulates that ‘a head of department shall establish and maintain a
safe and healthy work environment for employees of the department'. Certain
employers and employees are, however, specifically excluded from the ambit
of the OHSA. These include parties covered by the Merchant Shipping Act 57
of 1951 and people employed in mines, mining areas or in any work defined
in the Mine Health and Safecy Act 29 of 1996.
Section 8 of the OHSA calls for every employer to provide and maintain a
working environment chat is safe and without risk to employees’ health as
far as it is realistically possible. The OHSA also states that steps should be
taken to remove or diminish any hazard or potential hazard to che health
and safety of employees in the workplace and that precautionary measures
should be taken to protect their health and safety. Employers are furthermore
expected to provide information, instructions, training and supervision that
is necessary to ensure employees’ health and safecy at work.
307
Section 14 of the OHSA (Republic ofSouth Africa. 1993) calls on employees,

among other things, to:
• take reasonable care for the health and safety of their fellow employees
and/or other persons who may be affected by their actions, oversights
and/or errors;
• respect any duty or condition that their employer or any other person is
obliged to fulfil by the OHSA and cooperate with the employer or person
to enable execution of or compliance with the duty or condition; and
• perform any legal command given to them, obey the health and safety
rules, and follow procedures laid down by the employer or by anyone
authorised by the employer in the interest of health or safety.
The OHSA further makes provision for the appointment of health and safety
representatives in the workplace. These representatives have certain functions
to perform. In a workplace where two or more health and safety representatives
are designated, one or more health and safety committee shall be established,
which will have certain functions to carry out. The composition and functions
of the health and safety representatives and committees in Sections 17. 18, 19
and 20 of the OHSA may be viewed at: http: www.labour.gov.za
12.5.3 Employee Health and Wellness Strategic Framework for

the Public Service
The Department of Public Service and Administration (DPSA) published the
Employee Health and Wellness Strategic Framework for the Public Service,
2019, to enable the development of approaches, instruments and interventions
by national and provincial departments for the implementation of employee
wellness in the public service.
The Employee Health and Wellness Strategic Framework for the Public Service
(Framework) follows an integrated and holistic approach to employee health
and wellness and acknowledges the importance of integrating employee
wellness, health, safety, institutional wellness, environmental sustainability
and quality management to ensure efficiency and enhanced service delivery
results. The Framew ork identifies four priority areas for strategic interventions
(Republic ofSouth Africa. 2019a: 33 48):
• HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis (TB) management: HIV' and AIDS,
one of South Africa’s main challenges, have an uneven influence on
various sectors of society, with nearly 8 million people living with HIV.
Typically, those who suffer most under the epidemic are young women,
the poor and people residing in underdeveloped areas in the country.
308
The Framework’s motivation and envisioned outcome are the alleviation

of the impact of the epidemic and the enhancement of public service
delivery to decrease the number of infections and the effect of HIV' and
AIDS on individual employees, families, communities and society.
The TB epidemic is considerably driven by HIV and the co-prevalence
of the two infections are often described as a ‘dual epidemic’. Each
disease accelerates the spread of the other and together represent a fatal
combination. The two diseases are therefore deadlier in combination
than either disease on its own. Thus, combating the one should also
include fighting the other.
TB is one oft he major causes of death in the country and is characterised
by low rates of cure, resistance against treatment and deteriorating
immune systems. The single most significant challenge with TB is to
prevent new infections, promote access to treatment for those who
medically qualify, therefore, reduce stigma and discrimination, and
properly monitor and evaluate all interventions in the workplace, as
well as strategies external to the work environment.
This pillar of the Framework aims to achieve the following objectives:
■ Address social and structural drivers of HIV', TB and STIs and
connect these efforts to the NDP.
■ Fast-track prevention to decrease new HIV'. TB and STIs infections.
■ Sustain health and wellness.
■ Base the response to HIV7, TB and STIs in human rights principles
and approaches.
• Health and productivity management: Health and productivity
management in the workplace is defined as:
the integrated management ofhealth risksfor chronic illness, occupational
injuries & diseases, mental diseases and disability to reduce employees'
total health-related costs, including direct medical expenditures,
unnecessary absence from work, and lost performance at work - also
known as ‘presenteeism tn the Public Sendee world of work (Republic of
South Africa, 2019a: 38).
Non-communicable diseases (cardiovascular diseases, diabetes,
chronic respiratory conditions, cancer, mental disorder, oral diseases,
eye disease, kidney disease and muscular-skeletal conditions, and
occupational injuries and diseases), are progressively becoming
significant contributors to the high burden of disease globally. Non-
communicable diseases are, however, mostly preventable through
309
the consideration and care of four primary risk factors: tobacco use;
physical inactivity; unhealthy diets; and the destructive use of alcohol.
The health and productivity of employees influence the other pillars of
the Framework. Therefore, the public service has integrated traditional
disease management programmes, health education and promotion
programmes, as well as productivity and delivery improvement.
The combined management of health risks is aimed at decreasing
employees’ overall health-related costs for:
■ chronic illness;
■ occupational injuries and diseases;
■ mental illness; and
■ disability.
This cost, as described in the Framework, includes direct medical
expenses, needless and preventable absence from work, loss ofexperience
due to the ill health or death ofan employee, and a decline in performance
at work. It is further stated that health and productivity management
activities are focused and confluent efforts to improve and maintain
the health of employees through prevention, intervention, awareness,
education, risk assessment and support in order to alleviate the effect
of communicable and non-communicable diseases and injuries on the
productivity and quality of life of employees.
Health and productivity management concentrates on health
promotion, disease prevention, care management, occupational health,
disability management, and organisational dynamics, and affords an
approach and process to manage healthcare in an institution.
• Safety, Health, Environment, Risk and Quality Management
(SHERQ): This pillar of the Framework provides for:
increased responsibility of political and executive leadership to ensure
that government departments conduct their affairs in an accountable,
responsible, transparent and sustainable manner as decent citizens to
promote the health and wellness of their employees and the quality of
services delivered to the public, and the sustainability of the environment
for the long term effects of adding value to economic growth (Republic of
South Africa, 2019a: 41).
The tangible and intangible facets of SHERQ should be effected and
guided by a human rights culture that bears not only on the health
environment but on the practices of quantitative measurement sciences
applied in risk and quality management. The pillar is included in the
310
Framework to ensure compliance with international instruments,

national legislation, as well as the standards of the International
Organization for Standardization and other standard generating
authorities.
• Wellness management: This is important in institutions because of
mounting awareness that productivity is directly affected by the wellness,
health and safety of employees. This pillar of the Framework represents
both individual and institutional wellness. It defines individual wellness
as the encouragement of physical, social, emotional, work-related,
spiritual and intellectual wellbeing. Individual wellness in an institution
is achieved bybuildingaclimateand culture that is favourable to wellness
and the identification of psychosocial health risks.
This pillar aims to attain the following objectives:
■ to meet the physical wellness of individual public servants through
preventative and curative measures;
■ to meet the psychosocial, social, emotional, spiritual, intellectual
and financial wellness of individual public servants;
■ to achieve organisational wellness through the establishment of an
organisational climate and culture that fosters wellness and the all-
inclusive identification of psychosocial health risks; and
■ to promote work-life balance to accommodate work, personal and
family needs.
The most ideal method of implementing the Wellness Management pillar
is through the use of the SOLVE programme. SOLVE is an interactive
educational programme that comprises a policy and action-oriented
educational package that tackles the subjects of stress, drugs, alcohol,
violence, HIV/AIDS, tobacco, nutrition, healthy sleep and exercise in
an integrated and holistic manner. It is based on the acknowledgement
of the interdependent relationships between psychosocial and other
aspects connected to health, as well as their roots in the workplace
(work organisation, working conditions, labour relations, etc.).
DID YOU KNOW?

A study conducted with public and private institutions found a notable
positive relation between employee health, employee job performance and
employee job satisfaction.
Source Wu, Chen and Chen (2017: 253)
311
12.5.4 HIV/AIDS and TB management policy for the public

service
The DPSA’s Technical Assistance Report: HIV and AIDS workplace
programme, 2009, established the success of government departments
participating in the programme that positioned their HIV programmes
within their employee wellness programmes. This integrated structure
reduced stigma and discrimination and offered a solid platform from which to
launch HIV workplace initiatives. The integrated structure also strengthened
strategic alignment, complementarities and the efficient use of resources
(Republic of South Africa. 2009).
The DPSA drafted an HIV and AIDS and TB Management Policy to guide
government departments according to principles that call for the rights,
dignity and privacy of personal information of employees who are infected
and affected by HIV/AIDS and TB to be respected and upheld. The principles
also demand that a healthy and safe work environment should be established
to avoid, as far as is possible, occupational exposure and the transmission
of HIV and TB. Furthermore, the policy requires that employees who are
infected and affected by HIV AIDS and TB should be actively involved in
policy implementation and access to affordable healthcare and social security
services should be provided (Republic of South Africa, 2009).
12.5.5 National Strategic Plan for HIV, TB and STIs,

2017-2022
The South African National AIDS Council (SANAC) has the National
Strategic Plan (NSP) to provide stakeholders in multiple sectors with strategic
guidelines for the management of HIV’ and TB, as well as sexually transmitted
infections (STIs). The NSP is also used as a framework to coordinate
and monitor implementation by various sectors, provinces, districts and
municipalities (Republic of South Africa, 2017: x; xiii).
The NSP is aligned with the broader development plans of government,

including the Medium-Term Strategic Framework and che National
Development Plan, and is propelled by a long-term vision for the nation
with regard to the HIV' and TB epidemics. Although extensive prevention
and support will still be provided throughout the nation, the NSP will aim
increased and focused endeavours at the 27 districts that represent 82% of
citizens living with HIV, as well as prioritise the 19 districts with the highest
TB infections (Republic of South Africa, 2017: xiii).
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The NSP, 2017-2022 has set eight goals for achievement:

1. Fast-track prevention to reduce new HIV and TB infections and STIs.
2. Decrease the spread of the diseases, as well as death rates by offering
HIV, TB and STI treatment, care and support to follow treatment
requirements.
3. Extend the target scope to reach all necessary and vulnerable popu
lations with tailored and well-aimed actions.
4. Focus attention to the social and structural drivers of HIV, TB and
STIs, and align these efforts to the NDP.
5. Base the interventions to HIV. TB and STIs in human rights principles
and approaches.
6. Foster leadership and shared accountability for a long-lasting response
to HIV, TB and STIs.
7. Assemble resources to assist the accomplishment of the NSP’s goals
and ensure a sustainable response.
8. Enhance strategic information to steer progress towards the realisation
of the NSP’s goals.
In support of achieving the aforementioned goals, the NSP strongly supports

a people-centred approach that is inclusive and participatory.
DID YOU KNOW?

Nineteen percent (19%) ofSouth Africa’s population lives with HIV. South
Africa has the largest antiretroviral therapy programme globally to provide
treatment and suppress viral loads. However, the enormous infect ous
disease response is up against substantial challenges. Sound progress has
been made in r ecent years, but in 2018, 46% of people living with HIV in
South Africa still had unsuppressed viral loads.
Source: UNAIDS (2019: 16)
12.6 Managing employee wellness, health and safety

- Psychosocial hazards
Within (he parameters of the statutory and regulatory framework described
in (he preceding discussion, public institutions should establish their own
programmes, strategies, policies, and action plans with a holistic and proactive
focus on employee wellness. In addition to physical occupational hazards,
313
psychosocial hazards increasingly affect employees. Psychosocial hazards

are considered ‘all the aspects of management and work organization that
may negatively affect the employee’s mental and physical health’ (Kowalczuk,
Krajewska-Kulak & Sobolewski, 2019: 1). Psychosocial hazards are usually not
caused by something physical but as a result of interactions with other people
or social conditions in the workplace, such as the organisational culture, as
well as the approaches, attitudes, values, politics and daily practices. In some
instances, such a hazard is carried into the workplace from the home or an
employee’s personal circumstances. Some sources of psychosocial hazards are
ergonomics, work-life balance, factors intrinsic to the job, work time, fatigue,
stress and bullying, as follows (1LO, 1986):
12.6.1 Ergonomics and workplace design

Ergonomics addresses the design of the work environment and the tools
and equipment employees use to do their jobs to maximise productivity by
minimising fatigue, distress, pain and injuries among employees (cf Webster,
2020a). Workplace design issues such as an incorrect height of a work surface,
an uncomfortable table or chair and poorly designed tools, all contribute to an
increased risk of musculoskeletal disorders (Easanya & Shofoluwe, 2019: 385).
Where attention is not given to ergonomics, something like sick building

syndrome (SBS) may emerge. SBS is a condition in which the occupiers of a
building experience severe health- or comfort-related effects that appear to
be connected to the time they spend in the building and where no precise
disease or cause for illness can be identified (Cherney. 2018). As preventative to
SBS, Allen etal (2017: 6-7) identified nine factors that contribute to a healthy
building: ventilation, air quality; water quality; thermal health; dust and pests;
lighting and views; noise; moisture, and safety and security. If employees’ work
environment is ergonomically satisfactory, it will enhance their general state
of health and their safety. Care should be taken from the starting point of
workplace design, including the design of buildings and infrastructure.
12.6.2 Work-life balance

All employees face the challenge of striking a proper balance between
their working and personal lives. The wellbeing of all the members of the
household depends on employees' ability to effectively combine their careers,
family life and personal time. Employers can assist in this regard by making
provision for supportive and flexible employment practices, which also benefit
the organisation with increased levels of employee wellness and motivation
(OECD, 2019).
314
A significant aspect of the work-life balance is the number of hours an

employee spends at the workplace. Lengthy working hours may harm
employees’ health, risk their safety and contribute to an escalation in stress.
Also, the more an employee works, the less time is left to spend on family, rest,
relaxation and holidays. The amount and quality of leisure time is important
for the complete wellness of an employee and can bring both physical and
mental health benefits (OECD. 2019).
Flexibility in working schedules appears to be one of the most popular and

feasible options in the work-life balance. Half (2015) indicates that flexibility
includes various possibilities, such as work schedule adaptations, flexitime,
compressed workweeks, job-sharing and telecommuting. Such arrangements
enable employees to attend to personal matters and family-related issues such
as caring for sick children or attending school activities such as an athletics
meeting or a netball or soccer match.
12.6.3 Factors intrinsic to the job

Lack of diversity or short work cycles, disintegrated, monotonous,
unimportant or mundane tasks, under-use of an employee’s abilities, a high
level of uncertainty or continuous exposure to people through work constitute
psychosocial hazards (WHO, 2010: 5). These have been connected to several
kinds of health disorders, physical disturbances and ill health. Other job
factors that can pose psychosocial risks to the wellness of an employee
include inadequate equipment to fulfil responsibilities, unclear expectations
and management issues.
12.6.4 Work overload

This is characterised as beingeither qu antitative (when an employee has too much
to do) or qualitative (when the work is too difficult for the employee). They yield
different signs of psychological and physical stress, such as job dissatisfaction,
job tension, lowered self-esteem, feelings of anger and embarrassment, high
cholesterol levels, increased heart rate and increased smoking.
12.6.5 Work time

Working hours have a large influence on the health of employees. The length of
time employees spend at work affects their sleep patterns, social participation
and their general lifestyle and, necessarily, their health. In the long-term,
rigid and inflexible working schedules, long and unpredictable hours and
poorly planned shift systems all affect health. Shift work is known to affect
315
biological rhythms, such as daily deviations of body temperature, circadian

rhythm, metabolic rate, blood sugar levels, psychological competence and
motivation. The results in daily life can be seen in sleeping patterns, eating
habits, family life and social activities. Research has revealed that shift
workers more often experience fatigue and gastro-intestinal troubles than
day workers (1LO, 2019a: 49).
12.6.6 Fatigue
Fatigue is the feeling of being extremely tired, drained or drowsy as a
consequence of inadequate sleep, continued mental or physical work,
or prolonged periods of stress or anxiety (Webster, 2020b). Mundane or
monotonous tasks can increase feelings of fatigue. Fatigue can be either
acute or chronic. Acute fatigue is a consequence of short-term sleep loss, a
sleeping disorder (such as insomnia) or short spells of intense physical or
mental work. The effects of acute fatigue do not last for a long period of time
and can normally be undone by sleep and leisure time. However, if sleep loss
or overburden continues, fatigue can become chronic. To recuperate from
chronic fatigue requires prolonged rest.
12.6.7 Stress
The WHO (2020b) defines work-related stress as the physical and emotional
responses that occur when employees are presented with work demands and
pressures that are not matched to their knowledge and skills and which they
find challenging to manage. Stress often escalates when employees feel they
have inadequate support from their managers and colleagues or lack control
over work procedures. When stress is prolonged to an extent or intensity that
is difficult to deal with, both mental and physical changes may occur.
Longitudinal studies and methodical reviews have revealed that stress in

the workplace is related to heart disease, depression and musculoskeletal
disorders (WHO, 2010). Public institutions must consider the effects of
workplace causes of stress on the health of employees and seek opportunities
to improve the work environment. The employer should pay attention to the
typical factors leading to workplace stress: workload: poor work organisation;
poor work design: unsatisfactory working conditions; lack of institutional
support and recognition: physical work environment; work hours; as well as
participation in and control over procedures. Work-related stress can also be
caused by other psychosocial factors such as bullying, fatigue and a lack of
work-life balance (WHO, 2020b).
316
12.6.8 Bullying
Workplace bullying is a pattern of behaviour over a period of time that is
destructive, intimidating, offensive, humiliating and distressing, and that
may negatively affect an employee’s work performance and/or result in an
unpleasant work environment. While bullying is a form of violence, it can be
both obvious and/or subtle, in forms such as exposure to verbal aggression,
personal or professional attacks, obstruction of someone’s work, physical
intimidation, verbal or physical acts of belittlement and abuse, the spreading
of hateful rumours, gossip or insinuations that are not true, excluding
or isolating someone socially. Bullying can be verbal, physical, social or
psychological mistreatment by the manager, another employee or group of
employees at work (Einarsen, Hoel, Zapf & Cooper. 2020).
The victims of workplace bullying may suffer from physical health problems
that can last for many years. These may be presented in sleep disorders and
musculoskeletal problems. A number of serious mental health problems,
such as major depression, symptoms related to post-traumatic stress disorder
and even suicide, have also been associated with bullying. Additional
consequences of bullying on the psychological wellness of employees include
anxiety, decreased self-esteem, decreased self-efficacy and lowered confidence
in their work abilities (Bernstein & Trimm. 2016).
It is evident that psychosocial hazards are detrimental to the physical and

mental health of employees. It is therefore imperative that employers establish
policies and mechanisms to combat psychosocial hazards in the workplace as
part of the overall employee wellness strategy of the institution.
317
Employee health and wellness in the Fourth Industrial Revolution
The era of disruptive technologies, widely known as the Fourth Industrial

Revolution, is typified by robotics, artificial intelligence, blockchain,
nanotechnology, the Internet of Things (loT), 3D printing, smart
devices, Big Data, quantum computing and biotechnology, automation,
autonomous vehicles, drones, cloud computing, and so forth. On the
one hand, digitalisation causes a surge in workplace wellness challenges,
in particular in regard to ergonomics and psychosocial hazards. On the
other hand, however, it also provides novel opportunities to moderate
certain wellness risks or improve the management thereof.
The change to a virtual world of work has been fundamental, resulting
in a greater demand for flexibility in work organisation, work schedules
and telework. For instance, telework can lessen travel time and related
stress, the risk of workplace accidents, as well as allowing for an increased
work-life balance. Conversely, it can also introduce particular wellness
challenges. For instance, psychosocial risks associated with solitary func
tioning and the potential loss of boundaries between work and personal
life, as well as the ergonomics of workspaces, should be managed.
It is, however, highly likely that employees will progressively work remotely
and outside the borders of conventional workplaces. Although this may
remove employees from unsafe workplaces, it may also present new
hazards. Psychosocial aspects will become increasingly important as
the nature and pace of work, as well as the way in which it is managed,
changes. Additional risks can arise from increased human reliance on
technologies (such as a computer), including those related to ergonomic
hazards (e.g., from the increased use of mobile devices and deskbound
work). Smart technology and devices can also create opportunities for
health and safety monitoring. For instance, wearable smart devices can be
used to monitor employee fatigue.
Source. International Labour Organization (2019a: 30)
12.7 Conclusion
In this chapter, we have seen the comprehensiveness and importance of
employee wellness promotion and maintenance. The chapter commenced
with an overview of typical theories explaining health promotion and disease
318
prevention. We have seen that employee health and safety encompass far more
than the absence of illness. Rather, it is imperative for employers to put measures
in place that will promote the complete wellbeing of their employees. A holistic
approach to employee wellness has been emphasised since it acknowledges all
the factors (hat affect an employee’s workplace wellness.
Attention was also given to the legislation, policies and frameworks that
provide guidelines to the wellness, health and safety management of public
servants. In addition, the importance and benefits of employee wellness
programmes have been reviewed and the effect of psychosocial hazards on
the wellness of employees have been discussed.

1. Which theories underlie health promotion and disease prevention?
2. What is the right to occupational health and safety? What is regarded
as ‘occupational health and safety’?
3. What is meant by ‘employee wellness’ and ‘employee wellness
programmes’?
4. What is the role and purpose of a holistic approach to employee
wellness?
5. What is the role and purpose of employee wellness programmes?
6. Which legislation governs occupational health, safety and wellness in
South Africa?
7. What are the managerial implications of the Employee Health and
Wellness Strategic Framework for the Public Service and the NSP?
8. What is the role of workplace ergonomics in employee wellness?
9. Why is work-life balance an important aspect of employee wellness?
10. What are the psychosocial hazards encountered in the workplace and
how can they result in health-related problems and employee wellness
challenges?
319
Part 6
Employment relations
I classify litigation and arbitration as violent because the processes are
punishing. Even for the *winner', legal forums are impenetrable, and the
bureaucracy is unresponsive to individual needs.
Feeley, 1979
The reasoning thus far in this book has been that if certain human resource
(HR) activities are executed in an efficient and effective manner it is very likely
that a public institution will accomplish its goals. This statement sounds
logical: if human resource management (HRM) is well and strategically
planned, competent people will be hired, appraisals for work performance
will be well managed, employees’ learning needs will be catered for properly
and employees remunerated in a fair and equitable manner.
All these HR activities are interrelated and interdependent. However, there

is one major obstacle a public institution will not operate effectively
unless it has constructive and mutually advantageous relations among its
employees and between labour and management. If such relations are not in
place, superior work performance cannot be expected and this will inevitably
lead to high staff turnover, poor attendance, lack of involvement and other
negative results.
Part 6 presents employment relations in the context of a public institution. We

take a closer look at the ‘management of relations’ in the public sector in light
of the history of labour relations and the handling of trade union contact. In
addition, various aspects of termination of employment are evaluated, with a
focus on employee dismissal and fairness standards for dismissal.
4IO
Chapter
"7 Understanding and managing
employment relations
Gera Ferreira
Purpose
This chapter analyses the important process of establishing sound

employment relations in the public sector workplace.
Learning outcomes
• Compare the inequalities and negative practices in the union
management relationship.
• Discuss the establishment of sound union-management relations
using processes such as collective bargaining.
• Assess best practice in the handling of disputes.
• Interpret best practice in the handling of strikes.
• Recognise critical success factors in communication with employees.
• Discuss the principles and procedures underlying grievance handling.
• Outline the procedure to make objective decisions regarding
disciplinary measures.
13.1 Introduction
Managing the relationship between employers and their employees has
become a highly specialised function in the human resource (HR) field. Any
relationship in the workplace is formed within the broader context of roles,
rights, expectations, obligations and duties, and the employment relationship
is a particularly complex one within this context. It has an economic and
impersonal basis, which may be characterised by an unequal bargaining power
between the employer as the owner of productions means and the employee
with an uncertain income and job security and negative attitudes on both
sides. Bargaining processes were instituted when governments passed laws to

regulate this relationship, characterised as it was by conflict (Bendix, 2017: 4),
and interaction between employer and employees became predominantly
collective, through actions such as representation and bargaining, which
emphasised the institutionalisation of conflict.
In this chapter, the focus shifts to those aspects that are directly related to the
man agementoflabourand employee relationsat the level ofthe public institution
and conditions such as the recognition of fundamental human rights. The
emphasis is on how public managers can deal with specific aspects of labour
and employee relations in the workplace. With regard to the establishment of
union-management relations, the emphasis is on handling initial trade union
contact in order to formalise the relationship. As far as collective bargaining is
concerned, the primary focus is on the negotiation process.
It must be accepted that, from time to time, negotiations end in expectations and
irreconcilable differences ofopinion between the employer (employer institutions)
and employees (trade unions) and that a breakdown in relations can occur. This
chapter deals with statutory rules governing relations and dispute resolution,
as well as issues involved in the handling of strikes. It concludes by examining
detailed aspects of individual employee relations, including communication,
grievance handling and the disciplining of staff. The discussion of these rules
and principles is illustrated from examples from case law.
13.2 History and development of the employment

relationship in the public sector
This discussion of the history and development of public sector labour
relations begins with developments in public service representative
management and advisory bodies between 1902 and 1947. The second part of
this discussion covers the period of intense change in legislation, management
and representation that affected public service labour relations in the decades
from 1948 to 1994. Lastly, the era of transformation in labour relations and
democratisation of the workplace, of worker rights, and collective bargaining
since 1994 is addressed.
324
Chapter 13: Understanding and managing employment relations
13.2.1 Public sector labour relations between 1902 and 1947

Although Post Office clerks in Cape Town were the first to establish a staff
association in 1902, the formal management and coordination of public sector
labour relations began with the formation of a central personnel agency, the
Public Service Commission (PSC), in 1912 (Cloete, 1997: 213). Bargaining was
done on a limited scale since there was only one staff association, namely
the PSC, which represented white (almost exclusively male), permanent public
servants. This led ultimately to the establishment of the Public Service Joint
Advisory Council in 1947 (Macun & Psoulis, in Adler, 2000: 95).
13.2.2 Public sector labour relations between 1948 and 1994

No significant developments in labour relations occurred in the public sector
from 1948 to 1980. Under apartheid, the National Party (NP) government
treated the public service as a vast pool of patronage for white party loyalists.
This resulted in a range of discriminatory practices. Black people were
denied citizenship rights, excluded from industrial relations legislation, and
repressed by security forces and employer hostility. A new public service system
was created in which black people were given independence under separate
administrations (the so-called TBVC states and self-governing territories).
This development further entrenched the organisation of labour relations
along racial lines.
In 1979, the Wiehahn Commission recommended the extension of union

recognition and collective bargaining to the public service. Unfortunately,
the NP government ignored the Wiehahn Commission’s advice and opted
for a non-adversanal model on a racial basis. Because the labour relations
situation was dictated by the government, trade unions were not allowed in
the public service. The mid-1980s saw the beginning of a new era in the public
service, referred to as the ‘transitional period'. During this period, a massive
restructuring took place chat included the streamlining of state departments
and the commercialisation of state enterprises. In labour relations terms,
this entailed retrenchments, a freeze on new employment, and attempts to
reduce wages. In addition, a Directorate of Labour Relations was established
in 1988 in the office of the Commission for Administration to undertake
research and evaluate the state of labour relations in the public service.
This was a last-ditch effort, signalling that change in the labour relations
structural framework was inevitable.
325
13.2.3 Public sector labour relations from 1994 onwards

Political power changed hands in April 1994, when the ANC-dominaced
Government of National Unity took over. We were now moving towards a
constitutional democracy - an era with its own expectations and challenges
in the field of labour relations. This was the era of transformation in labour
relations and democracisation of worker rights and collective bargaining.
Among the key issues addressed since 1994 are transformation, the
democracisation of worker rights and collective bargaining, and the transfer
of managemem authority from the PSC to the Department of Public Service
and Administration.
13.3 Establishing sound union-management relations

The employment relationship had to be conducted and regulated through
a legal framework because of the inequalities and destructive practices in
the relationship. Because trade unions play such an important role in South
African public sector institutions today, it is essential for management to be
professional in its dealings and interaction with them. Although it is argued
that representative bodies such as unions may not always be essential to
the conduct of the employment relationship, especially in the public sector,
it is also true that no matter how much attention is paid to the individual
dimension of employee relations, negligence in respect of the collective
dimensions (particularly as far as trade unions are concerned) can have serious
negative consequences for a public sector institution’s quest for success. The
South African government is becoming more concerned about labour unrest
in the public sector. This was confirmed by an attempt to introduce strike
ballots in the public sector and by a proposal for more extensive and effective
dispute resolution procedures in essential services.
326
DID YOU KNOW?

The South African Labour Guide is a private company that assists with
HRM matters. It focuses on real issues in the workplace that relate to
labour and employee relations. More particularly, guidance is provided in
terms of labour law. Areas in the HR field that are covered include, among
others, conditions of employment, constructive dismissals, a leave guide,
alcoholism in the workplace, warnings and procedural and substantial
fairness. You can read more about the South African Labour Guide at
http://www.labourguide.co.za/ and at http://www.labour.gov.za/
Results of research of employee relations are indicated in Focus on
Research 13.1.

‘People don’t care how much you know until they know how much you
care’ (John C Maxwell). This coincides with the most recent research on
employee relations being concerned with the contractual, emotional,
physical and practical relationship between the employerand employee.
The four pillars of employee relations namely open communication, show
recognition, provide constant feedbackand invest in employees, are focus
points of research during most recent years (Robins, A. 2017. (https://
officevibe, com/blog/4-pillars-of- employee-relations).
13.3.1 Handling initial trade union contact

In terms of the Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995 (LRA) (Republic of South
Africa. 1995), chapter 3, Part A Sections 11-22, at some point, a trade union
may approach or contact public management for the first time. This initial
contact may be in written form or by telephone. In some instances, it may
be direct person-to-person contact between a management representative
and a union official/clected shop steward. The issue at hand may be a request
for recognition as the on-going representative of a group of public sector
employees or it may entail a once-off representation of an employee regarding
a grievance, such as alleged unfair dismissal, or a general concern such as the
need to negotiate improved wages or working conditions for employees.
The purpose of the first meeting is for the parties to get to know each other
better. To have a fruitful first meeting, it is imperative that the parties are
willing to exchange certain types of information.
327
13.3.2 Formalising the union-management relationship

Formalising rhe relationship with a trade union usually involves some form
of agreement between the parties. The process of formalisation will depend
to a large extent on the level of the union’s representativeness in the public
institution and includes two steps:
1. The trade union will be required to present proof of its membership.
This normally includes the submission of signed and correctly
completed union membership forms that must be verified.
2. Management will have to inform the trade union of its approach
regarding the type of representativeness required before a trade union
will be recognised as the official representative body of the institution's
employees or of some of them.
Both parties will have to decide on rhe type of recognition agreement. A

written recognition agreement may take the form of a skeletal agreement or a
full agreement (Bendix, 2017: 161-162).
In terms of the LRA, management and a trade union may opt to enter into
so-called closed shop agreements or agency shop agreements. Public sector
management and a majority trade union may conclude an agreement in
terms of which all public sector employees covered by the agreement are
compelled to become members of that trade union. This is known as a closed
shop agreement and is very controversial because of its compulsory nature
and, as some allege, the curtailment of the basic human right of freedom of
association. It is uncertain whether the closed shop provision would survive a
constitutional challenge. It is therefore not surprising that the drafters of the
LRA found it necessary to build in various checks and balances (for example,
a mandatory ballot must be held in which at least two-thirds of employees
must vote in favour of the closed shop agreement) in an effort to protect the
closed shop agreement from possible constitutional challenge.
An agency shop agreement is an agreement between a public sector employer

and a trade union in terms of which the employer is compelled to deduct from
the wages of employees within the bargaining unit who are not trade union
members an amount equal to or less than (and in licit of) the membership
fees paid by the trade union members. It may be, on the one hand, morally
questionable to require someone to belong to a trade union against his or her
wishes (as is the case where a closed shop agreement prevails). On the other
hand, it prevents non-members from reaping the benefits negotiated for by a
union they do not contribute to.
328
The requirements for the validity of collective agreements are the same as for
ordinary contracts, such as employment contracts. Apart from a failure to
comply with formal requirements, a collective agreement may be challenged,
for example, by breach by the other party, duress and vagueness. For an
example of the validity of a collective agreement, see the ‘Spotlight on the
Law 13.F.
Validity of collective agreements
An agency shop agreement is valid only if the agreement itself complies

strictly with the requirements of s 25(3) ofthe LRA. \n GreatheadvSACCAWU
120011 22 ILJ 595 (SCA), an agency shop agreement was declared
unenforceable because the agreement did not state that employees to
whom the agreement had been extended were not compelled to join
the majority union. The judgement was followed by the Labour Court in
Solidarity v Minister ofthe Public Service & Administration [2004] 25 ILJ 1764
(I C), in which rhe agency shop agreement between rhe srare and union
parties to the Public Service Co-ordinating Bargaining Council (PSCBC)
was declared void ab initio and set aside.
Source: Grogan (2019: 353)
13.4 Entering into collective bargaining/negotiation

After the collective agreement (normally a full procedural agreement) has
been finalised, the next step is to select representatives who will do the
collective bargaining/negotiation. Collective bargaining/negotiation results
in numerous forms of negotiation and takes place in structures promoted by
the LRA.
Although some may hold the view that negotiation and bargaining as concepts
have different meanings, Pienaar and Spoelstra (1999: 5) argue that these
terms can be used in much the same way, implying that they have similar
purpose and meaning and follow the same methods. This does not mean that
collective bargaining and negotiation are synonymous concepts. Bargaining
takes place when two sides get together to talk about their problems, needs
and goals and try to negotiate and resolve differences and reach an agreement.
329
Collective bargaining and collective negotiation are, however, used inter

changeably in this chapter. The qualification ‘collective’ indicates that the
negotiations are conducted by representatives on behalf of a particular group
of people - the group of employees who are union members and the group
designated as management, which represents the interests of the employer -
at the bargaining table.
13.4.1 Distributive negotiation

In this type of bargaining, the parties are generally antagonistic and display
little reasonableness in the process. Focusing on positions and using power are
seen as central elements of this type of negotiation. Trade unions usually view
management as exploiters of all workers and as fully controlling the labour or
work process. Likewise, management often negotiates from the assumption
that the trade union is an unnecessary intruder, making management’s life
difficult and serving no real economic purpose as it simply causes labour
costs to rise. This type of negotiation is associated with the collective side of
employment relations, with the result that the collective bargaining process is
traditionally viewed as being of an adversarial, win-lose nature.
Three phases or stages of rhe process of distributive negotiation can be

identified as (1) the pre-negotiation phase, (2) the interactive phase and (3)
the post-negotiation phase.
Phase 1: Pre-negotiation: During this phase, topics may vary from proce
dural aspects such as grievance, disciplinary action, staff-reduction, or
dispute-settling procedures to substantive aspects such as working hours,
wages, leave, job evaluations, bonuses, equal opportunities, and health and
safety. It is important to appoint competent negotiation teams during this
phase, to train them, and to synchronise their efforts. A negotiating team
prepares all the issues by prioritising them in terms of relative importance,
establishing opening positions, and working out confidential bargaining
ranges with ideal, realistic and fall-back positions.
Phase 2: Interactive negotiation: In phase 2, the two parties face each

other and systematically try to persuade each other to change points of view
regarding their respective positions. Knowledge and particular skills with
strategies and tactics play a major role during this stage. The following are
useful guidelines for a negotiator:
1. Keep to the agenda as far as possible.
2. Focus on interests and not on positions.
3. Make use of conditioning before the negotiations start.
330
4. Lise issues to be raised by both parties and assess the most likely
settlement each will strive to achieve.
5. Stick to the facts and do not discuss people as such (separate the
problems from the people).
6. Listen more and talk less - ask a lot of appropriate questions in the
right way, to get the right information.
7. When in doubt or uncertain about anything, seek clarification and/or
recap regularly and call for a caucus.
8. The negotiator should be concerned not only with what the other
party says and does but must constantly find out the real interests and
the reasons underlying these positions or stated problems.
9. Achieve movement by linking issues, hypothetical movement and
adjournment.
10. Build a reputation for being fair but firm.
11. Remember that collective negotiations in the labour arena should
essentially be a process of compromise.
12. Always consider the impact of the current negotiations on future
negotiations - remember that collective bargaining revolves around
long-term relationships.
13. Read agreements carefully before signing and do not ignore the fine print.
14. Close the negotiations by summarising key agreed points before
shaking hands and leaving.
The final stage of this interactive phase is agreeing on solutions, recording

the agreements and summarising the bargains that have been struck. The
interactive phase usually concludes with some sort of agreement (or contract),
which is put in writing.
Phase 3: Post-negotiation: The post-negotiation phase refers to the total

validity period stated in agreements. During this period the parties make
sure that all role players abide by t he agreed-upon procedures and substantive
issues (such as wages and other conditions of service). Proper feedback to
constituencies is extremely important during the post-negotiation phase, as
is the role of public service managers and shop stewards.
331
13.4.2 Integrative negotiation

The parties to negotiation sometimes wisely recognise and emphasise rhe
common ground between trade unions and public sector management,
exploring the possibilities of creating win-win situations. Although they
acknowledge the basic conflict in perceptions, goals and interests, they
channel their energies into enlarging the areas of common concern. They
thus concentrate on common interests and interacting in such a way that
the negotiation process leads to mutual gain. More emphasis is placed on
trust, openness, information sharing, continued and meaningful two-way
communication, and joint problem solving. The parties recognise that they
have to solve problems jointly in order to reach optimum solutions. An
analysis of the literature (Fisher & L’ry, 1981; Fisher & Brown, 1988; Hock.
1991/92; Power, 1991) reveals that certain approaches or styles can be used to
bring about or facilitate more integrative types of negotiation.
Two such styles are interest negotiation and target-specific negotiation:

• Interest negotiation: One of the key ideas of this approach is that
parties who engage in collective bargaining should focus on the
interests that motivate the parties and their claims rather than on the
claims themselves. As they proceed, they will most likely discover that
the reasoning behind the claims or bargaining positions represents the
interest range of the parties, and that for every interest range there is
normally more than one possible settlement position. In this way, they
are more likely to identify common ground or compatible interests.
Another important aspect of interest negotiation is separating the people
from the problems. Parties should be prepared to try to understand
each other s needs and concerns, the diversity of people (with different
personalities, emotions, teehngs, tears, needs) and that the tailure to
reach workable agreements could be to the detriment of all.
• Target-specific negotiation: This approach is based on changing the
bargaining process to one that is productive for both parties, using
valid information and less confrontation. As an approach, it makes
extensive use of a mediator.
13.5 Structures for collective bargaining/negotiation

The LRA provides for specific regulations regarding the structures within
which collective bargaining/negotiation must take place in the public sector
and for a compulsory coordinating bargaining council for the public sector.
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13.5.1 National Economic Development and Labour Council

The National Economic Development and Labour Council (NEDLAC) is
governed by an executive council and consists of:
• a public finance and monetary policy chamber;
• a trade and industry chamber;
• a labour market chamber; and
• a development chamber.
DID YOU KNOW?

In terms of the National Economic Development and Labour Council Act
35 of 1994 (Republic of South Africa, 1994) NEDLAC aims to promote
the goals of economic growth, participation in economic decision making
and social equity by reaching consensus and concluding agreements on
matters pertaining to social and economic policy.
Its objectives are to consider all proposed labour legislation relating
to labour market policy, as well as all significant changes to social
and economic policy, before they are implemented and introduced in
Parliament, and to encourage and promote the formulation of coordinated
policy on social and economic matters. In collaboration with their social
partners, NEDLAC constituencies, labour, government and business, are in
constant research and reviewing of governments labour market response
to financial issues in the country.
It can be expected that NEDLAC will have (and, indeed, already has had)
a significant influence on the development of economic policy, labour laws
and our system of industrial relations.
13.5.2 Public Service Co-ordinating Bargaining Council

The LRA, Part D, provides for a single overarching structure, the PSCBC, to
regulate and coordinate collective bargaining/negotiation across the public
service. Public service bargaining councils do not have to refer applications for
registration to NEDLAC, since the legislation already sets out procedures for
the formation of councils in this sector. In the PSCBC, all councils negotiate
collectively. More specifically, they negotiate on such aspects as uniform
rules, norms, conditions of service and general policy matters applying to the
whole of the public service. The National Defence Force, National Intelligence
Agency and the South African Secret Service are excluded from the PSCBC.'.
At present, the negotiation councils for national departments and provincial
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administrations and for sectoral councils covering the police, health and
welfare, educators and core general public service and administration are
represented in the PSCBC. The negotiation councils operate separately and
collectively and are tasked with dealing with matters relating to these sectors.
The most important powers and functions conferred on bargaining councils

are listed below:
• to conclude collective agreements;
• to enforce those collective agreements;
• to prevent and resolve labour disputes (mainly through mediation/
arbitration);
• to establish and administer a fund to be used for resolving disputes;
• to promote and establish training and education schemes;
• to establish and administer pension, provident, medical aid. sick pay,
holiday, unemployment and training schemes or funds or any similar
schemes or funds for the benefit of one or more of the parties to the
bargaining council or their members;
• to develop proposals for submission to NEDLAC or any other appropriate
forum on policy and legislation that may affect the sector and area;
• to determine by collective agreement the matters that may not be
an issue in dispute for the purposes of a strike or a lock-out at the
workplace; and
• to confer on workplace forums additional matters for consultation.
DID YOU KNOW?

The functions of the Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration
(CCMA) are set out in Section 115(1) and (2) of the LRA of which the
resolving of disputes by conciliation and arbitration is of primary importance.
The statutory origin of the CCMA causes this institution to have jurisdiction
over only those disputes referred to it in terms of labour legislation and it may
not advise on substantive (as opposed to procedural) matters.
13.6 Handling of disputes

Although the LRA promotes collective bargaining/negotiations, it has to
be accepted that, from nine to time, bargaining may break down. When
negotiations end in disagreement, the parties are said to be in dispute. One
of the objects of the LRA is to facilitate and promote effective and efficient
dispute resolution. Labour disputes often arise in the public sector and it is
therefore important to understand what they entail.
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13.6.1 Types of labour dispute

Although the concepts ‘dispute of right and ‘dispute of interest’ cannot be
found in the LRA, the distinction between these two types of disputes is
fundamental to the philosophy informing the dispute resolution procedures
of the Act (Bendix, 2015: 495-496).
• /X dispute of right is a dispute about the interpretation of an existing
right. The parties are not in disagreement about the existence of the
right, only over whether the right has been infringed or not by one of the
parties. Rights disputes typically involve dismissal disputes or disputes
over the interpretation of a collective agreement. It should be evident
that these disputes are of a legal nature and the best way to resolve
them would be a judicial or quasi-judicial process such as arbitration.
Section 64 of the LRA specifies that a union or its members can strike over
an issue of mutual interest when that issue remains unresolved for 30 days
at the relevant bargaining council. In addition, every employer may have
recourse to lock-out if the issue in dispute has been referred to a council
or to the Commission as required by this Act and a certificate stating that
the dispute remains unresolved has been issued. In the case of a proposed
strike, at least 48 hours notice of the commencement of the strike must
have been given to the employer in writing.
• Disputes of interest are disputes over issues of mutual interest between
the public sector employer and public sector employees where neither party
has a right to that which it claims. A dispute of interest is not over an
existing right but over the creation of a new right. An example is a wage
dispute: the union is not asserting that it has a right that it wishes to
enforce (there is no right to a wage increase); it wishes to create a right to
a new (higher) wage. In such disputes, it is appropriate that the outcome
should be determined by power play because there is no right' or ‘wrong’
answer in the sense that a third party can interpret an existing agreement
or legal provision. Only in cases where the parties agree to refer an interest
dispute to arbitration, or where policy considerations (for example, the
social and economic costs to society in general of industrial action in
essential services) prohibit recourse to industrial action, will disputes of
interest be resolved through arbitration.
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13.7 Mechanisms for dispute resolution

The LRA also provides for the resolution of disputes through formal
mechanisms, especially in those cases where conflicts arise and cannot be
resolved. The Act foresees the resolution of disputes through the CCMA, the
Labour Court and the Labour Appeal Court.
13.7.1 Functions of the Commission for Conciliation, Mediation

and Arbitration
The LRA provides for the establishment of the CCMA, which is to be
independent of the state, any political party, trade union, employer, employers’
institutions, federation of trade unions, or federation of employers’ insti
tutions. The CCMA is governed by a governing body, consistingofa chairperson
and nine other members (labour, employers and the state, represented by three
persons each), each nominated by NEDLAC and appointed by the Minister to
hold office for a period of three years, and the director of the Commission.
The functions of the CCMA can be broadly grouped into three categories. In
the first category, the CCMA must:
• attempt to resolve, through conciliation, any dispute referred to it
in terms of the Act and. if after conciliation a dispute still remains
unresolved, arbitrate the dispute if the Act requires arbitration and
any party to the dispute has requested that it be resolved through
arbitration or all the parties to a dispute in respect of which the Labour
Court has jurisdiction consent to arbitration by the Commission;
• assist in the establishment of workplace forums; and
• compile and publish information and statistics about its activities.
The CCMA must further:

• if asked, advise a party to a dispute about the procedure to follow in
terms of the Act;
• assist a party to a dispute to obtain legal advice, assistance or representation;
• offer to resolve a dispute that has not been referred to it;
• accredit councils or private agencies;
• subsidise accredited councils or accredited agencies;
• conduct, oversee or scrutinise any election or ballot of a registered trade
union or registered employers' institution if asked to do so by that trade
union or employers' institution;
• publish guidelines in relation to any matter dealt with in the Act; and
• conduct and publish research into matters relevant to its functions.
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The CCMA may provide, on request, employees, employers, registered trade

unions, registered employers institutions, federations of trade unions,
federations of employers’ institutions, or councils with advice or training
relating to the main objectives of the Act, such as:
• establishment of collective bargaining structures;
• design, establishment and election of workplace forums and the
creation of deadlock-breaking mechanisms;
• functioning of workplace forums;
• prevention and resolution of disputes and employees’ grievances;
• disciplinary procedures;
• procedures in relation to dismissals;
• process of restructuring the workplace;
• affirmative action and equal opportunity programmes; and
• sexual harassment in the workplace.
DID YOU KNOW?

Disputes about unfair discrimination must be referred to the CCMA for
conciliation, and if not settled, either for arbitration or in some cases to
the Labour Court within six months after the date of the act or omission
complained of. As with unfair labour practices, establishing the date
of the dispute may be difficult where the discrimination has continuing
effects. In South African Broadcasting Corporation (SOC) Ltd v Commission for
Conciliation Mediation and Arbitration (2020) 41 ILJ 493 (LC), the Labour
Court held that the applicants were entitled to refer a dispute even though
the discrimination which they claimed, commenced about ten years earlier
when they were denied promotion.
Source: Grogan (2019: 115)
13.7.2 Dispute resolution under the auspices of the Commission

for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration
As should be clear by now, the general route that resolution of disputes would
follow under the CCMA is, first, conciliation, failing which, arbitration (or, in
a few cases, adjudication). Details of these three levels of dispute resolution
arc given below.
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1. Resolution of disputes through a Dispute Resolution Committee:

The LRA provides that the Minister for the Public Service and
Administration must, after consultation with NEDLAC and the
PSCBC, establish a Dispute Resolution Committee under the auspices
of the CCMA. The Minister must appoint to the Dispute Resolution
Committee persons who have knowledge and experience of labour
law and labour relations in the public service. If a dispute remains
unresolved, any party involved in the dispute may request that the
dispute be resolved through arbitration. The CCMA may not give advice
on substantive (as opposed to procedural) matters (Grogan, 2014: 495).
2. Resolution of disputes through conciliation: When a dispute has
been referred to the CCMA, it must appoint a commissioner, who must
attempt to resolve the dispute through conciliation within 30 days
of the date the CCMA received the referral; the parties may, however,
agree to extend the 30-day period. At the end of the 30-day period, or
any further period agreed between the parties, the commissioner must
issue a certificate stating whether or not the dispute has been resolved.
3. Resolution of disputes through arbitration: A dispute may be
resolved through arbitration if the following conditions apply:
• it is a dispute about a matter of mutual interest:
• the matter in dispute relates to a right of a party;
• the Act requires settlement through arbitration;
• a commissioner has issued a certificate stating that the dispute
remains unresolved; and
• any party to the dispute has requested that the dispute be resolved
through arbitration.
The commissioner tasked with arbitrating the dispute may be the same
commissioner who attempted to resolve the dispute through conciliation.
Provision is also made for rhe appointment of a senior commissioner to
arbitrate in a matter at the request of any party to the dispute. The Act expressly
provides that commissioners must determine the dispute fairly and quickly
but must deal with the substantial merits of the dispute with the minimum of
legal formalities (emphasis added]’. In addition, the /\ct specifies that, within 14
days of the conclusion of the arbitration proceedings, the commissioner must
issue an arbitration award with brief reasons, signed by that commissioner.
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13.7.3 Special provisions for dispute resolution under the

Labour Relations Act
The LRA makes special provisions for disputes in, for example, essential
services, and dismissals for reasons relating to conduct or capacity.
• An arbitration award is final and binding and may be made an order of
the Labour Court unless it is an advisory arbitration award. An arbitration
award may only be amended or rescinded if:
■ it was erroneously sought or erroneously made in the absence of any
party affected by that award; or
■ the award contains an ambiguity, obvious error or omission; or
■ the award was granted as a result of a mistake common to the parties
to the proceedings.
• Mediation is sometimes resorted to when the parties cannot reach an
agreement on their own. When such a stalemate is reached, the parties
could, of course, decide to strike (trade union action) or to lock employees
out (employer action). However, neither of the parties may be willing to take
the risk of such drastic forms of industrial action because the potential
losses or costs are too high. In such a case, the parries can agree to use an
objective outsider (the so-called third party) to mediate their negotiations.
Mediation is a voluntary process of settling disputes in which the mediator

has no decision-making powers. The conflict, communication and people
handling skills of the mediator are of paramount importance (rather than
legal or technical expertise). The mediator’s primary task is to promote
constructive communication and to moderate any aggression and personal
acrimony between the parties. The mediation process begins when the parties
agree to use mediation. After the mediator has been appointed and a date
fixed for the first meeting, the parties compile written submissions about the
dispute, which are sent to the mediator so that he or she can determine the
nature and extent of the dispute.
13.7.4 Labour Court and Labour Appeal Court

The LRA provides for the establishment of the Labour Court as an open
court of law with jurisdiction in all the provinces of South Africa. The Labour
Court is a court of record and has the same powers and status as a provincial
division of the Supreme Court. The court is presided over by a Judge President,
a Deputy Judge President and as many judges as the Judge President may
consider necessary, acting on the advice of NEDLAC and in consultation
339
with the Minister of Justice and the Judge President of the Labour Court.
The Labour Court may, among other things, grant an interdict; grant a
declaratory order; award compensation; order compliance with any provision
of the LRA; or make any arbitration award or any settlement agreement (other
than a collective agreement) an order of the court.
A new court of appeal in labour matters was instituted by the Act. The Labour
Appeal Court is a court of law and equity. It is the final court of appeal in
respect of all judgements and orders made by the Labour Court in respect of
the matters within its exclusive jurisdiction.
13.8 Handling of strikes

Conflict forms an inherent part of the employment relationship no matter
how much is done by management to improve the conditions of public sector
employees and labour relations in a public sector institution. The aim of public
sector management should always be to manage conflict levels to facilitate the
overall success of service delivery by the public sector. When this fails, serious
forms of organised, collective labour-management conflict, such as strikes, may
occur. Strikes are employee actions and can take on various forms, including
total withholding of labour, go-slows, work-to-rule, sympathy striking and
overtime bans. These actions are embarked upon in an attempt to persuade
the employer to agree with a demand. The action is always linked to a demand.
Lock-outs are a form of action taken by the employer.
13.8.1 Nature and content of a ‘strike’ and ‘lock-out’

According to Bendix (2015: 527), a strike may be broadly defined as ‘a
temporary, collective withholding of labour, its objective being to stop or
impede the continuation of business and thereby to oblige the employer to
take notice of employee demands’. The LRA defines a lock-out as:
fT]he exclusion by an employer ofemployees from the employer’s workplace, for
the purpose of compelling the employees to accept a demand m respect of any
matter of mutual interest between employer and employee, whether or not the
employer breaches those employees' contracts of employment in the course of or
for the purpose of that exclusion (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1995).
It is important to note that a lock-out will only be recognised as such if the
conduct and intent satisfy the definition. Two elements need to be present
simultaneously fora lock-out in terms of the LRA: First, a particular course of
action on the part of the employer. Second, a lock-out should be accompanied
by a certain intent or demand from the employer.
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13.8.2 Status of strikes and lock-outs in terms of the Labour

Relations Act
According to the LRA, employees may decide to engage in strike action and
withhold their employment from the employer. So too, the employer may
temporarily withhold employment from employees if they do not agree to
employer demands or to a settlement proposed by the employer.
Statutorily speaking, strikes and lock-outs can be categorised as prohibited,

protected or unprotected. There is also another category, namely specific
types of statutory industrial action.
Prohibited strikes and lock-outs occur when:

• a collective agreement is in force that prohibits industrial action in
respect of the issue in dispute;
• the issue in dispute is subject to compulsory arbitration;
• the issue in dispute is one to which a party has the right to refer to
arbitration or to the Labour Court in terms of the Act;
• the employee is employed in an essential service (see following sections);
• the employee is designated as a maintenance employee;
• the issue in dispute is in the first year of a wage determination made in
terms of the wage Act that regulates such issues; and
• a binding arbitration award or a ministerial determination has been
made that regulates the issue in dispute.
Public sector employees participating in a prohibited strike are guilty of

misconduct and may be dismissed, provided that a fair procedure is followed.
Protected strikes and lock-outs are strikes or lock-outs that conform to the
procedural requirements stipulated in the Act. The most important legal
consequence of a protected strike is that the strikers may not be dismissed for
participating in it.
13.8.3 Procedures for protected industrial action

Every public sector employee has the right to strike and every public sector
employer the right to lock-out, provided that certain procedural requirements
are met. In essence, these procedures require a dispute to be referred to a
council (or. if there is no council with jurisdiction, to the CCMA), which has
30 days to resolve the dispute through conciliation, failing which, the trade
union or the employer may give 48 hours’ written notice of its intention to
strike or lock-out. After the expiry of the notice period, the strike or lock-out
341
will be protected (provided, of course, that the prohibited circumstances are

not applicable).
Deviations from the stated general procedure are applicable under selected
circumstances. A strike or lock-out will be protected industrial action if:
• a collective agreement containing a procedure for strikes and/or lock
outs is in place (the Act in effect allows the parties to contract out of
the provisions of the statutory strike law in favour of their own (seif)-
regulated agreed procedure);
• the strike or lock-out is in response (a so-called defensive strike or lock
out) to an unprocedural strike or lock-out;
• the parties to the dispute are members ofa bargaining council or a statutory
council that has dealt with the dispute in terms of its constitution;
• the employer has unilaterally altered a term or condition of employment
or intends to do so, and the trade union or employee who has referred
the dispute to a bargaining council or statutory council or the CCMA
has at the same time sent a copy of the referral, giving 48 hours’ notice,
to the employer not to proceed or to reverse the unilateral alteration, and
the 48-hour period has ended without the employer having retracted
the change (whether implemented or intended); or
• the issue in dispute concerns a refusal to bargain and an advisory award
has not been made by the CCMA before the 48 hours’ notice of the start of
the proposed stnke/lock-out can be given. A refusal to bargain includes
a refusal to recognise a trade union as a collective bargaining agent; or
a refusal to agree to establish a bargaining council; or a withdrawal of
recognition of a collective bargaining agent; or a resignation of a party
from a bargaining council; or a dispute about appropriate bargaining
units, levels or subjects.
In terms of Section 65 of the LRA, no person may take part in a strike or a
lock-out if that person is engaged in an essential service or a maintenance
service. Disputes in these services must first be resolved through conciliation
and, should that fail to settle the dispute, through arbitration.
13.8.4 Unprotected strikes and lock-outs

These are strikes or lock-outs that fall outside the procedures of the LRA.
The most important legal consequences are that the Labour Court may
interdict such strikes or lock-outs and order any just compensation for losses
attributable to such strikes or lock-outs. In addition, strikers participating
in an unprotected strike may be dismissed for striking, provided that their
dismissal is procedurally and substantively fair.
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13.8.5 Strike management phases

Strike management entails more than handling strikes. Strike handling refers
specifically to the active phase of strike management the phase when all the
plans and preparations are activated and implemented. Strike management,
on the other hand, includes strategic preparation and contingency planning,
as well as post-strike restoration and recovery procedures. Three phases may
be identified:
1. Pre-strike or preparatory phase: The best way to manage a strike
is to engage in management practices that prevent strikes. However,
no public sector management team can be entirely sure that they will
never have to deal with any form of industrial action. The basic steps
of managing the pre-strike phase include
• Objective setting: The primary objective of management must be
to handle the situation in such a way that public sector employees
become productive again as soon as possible. The idea is to
minimise the disruption of operations and to restore order and
normal working processes in the shortest possible time.
• Preparatory action: Through preparatory actions such as drawing
up a strike-handling and contingency plan, management should
be more able, when a strike does take place, to identify quickly and
address the real causes of the conflict; reduce unproductive conflict
levels; prevent any form of damage to property or injuries to people;
arrive at mutually acceptable settlements in the shortest possible
time, and thus minimise the disruptions to normal service delivery
processes. Management must appoint a strike-handling team and
ensure that all team members are fully informed and sufficiently
competent to fulfil their tasks.
The members of the negotiating team will, as a rule, be responsible for
negotiating with the representatives of the strikers. Such a team will
obviously have to include some of the most competent and experienced
negotiators in the institution. A group of special consultants (internal
or external) may also form part of the strike management team.
2. Active phase of strike management: As soon as there is any suspicion
that a strike may be looming, the appropriate member of the strike
management team must be informed. This person may then analyse
the information and, if necessary, assemble the strike management
team, which will collect and analyse all the information, discuss
possible courses of action, and commence with their functions as
stipulated in the strike-handling plan. One of the most important
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things to be done throughout any strike episode is to record accurately

all relevant events that take place during the strike. Use is often made
of a so-called strike diary. With rhe objectives of strike handling in
mind, it is extremely important to open up communication with the
representatives of those on strike in order to identify the grievances and
the real causes of the industrial action. Although a policy of‘no work,
no pay’ is advisable, management must always try to get the employees
productive again as soon as possible, and a deviation from the ‘no
work, no pay’ rule can be used as a trade-off in return for resuming
normal work promptly. W hatever the strike-handling team decides
to do, the need to encourage dialogue and to reach the set objectives
must always be addressed. The sting of a strike is often eased by the
spirit in which management deals with the demands or the approach
adopted, the anger (sometimes the violence), and the people with
whom management negotiates. Although strictness and discipline are
always important, it is also necessary to show an understanding of
the emotions of those involved in the strike. Management should not
involve any other parties, such as the police, in the strike action. The
role of any other party might be seen as favouring a certain party to the
strike. The police may act only as protectors of the public interest and
may be involved in case of possible public disturbance or a physical
threat to any person(s).
3. Post-strike phase: After an episode of serious industrial conflict, it is
important to take certain steps immediately to rebuild the relationship
between the parties. These include the following:
• Ensure that all undertakings (agreements and promises) relating to
the negotiations during rhe strike episode are fulfilled.
• Work at restoring relations: without restoring communication
between all parties concerned, the quality of the relationships
cannot be expected to return to normal.
• Acknowledge that serious conflict and a breakdown in relations
has occurred.
• Ensure that all the normal procedures and processes (such as
disciplinary and grievance procedures) are confirmed as operative
and applied.
• Adhere to all relevant legal requirements.
• Attend to the so-called ‘industrial action post mortem'. In this,
the whole incident is reviewed, and special attention is paid to the
process of strike handling, the effectiveness of the strike handling
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and contingency plans, mistakes that were made, the competence

of the strike management team members and the lessons to be
learned from the strategies and tactics followed by the parties.
• Ensure that appropriate media liaison takes place. Normalising
the relations with customers, suppliers and the general public can
be facilitated by a proper media release on the incident.
13.9 Establishing sound employment relations

Regardless of whether or not public sector employees belong to trade
unions, public managers have to see to it that the relations between them
and their subordinates, between the subordinates themselves, and between
the employees and their work are maintained at a standard that is conducive
to a generally more successful public sector institution. The activities and
practices in managing public sector employee relations are aimed at improving
cooperation and minimising conflict levels among various categories of
employee, irrespective of the presence or absence of trade unions.
13.9.1 Methods of communicating with public sector employees

One of the most important things for public sector managers to do is to
communicate with their subordinates. Whatever the form of communication,
the aim remains the t ransmission of a message to a receiver so that he or she
can understand the intended meaning of the sender’s message.
A variety of methods can be used to communicate with employees, such as

formal letters or memoranda regarding important issues; not ice boards to make
information of a general nature available to those who may be interested; in
house newspapers and journals containing interesting and important general
information about the institution and its employees; electronic mail (email)
on important and urgent messages; formal committees where representatives
of management and non-management public sector employees get together to
deal with certain issues; and the establishment of workplace forums.
/\ workplace forum may be established in any workplace that comprises

more than 100 public sector employees. Any representative trade union may
apply to the CCMA for the establishment of a workplace forum. The CCMA
must appoint a commissioner to assist the parties to establish a workplace
forum by collective agreement or, failing that, to establish a workplace
forum in terms of the LRA. After the workplace forum has been established,
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the commissioner must set a date for the election of the first members of the
forum and appoint an election officer to conduct the election.
The LRA specifies that there must be regular meetings of the workplace
forum. It describes three types of regular meetings, which are meetings:
1. between the employer and the workplace forum;
2. between the workplace forum and employees; and
3. between the public sector employer and employees at a workplace.
Except where a collective agreement determines otherwise, a workplace
forum is entitled to be consulted by the employer about proposals
relating to, among other things:
• restructuring the workplace, including the introduction of new
technology and new work methods;
• changes in the organisation of work;
• partial or total plant closures; and
• mergers and transfers of ownership, in so far as they have an impact
on employees.
13.9.2 Handling public sector employee grievances

Grievance handling refers to the process whereby management deals
formally with the officially presented complaint(s) of employees (excluding
disciplinary matters) relating to the employment relationship. A grievance
is not synonymous with a complaint or problem. A public sector employee
may experience a problem that is not work-related but which may eventually
have an influence on the employment relationship, such as personal
financial difficulties, family problems or drug addiction problems. These
are not grievances because they are not directly related to the employment
relationship.
Public sector employees’ work-related complaints can be formalised as official

grievances through a grievance procedure. By formally presenting such a
complaint to management, the employee communicates to management the
fact that there is either a real or a perceived breach of the psychological or
employment contract. The grievance procedure can therefore be viewed as a
method of (mostly) upward communication in the workplace.
A number of important principles form the basis of grievance handling. In

this regard management must:
• acknowledge the fact that public sector employees may from time to
time be dissatisfied with aspects of the employment relationship;
346
• address and settle all legitimate employee grievances in a fair manner;

• solve grievances as promptly and as close as practically possible to the
point of origin;
• ensure that public sector employees who air grievances enjoy guaranteed
protection against any form of discrimination, victimisation or
prejudice whatsoever;
• accept the fundamental right of employees to make use of the help of
the process of airing and handling grievances;
• ensure the smooth operation of the public sector institution;
• spell out time-specified and progressive procedural steps, in order
to arrive at the point where a grievance is solved to the optimum
satisfaction of all parties concerned; and
• acknowledge the right of public sector employees to pursue channels
of dispute resolution beyond the institution in cases where grievances
cannot be solved through the grievance procedure.
An employer’s grievance procedure is normally made available in a document

that spells out the stages or steps to be followed when employees have
grievances. Nonetheless , certain steps may be outlined by way of example.
Step 1 occurs when the aggrieved person officially makes a verbal complaint
to the immediate manager.
Step 2 generally entails putting the grievance in writing (usually in

triplicate), involving a third party such as a shop steward (if so wished),
and presenting it to a higher level of management (i.e. the superior of the
immediate manager).
Step 3 involves consideration of the issue by an even higher level of

management or a formal grievance investigation led by a grievance
committee, depending on institutional characteristics. As a rule, such an
impartial committee consists of a labour relations/HR specialist, employee
representatives, a senior public sector manager or an expert who may be of
particular value regarding the issue at hand. The outcome of the grievance
committee’s investigation must be announced in writing to all relevant
parties. If the issue is not resolved, the process of external dispute resolution
may be put in motion.
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13.9.3 Disciplining employees

The aim of discipline, according to Grogan (2019: 129), is to ensure that
all employees conform effectively and efficiently to the performance and
behavioural standards and criteria necessary for the successful operation of the
institution. From a positive point of view, discipline is a constructive element of
public sector management designed to facilitate learning and opportunities for
personal growth, as well as the achievement of institutional objectives.
The informal part of discipline forms an integral part of continuously

managing the performance and behaviour of employees. At times, however,
public officials may fail to adhere to the basic minimum standards and
requirements. This is normally where the formal dimension of discipline
comes into play. Public sector employers should have a system for formally
disciplining those employees who fail to comply with the institution’s
requirements. Apart from a formal policy statement regarding discipline,
this formal disciplinary system usually consists of a written disciplinary
code and procedure that management has to apply. The Code of Good
Practice: Dismissal is a national disciplinary code that endorses the concept
of corrective or progressive discipline to assist employees in understanding
what standards are required of them.
As a general rule, a disciplinary procedure is drafted to assist public employers

in the identification of offences warranting formal disciplinary measures and
to help ensure consistency in disciplinary matters. Such a procedure usually
contains the disciplinary code or a list of possible offences and the concomitant
sanctions to be considered by management. Since the nature of various
offences may differ in terms of seriousness (ranging from minor to moderate
to very serious), some form of progressive discipline is usually built into the
disciplinary procedure, with penalty guidelines connected to the various types
of offences. The disciplinary process is a method of downward communication.
13.10 Conclusion
In this chapter, the focus has been on the management of various aspects of
the employment relationship at the institutional level in the public sector.
Establishing sound labour practices and employee relations at the level of
the workplace is one of the most important challenges facing South African
public sector institutions, largely owing to the historical development of the
country and the huge trust gap that exists between labour and management
in many public sector institutions. Even though legislation may go a long
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way in facilitating sounder and more constructive industrial relations in the

country, it is ultimately up to the parties involved to work hard at building
relationships of trust and cooperation at the institutional level. In this regard,
the focus was placed on union-management relations, dispute resolution,
collective bargaining/negotiation and the handling of strikes.
The means by which sound public sector employee relations could be

established were considered and communication, grievance handling and the
disciplining of employees were discussed. Workplace forums as structures for
cooperation and worker participation were also analysed.

1. What actions would the manager responsible for labour relations in a
public sector institution take in handling initial contact with a trade
union that has recently been established in the workplace?
2. What is meant by ‘formalising the union-management relationship’?
What requirements, procedures and agreements influence this?
3. Compare and contrast ‘distributive negotiation’ and ‘integrative
negotiation’.
4. The LRA provides extensively for collective bargaining structures.
What are these structures?
5. What are some of the formal mechanisms, according to the LRA, that
parties can use to solve disputes in the workplace?
6. Under what conditions do public sector employees have the right to
strike? What are specific types of strike action and how can public
sector managers deal with them?
7. As disputes in the sectors providing essential services cannot be
settled by the use of economic power, what alternative methods of
dispute settlement may be used?
8. What methodsare used tocommunicate with public sectoremployees?
9. What principles underlie the handling of employee grievances and
related procedures in the public sector?
10. What is management’s role in the disciplinary procedure?
11. Differentiate between the procedural and substantive aspect of a
disciplinary process.
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Chapter
Terminating the services of
M employees
Kedibone G Phago
Purpose
This chapter discusses the principles, requirements and procedures for
terminating the services of public sector employees.
Learning outcomes
• Outline a theoretical basis for employment contract termination.
• Describe termination of employment in the South African public
sector environment.
• Analyse the contextual issues pertaining to employee dismissal.
• Critique what counts as dismissal in terms of the Labour Relations
Act 66 of 1995 (LRA).
• Explain the different causes of dismissal in the South African public
sector.
• Explain what is meant by ‘automatically unfair dismissals’.
• Interpret the three grounds of justification for dismissal and analyse
the fairness standards associated with each.
• Assess the statutory remedies for unfair dismissal.
14.1 Introduction
This chapter interrogates the issue of dismissals visa vis the LRA (Republic
of South Africa, 1995). The legislative provision in this regard is highly
prescriptive and provides detailed guidelines on both employers' and
employees' expected behaviour in the workplace. Employers, who are often
represented by managers, are required to adhere strictly to labour laws
to maintain sound labour relations in the public sector. In this regard,

employees’ rights and duties are also spelt out with clear consequences for
failure to observe the law.
Termination of employment services pertains to natural aspects such as

retirement and resignations but also to other aspects bearing on operational
requirements, which compel employers to consider the termination of
employment through dismissal. This chapter focuses on the notion of
dismissal in the public sector and on two key considerations that must be
taken into account for any dismissal to be regarded as fair, namely, substantive
fairness and procedural fairness.
14.2 Theoretical basis for employment contract

termination
Terminating employees' services is premised based on the contractual
arrangement with the employer. This is imperative for a theoretical analysis
of this chapter to consider within the relevant context of the various forms of
termination of employment services of retirement, resignation, ill-health, and
operational requirements (dismissal).
Marson (2013: 1) argues foran ElectiveTheoryasan imperative set of principles

relevant for analysing employment contract relating to termination of
employment services, especially where a repudiation of employment contract
wrongfully undertaken by either the employer or an employee. The use of an
Elective Theory centres on the need to allow the innocent party to accept a
repudiation in order to consider termination of employment contract legally
binding to the parties both through an express dismissal or resignation
(Cabrelli & Zahn, 2013: 1106-1107). This is based on the comparisons that
are often held regarding Elective and Automatic Theories. In the case of
Automatic Theory, an employment contract has been wrongfully repudiated
(for example, by the employer), then the innocent party’s (for example, an
employee) recourse would mainly be to seek damages for the wrongful
repudiation of the employment contract.
The above discussion signifies an imperative of a theoretical basis for both

the understanding and application of termination of employment contracts
in the public sector. What managers in the public sector need to consider
is that the South African labour law accords and protects both employers
and employees' rights. These rights are embedded in the primary sources of
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Chapter 14: Terminating the services of employees
law which regulate the employment relationship, namely the constitutional

framework, common-law and collective agreements (International Labour
Organisation, Online: 2019). It is therefore incumbent upon the various
stakeholders in the employment environment within the public sector to
consider the fact that termination of employment should be measured using
the Elective and Automatic Theoretical base to determine the relevance of
a particular decision based on the merits of each situation. An overview of
various forms of termination of employment is undertaken below.
14.3 Overview of different forms of termination of

employment services
Termination of employment services manifests as either natural or such as
requires enforcement. This is an important element in labour relations in
the public service and is comprehensively provided for in chapter four of the
Public Service Regulations of 2016, particularly on resignations (Republic of
14.3.1 Retirement
Public service employees may retire at the age determined by the Public
Sen ice Act 103 of 1994 (PSA)PSA (Republic of South Africa. 1994). Three
retirement age provisions are considered (Republic of South Africa, 2008):
• Compulsory retirement at the age of 65 years, in accordance with
Section 16(1)(4) of the PSA.
• Early retirement in terms of Section 16(2A)(4) of the PSA, which provides
that an employee has the right to retire from the public service on the date
that he or she attains the age of 55 years or on any date after that date
although three calendar months’ notice should be taken into consideration.
• Retirement before the age of 55 years in terms of Section 16(6)(4j of the
PSA, if in the opinion of the executing authority or his or her delegate,
sufficient reason exists and the retirement will be to the advantage of
the state.
14.3.2 Resignations
Chapter 4 of the Public Service Regulations of 2016 (Republic of South
Africa. 2016) further makes provision for the termination of employment
upon resignation. In this regard, the following considerations should be
borne in mind:
353
• An employee may resign from the public service, and for that purpose,
shall in che case of any employee who has been employed for one year or
more, give at lease four weeks’ notice of resignation:
■ the case of an employee who has been employed for more than six
months but not more than a year, give at least two weeks’ notice of
resignation; and
■ in the case of any employee who has been employed for six months or
less, give at least one week’s notice.
• Subject to Section 16B(6) of the PSA. the executive authority and the
employee may agree to a period of notice shorter or longer than the
applicable period of two and one weeks' notices referred to above.
• An executive authority shall stipulate the manner in which an employee
shall submit his or her resignation.
• An executive authority shall conduct and record an exit interview with
an employee who has resigned and record the reasons given by che
employee for his or her resignation.
• An employee who has submitted his or her resignation to the executive
authority may only withdraw or his or her resignation with the written
approval of the executive authority, which approval shall be made no
later than the last working day.
• The executive authority may require the employee to return all
official equipment and documents, vacate his or her office and leave
the department’s premises before expiry of the notice period on a day
stipulated by the executive authority and not to perform any duties for
the remaining notice period.
• The period of resignation has been aligned to the provisions of the
Basic Conditions of Employment Act 75 of 1997 (BCEA) (Republic of
• The Public Service Regulations of 2016 allows for executive authority,
with the consent of the employee, to approve a shorter period provided
that no notice of a disciplinary hearing was given to the employee.
14.3.3 Ill-health
Issues of ill-health are serious and complex in modern society. What
compounds the situation in many African countries including South Africa
is the scourge of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, which has significantly affected
the productivity of many government institutions’ and their performance.
According to Haacker (2004: 41), HIV/AIDS has had a severe impact on the
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public service, with increased absenteeism, attrition rates and early retirement
as some of the visible effects on a day-to-day basis. An executing authority may,
based on medical evidence, consider the discharge of an employee in terms of
Section \7(2)(a) of the PSA on account of ill-health. To this end, an executing
authority may require an employee to undergo a medical examination by a
registered physician. A discharge on account of ill-health shall occur with due
regard to item 10 of Schedule 8 of the LRA (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1995).
14.3.4 Operational requirements

Chapter V of the Public Service Regulations of 1994 considers dismissal
based on operational requirements. This means that an executing authority
may discharge an employee when the actual performance of an employee does
not match the minimum expectations and requirements of an employer. This
matter is discussed in detail later in this chapter.
14.4 Definition of dismissal

While the termination of an employee s services can take different forms,
such as retirement, end of a contract and resignation, among others, reference
in this chapter is primarily to regulation of dismissal of an employee in terms
of chapter 8 of the LRA (Republic of South Africa, 1995). The dismissal of
an employee in the workplace, the public sector included, usually serves as
a culmination of internal disciplinary processes that have resulted in the
employer’s concluding that the relationship with the employee has broken
down completely. The disciplinary process takes place when an employee
has been found guilty of an offence committed against the employer. In this
regard, the LRA considers two kinds of dismissals: fair and unfair dismissals.
In other words, the termination of employment in the form of a dismissal

is usually done by the employer in face of the employee’s involuntary
relinquishing of employment. The employer makes a determination that
the services of an employee are no longer needed, and that termination of
employment is the most viable option. However, employees always have
a right to challenge the fairness of a dismissal or such termination of
employment, once internal processes within the workplace to address the
matter have been exhausted.
in this regard, the LRA provides at least six different operational definitions
of dismissals, as follows, making evident the complexity of the situations that
lead to dismissal, namely where:
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• an employment contract is terminated by the employer and notice is

either given or not given;
• an employee holds some expectations that the employer will renew the
contract on similar terms while the employer offers to renew it on less
favourable conditions or does not renew the contract;
• an employee who (a) was on maternity leave and (b) was absent from
work for four weeks before the delivery of the child and up to eight
weeks after the delivery of a child is not allowed to resume work under
a collective agreement or contract of employment;
• an employer opts to employ one or more of dismissed employees and
refuses to employ another although all employees were dismissed on
similar grounds;
• an employee is compelled to terminate employment services because an
employer has continued to make employment unbearable or intolerable;
and
• the conditions of employment are substantially less favourable in the
transference of employees to a new employer and an employee opts to
terminate the contract with or without notice.
These definitions of employee dismissals are not exhaustive, but they offer an
indication of the extent of regulation of dismissals by the LRA and should
serve as a point of departure in understanding when a dismissal verdict has
been unfairly executed (Rapatsa& Matloga, 2014: 5; Republic ofSouth Africa,
2019). It can thus be determined in terms of the law whether to consult with
a trade union or human resources (HR) practitioner within the institution in
order to exhaust internal grievance procedures.
Following on the above definitions of employee dismissals, it is imperative to

consider contextual issues pertaining to dismissals within the South African
public sector labour dispensation and environment.
14.5 Contextual issues pertaining to employee

dismissal
Public sector employment and its concomitant labour relations and
adherence to the practices of human resource management form the context
of this issue. Further, the Constitution provides a guarantee of employment
rights (McGregor. Dekker. Budeli-Nemakonde, Germishuys, Manamela,
Manamela & Tshoose, 2017: 173-174) in all sectors of society. South Africa
is one, sovereign, democratic state founded inter alia on human dignity, the
356
achievement of equality and the advancement of human rights and freedoms;

non-racialism and non-sexism, the supremacy of the Constitution and the
rule of law.
Section 23 of the LRA is elaborate in providing for fair labour practices in the
workplace for both employers and employees. This is regulated to consider
that every worker has the right,among others, to form and join a trade union;
to participate in the activities and programmes of a trade union; and to strike.
The provisions of the Constitution are thrashed our in the comprehensive
provisions of the LRA, which was a culmination of the National Economic
Development and Labour Council (NEDLAC) agreement on the labour
relations dispensation and management for all the employment sectors in
South Africa.
The LRA intends to advance economic development, social justice, and the
democratisation of the workplace by:
1. giving effect to and regulating the fundamental rights conferred by
Section 27 of the Constitution, which makes provision fcr the right to
health care, food, water and social security; and
2. giving effect to the obligations incurred by the Republic as a member
state of the International Labour Organization (ILO) to provide a
framework within which employees and their trade unions, employers
and employer’ organisations can collectively bargain to determine
wages, terms and conditions of employment and other matters of
mutual interest; formulate industrial policy; and
3. promoting orderly collective bargaining at sectoral level and employee
participation in decision-making in the workplace.
Most of the legislative provisions have been tested beyond their capacity in
disputes between employers and trade unions in the labour environment,
including the public sector. In the current South African labour dispensation,
issues of unprotected strikes and corruption have largely led to a consideration
of dismissals. For example, the highly publicised case dubbed the ’Marikana
massacrewhere 34 miners were shot and killed by the South African Police
Services, epitomises the extent to which employment relations may get out
of hand. In this turbulent employment environment, public sector managers
must demonstrate competency in labour relations matters when dealing with
the complexities of dismissals.
357
14.6 Causes of employee dismissals in the public

sector
hi order ro properly address the issue of dismissal, rhe procedures which are
generally followed and which indicate the initial phases of a dismissal should
be considered. Accordingly, the right to dismiss employees needs to be legally
exercised by employers (Ntumy, 2015: 119). The matter of dispute resolutions
and hearings is discussed in the previous chapter and needs no repetition.
In a proper contextualisation of the issue, the Public Service Commission
(Republic of South Africa. 2002a) considers the question of precautionary
suspension as one of the key aspects in that: (1) the employee has committed
an offence which is regarded as serious; and (2) when the employee is present
in the workplace, he or she may jeopardise a particular investigation into
alleged misconduct, or endanger the wellbeing or safety of any person or state
property (Republic ofSouth Africa, 2002a). In this regard, the employee could
be moved to another section.
In view of the above, the Public Service Commission (Republic of South

Africa. 2002a: 4-5) considers a two-fold definition of precautionary
suspension, which makes provision for: (a) precautionary transfer and (b)
precautionary suspension with full pay. This means that an interim measure
is imposed by rhe employer not as a disciplinary sanction but for reasons of
orderly administration. Since precautionary suspension does not constitute
judgement, invoking these measures should not take away employee benefits
and should allow an employee to be on full pay.
The following are the guiding principles for precautionary suspension

(Republic of South Africa, 2002: 5):
• The employer must have valid and fair reasons based on fair labour
relations principles;
• The suspension period should be reasonable and justifiable;
• A regular review of suspensions should be done;
• Disciplinary and operational requirements should be balanced in the
interests of the employee's carrying out his or her daily responsibilities;
and
• A speedy and effective finalisation of the disciplinary process.
/X study conducted in 2011 by the Public Service Commission sheds light on

the reasons why government departments put officials under precautionary
suspension, among which are (Republic of South Africa. 2011: viii): financial
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misconduct; insubordination; failure to bank state money; gross negligence

resulting in loss of state monies; theft; drunken driving; misuse of state
property; fraud; corruption; keeping a dangerous weapon (firearm); sexual
harassment; unauthorised expenditure; and violation of the tender process.
The above constitute rhe major causes of dismissals in the public service,
which means that public managers are likely to have to deal with these more
than other reasons for dismissal. Each public institution is required to develop
its own disciplinary code within the broader context of the code conduct
set for the entire public service. /\ categorisation of the disciplinary code
may be made in terms of serious, very serious and less serious offences that
contribute to precautionary suspensions (Fouche, 1998: 305-306; National
Sea Rescue institute ofSouth Africa. 2018: 11-15) or whatever procedure the
public institution deems relevant in a particular case. Tables 14 1, 14.2 and
14.3 offer more details in terms of these categories.
Table 14.1: Very serious offences
Offence First offence Second Third Fourth

offence offence offence
Theft of institution s Dismissal
property and
resources
Fraud Dismissal
Insubordination Final written warning Dismissal
Table 14.2: Serious Offences
Offence First Second offence Third Fourth

offence offence offence
Drunken driving Final written warning Dismissal
Unauthorised Final written warning Dismissal

absence
Negligence Written warning Final written warning Dismissal
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Table 14.3: Less serious offences
Offence First offence Second offence Third Fourth

offence offence
Late coming Written warning Final written warning Dismissal
Wastage of Verbal warning Written warning Final written Dismissal

resources warning
Playing while at Verbal warning Written warning Final written Dismissal

work warning
Failure to comply Verbal warning Written warning Final written Dismissal

with smoking policy warning
DID YOU KNOW?

Classification of different offences helps to simplify the difficult task of
adhering to fair procedures in the eventual and unfortunate dismissal of
an employee. Classification helps to clarify disciplinary procedures and
assists in maintaining consistency.
14.7 Fairness of a dismissal

Schedule 8 of the LRA (Republic of South Africa. 1995) provides a detailed
consideration of a code of good practice that relates to the fairness of a
dismissal. The fairness of a dismissal depends on whether the employer
can demonstrate that all the legal procedures for dismissing an employee
were followed to the letter (Van der Bank. 2014: 93). The Commission for
Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration’s (CCMA) code of good practice
states that, although each case is unique, the fairness of a dismissal should
relate to ‘any notice period in a contract employment or any legislation
governing employment’. Conversely, a dismissal case is determined 'by the
facts of the case and the appropriateness of a dismissal as a penalty' instead
of other penalties such as suspension and fines.
There are at least three legitimate grounds of dismissal that are governed by
Schedule 8 ofthe LRA. namely, the conduct of an employee; the capacity of an
employee; and the operational requirements of the employer’s business.
The LRA considers dismissals as an important component of the employment

dispensation in South Africa which needs to be properly regulated for all
employment types in the public sector, as well as the National Defence Force,
360
rhe National Intelligence Agency, and the South African Secret Service. Every
dismissal within an employment environment should be done lawfully to
ensure procedural and substantive fairness and the maintenance of sound
labour practices.
14.8 Unfair dismissal

Employees’ rights to employment in the public service are mainly protected
by the provisions of the LRA (Republic of South Africa, 1995). However, the
National Defence Force, the National Intelligence Agency and the South
African Secret Service are excluded from this provision. Section 187 of the
LRA makes provision for unfair dismissal to protect employees. A dismissal
is automatically unfair if the employer acts contrary to Section 5 of the LRA
or if the reason for the dismissal is:
• the employee’s participation in or support, or intention to participate in
or support a strike or protest action that complies with the provisions
of chapter IV of the Act (which deals with strikes and lock-outs in the
workplace);
• the employee’s refusal or intention to refuse to do any work normally
done by an employee who at the time was taking part in a strike that
complies with the provisions for strikes or was locked out, unless that
work is necessary to prevent danger to life, personal safety or health;
• to compel the employee to accept a demand in respect of any matter of
mutual interest between the employer and employee;
• the employees taking action, or indicating an intention to take action
against the employer by-exercising any right conferred by the LRA or by
participating in any proceedings in terms of the LRA;
• the employee’s pregnancy, intended pregnancy, or any reason related to
her pregnancy;
• the employers unfair discrimination against an employee, directly
or indirectly, on any arbitrary ground, including, but not limited to
race, gender, sex, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation,
age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, political opinion, culture,
language, marital status or family responsibility;
• a transfer, or a reason related to a transfer, contemplated in Section 197 or
197A (which considers issues of transfers of contract of employment); or
• the employer's contravention of the Protected Disclosures /\ct 26 of
2000, on account of an employee having made a protected disclosure as
defined in that Act.
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14.9 Automatically unfair dismissals

Finnemore (2009: 40) indicates that, in general, automatic unfair dismissal
is intended to protect employees against any potential victimisation by
employers. Tins regulation shows a subtle understanding of the inequality in
the power relation between employer and employee, which necessitates legal
regulation and enforcement of the provisions pertaining to the dismissal
of employees. Van der Westhuizen and Wessels (2011: 502) remind us that
employers should be in a position to dismiss their employees only when there
is justification for appropriate action and fair procedure has been followed.
The democratic nature of government now in place and the labour relations
dispensation in South Africa provide an opportunity for employees to be
listened to. The audi alterant partem rule (meaning ‘listen to the other side’ or
‘let the other side be heard’) remains essential and is one of the most important
elements of the labour relations discourse as advanced in the literature
on labour relations (Halley, 2014: 12). The author believes that even when
strikers are on unprotected strikes, they should be given a hearing in relation
to the common-law rules of natural justice. That is to say, an explanation of
employees’ conduct by employees themselves remains a necessity.
Despite theforegoingdiscussion.it is necessary co bear in mind that a dismissal

may be fair if the reason for dismissal is based on an inherent requirement of
the particular job. A dismissal based on age is fair if the employee has reached
the normal or agreed retirement age for persons employed in that capacity.
Section 5 of the LRA (Republic of South Africa, 1995) confers further

protections relating to the right to freedom of association and membership
of workplace forums. Chapter IV of the LRA deals with industrial action and
conduct in support of industrial action. In Sections 67(4) and (5) of the LRA,
che following provisions are made:
• An employer may not dismiss an employee for participating in a
protected strike or for any conduct in contemplation of or in furtherance
of a protected strike.
• Subsection (4) does not preclude an employer from fairly dismissing an
employee in compliance with the provisions of chapter VIII for a reason
related to the employee’s conduct during the strike, or for a reason
based on the employer s operational requirements.
Section 77(3) of the LRA provides that a person who takes part in protest
action or in any conduct in contemplation or in furtherance of protest
action that complies with subsection (1) regarding adherence to all the legal
processes, enjoys the protection conferred by Section 67 of the Act.
362
One of the main reasons public institutions employ managers is that they
are needed to represent the employer and act on behalf of the employer in
compliance with the labour relations rules. In this regard, frequent and
planned interventions such as training workshops, seminars and awareness,
among others, are needed to support public officials in adhering to legislative
imperatives. Another key consideration is to avoid unnecessary procedural
and other errors which could turn out to be costly for the institutions and
compromise its credibility. As Section 188 of the LRA prescribes, different
kinds ol dismissals should be considered in a proper understanding of
categories of employee dismissal and correct adherence to the law.
14.10 Categories of dismissals

Section 188 of the LRA (Republic of South Africa, 1995) considers issues
pertaining to ‘other unfair dismissals’, relating to the conduct and capacity
of an employee and the operational requirements of the employer’s business.
14.10.1 Dismissal with regard to employee's conduct

According to the LRA (Republic of South Africa, 1995) and the South African
Labour Guide (Online: 2020), there are two key aspects relating to the
dismissal of an employee relating to misconduct: The fairness of disciplinary
procedures prior to dismissal and the substantive fairness relating to
misconduct. As regards disciplinary procedures prior to dismissal:
• An employer is required to adopt standard rules which apply to all
employees. The intention is to ensure that certainty and consistency
are created, especially in the application of discipline in the workplace.
While all rules must be clarified and simplified, some rules are well
known, and it is not necessary to communicate them.
• The courts in South Africa have endorsed the concept of corrective
progressive discipline which seeks to indicate that employees should
know the expectations and standards required of them in performing
their duties. In this regard, correcting employees’ behaviour should
be done through a ‘system of graduated disciplinary measure’ such as
counselling and warnings.
• Formal procedures need not be invoked every time rules are broken,
or standards are not met. Usually, informal advice and correction are
regarded as the best way to deal with minor violations of discipline.
Obviously, repeated misconduct will attract warnings, graded in degrees
of severity. Repeated warnings or serious infringements may call for
a final warning. The understanding here is that dismissal should be
reserved for cases of serious misconduct or repeated offences.
363
Once che above procedures are adhered co, che question of dismissal based on
misconduct may be considered. The following are essential considerations in this
regard (Republic of Souch Africa, 1995; South African Labour Guide. Online):
• In general, che first offence that an employee commies does not warranc a
dismissal. Dismissal for a first offence must mean that an employee has
committed an act of grave misconduct that makes the continuation of
t he employment relationship intolerable. For example, gross dishonesty
or damaging the property of an employer, wilfully endangering the
safety of others, physical assaults on the employer or a fellow employee,
clients or customers, as well as gross insubordination. However, it is
important to bear in mind that each case must be judged on its own
merits and is subject to Section 188 of the LRA. which deals with issues
of unfair dismissal.
• The penalty of dismissal should be imposed noc only in relation to
the gravity of the misconduct but should consider factors such as
the employee’s circumstances. These circumstances include length
of service, previous disciplinary record and personal circumstances,
among others.
• The employer is required to apply the penalty of dismissal in a manner
consistent with past dismissals. In this way, bias and unfairness
are reduced.
The above highlights important considerations regarding imposition of

the penalty of dismissal, by employers. Reference should also be made co
Tables 14.1, 14.2 and 14.3 above which describe che classification of offences
in che public sector and the application of dismissal as a penalty by
public institutions.
14.10.2 Dismissals relating to employee's capacity

The quescion of an employee’s physical incapacity and its effect on work
performance is an important consideration since one of the primary reasons
for employment is employees’ capacity to undertake the duties allocated co
them. In other words, employees sell their labour to the employer in exchange
for payment. Key factors in both substantive and procedural fairness relating
to an employee’s incapacity or poor work performance are described in
Table 14.4 (Polity. Online: 2016).
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Table 14.4: Employee's capacity: key factors in substantive and procedural fairness
Substantive fairness Procedural fairness

• Nature of the incapacity • Onus is on the employer to ensure that
• Extent and degree of the employee’s reasonable steps are taken to assist the
inability toperform employee
• Likelihood of recovery or improvement • Employer should consult with the
employee about his or her incapacity
• Size of and possible effect on the
employer's operations • Medical treatment or placement
elsewhere in the company should be
• Effect on the welfare, safety and morale
considered
of other employees
• Employee should be informed of his poor
• Status of the employee, service record
performance and possible consequences
and length of service
of non-improvement
• Period of absence in the case of
• Training or placement elsewhere should
incapacity
be considered
• Cause of the incapacity or poor
• A proper formal hearing should be
performance
conducted in order to afford the employee
an opportunity to state his or her case
Schedule 8 of the LRA specifies two kinds of dismissals relating to the capacity
of an employee, namely, dismissal for poor work performance and dismissal
for ill-health. In further discussing dismissal leased on capacity, the issues
regarding employee probation, poor work performance and ill-health need to
be taken into consideration.
14.10.2.1 Probation in relation to performance

Probation policy serves the purpose of ensuring that employees are provided
with an opportunity to determine their performance before confirming
their permanent appointment. In this case, such employee performance is
considered co be directly related to the capacity of an employee in undertaking
their tasks. The following are taken into account:
• An employer may require a newly hired employee to serve a period
of probation before the appointment of the employee is confirmed.
The purpose of the probation is to allow the employer to evaluate
the employee’s performance before confirming the appointment.
Schedule 8 of the LRA makes provision for dismissal of employees on
the basis of poor work performance while they are still on probation, as
follows: Probation should not be used to deprive employees of the status
of permanent employment. For example, by dismissing employees who
complete their probationary periods and replacing them with newly
hired employees.
365
• The period of probation should be determined in advance and be

of reasonable duration to determine the employee’s suitability for
continued employment.
• During the probationary period, the employee should be given an
opportunity for reasonable evaluation, instruction, training, guidance or
counselling in order to allow the employee to render satisfactory service.
• If the employer determines that the employee’s performance is below
standard, the employer should advise the employee of any aspects in
which the employer considers the employee to be failing to meet the
required performance standards. If the employer believes that the
employee is incompetent, the employer should advise the employee of
the respects in which the employee is not competent. The employer may
either extend the probationary period or dismiss the employee after
complying with other relevant sub-items of the LRA, as the case may be.
• The period of probation may be extended only for a reason that
relates to the purpose of probation. The period of extension should
not be disproportionate to the legitimate purpose that the employer
seeks to achieve.
• An employer may decide to dismiss an employee or extend the
probationary period only after the employer has invited the employee
to make representations and has considered any representations
made. A trade union representative or fellow employee may make the
representations on behalf of the employee.
• If the employer decides to dismiss the employee or co extend the proba
tionary period, the employer should advise the employee of his or her
rights to refer the matter to a council having jurisdiction or to the CCMA.
• Any person making a decision about the fairness of a dismissal of
an employee for poor work performance during or on expiry of the
probationary period ought to accept reasons for dismissal that may be
less compelling than would be the case in dismissals effected after the
completion of the probationary period.
Once an employee’s appointment is confirmed, a different approach should

be considered in dealing with issues of underachievement or poor work
performance. The LRA stipulates that after probation, an employee should
not be dismissed for unsatisfactory performance unless the employer has:
• given the employee appropriate evaluation, instruction, training,
guidance or counselling; and
• after a reasonable period of time for improvement, the employee con
tinues to perform unsatisfactorily.
366
The procedure leading ro dismissal should include an investigation ro

establish che reasons for the unsatisfactory performance and the employer
should consider other ways, short of dismissal, to remedy the matter. In the
process, the employee should have the right to be heard and to be assisted by
a trade union representative or a fellow employee.
14.10.2.2 Dismissal for poor work performance

The guidelines from the LRA must be taken into account in dismissal for
poor work performance. In this regard, any person determining whether a
dismissal for poor work performance is unfair should consider
• whether or not the employee failed to meet a performance standard; and
• if the employee did not meet a required performance standard, whether
or not (1) the employee was aware, or could reasonably be expected to have
been aware, of the required performance standard; (2) the employee was
given a fair opportunity to meet the required performance standard:
and (3) dismissal was an appropriate sanction for not meeting the
required performance standard.
14.10.2.3 Dismissal for ill-health or injury

Where work environments pose hazards for employees in respect of injury or
disease, adherence to and compliance with health and safety regulations is a
requirement. Further, it is necessary co bear in mind the issue of HIV/AIDS and
its effects on employee health and how public sector managers are expected
to handle it in the working environment. This is because HIV/AIDS has
reached crisis proportions in South Africa, where the impact on productivity
has been observed in several studies (Human Sciences Research Council,
2014: xiii). Mashiane’s (2017: 10) study on rhe Health and Wellness Programme
regarding Employee Assisted Programme highlights the emotional pressure
on employees who are either infected or affected by HIV/AIDS, undermining
their public service role in society. The LRA makes provision for the following:
• Incapacity on the grounds of ill-health or injury may be temporary
or permanent. If an employee is temporarily unable to work in these
circumstances, the employer should investigate the extent of the
incapacity or the injury. If the employee is likely to be absent for a time
that is unreasonably long in the circumstances, the employer should
investigate all the possible alternatives short of dismissal. When
alternatives are considered, relevant factors might include the nature
of the job, the period of absence, the seriousness of the illness or injury
and the possibility of securing a temporary replacement for the ill
or injured employee. In cases of permanent incapacity, the employer
367
should ascertain the possibility of securing alternative employment

or adapting the duties or work circumstances of the employee to
accommodate the employee’s disability.
• In the process of investigation referred to above, the employee should be
allowed the opportunity to state a case in response and to be assisted by
a trade union representative or fellow employee.
• The degree of incapacity is relevant to the fairness of the dismissal. The
cause of (he incapacity may also be relevant. In the case of certain kinds
of incapacity, for example, alcoholism or drug abuse, counselling and
rehabilitation may be appropriate steps for an employer to consider.
• Particular consideration should be given to employees who arc injured
at work or who are incapacitated by work-related illness. The courts
have indicated that the duty on the employer to accommodate the
incapacity of the employee is more onerous in these circumstances.
In dealing with dismissals in cases arising from ill-health or injury, any

determination of fairness or unfairness should consider:
• whether or not the employee is capable of performing the work; and
• if the employee is not capable: (1) the extent to which the employee is
able to perform the work; (2) the extent to which the employee’s work
circumstances might be adapted to accommodate a disability; or (3)
where this is not possible, the extent to which the employee’s duties
might be adapted and the availability of any suitable alternative work.
14.10.3 Dismissal based on operational requirements

The discharge of employees for operational reasons is regulated by both the
LRA (Republic of South Africa, 1995) and PSA (Republic of South Africa,
1994). Employers are still required to adhere to the principles of both
substantive and procedural fairness when operational requirements are at
issue (Van der Westhuizen and Wessels, 2011: 512). These authors remind
us that fair dismissal based on operational requirements requires special
consideration from employers since they are not of the employee's making.
Thus, compliance with the Section \7(Z)(b) and (c) ofthe PSA and Section 189
and Section 190 of the LRA as well as Section 189A of the Labour Relations
Amendment Act 12 of 2002 (Republic of South Africa, 1994) is imperative.
In the case of such dismissals, public managers must consider key factors
that relate to substantive fairness and procedural fairness, as described in
Table 14.5 below.
368
Table 14.5: Key factors in substantive and procedural fairness relating to dismissals for
operational reasons
Substantive fairness Procedural fairness

• A valid and fair reason for the • Prior consultation
retrenchment. • Prior consensus over certain matters
• Disclosure of certain information
• Allowing employees to make representations
• Genuine consideration of these representations
• Selection of employees to be retrenched
• Payment of retrenchment package
While the LRA does not prescribe what constitutes a valid and fair reason,
this has been well established by the Industrial Court. In brief, the employer’s
reason for the dismissal must be a genuine reason based on the operational
requirements of the business. The factors that may cause employees' services
no longer to be needed can be as diverse as a downswing in the economy, the
implementation of new technology, restructuring of the institution, or the
shutting down of a plant or part of the institution or even the closing down
of the section or unit or the entire department.
If an employer tries to nd himself or herself of employees for whatever reason

(for example, because they had joined a trade union or because the employer
is dissatisfied with their conduct or capacity) under the guise of operational
reasons, such a scheme will indubitably be found to be grossly unfair. If an
employee’s conduct or ability to perform his or her duties is not to his or
her employer’s satisfaction, the fairness standards relating to dismissal for
misconduct or incapacity must be complied with. To dismiss the ‘undesirable’
employee under the pretence of operational reasons (because the employer
has insufficient proof, for example, or wants to save the costs of holding a
hearing, or does not want to waste time on the employee) will always be unfair.
14.11 Procedural fairness in retrenchment of

employees
The requirements for procedurally fair retrenchment are presented as a seven
step process by Van der Westhuizen and Wessels (2011: 512-520):
369
Step 1: Consulting the other party: Section 189(1) the LRA (Republic of
South Africa, 1995) prescribes a preferred sequence of persons with whom the
employer is required to consult when contemplating dismissal of one or more
employees for reasons based on the employer's operational requirements.
Step 2: Attempting to reach consensus: This entails an effort on the

part of the consulting parties to try to reach consensus on ‘appropriate
measures' outlined on Section 189(2) of the LRA. This section specifies the
following measures over which consensus is required: avoidance, minimising,
timing, mitigation, selection, and compensation. The process is summarised
in Table 14.6.
Table 14.6: Measures specified by the LRA when considering retrenchment of employees
Appropriate measure Necessary action

Avoidance • Reduce recruitment
• Retrain workers
• Transfer workers
• Doaway with overtime
• Reconsider subcontractors
• Consider shorter working hours
Selection • Early retirement
• Voluntary retrenchment
• Last in. first out (Lifo)
Notification • Consider notification period
• Consider details of aid
• Consider individuals who will be affected
• Consider the organisation as a whole
• Consider the community
Assistance • Unemployment aid from government
• Severance pay
• Additional payments
• Non-financial aid
Source: Author's own
370
Step 3: Providing relevant information to the other party: Section

189(3) read together with Section 16 places an explicit duty on an employer
to provide the other party in writing with any information relevant to the
possible retrenchment.
Step 4: Affording the other party an opport unity to make representations:

In terms of Section 189(5) of the Act, the employer must allow the other
consulting party an opportunity during consultation to make representations
about any matter on which they are consulting. The employer must, in good
faith, consult with the trade union about the intended retrenchments.
Should the employer not allow the trade union (or other party) to make
representations during consultations, the retrenchment will be unfair. Issues
on which the other party may make representations include ‘any matter' and
would presumably include at least those mentioned in Section 189(2).
Step 5: Considering and responding to the representations made by

the other party: In terms of Section 189(6), the employer must consider and
respond to the representations made by the other consulting party and, if
the employer does not agree with them, the employer must state the reasons
for disagreeing. Having received the representations of the other party, the
employer is under a statutory obligation to consider these proposals in good
faith, and to give reasons should he or she not agree with them. Although
not explicitly required, it would be best to give this response and reasons in
writing to the other party.
Step 6: Selecting employees for retrenchment: In terms of Section 189(7),

the employer must select the employees to be dismissed according to selection
criteria that have been agreed to by the consulting parties or, if no criteria
have been agreed, criteria that are fair and objective. ‘Fairness’ in this context
entails a balancing of the interests of the various stakeholders, including
retrenchees, the employer, the workers not to be retrenched, the trade union,
shareholders of the organisation and the public at large. ‘Objective’ means
criteria that are open to external or third party verification. Criteria other
than the popular last-in-first-out (Lifo) may be used, as long as they are not
subject to the opinion of any individual.
Step 7: Payment of retrenchment packages: Prior to the promulgation

of the LRA (Section 196). there was no obligation on an employer to pay a
severance package to retrenchees, except if the employer had paid packages
in the past; if he or she had promised to pay a package; or if he or she was
contractually bound (either in termsofa collective agreement or in accordance
with an employment contract) to pay a package. The payment of retrenchment
371
packages was held to be a substantive issue over which the (except in the case
of any of the three circumstances listed above) courts had no jurisdiction;
it had to be regulated by an agreement between the employer and his or
her employees.
14.12 Prescribed severance pay

Section 189A of the LRA (Republic of South Africa. 1995) provides for
dismissals due to operational requirements by employers who employ 50 or
more employees, according to the ratios listed below. The legislation applies if
the employer contemplates dismissing at least:
• 10 employees, if the employer employs up to 200 employees;
• 20 employees, if the employer employs more than 200, but not more
than 300. employees;
than 400 employees;
than 500 employees and;
• 50 employees, if the employer employs more than 500 employees; or
the number of employees that the employer contemplates dismissing
together with the number of employees that have been dismissed by
reason of the employer’s operational requirements in the 12 months
prior to the employer's issuing a notice, is equal to or exceeds the relevant
number specified above (Republic ofSouth Africa 1995: s 189A(1).
Under these circumstances, a facilitator may be appointed to assist the parties

in resolving the dispute. If a facilitator is appointed and 60 days have elapsed
from the date on which notice was given by the employer that he or she
contemplates retrenching employees, the employer may give notice to terminate
the contracts of employment in accordance with the BCEA and a registered
trade union or the employees who have received notice of termination may
either give notice of a strike or refer the dispute to the Labour Court.
If a facilitator is not appointed, a party may not refer a dispute to a council

or the CCMA unless a period of 30 days has elapsed from the date on which
notice of the impending retrenchments was given. Once this period has
lapsed, the parties’ rights are as explained in the above paragraph.
To sum up: There are only three grounds of justification for dismissal - a
dismissal must be classifiable as either a conduct or a capacity dismissal; or
372
a dismissal for operational reasons; and it must be justified by standards of

fairness pertaining to those particular grounds ofjustification. The Focus on
Research below provides a discussion of labour law in South Africa relating
to the dismissal of employees being investigated.
Comparing South African and international practice
In a doctoral study which undertook to investigate disciplinary enquiries

in terms of Schedule 8 of the LRA, Smit (2010) researched the question of
dismissal within the South African labour environment. He juxtaposed his
research focus on South Africa with some of the international practices
and considerations. This international focus included the ILO, which is
a unit of the United Nations promoting sound global labour practices,
the European Union, Southern African Development Community, the
Netherlands, United Kingdom and the United States of America. This
approach of comparing labour practices, especially on dismissal (o'
termination of employment), was followed to analyse the fairness of
Schedule 8 of the Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995 (LRA).
The researcher found that the LRA generally complies with international
norms and standards. ILO Convention C158, which promulgated the
Termination of Employment Convention 158 of 1982 is particularly
relevant to Sections 138(6) and 203(3) of the LRA, which empower the
CCMA commissioners to determine if a dismissal is procedurally fair.
The researcher is critical of the often held view that South African dismissal
laws are rigid. He argues that, on the contrary, these laws are highly
flexible and depend on the knowledge and ability of the implementers
(such as employers, employees, trade unions, consultants and lawyers,
among others). A spotlight on the law is presented below to consider
how a dismissal case was handled within the purview of labour law by a
provincial government department.
373
Fair or unfair dismissal?
In the matter of Yvonne de Milander v MEC Department of Finance in the Eastern

Cape Province, General Public Sector Bargaining Council and Kelvyn Kayster
130 November 2012) case no PA7/11 in the Labour Appeals Court, an
employee approached the CCMA in relation to non-renewal of her fixed-
term contract. The court sought to determine whether the employee had
a reasonable expectation of renewal of her employment.
The employee’s second fixed-term contract of employment was due to
commence on 1 May 2004 and terminate on 30 April 2009. However,
in early 2006, less than two years into the five-year contract, the
appellant’s personal circumstances took a dramatic turn. This resulted
in her communicating with numerous high-ranking provincial officials
to secure either a transfer or a secondment to any vacant public service
position in Port Elizabeth. The transfer was granted, subject to certain
conditions. One of those conditions was that the appellant would lose her
so-called role-playing allowance. It was further recorded that she was to
be appointed on a contract basis 'for the remainder of your [ her] contract
period with Premier's Office with effect from 1 September 2006 to 30
April 2009’. The letter went on to record that she would ‘be held against a
post of a Manager (Deputy Director): Cacadu District Office’.
Some five months or so after her transfer, the position she was occupying
at the district office was advertised as a permanent post. Shortly after
the advertisement, the employee addressed a letter to the MEC: Finance
requesting that her appointment be translated from fixed-term contract to
permanent appointment. This was rejected, indicating that the employee
should compete with all other applicants accordingly.
374
In February 2009, the MEC: Finance informed the employee that her
employment contract would not be extended. The employee then referred
an alleged unfair dismissal dispute to the Bargaining Council, contending
that the termination of her contract constituted an unfair dismissal in
view of the fact that she had reasonably expected that it would be renewed
on the same or similar terms. Following this, an attempt to conciliate
the dispute failed and the appellant referred the dispute for arbitration
on 22 May 2009. The Commissioner who presided at the arbitration
hearing found that the appellant had proved that she had a reasonable
expectation that her contract would be renewed and held that the first
respondent’s failure to renew it constituted a dismissal which he found
to have been unfair. The Commissioner thereafter proceeded to order the
first respondent to reinstate the appellant and pay her a sum of R202 216.
Upon appeal ofthis Commissioner ruling by the MEC: Finance, the Labour
Appeals Court found and ruled that the Commissioner had erred in finding
that the appellant had proved the requirements of Section 186(1)(ty of
the LRA, namely that the employee could reasonably expect the employer
to renew her fixed-term contract of employment on the same or similar
terms, the employer having offered to renew it on less favourable terms
or not at all. It held that the employee had failed to show that she had
a reasonable expectation that her fixed-term contract would be renewed
or that she reasonably expected that it would have not terminated but
for the failure of the respondent to renew it. It accordingly set aside the
arbitration award from the CCMA.
(Southern African Legal Information Institute, Online: 2012)
14.13 Remedies for unfair dismissal

If the Labour Court or an arbitrator appointed in terms of the LRA (Republic
of South Africa, 1995) finds that a dismissal is unfair, the Court or the
arbitrator may order the employer to:
• reinstate the employee from any date not earlier than the date of
dismissal;
• re-employ the employee, either in the work in which the employee was
employed before the dismissal or in other reasonably suitable work on
any terms and from any date not earlier than the dace of dismissal; or
• pay compensation to the employee.
375
The Labour Court or the arbitrator must require the employer to reinstate or
re-employ the employee unless:
• the employee does not wish to be reinstated or re-employed;
• the circumstances surrounding the dismissal are such that a continued
employment relationship would be intolerable;
• it is not reasonably practicable for the employer to reinstate or re
employ the employee; or
• the dismissal is unfair only because the employer did not follow a fair
procedu re.
If a dismissal is automatically unfair, or if a dismissal based on the

employer’s operational requirements is found to be unfair, the Labour Court
may in addition make any other order that it considers appropriate in the
circumstances.
An arbitrator appointed in terms of the LRA may determine any unfair

labour practice dispute referred to the arbitrator on terms that the
arbitrator deems reasonable, which may include ordering reinstatement, re
employment or compensation. In the case of a dismissal that constitutes an
act of discrimination, the Court may wish to issue an interdict obliging the
employer to stop the discriminatory practice, in addition to one of the other
remedies it may grant.
14.14 Pre-dismissal arbitration

Instead of holding an internal hearing prior to dismissing an employee for
misconduct or incapacity, the employer and employee may agree to hold a pre
dismissal arbitration paid for by the employer. This arbitration is conducted
by a council, the CCMA or an accredited agency and is final and binding
and subject only to review by the Labour Court. Employees may agree to a
pre-dismissal arbitration after receiving the charges brought against them.
Higher-paid employees may agree to pre-dismissal arbitration in their
contracts of employment. The possibility of pre-dismissal arbitration was
introduced by the 2002 amendments to the LRA (Republic ofSouth Africa,
1995). Its purpose is to avoid the duplication that often occurs when an
internal hearing is conducted at the workplace prior to dismissal, followed by
an arbitration conducted by the CCMA or a council after the dismissal has
taken place (Republic ofSouth Africa, 2002b: 63).
376
14.15 Conclusion
This chapter considered the manner in which termination of employment
takes place in the public sector. Particular emphasis was laid on the dismissal
of employees, which requires strict adherence to the LRA. Both employers
and employees should consider their rights and obligations in adhering to
the legislative prescripts for the dismissals to be regarded as substantively
and procedurally fair. The public sector employment, therefore, requires
highly competent managers who can ensure that sound labour relations arc
maintained with employees and trade unions. Such conduct is expected to
contribute to the improvement of public services.

1. Describe Elective and Automatic Theories as the theoretical basis
for employment contract termination. Provide relevant examples to
justify your response.
2. What are the different forms of termination of services in the public
sector?
3. Briefly describe what you understand as a dismissal and what are the
main considerations of fair dismissals?
4. Provide an analysis of the main causes of employee dismissals and
what you would consider as very serious, serious and less serious
offences in your department or institution of choice in the public
sector.
5. Critique the seven requirements for a procedurally fair retrenchment.
377
Part 7
Future of human resource
management
The new context and character ofpublic service - shifting values, eroding
human capital, aggressive entrepreneurship, exploding information
technology ... spreading contracting reforms, a diminishing managerial
corps ... requires enhanced professional technical, ethical, and leadership
competencies.
Bowman, West and Beck, 2009
Public institutions do not exist in isolation and human resource management
(HRM) within them must thus be contextualised in terms of their external
milieu. Although this external milieu constantly changes, it is important to
establish some future framework of factors that may have an impact on the
way staff are managed in public institutions.
Contemporary HRM in the public sector is remarkably complex. One might

say that it is at a standstill at a crossroads or, today, something more like
a multi-ringed traffic circle with many places of entry and egress. Twenty
years ago, ‘New Public Management’ linked the intersection of earlier multi
faceted attempts; we have been repositioned from the dictates of a traditional
managerial approach to the new public service models. The current problem
with South African HRM practice and theory is to put together the values,
operations and essential procedural arrangements with each of these models.
There is no map, which is one reason why we have stood still at the crossroads
or keep re-entering the traffic circle.
Nonetheless, some cautious generalisations about the future seem apt. At the
least, HR specialists need to be aware of the diverse perspectives that bear
on their jobs. Individually, each perspective brings much to the traffic circle.
Meanwhile, we are currently observing monumental changes in terms of the
nature of work. Taken together, these developments indicate that we will see
large-scale changes in the role of public servants.
Against this background, Part 7 presents a dialogue on the future of HRM.

All the chapters presented in this part seek to expand and enrich the HR
function, beginning with a discussion of the role of political leadership in a
dynamic and changing human resource work environment.
This is followed by a survey of converging HRM practices in the developed

world, BRICS countries and Africa and the manner in which developed
countries have conveyed HR ideas and practices to developing countries.
Thereafter follows a detailed deliberation on decolonisation and HRM in
South Africa. Finally, HR metrics are presented as a key tool in establishing
governance in the public sector workplace.
Chapter Role of political leadership in
15 a dynamic and changing human

resource environment
Liezel Lues
Purpose
This chapter contextualises the milieu within which public management

transitions takes place. The focus will particularly be on the role of
political leadership accountability therein and the manner in which
human resources are managed during these transitions.
Learning outcomes
• Explain the influence of the global-, macro and micro-environment
on human resource management (HRM) in the South African public
sector.
• Discuss the dynamics of the South African workforce environment
before and post 1994.
• Distinguish between the political reform initiatives of the Mandela,
Mbeki, Zuma and Ramaphosa administrations with the focus on
HRM.
• Discuss the leadership theories linked to the respective South African
Presidents.
• Describe contemporary trends in and challenges for public sector
HRM.
15.1 Introduction
Public sector leadership is central to the government's efforts to execute
its functions and to render services to the public tn an accountable and
sustainable manner. Leadership in the public sector entails not only
executive leadership (for example, the President and Ministers; the Premiers
and the Members of the Executive; the municipal managers and municipal
councils) but also mid-echelon leadership (such as chief directors, directors
and assistant directors) as well as societal leadership (traditional leaders,
religious leaders and educators). For public sector leaders to be accountable
and lead in a sustainability manner they have to (i) adhere to legislation, in an
attempt to provide tangible solutions to the increasing public service delivery
demands, and (ii) ensure that resources are used in such a manner that it will
be sustainable.
This chapter focuses on the public management transitions that took place
since becoming a democracy in 1994, particularly the role of South African
public sector leadership accountability. It introduces the global, macro-,
and micro-environments and how these environments shape the future of
public management. How South African public sector leaders respond to and
operate within these changing environments are emphasised. Furthermore,
this chapter notes, with interest, how these reforms developed and shaped the
future of the public sector during the Mandela. Mbeki, Zuma and Ramaphosa
eras. It then concludes with contemporary trends in and challenges for public
sector HRM.
15.2 Effect of global variables on the South African

macro- and micro-environments
In rhe twenty-first century, we can safely say that the world is in the midst
of multi-faceted and revolutionary change. New markets arise with the
associated potential to compete across boundaries. Companies are setting
up operations in other countries and entering into business alliances outside
their borders. These complex developments are leading to a ‘global village’ in
which the internationalisation of markets is commonplace. These challenges
in the world have brought about revolutionary expectations, which have had a
considerable impact on the role and disposition of the respective governments
and public sector leaders.
15.2.1 Global environment

The dynamics in the global environment in the past decade demanded that the
South African government, do much more with less. The global environment
typically refers to those variables that influence the decisions of a government
(see Figure 15.1). For example, the outbreak of the coronavirus in Wuhan
(China) determined the decisions that respective countries, including South
382
Chapter 15: Role of political leadership in a dynamic and changing human resource environment
Africa (SA), made co curb che impact thereof on che people of che country.
The global environmenc is dynamic and in a conscanc scace of change.
Reacting co che challenges posed within che global environmenc, che Uniced
Nacions put forward che 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169
targets (United Nacions, 2018). The deadline for achieving the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) adopted in September 2000. came, and elapsed
at the end of December 2015. The MDGs were pursued with relative success,
but world leaders acknowledged that poverty eradication is still the greatest
challenge facing the world (United Nations. 2018). As the world embarks on the
second leg of the 2030 Agenda SDGs. all role players, and even more so leaders
will come to realise the impact that respective environments will have on the
achievement of these goals. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,
applies to all countries irrespective of their development status for the next
15 years, beginning on January 2016. The work ahead for every country is now
to implement che 2030 Agenda and achieve the SDGs (United Nations, 2018).
The global environment The macro-environment is

The micro-environment is
refers to variables that have large and prominent and is
closer to home and can be
an influence on the decisions often associated with the
controlled to a certain extent.
of government. economic environment.
Impact on South African React to the global

React to the global and
macro- and micro environment.
macro-environments.
environments. Local politics
Economic policies Service delivery protests
World politics
Crime
World health Unemployment
Unemployment
Global warming
Figure 15.1: Variables and changes at a global level and their influence on the South African
macro- and micro-environments.
383
15.2.2 Macro-environment
The macro-environment, often associated with the economic position of a
country, functions in equilibrium with global dynamics (see Figure 15.1).
Macro-economics is defined as ’the study of the large economic systems of
a country or region’ (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, 2020). The state's
economic policy in SA is a macro-economic policy, the main objectives of
which are to guide the distribution of wealth, create jobs, attract investment,
engage in trade with other states and promote development (Cilliers &
Aucoin, 2017). All South African macro-economic policies are linked to the
2030 SDGs set out by the United Nations. South Africa’s macro-environment
at present is typically influenced by variables such as stability and political
capability, the trustworthiness of the economy, technological advancement,
and unemployment. The macro-environment is. more often than not, difficult
to control.
The macro-environment in SA had to adapt and transform over the past 21

years. The Ministry of Planning published a National Development Plan
(NDP) (‘Our future - Make it work’) aimed at eliminating poverty and
reducing inequality by 2030. The National Planning Commission proposed
eight strategies to be addressed (National Planning Commission, 2012): (i)
creating jobs and improving livelihoods; (ii) expanding infrastructure; (iii)
transitioning to a low-carbon economy; (iv) transforming urban and rural
spaces; (v) improving education and training; (vi) providing quality health
care; (vii) fighting corruption and enhancing accountability, and (viii)
transforming society and uniting the nation.
15.2.3 Micro-environment
As seen in Figure 15.1 the micro-environment is often defined as the
environment that can influence daily operations and is often of a short-term
nature. This environment can be controlled to a certain extent. Its elements
include crime, unemployment, service delivery protests and accountability
of public sector leaders. The micro-environment in the South African
public sector encapsulates current human resource challenges such as cadre
appointments, nepotism, corruption, inequality and service delivery protests.
Although SAs single major objective may be to stimulate the economy to

improve the quality of life of all the country’s inhabitants, the real problem
is that of the gross socio-economic inequality in South African society
(Lues, 2016). Reconciling these two dynamic realities (inequality and growth)
is one of the greatest challenges facing the country. Whereas some parties
384
(e.g. organised labour) are fighting to eradicate socio-economic inequalities

through strategies aimed at wealth redistribution, captains of business and
industry are adamant that, to enrich the historically deprived, wealth has
first to be created. To them, creating wealth means but one thing: business
organisations and public institutions must become competitive and efficient
in international terms. This may mean adopting measures to cut costs and to
become ‘lean and mean’, which may include cutting labour costs and improving
labour productivity. To the underprivileged, the immediate objective is to
obtain what they were historically denied or deprived of. The essence of the
debate thus concerns what comes first: wealth creation or wealth redistribution
(Twala & Lues, 2017). This tension boils over directly into the relations between
the parties in the workplace, which means, in the simplest terms, relations
between employer and employee.
DID YOU KNOW?

Environment is not a single concept - there are several definitions of what
constitutes an environment, e.g. ‘the conditions that surround someone or
something; the conditions and influences that affect the growth, health,
progress etc of someone or something’.
Source: Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (2020)
15.3 Public Management Transitions in the South

African public sector
For the South African public sector to survive in the international arena
of competition, tremendous efforts will be required from public servants;
especially the stakeholders of the organisations who deliver the goods
(Lues, 2014). /X major challenge in this regard is to balance the inherent
intricacies and tensions resulting from our history of gross unfair discrimi
nation and inequality with the need to stimulate and develop the economy.
South Africa’s socio-political and socio-economic setup is founded, to a large

extent, on the history of the country. References to our history show that
the legacies of the apartheid system have permeated all aspects of life. The
pressures and demands facing SA in a global economy - where competitive
ness is the watchword must be viewed against the background of inequality,
the major threat (or challenge) for the country.
385
15.3.1 Dynamics of the workforce environment pre-1994

Before the discovery of diamonds (in 1867) and gold (in 1872), SA was an
agrarian society, witha workforce that wasengaged in typical agrarian activities.
European immigrants were often paid high wages while local inhabitants
were used as cheap labour to support skilled workers. The development of
the manufacturing industry7 (mainly focusing on the production of furniture
and clothing) was related to the growth of the mining industry in SA.
The following century featured a burgeoning of regulations and activities

addressing labour issues such as selection tests, interviewing techniques,
training methods, motivation and discipline of workers, health and safety
and wages. All these developments necessitated increased consultation
between management and the workforce. Despite rioting and unrest at home
and sanctions imposed from abroad from the 1960s onward, the white regime
maintained the racial separations of the apartheid system with only minor
easing up until February 1990. HRM within the South African context during
this time was under immense pressure to change to more inclusive systems
which were fully representative of the South African demography.
Before 1994, the South African public sector had a substantial substructure
with a large number of inadequately educated and poorly skilled non-white
men and women (African, Coloured and Indian) in lower positions; with white
males dominating rhe higher structures. The public sector and its respective
departments remained the backbone of service delivery and the state had
to assume responsibility for the growing diversity of services required by an
urbanised society. The need for specialists to deal with industrial relations
became apparent and the human resource (H R) manager became a spokesperson
for the institution when discussions were held with trade unions or shop
stewards, often negotiating remuneration and other collective issues.
Concerning HR development before 1994, the Public Service Training

Institute (PSTI) offered training courses (presented by its staff, academics and
consultants) and promoted training and education within the public service. It
directed itself largely towards junior and mid-level officials and was criticised
for its focus on proficiency training rather than on capacity building.
15.3.2 Dynamics of the workforce environment post-1994

The African National Congress (ANC) has dominated SAs politics since it won
the first democraticelections in 1994.TheANCupholdsfourguidingprinciples:
1. nation-building and reconciliation;
386
2. reconstruction and transformation;

3. the National Democratic Revolution; and
4. unity and solidarity.
The decade that followed the elections showed a feverish constitution of

regulations and activities addressing the guiding principles of the ANC,
focusing largely on the improvement of HRM. The most significant initiative
was probably the Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) economic
policy. It was an economic strategy introduced by the Department of Finance,
aimed at inter alia enhancing HR development and creating flexibility in the
labour market. Employment was created mainly in the middle sectors of the
economy through a Black Empowerment Programme. All these developments
contributed to much-needed solidarity among South Africans. Backed by
a well-managed but conservative fiscal policy, the government showed its
commitment towards policy changes in favour of formerly excluded groups
and an acknowledgement of the importance of basic needs satisfaction, as
well as of democratic rights and processes (Twala, 2014).
During the first few years after 1994, the South African public sector had to
deal with two major challenges. The first was vested outside the sector in the
macro-environment. The sudden and overwhelming demands of communities
for service delivery placed an enormous responsibility on government
departments. Several of these demands were addressed through strategically
developed projects: The Reconstruction and Development Programme
dealt with social challenges such as housing, clean water, electrification,
land reform and health care. The Commission on the Restitution of Land
Rights assisted claimants in submitting their land claims, received and
acknowledged all claims lodged and advised claimants on the progress of
their land claims. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission supported
the healing of the country and brought about a reconciliation of the South
African people by uncovering the truth about human rights violations that had
occurred during the period of apartheid. The South African Social Security
/Xgcncy was established for the administration and payment of social grants.
It aims to create uniform standards and eliminate fraud and corruption in
social security provision in SA. National Research and Technology Foresight
identifies trends in technology that have the potential to improve the quality
of the lives of the South African people.
The second challenge came from the public sector micro-environment.

For the first five years after the 1994 election, changes in the public service
(national departments and nine provincial administrations) and its size
387
and composition were inevitable. The action was taken to accomplish HRM
transformation in the public service as quickly as possible. The process was
fast-tracked through the implementation of a system of voluntary severance
packages. The result was twofold:
1. a mass exodus of experienced public servants, mainly, but not limited
to, white males, and
2. an influx of less-experienced personnel to manage the sudden increase
in service delivery needs that emerged after the democratic elections.
typical South African government department was soon depicted as

employing a large number of inexperienced black men and women in lower
and middle posts while the higher structure was still dominated by a few
white male managers. However, from April 1994 to December 1998. the
representation of black people in the management structure of the public
service increased from 6% to 44% in national departments and 53% in
provincial departments (figures for 1994 exclude the former TBVC states and
self-governing territories). The number of women in management positions
increased from 2% to 15% in both provincial and national departments.
The envisaged percentage of black people at management level in the public
service was targeted at 50%, while the target for women was 30%. and 2%
for people with disabilities by the year 2000 (Republic of South Africa,
1995a: 100). The 30% target for women was specifically aimed at middle and
senior management posts (Flood. Hoosain & Primo, 1997: 74).
By April 2002, senior management levels included 68% black people (including
Coloureds and Indians) compared to 41% in 1999. By the end of March 2008,
the South African public service had almost 1 204 525 people (including
members of the South African National Defence Force) in its employment.
Of these, approximately 56% were women and 44% were men 6 percentage
points more women than in December 1998 (Republic ofSouth Africa, 2010).
The overall profile of the public service seems to be close to achieving perfect
representative status, matching the population profile in terms of both race
and gender. Almost 85% of public servants are black, compared to the national
profile of about 90%.
The PST1 was subsequently replaced with the South African Management
Development Institute (SAMDI) in 1996, to centralise norms and standards
under the auspices of SAMDI but decentralising training (Mokgoro, 2013).
SAMDI provided practical, client-driven, organisational development
interventions that led to improved performance and service delivery in
the public sector. SAMDI was reconstituted as the Public Administration
388
and composition were inevitable. The action was taken to accomplish HRM
transformation in the public service as quickly as possible. The process was
fast-tracked through the implementation of a system of voluntary severance
packages. The result was twofold:
1. a mass exodus of experienced public servants, mainly, but not limited
to, white males, and
2. an influx of less-experienced personnel to manage the sudden increase
in service delivery needs that emerged after the democratic elections.
A typical South African government department was soon depicted as

employing a large number of inexperienced black men and women in lower
and middle posts while the higher structure was still dominated by a few
white male managers. However, from April 1994 to December 1998, the
representation of black people in the management structure of the public
service increased from 6% to 44% in national departments and 53% in
provincial departments (figures for 1994 exclude the former TBVC states and
self-governing territories). The number of women in management positions
increased from 2% to 15% in both provincial and national departments.
The envisaged percentage of black people at management level in the public
service was targeted at 50%, while the target for women was 30%, and 2%
for people with disabilities by the year 2000 (Republic of South Africa,
1995a: 100). The 30% target for women was specifically aimed at middle and
senior management posts (Flood. Hoosain & Primo, 1997: 74).
By April 2002, senior management levels included 68% black people (including
Coloureds and Indians) compared to 41% in 1999. By the end of March 2008,
the South African public service had almost 1 204 525 people (including
members of the South African National Defence Force) in its employment.
Of these, approximately 56% were women and 44% were men - 6 percentage
points more women than in December 1998 (Republic ofSouth Africa, 2010).
The overall profile of the public service seems to be close to achieving perfect
representative status, matching the population profile in terms of both race
and gender. Almost 85% of public servants are black, compared to the national
profile of about 90%.
The PST1 was subsequently replaced with the South African Management
Development Institute (SAMDI) in 1996, to centralise norms and standards
under the auspices of SAMDI but decentralising training (Mokgoro, 2013).
SAMDI provided practical, client-driven, organisational development
interventions that led to improved performance and service delivery in
the public sector. SAMDI was reconstituted as the Public Administration
388
Chapter 15: Role of political leadership in a dynamic and cnanging human resource environment
Leadership and Management Academy (PALAMA) in August 2008, following a

Cabinet decision taken in 2006. PALAMA was established with the mandate to
train public officials and improve service delivery by developing the knowledge,
skills and attitudes required for a developmental state (Mokgoro, 2013).
To ensure that its mandate was realised. PALAMA was forced to initiate
collaborations and partnerships with many service providers. However, it was
soon realised that major challenges remained, partly because the workforce
environment in the public sector was less co-ordinated in its approach to public
service training and development than under SAMDL PALAMA was therefore
tasked to review the uncoordinated way in which public sector training was
delivered and. more importantly, the cost-recovery model of PALAiMA, as well
as its partnership-based business model for training delivery.
The National School of Government (NSG) was established in 2013. The

NSG is responsible for learning and development programmes and services
in a uniform public sector to develop a professional, responsive and capable
public sector driven by the imperatives of a developmental state. The Public
Administration Management Act 11 of 2014 states: ‘The National School
of Government will (...) be established as a higher education institution
contemplated in the Higher Education Act, 101 of 1997. The school must,
through education and training, promote the progressive realisation of the
values and principles governing public administration and enhance the
quality, extent and impact of the development of human resource capacity in
institutions (Republic of South Africa. 2014: 8).
The South African government assessed the impact of ten years (1994-2004)
of ANC democratic governance in its ‘Ten Year Review: 1994-2004’. in this
review, the focus was on assessing the impact of policies on enhancing the
quality of life of the people. It was concluded that considerable progress had
been made in transforming the state, although some areas, such as the conduct
of public officials, had shown less progress. There was no question that the
democratic dispensation had set the scene for significant development in HRM.
Regrettably,ever since the first democratic elections, effective management of
the public sector has been a cause of concern. Several qualified audit reports
cite public servants’ receiving excessive-performance bonuses or bribes
from governmental contractors, mismanagement of property and public
resources, nepotism and. ultimately, inadequate services to communities
(Du Preez, 2014). The public sector in SA is faced with immense challenges in
its attempts to increase efficiency and effectiveness, specifically concerning
HRM and service delivery (De Wet & Van der Waldt, 2013).
389

This article, Public Administration and Management Variables Influencing
the Strengthening of Democracy in South Africa, examines certain variables
influencing public administration and management challenges experienced
in the South African public sector to strengthen democracy. The point
of departure in this article is that effective public service is crucial to
strengthen democracy. The article posits that among the many challenges
under the ANC-led government such as the professionalisation of the
public service, corrupt public servants and politicians; the politicisation
of the public service, building human resources capacity, the provision of
public services, the conflict of interest in the public service. The following
variables also influenced the effectiveness and efficiency of its democratic
institutions: The controversy surroundingthe Office ofthe Public Protector
and to a certain extent the undermining of constitutional institutions, the
dilemma of the NDP and the vitality ofthe South African economy.
The solutions to the challenges facing public administration and manage
ment in SA cannot be left at the doorstep ofthe ANC government. Equally,
this situation cannot simply be reduced to problems of leadership. Attention
should also be diverted to policy design and strengthening aspects of
accountability. It is clear from this article that South Africans, having decided
on an exemplary democratic system ofgovernment premised on the values of
inter alia, human dignity, equality and liberty for all; must continue protecting
the values of public administration and management. The authors argue in
this article that the institutions responsible for public administration and
management need to provide inter alia through continuous leadership and
enforcement; the necessary tools for implementation.
Source: Twala & Lues (2017: 190-211)
15.3.3 Dynamics of the current public sector workforce

The total number of public sector employees (in national, provincial as well as
local government) increased from 1.78 million in 2009 to 2.10 million at the end
of 2019 (Clifford, C. 2020 Facesheet: South Africa’s civil service in Numbers.
Africa Check online: numbers/#:“:cext“The%20data%20shows%20thac%20,.
Accessed 27 November 2020. REASON: The stats is that of 2019, but Bhorat
is 2016!). The fastest period of public sector employment growth was during
2009, immediately following the global financial crises. While an estimated
1.6 million jobs were created between 2003 and 2007, 800 000 were lost in
2008, when the global financial crisis started to impact on SA. In 2010/2011
only an estimated 350 000 jobs were recreated when the economy started to
390
recover from rhe global shocks. This suggests that the state possibly acted as
an unintended creator of jobs during a period of labour market distress. The
large contributors to public sector job growth are occupations in the category
of unskilled workers (including sweepers, labourers, cleaners, construction and
maintenance labourers, and garbage collectors). Medium-skilled workers (for
example police and traffic officers, other protective services, prison guards, and
childcare workers) and higher-skilled jobs such as school teachers, finance and
administrative managers and legislators, have also contributed to public sector
job growth (Bhorat, Naidoo & Pillay. 2016). The current workforce realities are:
• Salaries: Public sector employees in S/\ earn 7% more than their private
sector counterparts. Public servants have generally continued to draw
a salary during the Covid-19 pandemic that had a detrimental effect
on the private sector. According to BusinessTech (2020), more than
R17 million was paid in respect of salaries of suspended public officials
while also paying salaries for over 280 employees on lengthy suspensions.
• Race and gender distribution: Africans ( Black people' is used to refer
to African, Coloured and Indian people), make up 77% of public sector
employment compared with 66% in the private sector. Females make up
52% of the workforce, compared to 44% in the private sector (Bhorat,
Naidoo & Pillay. 2016).
• Unionisation: In the public sector, union members made up almost 70%
(1.4 million workers) of all public sector s formal workers in 2014. up from
55% in 1997 (834 000 workers). Public sector trade unions now dominate
union membership in SA. The majority of COSATU members are in public
service, therefore dependent upon the ANC government, for above-inflation
wage increases for civil servants (Cilliers & Aucoin, 2017). Given the rising
membership of public sector unions, together with the growing political
influence of these unions, these results possibly allude to the role played
by unions in driving higher returns for their members. It could be argued
that in 2020 there is a new ‘labour elite' in the labour market, namely the
unionised public sector employee (Bhorat. Naidoo & Pillay, 2016).
Other challenges facing the South African public sector include high rates
of absenteeism among public servants and growing impatience for drastic
improvements in quality of life, mistrust of government and inequality. The
tension between reconciliation and nation-building, on theone hand, and
retribution and opposition, on the other, has also come to the fore (Twala
& Lues, 2017). This situation in SA has created a very complex political
environment, which impacts on HRM in the public sector. There are, however,
numerous other socio-economic dynamics that play an equally important
role and these to have to be understood.
391
15.4 The role of public sector leadership

accountability in a dynamic and changing work
environment: The Mandela, Mbeki, Zuma and
Ramaphosa eras
Within the macro-environment, legislative and policy reforms boomed in
the early 1990s. The entire structure and therefore the management of the
three spheres of government in SA underwent considerable changes after
1994. Much of the new legislation mandated institutions to adapt their
policies to make provision for principles such as employment equity,
transformation, skills development, performance management, service
delivery and diversity management.
The South African government has adopted a holistic approach to service

delivery in all three spheres of government. To this end. Section 40(1) of the
Constitution refers to government as constituted of national, provincial
and local government spheres, which are distinctive, interdependent and
interrelated (Republic of South Africa, 1996). This means that while the
work of all government spheres is interlinked and there is a degree of inter
dependence, each sphere has a distinctive character that should be respected
and utilised to the benefit of the specific area being served.
Since 1994, the public sector has had to adapt from delivering services to a
small number of privileged South Africans to rendering services to the masses.
During this period, the concept of transformation was established as the
cornerstone of every initiative, project and strategy undertaken by the public
sector. The blueprint that guided the process in the public service sector, the
White Paper on the Transformation of the Public Service of 1995, defined
transformation as a dynamic, focused and relatively short-term process,
designed to fundamentally reshape the public service for its appointed role
in the new dispensation in SA (Republic ofSouth Africa, 1995). The principal
aim of this White Paper was to establish a policy framework to guide the
introduction and implementation of new policies and legislation aimed at
transforming the South African public service.
Under the leadership of President Nelson Mandela (10 May 1994 to 14 June
1999), this transformation took a dynamic reconciliatory stance (Lues, 2016).
From 1999 onwards, President Thabo Mbeki (16 June 1995 to 24 September
2008) continued with this transformation process and expanded the
initiative to include the African continent. His legacy of African renaissance
is well established. The transformation under the presidency of Jacob Zuma
392
(9 May 2009 onwards) surpassed previous efforts. Amongst others, he

increased the number of ministerial portfolios (35 portfolios, 68 ministers
and deputies) in his Cabinet, making it the world’s largest and most expensive
Cabinet. President Cyril Ramaphosa and his administration had to 'pick up’
the devastation that was caused by the previous administration. Fighting
against corruption, aiming to restore the economy and mobilising the country
to fight against the coronavirus are only a few of the challenges he is facing
(Table 15.1).
Table 15.1: Public sector leadership focus
15.4.1 Mandela era (10 May 1994 to 14 June 1999)

The inevitable changes in the role of rhe public sector and its workforce and
composition are captured in the Public Service Commission’s (PSC) Report
on Rationalisation of Public Administration (1994-1996) (Public Service
Commission. 1997). Profound decisions were made, and actions were taken
to accomplish transformation, such as the implementation of a system of
voluntary severance packages. The Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995 (LRA)
assisted this process and the implementation of programmes aimed at
developing disadvantaged women and increasing diversity in respect of
experience and talent (Republic of South Africa, 1995b: 12). However, to
maintain effective service delivery, the legislation mandated the public sector
to focus hugely on overall HR development. This led to a substantial review of
employment conditions, capacity building, career development and employee
assistance programmes and a performance management system.
To regulate discipline, the legislation mandated the public service to

comply with the Public Service Act 103 of 1994 (PSA) and the Public Service
393
Regulations of 2001 (PSR), calling for definite outcomes-based strategies

as part of the management plan of departments. These include strategic
management plans in keeping with the medium-term expenditure framework,
organisational structures that comply with strategic management plans,
strategies to improve service delivery, and HR development strategies. The
PSA further provided for the regulation of the dismissal of members of the
public service in cases of misconduct and maladministration.
With the implementation of the LRA, the selection and recruitment process
itself has become critically important to the public sector in SA for redressing
imbalances in respect of race and gender, further supported by the White Paper
on the Transformation of the Public Service, 1995 (Republic of South Africa,
1995). This White Paper is aimed at improving the quality of life of all workers,
as well as enhancing productivity in the workplace. The Basic Conditions of
Employment Act 75 of 1997 further ensures that the workforce is treated fairly
concerning remuneration, working hours, bonuses, working conditions, etc.,
this is supported by the White Paper on Human Resource Management in
the Public Service of 1997 (Republic of South Africa. 1997). This White Paper
derives the values for public HRM from the Constitution. The White Paper on
Affirmative Action in the Public Service of 1998 focuses on the accountability,
monitoring, coordination, and reporting of responsibilities of the various role
players in affirmative action programmes. The implementation of affirmative
action policies was incorporated into managers’ performance objectives and the
performance contracts of directors-general. At the same time, the Employment
Equity Act 55 of 1998 prohibited unfair discrimination in the workplace and
compelled every employer to take steps to promote equal opportunity by
eliminating unfair discrimination in any employment policy or practice. This
Act focuses on the redressing of imbalances; especially concerning black people,
women and people with disabilities.
Legislation supporting HR development includes the White Paper on Public

Service Training and Education of 1997, which established a policy framework
on training and education in the provincial government. Besides, the Skills
Development Act 97 of 1998 and the Skills Development Levies Act 9 of 1999
provided a framework for developing the skills of the South African workforce
and integrating the relevant strategies within the National Qualifications
Framework established by the South African Qualifications Authority Act 58
of 1995. The Skills Development Act covers the establishment of leadership
and the financing of skills development using a levy grant, while also providing
for and regulating employment services administered by the Department
of Labour. To direct standard-setting, accreditation and quality assurance,
394
the Public Service Sector Education and Training Authority (PSETA) were
established on 20 March 2000. PSETA is responsible mainly for identifying
priorities for skills development and administering the levy system.
The White Paper on Transforming Public Service Delivery of 1997 adopted

a 'Batho Pele’ approach (a Sotho term for ‘people first’) that outlined eight
principles for improved service delivery to be followed by all public servants
(Republic ofSouth Africa, 1997). Although this initiative was optimistically
received, a study conducted in 2004 revealed that public service departments
often did not comply with or practise the Batho Pele principles (Republic
of South Africa, 1997). In 1997, the Department of Public Service and
Administration (DPSA) issued a report stating that the public service was not
yet fully demonstrating the commitment to service delivery as envisaged.
15.4.2 Mbeki era (16 June 1999 to 24 September 2008)

During President Mbeki's time in office, the South African economy grew at
an average rate of 4.5% per year (Table 15.1) (Mbeki, 2007). Mbeki created
employment in the middle sectors of the economy and administered a fast
growing black middle class with the implementation of Black Economic
Empowerment. This growth in the economy increased the demand for
trained professionals but failed to address unemployment amongst the
unskilled masses of the population. Mbeki attracted the bulk of Africa’s
Foreign Direct Investment through a well-established integrated socio
economic development framework for Africa. Collaborative relationships
were established, such as the New Partnership for Africa’s Development, the
African Union (AU) and the India-Brazil-South Africa Dialogue Forum, as
well as BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China), which became BRICS when SA
was invited to join in 2010.
During this period much emphasis was placed on service delivery through
professionalising the public service. The PSC, which functions as an
independent body that monitors and arbitrates the activities, ethos and
conduct of the public service was officially launched on 1 July 1999. The
PSC replaced the nine Provincial Service Commissions and the National
Public Service Commission initially established in 1994 under the Interim
Constitution. The powers and functions of the Commission are set out in
Section 196(4) of the Constitution and include the following:
395
• Promoting the values and principles of public administration, as set

out in Section 195 of the Constitution, throughout the public service.
• Monitoring, evaluating and investigating HR practices, service delivery
and related organisational aspects to assess the extent to which they
comply with Constitutional values and principles.
• Supporting the efforts of the public service to promote a high standard
of professional ethics.
• Investigating grievances of officers and recommending appropriate
remedies or actions and reporting at least once a year to Parliament
and local legislatures on the Commission’s activities.
Further legislation addressing service delivery and professionalism is

contained in the Public Finance Management Act 1 of 1999; the Promotion of
Access to Information Act 2 of2000: the Promotion of Equality and Prevention
of Unfair Discrimination Act 4 of 2000: the Protected Disclosures Act 26 of
2000; and the Public Audit Act 25 of2004. to name but a few. These legislative
directives emphasise that the government is committed to improving its
service delivery, and to ensuring ethical behaviour among its workforce. The
Public Service Anti-Corruption Strategy, published by the DPSA in 2002, must
also be mentioned. A significant piece of legislation, the Local Government:
Municipal Systems Act 32 of 2000 (Republic of South Africa, 2000), focused
on the sphere where public service delivery is closest to the people, required
councils to consult with citizens to deliberate and seek inputs on inter alia
budgets, Integrated Development Plans and the performance management
system before these processes were approved and implemented. Budgetary
and financial expenditures are further captured in the Local Government:
Municipal Finance Management Act 56 of 2003 (Republic of South Africa,
2003). The Intergovernmental Relations Framework Act 13 of 2005 provides
for mechanisms to ‘facilitate the settlement of intergovernmental disputes
and to provide for matters connected therewith' (Republic of South Africa,
2005: 2). This Act focuses directly on greater effectiveness concerning
coordination in the implementation of policy and legislation, which includes
(he effective provision of services (Republic ofSouth Africa, 2005: 12).
The following documents are aimed at enabling public sector managers to

acquire the knowledge and skills to develop FIR strategies and plans that
are integrated with their departmental strategic and operational plans, thus
ensuring that their future staffing needs are met: Guidelines on Integrated
Human Resource Planning in the Public Service (2004): Strategic Fluman
Resource Planning Guideline and Toolkit (2002); and the Senior Management
396
Service: Public Service Handbook (Republic of South Africa, 2003). In 2008,

the DPSA formulated the Public Service Human Resource Planning Strategic
Framework Vision 2015 for executive authorities and heads of departments in
the public service.
In the context of re-evaluating the role of the state and the above-mentioned
factors, the major trends characterising HRM in the South African public service
during the first ten years since 1994. when the ANC took over the government,
can be summarised as follows (Republic of South Africa, 1995a: Chapter 8):
• creating a unified and integrated service;
• restructuring senior management into a Senior Management Service;
and
• creating a leaner and more cost-effective public service.
These challenges impact directly or indirectly on HRM planning and strategies

in the South African public service. They also influence such aspects as the
utilisation and development of public sector employees, remuneration and
labour relations.
15.4.3 Zuma era (9 May 2009 to 14 February 2018)

Fifteen years into being a democracy, SA ventured towards applying the
developmental state model. Arguing from the theoretical framework in which
the developmental state model is positioned, the South African government
would cease to be goal-oriented in maximising profit for the business and
would instead focus on addressing the urgent problems it faces (DPSA, 2007).
President Zuma steered all plans towards investing more in education, health
and social infrastructure.
In his State of che Nation Address in 2009, Zuma was explicit in tasking the
state with a central role in the social and economic development of the country
and, further, catalysing sustainable development and economic growth.
Legislation such as the Tax Administration Act 28 of 2011, Financial Markets
Act 19 of 2012, and Employment Tax Incentive Act 26 of 2013 were focused
on economic growth. 133 000 employees have benefited and 11 000 employers
who have participated in the incentive scheme introduced as a result of the
Employment Tax Incentive Act. In his 2014 State of the Nation Address. Zuma
again emphasised the importance of socio-economic transformation.
Unfortunately, the Zuma administration diverted attention away from
South African priorities and undermined the confidence in public sector
leadership. The integrity and effectiveness of institutions such as its
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independent constitutional court, the public protector and a free media have
been subject to levels of political interference, particularly in the appointment
of unsuited and inadequate leaders that are part of the ANC policy of cadre
deployment. Cadre deployment is described when allocations of strategic
positions in government are given to those members loyal to the ruling
party (Twala 2014: 159; Cilliers & Aucoin, 2017). As a result, corruption has
compromised the strength of many institutions and resulted in declining
international confidence in the country (Cilliers & Aucoin, 2017). In Zumas
first four years in power, the salary bill for civil servants rose by 76%. This implies
that for every R100 generated by the economy, R14 goes to pay administrators.
In Russia, this figure is R3.70, in Brazil R4.60 and Nigeria R4 (Du Preez, 2014).
According to its June 2014 Quarterly Employment Statistics (QES) survey,
there were 455 701 national government employees, a further 1 118 748 people
working for provincial authorities, 311 361 people were employed by local
authorities and 275 851 employees worked for ‘other government institutions’
like libraries, parks, zoos and education and training authorities.

One of the longest-running legal sagas of our time
A South African High Court has issued an arrest warrant for former
President Jacob Zuma, but the judge has stayed the warrant until his
corruption trial resumes on 6 May 2020. Zuma is facing charges of
corruption linked to the multi-billion rand arms deal but he skipped court
on grounds of needing medical treatment. This matter has been in and
out of the courts for the past 20 years.
Supporters of former President Jacob Zuma said the country was now
facing a constitutional crisis. This comes after the Supreme Court of
Appeal dismissed Mr Zuma’s application to appeal a ruling that he must
stand trial for corruption. Zuma's supporters would be mobilised in a
march to Luthuli House where they would call for the ANC to remove
judges who previously ruled against Zuma. Prominent ANC members also
raising their disapproval with the high court’s decision to issue an arrest
warrant for Zuma (Duma, 2020). The ANC Youth League national task
team further warned judges that there would be no peace if‘the agenda
against Zuma doesn’t stop’ (Manyathela, 2020). In response, the ANC has
urged its leaders to stop casting doubt on the credibility of the judiciary
and stated that this conduct amounted to ill-discipline.
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The former president is yet to begin his trial on 18 separate charges of

fraud and corruption. Twelve counts of fraud, four counts of corruption,
one count of racketeering and one of money laundering. The charges
relate to the 1999 arms deal - purchase by the government of strategic
weaponry when he was deputy president to Thabo Mbeki (Rabkin, 2019).
Mbeki had angered Zuma’s faction by dismissing him as the deputy
president of the country, following his implication in the corruption trial
of his financial advisor Schabir Shaik.
He is accused of taking bribes worth R4 million before he became president
fromaR51 billion arms purchase by five European firms in 1999. His former
financial advisor, Schabir Shaik, who allegedly facilitated payments, was
in 2005, found guilty of fraud and corruption and sentenced to 15 years
imprisonment. However, after Zuma became president in 2009, Shaik was
released on medical parole. Zuma has also been accused of overseeing
the mass looting of state assets during his presidency (Citizen reporter
and News24 Wire, 2019.) High on the list of alleged benefactors is the
wealthy Indian-born Gupta business family, who were accused of unfairly
obtaining profitable government contracts and even influencing Zuma’s
ministerial appointments.
15.4.4 Ramaphosa era (15 February 2018 to present)

When President Cyril Ramaphosa took office, SA had more challenges than
ever before. The lack of public sector leadership accountability alongside
political interference in the recruitment and appointment processes of new
staff (National Planning Commission. 2014; Van der Waldt, Venter, Phutiagae,
Nealer, Khalo & Vyas-Doorgapersad, 2018: 104), could be seen as contributing
to these challenges. The results of the lack of public sector leadership
accountability alongside political interference are (i) public administrative
positions are often filled with unqualified and incompetent appointments
(Van der Waldt etal, 106); (ii) existing human resources management systems
are not conducive for attracting skilled and qualified staff, or retaining
qualified and skilled personnel (Reddy, 2015: 335; van der Waldt etal, 104);
(iii) an administration who has a high staff turnover and several vacancies
(Reddy, 2015: 335; van der Waldt. 2018: 104); (iv) municipalities struggling to
remain responsive to needsand demands ofcommunities (Breakfast, 2019: 108);
(v) increased corruption, fraud, misuse of government funds and assets, poor
financial management (van der Waldt etal, 2018: 104); (vi) an increase in service
delivery protests (Sibanda & Lues, 2019) and a wage bill (Clifford, 2020).
399
South Africa’s economy fell into its third recession since Ramaphosa took
office in February 2018, highlighting the challenges he faces in trying to
undo the misrule and corruption that characterised his predecessor Jacob
Zuma’s nine-year tenure. This is the second recession under President Cyril
Ramaphosa’s leadership and comes as he battles with Eskom’s load-shedding
and weak business confidence. A recession occurs when the economy
experiences two consecutive quarters of negative economic performance or
growth and in layman term, it means SA is getting poorer and poorer and
life will get more difficult. This recession can cause many South Africans to
lose their jobs and deepen the unemployment rate, which is already at 29%
(Mathe, 2020).
Subsequently, the country was downgraded to junk status with a negative

outlook, in March 2020 (Simpson, 2020). Moody’s, a credit-rating agency
downgrade SA’s sovereign credit rating to junk status because of uncertain
economic growth and ongoing deterioration in the government’s fiscal strength.
This negative outlook reflects the risk that economic growth will ‘prove even
weaker and the debt burden will rise even faster and further than currently
expected, weakening debt affordability and, potentially, access to funding.’
In its response, the National Treasury observed that ‘the decision by Moody’s
could not have come at a worse time’. SA, like many other countries, is seized
with containing the outbreak of the Covid-19 virus. The sovereign downgrade
will further add to the prevailing financial market stress. These two events will
truly test the leadership accountability of President Ramaphosa alongside his
Executive in all three spheres of government.
In the context of surviving in the mentioned circumstances, the major

decisions taken by the Ramaphosa administration regarding HRM can be
summarised as follows:
• Signing performance agreements with ministers to ‘strengthen the
capacity of the state and increase accountability’ (Ntsabo, 2020).
• Implement the District Development Model which entails a form of
social compacting which involves the key role players in every district to
unlock development and economic opportunities (Ramaphosa, 2020).
• Increase Provincial and national government support and strengthen
the capacity of municipalities as required by Section 154 of the
Constitution (Ramaphosa. 2020).
• Cutting the state wage bill of the public sector its biggest expense.
In 2020 Members of Parliament only received a salary increase of 2.8%,
while Cabinet Ministers got nothing (De Wet, 2020; News24 Wire 2020).
400
• Enforce a nation wide lockdown effective from midnight on Thursday

26 March 2020 (The Presidency, 2020).
• Cabinet, deputy ministers and premiers took a one-third cut in their
salaries for three months to be donated to the Solidarity Fund which
will go towards mobilising resources to combat the coronavirus
pandemic (Tandwa, 2020).
• The Unemployment Insurance Fund has set aside R40 billion to help
employees who will be unable to work, as part of the effort to prevent
jobs losses as a result of the lockdown.
• Ramaphosa repeated reassurances that the government will fix debt-
stricken state power utility Eskom, which supplies about 95% of rhe
nation’s power. Consideration will be given to (i) selling some of Eskom s
older power plants to private investors, or (ii) for pension funds to either
assume part of Eskom s R456bn in debt or take a stake in the company.
In 2020, President Cyril Ramaphosa assumed the Chairperson of the African

Union (AU Chairperson) for 2020 following its historic re-launch in 2002
when President Thabo Mbeki, became the AU Chairperson (The Presidency,
9 February 2020).
15.5 Theory
A rich debate on leadership styles and theories has developed that has been
dominated by studies from organisational theory, industrial psychology,
and management (Hartley, 2018). Nonetheless, other disciplines (politics,
communication, psychology) have also contributed significantly, clearly
making leadership, a multidisciplinary concept. The following leadership
styles became prominent during the presidential tenure of the five South
African Presidents: transformational -; relationship participative styles.
In 1978, Burns introduced the transformational leadership theories in

his research on political leaders. Burns identifies (wo types of leadership:
(i) transactional, where a leader influences others by what they offer in
exchange; and (ii) transformational, where a leader connects with supporters
such that their level of motivation morale is raised. Burns theorised that
transformational leadership is the result of the abilities of the leader, who
can convey a vision and guide the transformation. Burns further states that a
transformational leader needs to have an interpersonal relationship with others
when they want to influence in such a manner that others comply because they
want to, not because they have to. In support, Blanchard (2007) argues that
401
the capacity to influence others to make an impact on the greater good should
start with oneself. That should then be followed by one-on-one leadership,
team leadership, and then leadership within the broader community context
(Blanchard, 2007), which places the focus on relationship theories.
Relationship theories focus upon the connections formed between leaders

and followers and how leaders motivate and inspire others by helping them
to see the importance and higher good of the undertaking. Within these
relationships, Participative leadership theories took a directive stance,
suggesting that leaders take the input of others into account. These leaders
encourage participation and contributions from groups and help them feel
more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. The economist,
Mr Mbeki, was able to assess the needs of fellow South Africans but also the
needs of countries of the Africa continent, take stock of the situation, and
encou raged participation.
Maxwell’s (2007: 134) pronounce that. ‘Everything rises and falls on

leadership’; Ngambi (2011: 5) reinforces this notion when stating ‘[t]he success
or failure of every nation is a true reflection of its leadership. Mr Zuma, during
his term of office, managed to achieve just that. With his charisma, he could
‘develop particularly strong emotional attachments with followers’, however
South African short-term president, Kgalema Motlanthe observed, ‘There’s no
leadership being provided ... overall as a country, it’s as though we are in an
interregnum’ (Lowenstein. 2016: 2). Mr Zuma blatantly ignored the principles
on which good leadership theories are based on and in layman terms advocated
the importance of providing foremost for oneself, leaving the country in what
Foster (2009: 3) calls ‘looks like a case study in national devolution’.
15.6 Contemporary trends in and challenges for the

South African public sector HRM
Statistics SA (2020) estimates the mid-year population at 59,62 million
of which, approximately 30,5 million of the population is female. South
Africa’s unemployment rate (people who have stopped looking for work),
stands at 29.1% in the fourth quarter of 2019 (Statistics SA, 2019). For many
South Africans, the world has become complex and consequently there has
been an increase mental health problems, also becoming more pertinent in
the workplace is psychological stress as well as declining psychological and
emotional well-being. The complexity of the South African environment
is prevalent in concepts of unemployment, inequality, poverty, and poor
402
governance. rXlso, corruption, poor governance and leadership aggravate

social turbulence (Cilliers & Aucoin. 2017). HRM in SA in the future is faced
with many challenges. These include:
Leadership: The global environment continues to use leadership as the top
priority in shaping the future of HRM. The challenge for SA in the macro
environment is to show robust leadership in accelerating social development
and effectively addressing poverty. Poverty can be addressed by the government
by creating jobs, attracting investment, engaging in trade with other countries
and promoting development. Perhaps the biggest challenge for the public
sector and HR practitioners in the micro-environment is to ask whether they
are confident that they are doing enough and whether they are exploring new
approaches to move speedily towards achieving their aims. This condition
involves a significant investment of time and resources and a commitment
to accountable leadership from the South African government. According to
(Cilliers & Aucoin. 2017), the greatest threat to SA is undoubtedly an ANC
leadership that responds to populist politics. This leads to a position where
SA finds itself accumulating elite political populism and eventually sits with
a shrinking economy.
• In support of the NDP in an accountable and sustainable manner, change is
most powerful when it comes from the top. Premiers, members of executive
committees, directors-general. chief directors and all public officials that
lead projects within the public sector should set an example and foster a
professional and efficient organisational culture.
Professionalising the public service: In a democratic era, the public
service should prioritise a focus on administrating a professional, ethical and
performance-oriented ethos among public servants. This focus is reliant on the
supporting presence of political will to provide services, mediate differences of
opinion within the ruling party, enforce objectivity and excellence in selection
criteria for the appointment of public servants; and limit political interference
in administrat ion (Twala, 2014). Only if the politically appointed leadership
and senior management set an example of practising a professional ethos,
display basic respect for citizens of the country and the taxpayers’ money; can
the public service overcome the challenges that threaten the S/\ democracy
(Twala & Lucs. 2017).
• The NSG should align development initiatives with the strategies of
the public service and respective service providers and include modern,
effective and efficient ways to train public servants.
403
• Basic codes of conduct should be revisited, amended, honoured and

practised.
• The image and physical appearance of the public service should become
professional.
• Continual cross-generational dialogue, particularly with citizens should
become the order of the day.
Economic growth and social security: Addressing the economic well

being of SA and sustaining the democracy is well captured in the NDP. The
challenge for SA's leaders is to show robust leadership in accelerating social
development and effectively addressing poverty. Thus, either supporting the
implementation and respective objectives of the NDP without any reservation
or offering leadership towards an alternative to sustain democracy through
significant growth. This includes issues of skills development, improving
coordination across government and strengthening accountability for poor
performance (Twala & Lues, 2017). Without drastic reform in this area, more
than half of the population will remain unemployed, uneducated, poor and
thus vulnerable to political manipulation and coercion (Cilliers & Aucoin,
2017). In such cases, the South African government is obliged to provide
sufficient opportunities for all individuals to become whatever they have the
potential to be (Deloitte Development LLC, 2014).
• Expand employment in sectors such as health, social work, education and
law-enforcement agencies and manufacturing.
• Increase tourism, especially after the 2020 coronavirus world-wide
lockdowns.
• Curb crime and streamline criminal justice performance.
• Curb public sector wasteful expenditure.
Information and communication technology: Technology is transforming

and expanding economies in the way that earlier industrial and technological
revolutions changed the course of history (Deloitte Development LLC, 2014).
Over the past decade, there has been a growing recognition of the place of
knowledge and technology in the South African economic development and
the knowledge to exploit it are crucial factors of production. The Department
of Science and Technology (DST) foresees that members of the public will be
not merely passive recipients of science and technology but important players
in processes that shape the focus and patterns of science, technology and
development (DST. 2014). The concept of‘innovation’ in the South African
404
public sector is described primarily in terms of its application. Innovation

is regarded as a core component of the government’s economic policies
regarding transforming SA’s global economic competitiveness, changing our
economic dependence on the local resource base and integrating the first and
second economies (Biljohn & Lues, 2020). It is also regarded as a key factor
for ‘preserving our natural resource base, green economic development, and
improving living standards in a sustainable manner’ (OECD, 2011: 8).
• The South African government needs to implement a competitive global
technology platform.
• Strive for global consistency and set standards to ensure efficiency and
growth.
• Make high-speed broadband internet universally available at competitive
prices.
• Manage HR with a deep understanding of multiple technologies - from
payroll systems to social sharing tools.
Human resource management: HRM planning, which allows public sector

institutions co anticipate future HR needs and to adjust to the internal and
external environment in the process of reaching institutional objectives and
making the right appointments, has never been so crucial in SA. It starts
with obtaining the right employee for the relevant job and encompasses the
recruitment of qualified applicants and the selection and appointment of
those who best comply with the requirements of vacant positions (Deloitte
Development LLC, 2014). At present, it appears as if the South African public
sector does not function optimally. Some of the reasons for this include a lack
of sufficient resources to fulfil mandates such as the insufficient application of
the disciplinary system, and undeveloped management capacity. In this regard,
the role of HR management has become critically important for the public
sector to survive in a changing environment, as well as to ensure professional
service delivery. Career management in the public sector has become central
to sustaining an organisations workforce and rendering effective services
(Lues, 2009). Part of the management function should include:
• Foster a professional ethos in the management of staff.
• Induct new staff properly.
• Invest in a career path for each staff member.
• Foster a culture of investment in human resources and retain skills and
experience.
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• Build a proactive retention model to identify potential problems before

they occur.
• Design work environment solution sets around the findings to drive
greater performance, passion and retention stickiness.
• Rely less on higher education institutions to provide training Provincial
administrations should be the extension of this initiative.
• The NSG should take the lead initiative to build an environment and a cul
ture of continuous learning and simplify and integrate learning technology.
• The public sector must revisit the current performance management process
to see if it truly drives performance or is merely a product of the past.
• Reduce the number of forms and make them straightforward and easy to
use.
• Switch from rigid performance reviews to flexible performance conversa
tions aimed at providing public sector employees at all levels with practical
steps they can take and the skills necessary to reach the next level of
achievement within the organisation.
Working conditions: To reach new heights in retention and engagement,

world-class managers must focus on growing a talent brand that weaves
together the critical elements of work itself, the desire for personal growth
and development, the power of passion and the intrinsic reward of serving
society as part of a brand of which employees can be proud off (Deloitte
Development LLC, 2014).
• HRM practices need to be free from discrimination and invisible barriers
and the injustice that impedes equal employment opportunities must be
removed.
• The management of individuals' careers is no longer limited to regular
office hours; the modern public sector employee wants the best of both
worlds: family life and a successful career.
• Flexible work policies.
• Professional environment.
• The creative and dynamic work environment.
Corruption: Corruption can be broadly defined as the abuse of power

entrusted to a public or corporate sector official for private gain (Statistics
SA, 2018). Although it is apparent that there are abundant legislative directives
406
in place co promote ethical behaviour and the quality of service delivery by

public servants, this does not necessarily guarantee a corruption-free public
service (Twala & Lues, 2017). According to the Auditor-General (2010/2011:
2-18). government tenders amounting to R113 million were awarded between
2010 and 2011 to individuals who had relatives or friends in state institutions.
This evidence reinforces the argument that corruption contributes to
declining confidence in government practices and the application of state
resources. Not only does a trust deficit emerge between the community and
government but resources are also depleted.
Statistics SA estimated that in 2017/18. 0.31% of adults (aged 16 and above)

were asked to pay a bribe by government officials in return for service. Money
constituted about 93% of all the bribes. Most of it (59%) was paid to avoid
paying traffic fines (Statistics SA, 2018).
15.7 Conclusion
This chapter outlined the milieu of HRM in the South African public service.
It is clear that the macro-context - characterised by, among others, increased
competition, the accelerated pace at which private and public institutions
have to operate combined with the general trend towards more democratic
value systems - cannot be ignored by HR managers in the South African
public service.
This chapter also provided a brief overview of the changing South African
public sector in terms of the dynamics of the workforce environment before
1994. post-1994 and in the expected future. The legislative and policy reform
initiatives of Presidents Mandela, Mbeki and Zuma brought about these
changes. Three generations working as public servants in the current HR
establishment of the public sector were described. In conclusion, the chapter
reflected on the global, macro-, and micro-environments shaping the future
of public sector H RM.
407

1. Explain the influence of the global-, macro and micro-environment
on HRM in the South African public sector. Support your answer with
examples.
2. Discuss the dynamics of the South African workforce environment
pre-1994.
3. Discuss the dynamics of the South African workforce environment
post-1994.
4. Distinguish between the reform initiatives of the Mandela, Mbeki,
Zuma and Ramaphosa administrations, with the focus on human
resources.
5. Discuss the leadership theories linked to the respective South African
Presidents.
6. Name and discusses contemporary trends in and challenges for public
sector HRM.
408
Chapter Human resource management in
16 the developed and developing

world
Sinval B Kahn
Purpose
This chapter aims to understand and analyse the importance of human

resource management (HRM) in the developed world, BRICS countries
and Africa.
Learning outcomes
• Deliberate on HRM in the developed world.
• Differentiate between the application of human resource (HR)
practices in developed and developing countries.
• Critically analyse how developed countries have conveyed their HR
ideas and practices to developing countries.
• Reflect on HRM in Africa.
• Discuss how developed and developing countries can learn from each
other’s HR practices.
• Discuss the distinctive HRM practices used in BRICS countries.
• Analyse the influence of the philosophy, culture and traditions of
China, India and South Africa on HRM.
• Discuss how BRICS countries can design their own HR practices.
16.1 Introduction
HRM is a direct response to the need to develop and enhance the competitive
ness of institutions in an era when foreign direct investment is much sought
after. This is important for an emerging economy like South Africa’s. This
chapter focuses on HRM in the United States of America (US), the United
Kingdom (UK), BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia. India. China and South
Africa) and two countries in Africa (Kenya and Tanzania). It explores whether
the HRM policies and practices of BRICS countries have an influence and
impact on each other given the political and economic alliances between
these countries. The chapter examines the extent to which the culture and
traditions of these countries influence their HRM practices. It elaborates on
how the BRICS countries and Africa can learn from developed countries.
16.2 Human resource management in the United

States and the United Kingdom
This section focuses on the employment relationship in the US and employee
relations and work-life balance in the UK.
16.2.1 Employment relationship in the United States

In May 2020. the US labour force was 158.23 million, with an economically
active workforce of 60.8% and an unemployment rate of 14.7% (Duffin:
Internet 2020j. US institutions embody individualistic patterns, especially in
subordinates’ capacity to question the orders of their superiors, with dispute
resolution procedures relying on manager-subordinate interaction. They
apply the meritocracy principle, which promotes individual achievements
(rewards and promotion), regardless of other factors such as age and seniority
(Cardona & Morley, 2013: 20).
The US is the leader when it comes to HRM policies and practices. Its HRM
model regards employees as individuals who have an economic relationship
with an institution. HRM in the US has changed noticeably for two reasons:
first, the realisation that competitive advantage can only be sustained through
skillful development and management of people (of particular importance
to knowledge-intensive institutions); second, the need to adopt a more
international focus on issues such as productivity, managing international
alliances, managing expatriates and developing an adequate pool of talent
(Cardona & Morley, 2013: 21).
The principle of equality and non-discrimination in employment is based

on the legal and moral propositions that employees who are alike should be
treated alike. The argument in favour of this principle and practice is that
groups of‘equals’ can be allocated less well-paying jobs or be paid less for
doing the same work, giving employers an economic basis for discriminating
against such employees (Finkin & Cutcher-Gershenfeld. 2013: 113). This
410
Chapter 16: Human resource management in the developed and developing world
principle dates back to the founding fathers - it is recorded in the American

Declaration of Independence (1776) that ‘all men are equal’. This principle
gave birth to gender equality in the workplace in the US.
16.2.2 Employee relations in the United Kingdom

Employees in the UK have a choice bet ween two types of employment contracts,
namely, permanent or temporary. A permanent contract is a contractual
agreement that protects employees against unscrupulous employers who may
otherwise exploit them. This contract spells out the benefits that an employee
is entitled to, which include, among others, salary, pension, medical aid,
performance bonus and housing allowance. Temporary employment excludes
many of the benefits to which permanent employees are entitled (Cardona &
Morley. 2013: 81). For example, a temporary employee may not be entitled to
medical or pension benefits.
HRM is considered a major source of competitive advantage for institutions

and the focus has thus shifted to a more strategic approach, involving a
broad range of value-adding activities such as succession planning, coaching
and mentoring, performance management, recruitment and selection,
empowerment and talent management (Cardona & Morley, 2013: 81). As a
result, UK institutions are more occupied with employees’ commitment and
sense of belonging to the institution. This has caused institutions to look
inward, promoting from within rather than recruiting from external markets
and to orient compensation policies towards job analysis.
The success of HR practices in UK institutions comes from a strategic

partnership. In ocher words, they are aligned with an institution’s strategies
(Cardona & Morley 2013:81). HR practicescan play a crucial role in enhancing
employees' motivation and attracting more skilled and committed candidates,
who ultimately influence rhe institution’s performance and productivity.
16.2.2.1 Work-life balance in the United Kingdom

In the UK, government work-life balance discourse emphasises potential ‘win
win’ outcomes from flexibility for both employer and employees. However,
flexibility may entail employee flexibility for the employer or flexible working
for the benefit of the employee. The former refers to formal and informal
workplace policies driven by customer demands, production goals, and other
institutional requirements. The latter refers to flexibility driven by individual
employees’ preferences and needs. Conflicting evidence is present in the extant
literature, however, as to which form of flexibility institutions prioritise,
411
whether employees and employers can achieve mutual gains and whether
organisations are conflating their interests with those of their employees even
where divergent interests are found? (Wheatley. 2012: 814).
Alongside changes to workplace policies, government is making significant

effort to reduce the reliance on the car, including the use of the car for
the commute. International and EU directives targeting reductions in
emissions and congestion and promoting public transport drive this. The
car remains dominant, though, due to the greater flexibility it offers workers
(Pooley, Turnbull & Adams et u/. 2005: 135). This is especially important for
careerists, often women, combining complex routines of work with household
responsibilities (Hardill & Wheatley, 2009 in Wheatley. 2012: 814). Reducing
the use of the car for the journey to work may be particularly problematic for
these individuals (Wheatley, 2012: 814).
16.2.2.2 Work-life balance

Work-life balance refers to the ability of individuals, regardless of age or
gender, to combine work and household responsibilities successfully. 'Work’
in this context can be considered as paid employment (as well as unpaid work
carried out for an employer). This is distinguished from ‘life’ which refers
to non-work, comprised of free time spent in leisure activities, and family
time (Lowry & Moskos, 2008: 170). This distinction between work and life
is problematic due to the instance of work-related time, including travel-to-
work, which cannot be considered as leisure, but equally cannot be considered
work in the sense of paid employment. Problems of distinguishing time-use
aside, inherent difficulties also exist in defining the term 'balance' vis-a-vis
work-life balance. Additionally, balance may be dynamic and changing either
through employee need or employer demands (Wheatley, 2012: 815).
Work-life balance has, in recent years, come co the forefront of discussions

regarding improvements in working conditions and increasing the flexibility
of paid work. Since the launch of the Work-Life Balance campaign (United
Kingdom. 2009 in Wheatley. Hardill & Green. 2008: 231) in the UK in 2000,
a range of policy has been designed and implemented to help employees
achieve a better balance between work and the rest of their lives. This includes
the use of flexible working arrangements. However, work-life balance does
not, necessarily, reflect a commitment by employers to improve the welfare
of workers. Difficulties may exist for careerists due to increasing demands
from employers for mobility and flexibility, increased work intensity as
workforces are rationalised and workloads increased, and a blurring of work
life boundaries as work is conducted away from the office, at home, and on
the move (Wheatley etal. 2008: 231).
412
16.2.2.3 Work-life balance and conflicting perspectives

The Work-Life Balance campaign aimed co raise employers’ awareness of the
benefits co business from introducing work-life balance policies and practices.
Appropriate design and implementation of work-life balance policies can enable
workers to gain greater autonomy in combining work and non-work spheres
(Felstead, Jewson, Phizacklea & Walters. 2002: 55-66 in Wheatley, 2012: 816).
A range of possible benefits exists for both employer and employee, potentially
delivering a ‘win-win outcome. Employers benefit from greater productivity,
improved recruitment and retention, reduced accommodation costs (through
hot-desking for example), lower absenteeism, and improved customer services
and employee motivation (United Kingdom, 2009 in Wheatley, 2012: 816).
Employees’ benefits include increased flexibility over worktime, enabling it
to be moulded around the household and caring responsibilities (Tietze &
Musson, 2005 in Wheatley. 2012: 816). Reductions are also possible in stress
commonly associated with managing work and home (McDowell, Perrons,
Fagan, Ray & Ward, 2005 in Wheatley, 2012: 816).
Meanwhile, those using flexible working arrangements may be able to alleviate

the pressures of che ‘school run' by avoiding peak journey times, and home
workers can circumvent the commute entirely (Hill, Ferris & Martinson. 2003
in Wheatley, 2012: 816). Evidence suggests positive impacts; for example, higher
levels of satisfaction with work, indicative of perceived improvement, have
been reported among those using flexible working arrangements (Kelliher &
Anderson, 2008 in Wheatley, 2012: 816), women working part-time (Gregory
and Connolly, 2008 in Wheatley, 2012: 816), and among teleworkers (Fonner &
Roloff, 2010: 353). These benefits vary between different groups of workers, by
gender, age and other demographics (Lewis, 2003: 11 in Wheatley, 2012: 816).
In respect to formal policy, the right to request flexible working in the UK

was first introduced in 2003 under the Flexible Working Regulations (2007).
A range of flexible working arrangements exists, including flexitime, home
based teleworking, job-sharing, and compressed hours. The regulations place a
duty on employers to consider requests seriously. However, requests for flexible
working can be refused on grounds of‘business need*. It has been argued that
any potential negative career implications associated with flexibility are likely
to be less severe in managerial and professional occupations (Cam, Purcell &
Tailby, 2003 in Wheatley, 2012: 816-817).
However, the ‘win-win discourse associated with flexibility in the UK has

been argued as simply legitimising flexibility for the employer (Fleetwood,
413
2007 in Wheatley, 2012: 817). According co Shorthose (2004: 2 in Wheatley,

2012: 817), rhe Work-Life Balance campaign is characterised by an inherent
and limiting managerialism. The author suggests chat it does not have the
power of legislation co enact real change in working behaviours, thus work-life
balance campaigns perpetuate continued work-life imbalance. Requests for
flexible working can be rejected by employers on grounds of‘business need’,
raising concerns in respect to whether flexibility is primarily being increased
for the benefit of the employee, or the employer.
Significant compromise is often required by the employee when working

flexibly. Reduced opportunities may be encountered, as employers continue
to equate flexible working with a lack of commitment. Meanwhile, in seeking
to build and advance their careers many employees accept professional work
group norms such as long hours. In doing so they create an unsatisfactory
relationship between home and work, thus sacrificing desired work-life
balance (Sturges & Guest. 2004: 17 in Wheatley, 2012: 817). This is especially
evident among working mothers. Non-standard employment enables working
mothers to maintain a professional identity and challenge the norms of
presenteeism while acting as primary caregivers. Many, though, continue to
engage in other norms including not taking breaks and completing full-time
workloads (Dick. 2006: 554-555 in Wheatley. 2012: 817). An example of such
a case is illustrated in ‘Focus on research 16.1’.
Flexible working arrangements do have the potential to provide successful

outcomes for both employees and employers. Flexitime helps work-life
balance. Work-life balance aims to improve conditions for all workers by
altering work practices (Wheatley, 2012: 822). In the South African context,
the majority of the workforce is not only dependent on public transport but
also live far away from their place of employment. How should the South
African government deal with the conflict between flexitime and travel-to-
work so that South Africans can enjoy workdife balance?
Source. Wheatley (2012: 822)
16.3 Human resource management in BRICS countries

This section addresses HRM in the five countries that comprise BRICS: Brazil.
Russia, India, China and South Africa.
414
16.3.1 Talent management and absorptive capacity in Brazil

Brazil’s culture shares a heritage of Eastern and Western values. This
allows managers co use their personal touch to alleviate the tension
and ineffectiveness resulting from the impersonality of bureaucratic
organisational structures by developing strong emotional and personal bonds
with employees. This presence of both types of values distinguishes Brazil
from other Latin American countries that are often (generally) characterised
by a heavy-hierarchical structure of society, a strong presence of patriarchal
principles, strict bureaucratic rules, and high concentration of impunity and
paternalism (Nery-Kjerfve & McLean, 2015: 29).
The tendency of management relying on personal relations and informal

influence, for example in recruitment decisions, is often referred to as
‘jeitinho’. Scholars describe this unique-to-Brazilian-society cultural trait as
an informal mechanism of attaining objectives without going through pre-
established norms that, they believe, could potentially explain the success of
transforming potential absorptive capacity into realised absorptive capacity
in Brazilian institutions. In particular, with the key characteristics ofjeitinho
being interaction, adaptability and leading with diversity, it helps to increase
the flexibility of talent management in response to situations, where decision
making is limited, and employee voice mechanisms are weak (Reis & Quental,
2014 in Latukha, Selivanovskikh & Maclennan, 2020: 424).
Brazil’s contemporary economic environment is determined by insufficient

investments in workforce training. Despite che state making the education
reform a political priority, Brazil lags behind developed countries in terms
of higher education effectiveness, with lower than average learning levels,
secondary and tertiary education completion rates, and student flow efficiency
(Bruns, Evans, & Luque, 2011 in Latukha, Selivanovskikh & Maclennan,
2020: 425). This forces local institutions to adopt a global approach to
talent management with Western multinationals being the key vector of
convergence of practices and consider an elitist approach to talent selection
(special focus on international talent profiles) as talent scarcity hinders the
identification of adequate employees for open positions. There is a particularly
high demand for business-friendly and English-speaking managers and
engineers (Newburry, Gardberg, & Sanchez, 2014 in Latukha, Selivanovskikh
& Maclennan, 2020: 425). At the same time, the concept of‘self-development’
becomes quite important in the context of Brazil, with local firms importing
practices aimed at stimulating employees to plan for their own development,
taking advantage of the potential of new technologies, setting up partnerships
415
with outside institutions in capability-building processes (Fischer & De

Albuquerque, 2005 in Latukha, Selivanovskikh & Maclennan, 2020; 425).
This allows organisations to make use of valuable internal and external
knowledge, as conditions are created for workers to effectively communicate
and share experiences across different organisational units, which ultimately
boosts the development potential absorptive capacity (Celadon & Sbragia,
2015 in Latukha, Selivanovskikh & Maclennan. 2020: 425).
Brazil can be characterised by a highly hierarchical, collectivistic and

paternalist model of management (relying on strong loyalty) and higher
risk aversion, which would be the legacy of slavery, colonialism, the early
emergence of a dominant class as the basis of the State, the rise of‘bureaucratic
authoritarianism' during the military dictatorship from the 1960s to the
1980s, labour market deregulation in the 1990s, and frequent workforce
downsizing in the second half of the 2000s (De Hilal. 2006 in Latukha,
Selivanovskikh & Maclennan, 2020: 425). An important issue here is that
the country’s largest, most resourceful and sector-dominating institutions
(when expanding abroad) transfer their hierarchical management practices
to countries whose culture is hardly compatible with Brazil’s generally
more collectivistic, paternalistic one (Aguzzoli & Geary, 2014 in Latukha,
Selivanovskikh & Maclennan, 2020: 425). This ‘Brazilian’ collectivism and
paternalism are generally considered as typical features of the wider Latin
American context rather than specific to the Brazilian national environment,
although the country’s complicated development path, the idiosyncratic
features of society, the predominance of the Catholic religion and Latin
culture in the region, and the presence of large ethnic minority populations
make the usual ‘paternalistic’ and ‘collectivistic’ cultural values the more
peculiar, especially in relation to management style and practice (Ambrosius,
2018 in Latukha, Selivanovskikh & Maclennan, 2020: 425). The above is
illustrated in ‘Did you know 16.1’.
DID YOU KNOW?

Brazil’s culture shares a heritage of Eastern and Western values. This
allows managers to use their personal touch to alleviate the tension
and ineffectiveness resulting from the impersonality of bureaucratic
organisational structures by developing strong emotional and personal
bonds with employees.
Source: Nery-Kjerfve & McLean (2015: 29)
416
16.3.1.1 Talent management

Talent management assumes that, on the one hand, the employer has a
personal obligation to protect one’s subordinates and sometimes even provide
for the needs of workers and their families (Rodriguez, 2008 in Latukha,
Selivanovskikh & Maclennan, 2020: 425 426), while, on the other hand, the
employer unilaterally determines which talent management practices (then-
nature and extent) and organisation patterns are to be adopted. For instance,
external recruitment for managerial or strategic positions, performance-based
variable remuneration, and open appraisal systems (for example, 360-degree
feedback) are rather unpopular in local organisations’ talent management
systems (Latukha, 2016 in Latukha, Selivanovskikh & Maclennan. 2020:
425-426). These specifics coupled together with marginalisation, which
suggests that particular groups of workers, for example, women and ethnic
minorities, are systematically disadvantaged at the workplace (Prado Sc
Fleith, 2018 in Latukha, Selivanovskikh Sc Maclennan, 2020: 425-426), make
organisations reluctant to take full advantage of local talent to develop
potential and realise absorptive capacities. This, in turn, leads to diminished
benefits of knowledge diversity as well as the weakened creative potential
of organisational members due to local firms’ inability to attract talents of
diverse backgrounds, therefore decreasing the organisations' exposure to
heterogeneous knowledge (Engelman. Fracasso, Neto, Sc Schmidt. 2015 in
Latukha, Selivanovskikh Sc Maclennan, 2020: 425-426).
Brazil has a two-tier labour market (an informal one, concerning

approximately 40% of the total workforce, and a formal one. highly const rained
by regulation) (Aguzzoli Sc Geary, 2014 in Latukha, Selivanovskikh &
Maclennan, 2020: 426), with unions having practically no bargaining power
due co the paternalist capitalism scheme, where many large organisations
remain with a highly concentrated shareholding structure. Moreover, many
Brazilian workers, including the most skilled ones, often feel chat their
employers break the terms of the implicit psychological contract, which has
led to a shift from the ‘one career, one single institution’ to itinerant work life
and a multiplication of‘protean’ and boundaryless careers in Brazil (Azevedo,
2014 in Latukha, Selivanovskikh & Maclennan, 2020: 426). Organisations
devote great attention to work-life balance issues and promotion of social
welfare. As a reward for subordinates’ loyalty and professional behaviour,
for example, they offer internal promotion for managerial positions, which
ensures talented workers who possess valuable knowledge stay within the
organisation and actively exchange and systematically reuse this knowledge
for idea generation and innovation. Finally, to deal with the increased talent
417
retention costs associated with higher talent mobility resulting from the shift
from the life-long employment tradition to itinerant work-life (Ambrosius,
2018 in Latukha, Selivanovskikh & Maclennan, 2020: 426), Brazil is forced
to adopt US-inspired management practices and firmly anchor them in
the country’s typical cultural traits. Evidence shows that contemporary
organisations have become rather proactive in building inter-organisational
networks and strategic partnerships to increase knowledge inflows (Wood.
Dibben & Meira, 2016 in Latukha, Selivanovskikh & Maclennan. 2020: 426),
which in turn facilitates potential absorptive capacity development due to
the increased presence of talented professionals (Celadon & Sbragia, 2015 in
Latukha. Selivanovskikh & Maclennan. 2020: 426).
16.3.1.2 Trust management

Brazil ranks in the bottom 10% of countries on the interpersonal trust scale.
Being a collectivistic society, the people usually have a trusted network that
includes family and close group members but not institutions or people
from other groups trust exist among people who are known to each
other. Brazilians have a higher level of trust in business institutions than
in government, media and non-governmental organisations (Cardona 6c
Morley, 2013: 165). Brazil is considered to have a high-power distance culture
in which a degree of inequality is accepted, especially when compared with
the United States. It is accepted that there are institutional hierarchies and
that superiors may enjoy more benefits than others. Seniority is viewed as
a superiority trait that overshadows competencies and leadership abilities.
Acceptance of power distance leads to lack of trust, with an increased need
for control and monitoring and frequent problems of employee autonomy
(Cardona & Morley, 2013: 167-168).
16.3.2 Talent management and absorptive capacity in Russia

It is worth mentioning that most existing academic work on talent management
in Russia focuses on either case studies of Western multinationals’
subsidiaries (which often have well-developed talent management practices)
or make an overview of HRM practices in a specific organisation but where
talent management is only a side function (Latukha, 2015 in Latukha,
Selivanovskikh & Maclennan, 2020: 426-427). Talent management remains
a very recent concept in Russia; however, the topic has gained popularity
among academics and practitioners due to the effects the following factors
have on local organisations HR architectures: inter alia, the ideological legacy
of the Soviet regime and the existing discrepancies between older. Soviet-born
418
educated generations and younger. post-Soviet, more individualist-oriented

generations, who consider it more likely to obtain empowerment as well as find
openness, fairness, and transparency in foreign-owned corporations rather
than local organisations (Fey & Shekshnia, 2011 in Latukha, Selivanovskikh
& Maclennan, 2020: 426-427).). Russia is often described as the country of
rapid transitions: from a fully State-regulated labour market to a much more
open one, from collectivism to Western-type individualism, from Soviet-type
to US-inspired managerial practices and patterns (Vaiman & Holden, 2011
in Latukha, Selivanovskikh & Maclennan. 2020: 426-427). Since the Soviet
time, the competitive strategies of locally headquartered organisations have
undergone significant changes due to rapid changes in market conditions,
ownership structure and sector breakdown of the economy, which in turn
resulted in a new economic environment characterised by stiff competition for
human capital. Here, the key question is how these contextual peculiarities
(along with rhe unique cultural factors) affect local organisations’ ability
to effectively and efficiently attract, develop and retain talent and, as a
result, develop the knowledge acquisition, assimilation, transformation and
exploitation capabilities in order to meet certain organisational objectives
(Latukha, Selivanovskikh & Maclennan. 2020: 426-427).
Regarding talent development, training and education, the Soviet legacy

coupled with the early 1990s budget constraints, elimination of many state-
sponsored professional development programmes, and dramatic changes
in the vocational education landscape have significantly affected Russian
organisations’ agendas for talent management (Latukha, 2016; 2018 in
Latukha, Selivanovskikh & Maclennan. 2020: 427-428). As the ‘capitalist’
business/management education was rejected in the Soviet Union, domestic
organisations, as well as foreign organisations' subsidiaries operating
within the country borders, continue dealing - years after the Soviet Union
disintegration - with the inefficiencies of Russia's higher education system
and the resulting lack of basic business knowledge, skills, and experience of
local talent (Muratbekova-Touron, Kabalina, & Festing, 2018 in Latukha,
Selivanovskikh & Maclennan. 2020: 427-428). This forces organisations to
create their own training and development facilities, invest more resources
into developing relevant skills of high potentials via internships, internal
training, leadership development, quick promotions ‘from within,’ and/or
provide global mobility opportunities to talents for them to complete their
degrees abroad, participate in joint educational or training programmes at
(international) professional development centres (Fey & Bjorkman, 2001 in
Latukha, Selivanovskikh & Maclennan. 2020: 427 428). According to Holden
& Vaiman, (2013: 140) talent development is needed in Russia however, many
419
employers do not have the patience to develop their best employees, because
they are needed now. and not necessarily in the future. Due to the shortage
of relevant skills and experience the implementation of context-specific
talent development practices facilitates the identification and absorption of
valuable external knowledge that can be further assimilated, transformed,
and exploited by all employees (Fey, Morgulis-Yakushev, Park & Bjorkman,
2009 in Latukha. Selivanovskikh & Maclennan, 2020: 427 428).
Authoritarian and bureaucratic management patterns, persistence of

traditional personnel administration in local organisations, limited tradition
of empowerment, and isolation of the top decision-makers are considered
to have a detrimental impact on HR- and talent-related practices, with the
employees being primarily used to carry out short-term oriented tasks set
by management (Latukha. 2016 in Latukha. Selivanovskikh & Maclennan.
2020: 428). This legacy coupled with market liberalisation and fierce foreign
competition significantly slows down domestic organisations’ transition of
their HR departments from a control function to a business partner (and
further on to a business integrator) and pushes organisations to adopt a
more strategic approach to talent management. Muratbekova-Touron et al,
2018 in Latukha, Selivanovskikh and Maclennan. (2020: 428) observed a
tendency toward wide-ranging imitation of Western-type talent management
practices in Russia, for example, the development of cadre reserves to reduce
vacancy of key positions and the design of individual development plans for
key employees. This ’convergence approach' could, nevertheless, result in
insufficient management attention to the role of contextual peculiarities and
cultural factors in talent management implementation success. Coupled with
local organisations’ strong desire to quickly reap the financial benefits, this
‘blind’ adoption of talent management practices results in a lack of proper
mechanisms for the analysis and refinement of valuable knowledge as the
adoption of such mechanisms requires a significant investment of resources
on the part of the organisation (Latukha & Veselova, 2018 in Latukha,
Selivanovskikh & Maclennan. 2020: 428). This, in turn, means that in the
Russian context realised absorptive capacity is not being effectively developed
(Dixon & Day, 2007 in Latukha. Selivanovskikh & Maclennan, 2020: 428).
Nonetheless, importing the best talent attraction, development, and retention
practices would positively influence a firm’s ability to effectively transform
potential absorptive capacity into realised absorptive capacity, with local
organisations becoming more motivated to exploit the newly acquired and
assimilated valuable knowledge for gaining short-term profits and long-term
competitive advantages (Latukha. Selivanovskikh & Maclennan. 2020: 428).
420
16.3.2.1 Trust management

The trust relationship in Russia is a special aspect of people’s relationships
which is not considered an inevitable part of work relationships between
managers and subordinates. Both managers and subordinates view trust
as more important in everyday life than as a major part of the institution’s
processes. Managers expect subordinates to perform certain functions on
their own without managerial supervision, control or pressure. They view
a trustworthy person as being loyal, ethical and having a high sense of
responsibility in both private and institutional life. Mutual feedback must be
seen as crucial if this approach is to ensure employees’ motivation, proactivity
and good communication (Cardona & Morley, 2013: 150 151).
Subordinates view trust from a different perspective. They expect managers

to spend more time working with them. They also expect managers
to be transparent, and coherent and consistent in their behaviour and
communication (Cardona & Morley, 2013: 150-151). Trust is evident in
managers who welcome feedback and suggestions, communicate openly,
delegate tasks and publicly recognise subordinates’ success. However,
managers are also expected to interact socially with employees. Behaviours
such as credibility, reliability, integrity, loyalty and reciprocity are qualities
that strengthen trust relationships (Cardona & Morley, 2013: 151-152).
16.3.3 Human resource management in India

Sharma (2010: 102-104) presents an alternative HR Needs Basket Model
based on Indian traditions. This model provides choices and contextual
anchors that are not part of the mainstream Western context. As illustrated in
Figure 16.1, the needs basket model is expressed through human interactions.
In the context of institutions, different types of needs find expression in
different forms. For example, psychological and sociological needs find
expression in the formation of formal and informal groups stemming from
the need to be accepted and belong.
The needs basket model outlines the six major needs that underpin work-
related motivation in the workplace: spiritual learning and development,
instrumental, physiological, relational and subjective space needs. The
spiritual actualtsation needs focus on the non-material domains guiding
work-related engagement. The search for harmony between traditional and
global work roles remains a powerful influence for both Chinese and Indian
employees. Chinese and Indian heritages highlight one’s spiritual connection
to work rather than to performance.
421
Learning and development needs are identified as the primary goal across both
China and India, except in the case of female managers between the ages of
30 and 40. The subjective space need underpins the cultural context expressed
through employees’ identity needs. Employees' ideas about themselves are
significantly shaped by the cultural context. The resulting need for identity
changes from institution to institution as well as across demographics and
sub-cultures (Nankervis, Cooke. Chatterjee & Warner, 2013: 38-39). India is a
socio-centric society, which means n ostensibly places community and family
rather than individual interests at the centre, in contrast to the US. The need
for the subjective domain to construct an identity is interlinked with ‘collective
belongingness’. The needs basket model suggests that employees are frequently
searching for a 'purpose' in their employment. As employees spend more time
at the workplace, the traditional sources of inner fulfilment through faith and
religion are being replaced by their work institutions (Nankervis etal, 2013: 39).
Figure 16.1: Human resource needs basket model.

Source: Nankervis et al (2013: 38).
16.3.3.1 Intellectual capital and organisation performance in

India
I he resource-based view of the organisation focuses on the long-term
competitive advantage of the firm by maintaining its strategic resources such
as knowledge, skills and unique production processes - which in turn yields
above-average profits for the organisation (Peteraf, 1993 in Nadeem, Gan, &
Nguyen, 2017: 68). These knowledge-based resources, which create value for
the institution are known as intellectual capital (IC) (Stewart & Ruckdeschel,
1998 in Nadeem. Gan, & Nguyen, 2017: 68).
422
Kamach (2008 in Nadeem, Gan. & Nguyen. 2017: 68) investigates the
efficiency of IC and its relationship with organisation performance in
the Indian pharmaceutical industry. The results revealed that domestic
organisations are relatively more efficient in using IC. The results also revealed
that only IC is closely associated with the profitability and productivity of
the organisation in terms of return on assets and assets turnover. IC also
significantly influences the financial performance of the firm in a positive
manner (Sharabati, Naji Jawad & Bonus, 2010 in Nadeem. Gan, & Nguyen,
2017: 68). Research conducted by Vishnu and Gupta (2014 in Nadeem, Gan,
& Nguyen, 2017: 69) reveal that IC significantly correlated with the overall
financial performance of the organisation except for its revenue growth. They
also report that physical capital plays a vital role in the value creation process
of organisations in developing countries. IC adds value considerably toward
the financial performance of the organisation regardless of its geographical
location (Nadeem, Gan, & Nguyen. 2017: 69). Therefore, it can be deduced
that IC enhances the institution’s effectiveness.
According to the resource dependency theory, organisations are dependent

on several stakeholders (other organisations) which hold strategic resources.
First, it focuses on rhe importance of maintaining long-term relationships
with different stakeholders to survive during uncertain periods in procuring
different resources from stakeholders. Second, this theory also emphasises
the importance of efficient human resources which may help organisations
to maintain relationships with stakeholders (Pfeffer & Salancik 2003 in
Nadeem, Gan, & Nguyen, 2017: 69).
16.3.4 Intellectual capital and organisation performance

in China
IC generally consists of those intangible assets which play an important role
in the wealth creation process of a firm bin are not recorded on the firm s
balance sheet like physical assets (Burgman. Roos, Ballow & Thomas, 2005
in Nadeem, Gan. & Nguyen. 2017: 65). IC is the totality of all those skills
and competencies possessed by the employees which create wealth for the
organisation (Choo Huang. 2007 in Nadeem, Gan. & Nguyen, 2017: 65).
According to Lu, Wang and Kweh (2014 in Nadeem. Gan, & Nguyen,
2017: 69) IC enhances the organisations’ performance and sustainable
competitive advantage. They contend that physical assets such as plant,
machinery and financial assets are generic in nature and can be substituted at
any time by any organisation. This is underscored by Youndt, Subramaniam
423
and Snell (2004 in Nadeem, Gan, & Nguyen, 2017: 69) who claim that
intangible assets contribute significantly toward the value creation process
and help build sustainable competitive advantage for the organisation in the
current knowledge economy era.
The organisational learning (OL) theory allows organisations to build long

term competitive advantage by following continuous learning processes. These
continuous learning processes are essential for the organisation’s success
and survival. They allow organisations to obtain knowledge about their
customer demands and changing preferences about products and services.
OL allows an organisation to acquire a new wealth of knowledge which can
then be transformed into innovation and protected in the forms of its unique
intellectual property (Njuguna, 2009 in Nadeem, Gan, & Nguyen. 2017: 70).
16.3.4.1 Human resource development in China

According to Warner and Goodall (2010: 71), China’s State Economic
Commission requires its army managers to be empowered with different
capabilities and orientation than the previous generation of managers who
worked for the institution. Zhao and Chen (2010: 92). who claim that human
resource development (HRD) has been given top priority by the Chinese
government, underscore this.
The other side of the coin shows a different picture. According to Li and
Sheldon (2010:2066), investment in training and developing employees results
in increased poaching'. Employers cannot depend on Confucian values of
loyalty and mutual obligations to inhibit employees from taking advantage
of external labour market opportunities. This is supported by Zhao and Chen
(2010: 95) who contend that such activities are a challenge for the former
state-owned enterprises because they neither have the resources nor the
employer branding to retain employees. Confucian values articulate ‘life-long
learning, constant renewal of one's knowledge and paternalistic management
styles’, which would naturally reinforce the societal value of education, as
well as training and development, as an integral part of the employer’s overall
responsibility in managing people. The same argument can be used for India
the quest for knowledge underpinning Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam
pervades Indian society (Warner & Goodall, 2010: 2067).
The ownership of business schools is quite diverse, ranging from state-owned

Tsinghua University to joint ventures such as the China Europe International
Business School to the completely foreign (Cheng Kong Graduate School of
Business) (Di Rollo. 2010: 158). it is likely that these business schools will
424
gradually move away from Western pedagogics and teach Chinese-specific

theories and related training content (Jenster, 2010: 177, 193). The corporate
university concept has been broadly implemented in China by foreign
multinational corporations (MNCs) such as Motorola (Beijing and Tiajin)
and Ericsson (Beijing and Hong Kong) (Jenster, 2010: 22). According to Zhu,
Webber and Benson (2010: 457), the internally-oriented clan structure is
more influential and profound than the externally-oriented market culture.
These emphases are naturally reflective of culture-specific issues such as
'gnanxi' (meaning ’networks’ or ‘connections’) and collectivism, but also of
generational characteristics and the expectations of the new talent market.
16.4 Human resource management in South Africa

This section addresses retention, training and development, compensation
and equality of people with disabilities (PWDs) in South Africa.
16.4.1 Retention
Staff retention is a process of ensuring that employees are kept within the
department. According to the National Development Plan 2030 (2013b: 424),
South Africa needs:
• a career path dial enables experienced technical specialists io continue
as practitioners without taking management careers in order to gain
promotion;
• managers who have sufficient technical knowledge and management
experience to understand the challenges faced by technical specialists;
and
• HRM that plays a supportive role to line management in this regard.
The Department of Public Service and Administration (2006: 13), advocates

the following measures to institutions in retaining staff:
• ensure (hat (here are enough resources available to meet the demands
of the job;
• empower employees through (raining and skills development to meet
job standards;
• give employees challenging work;
• provide opportunities for both individual and teamwork:
• reward good work properly;
• communicate properly with, and give feedback to, workers; and
• create sufficient opportunities for growth and development.
425
16.4.2 Training and development

The official approach of the South African government is to focus on learning
rather than training. The government is more interested in the outcomes or
outputs of training and education than in experiential processes. According
to section D of the Public Service Regulations of 1999 (Republic of South
Africa. 1999), a supervisor must provide training opportunities for employees
under his or her supervision and control in accordance with the department’s
training plan. The supervisor must ensure that sufficient funds are available
for training, and senior management must ensure that public employees are
adequately trained to execute their duties and responsibilities.
The Skills Development Act 97 of 1998 (SDA) steins from the need to
provide an institutional framework to devise and implement national, sector
and workplace strategies to develop and improve the skills of the South
African workforce. These strategies should be integrated with the National
Qualifications Framework contemplated in the South African Qualifications
Authority Act 58 of 1995 to provide for learnerships that lead to recognised
occupational qualifications. The financing of skills development is done
through the Skills Development Levy Act 9 of 1999. which is achieved through
a levy-grant scheme and a National Skills Fund. These Acts require employers
to contribute 1% of the total payroll towards skills development, the collection
of the funds to be administered by the South African Revenue Service (SARS).
The levies paid to SARS are put in a special fund and 80% of the money is
distributed to the Sector Education and Training Authority (SETA) and the
other 20% is paid into the National Skills Fund.
SETA’s mission is the creation of a coordinated framework for ensuring the

provision of appropriate and adequate public service training and education
that will meet the current and future needs of public servants and contribute
positively to the realisation of its vision (White Paper on Public Service
Training and Education, 1998: 14). The Higher Education Qualifications
Framework, as set out in Section 3 of the Higher Education Act 101 of 1997,
provides a single qualifications framework applicable to all higher education
institutions. It is designed to meet challenges facing the higher education
system in the 21st century. It will guide higher education institutions in the
development of programmes and qualifications which provide graduates
with intellectual capabilities and skills that can enrich society and empower
them while enhancing economic and social development.
426
16.4.3 Compensation
hi South Africa, race and gender used co play a major role in determining
employee salaries. The Basic Conditions of Employment Act 75 of 1997
endeavours to level the playing field. In practice, there are still institutions
that are inclined to differentiate between employees on the basis of their race
and gender. The only way to overcome such biases, prejudices and subjectivity,
is co institute an objective system that determines a salary level that is fair
and transparent and understood by all employees.
South Africa is experiencing a shortage of skilled people and managers in

certain job categories such as accountants, engineers, technicians and
medical personnel. These shortages mean that institutions must pay higher
salaries to employ highly skilled candidates. On the other hand. South Africa
is experiencing an over-supply of unskilled people, which means that many
of these people may be willing to be employed at lower income levels. Odwa
(Internet: 2018) claims that in South Africa women earn on average 28.6% less
than their male counterparts. This is underscored by Statistics South Africa
figures, which show that women with ternary education earn 82% of what
their male counterparts earn (Republic ofSouth Africa, 2013a: vi).
16.4.4 Equality of people with disabilities

Section 9 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. 1996 (the
Constitution) guarantees the equality of women in the South African public
service and sets out the equality ofSouth Africans as a right (Republic ofSouth
Africa, 1996: 7). Section 9(3) prohibits direct and indirect unfair discrimination
on the basis of, among other things, race, gender, sex. pregnancy, colour, culture
and disability. This is underscored by Section l(ix) of the Promotion of Equality
and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 4 of 2000. which states that
equality is the full and equal enjoyment of rights and freedoms which includes
dejure and de facto equality as well as equality in terms of outcomes (RSA 2000).
De jure is the legal establishment of rights (laws) and de facto are actual rights
that citizens are currently enjoying (Anges 1999: 378, 381).
South Africa has adopted and ratified several international and regional
instruments that promote the equality of PWDs. Article 27 of the Convention
on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) 2006, acknowledges the
right of PWDs to work, on an equal basis with people with no disabilities
(PWND). It also provides for the removal of all barriers that prohibit the full
participation of PWDs in the social and economic activities of South Africa
(WHO 2011: xi. 235; United Nations (UN) 2014a: li). These rights are endorsed
427
by the Bill of Rights, Chapter two of the Constitution. The Disability Rights
Charter (1992) affirms 18 rights that PWDs are entitled to, which, among
others, includes: non-discrimination, education, employment, health and
rehabilitation, participation in sport and recreation and access to housing
and social security (De Vos Belgraver 2014: 58).
The Preamble to the Constitution provides the foundation for the

advancement and self-actualisation of PWDs in the public service. It clearly
states that the South African government has a constitutional obligation to
‘improve the quality of life of all citizensand free the potential of each person’
(Republic of South Africa, 1996: 4). Section 4 of the Employment Equity
Act 55 of 1998 provides the first steps in addressing equality in the workplace
by compelling all employers to provide equal employment opportunities as a
means to eliminate unfair discrimination in practice. The SDA and the Skills
Development Amendment Act 37 of 2008 provide a framework for improving
the skills of all South Africans. They also provide for the development of
PWDs, which includes a range of learnerships, which lead to recognised
occupational qualifications. These learnerships are designed to assist PWDs
in finding employment in the formal sector, as well as self-employment.
Of the 158 public departments, only 29 (18.35%) have achieved governments

target of 2% of PWDs (RSA 2015b: 23). Of the nine provinces, Mpumalanga is
the only province that has reached government’s target. It has achieved 2.7%
PWDs (RSA 2015b: 23). The above results clearly show that the government is
not in one accord in implementing and achieving its own goals. Kahn (2017:
87-90) propose that new lenses are needed for managing PWDs. He suggests
four factors: recognising the equality of PWDs. valuing and rewarding PWDs
and empowering them to achieve self-actualisation.
16.5 Traditional determinants of human resource

management in three BRICS countries
This section focuses on philosophical and cultural and traditions which may
have influenced HRM in China, India and South Africa.
16.5.1 ‘Harmony’in China

The philosophical views and social ideologies of BRICS countries have
significantly influenced HRM policies and practices in those states.
Philosophical China views the world ‘in a harmonious state’ while India sees
the ‘vasudhaiva kutumbakam (‘the world is a family’). The semi-spiritual
428
unity of these civilisations is reflected in their mutual acceptance of ideas

and their absorption of religious practices (Nankervis et al, 2013: 27). China
has embarked on a more classical development path through manufacturing
exports while India opted for a service-driven economy, a new mode of
development (Kulkarni, 2010: 4).
The Chinese imperial civil service examination, which originated in the sixth
century AD, built upacritical mass ofcertified individuals with knowledgeand
skills able to manage large institutions. It trained scholars and bureaucrats
for over 1 300 years. During the eighth century AD the elite Hanlin Academy
was established in Beijing, which continued until its demise in 1911 (Warner,
2011: 397). It is important to realise that Chinese culture has evolved without
a specific focus on plurality. The Han ethnic group comprises almost 95% of
the population and its written language can be traced back more than 3 500
years. Marxism and Maoism both reinforced the importance of ethical and
ideological forces (Nankervis etal, 2013: 29).
Cultural legacies in China can be traced back to an amalgam of Taoism,

Confucianism and Buddhism. The tradition-anchored belief system may
be divided into three categories: human values (benevolence, wisdom,
harmony, trustworthiness, particularistic and social relationships); social
values (importance of honour and reputation, rules, hierarchy and authority
structures); and institutional values (integrity and competence and reverence
for education and morality) (Nankervis, etal, 2013: 30). These values underpin
contemporary Chinese HRM practices.
The Chinese worldview was influenced by the two force and ‘five-element’
theories. It was believed that these theories fitted together to construct a
cosmic system that was the foundation of not only the rule of the empire
but all forms of institutions and groups. These concepts highlighted man as
an integral part of nature and maintaining harmony as the most important
imperative. The five-element concept of Confucian tradition is a holistic
tradition integrating natural phenomena in human endeavours at a time
when managerial and administrative work was primarily nature-dependent.
The five well-known virtues ofChinese tradition derived from the five elements
arc kind-heartedness, righteousness, etiquette, wisdom and purity. Nankervis
et al (2013: 28, 31) are of the view that China’s enormous foreign exchange
reserves can be ascribed to the embrace of Confucian values.
429
16.5.2 Indian traditions

Huang (2008: 8) contends char rhe essence of ‘he-he’ philosophies is peace
and harmony, an exploration of rhe balance between nature, society, human
relations, the inner being and civilisation. It is a quest for a continually
perfecting process, an effort to define what is good and bad and to discover
principles. Numerous principles that underpin contemporary management
and HRM practices have emerged from India and China and are mirrored in
Western-style systems. The ethical precepts for leadership behaviour advocated
by Confucius informed the ideals of the Indian emperor Asoka in the third
century BC, and the Sreni system of management was widespread in India by
800 BC. This system guided the institutional management ideas of commercial,
military, government and religious institutions (Chatterjee, 2009: 137 139).
The Indian tradition-anchored beliefsystem can be divided into three categories:

• Human values: the centrality of‘dharma and ‘need’ (duty orientation),
cosmocentrism (acceptance of diversity), ‘loka sangraha’ (obligation to
society);
• Social values: ‘nish kam karma, (effort focus not outcome orientation),
patronage (personal loyalty), the bond of, sradha-sneha, (respect and
affection - residual colonialism); and
• Institutional values: ‘udyoga (entrepreneurship as a spiritual exercise),
‘seva’ (service).
The most important feature of the ‘sreni dharma’ was its democratic spirit
and focus on training and development (Chatterjee, 2009: 270).
The pervasive influences of cultural traditions can be seen in the Chinese

internet company Alibaba. The values of Alibaba are referred to as weapons
which are called the divine sword of six vines’ customers first, teamwork,
embracing change, enthusiasm, integrity and dedication. The success of the
employees of Alibaba is ascribed to core HR characteristics that are driven
by dreams’, a willingness to share values, energy and teamwork (Einhorn.
Deprez, Srivastava & Brigorri, 2008:49- 50). The spiritual domain can enlarge
autonomy by the experience of‘inside out that is consistent with Chinese and
Indian cultures and traditions (Nankervis etal, 2013: 39-40).
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Chapter 16: Human resource management in the developed and developing worlc
16.5.3 South Africa's Ubuntu

African indigenous ways of governance revolve around consensus whereby a
council of elders achieve unanimity after all who wish to speak are heard and
a leader is advised accordingly. It emanates from an individual’s duty to the
group and community in the spirit of Ubuntu (McDonald, 2010: 139). Ubuntu
envelops the key values on group solidarity, compassion, respect, human
dignity, conformity to basic norms and collective unity, in its fundamental
sense it denotes humanity and morality (Keevy 2009: 32 cited in Makoba &
Ruffin, 2016: 148 149). Ubuntu emphasises group solidarity and relationship
building and provides the foundation for the way most central, eastern and
southern African people think and behave. From a cognitive perspective
the concept focuses on the spirit of caring and community, harmony and
hospitality, respect and responsiveness that individuals and groups display
towards age (Newenham-Kahindi, Kamoche, Chizema, Mellahi, 2013: 157).
‘Indaba’ refers to a traditional, socially constructed way of handling and

resolving any debate or conflict that may arise within a group and implies
that leadership is defined according to experience and competence. Decision
making is generally based on consensus. Leadership practices are essential
elements in the development of institutional competencies, innovation
and future sustainability (Newenham-Kahindi etal, 2013: 115. 157). These
precepts assume that once employees are well treated, and their core needs are
taken care of, there will be a reciprocal response. Employees will feel that they
belong to the institution, will be dedicated to their work, and will have a sense
of accountability and trust. They will become more innovative and productive
in achieving personal as well as institutional objectives (Newenham-Kahindi
er 4/, 2013: 158).
16.6 Human resource management in Kenya

This section addresses recruitment and selection, compensation and
performance management in Kenya.
16.6.1 Recruitment and selection

The HRM approach in Kenya is characterised by the adoption and useofformal
administrative practices, rather than strategic HR development Overarching
practice includes personnel administration, record-keeping, cost-cutting
measures and retrenchment (Kamoche, Debrah, Horwitz & Muuka, 2004: 90)
Recruitment takes place externally newspapers, academic and training
431
institutions, private agencies, headhunting and 'poaching' and at-the-gate

recruitment, particularly for low-level and casual workers. Particularistic
approaches are common, especially in the public sector, which involves
nepotism and various other forms of favouritism that are characterised by
unfair recruitment and promotion practices. These practices are brought
about by the lack of respect for professionalism and the politicisation
of the public sector labour market. The latter is a manifestation of the
ethnocentrism of recruitment and promotions. The genesis of this practice
is the colonial administrative technique of divide and rule, which served as a
tool for subduing and controlling the indigenous population. This practice
survives active colonial rule and has permeated the neo-colonial state in the
form of ethnicity and nepotism (Nyambegera, 2002: 1083 1085).
Many private institutions and MNCs in Kenya compete for competent

candidates in the labour market by providing lucrative remuneration packages.
These institutions use competencies and skills as a basis for recruitment,
which allows them to create a practice of political patronage that is not
immune from favouritism. Public institutions by their very nature (autocratic
and bureaucratic) are inclined to promote partisan objectives, which results
in inefficiency and ineffectiveness. Positions are filled by politically well-
connected individuals; politicians see such appointments as rewards for
relatives and close and loyal political supporters. Selection interviews are used
as an institutional political smokescreen to justify political appointments.
Other selection methods, such as psychological testing, have been criticised
because they are not African in nature (Kamoche et al, 2004: 91).
Selection is the process of matching the competencies of a candidate with the

job requirements. The outcome of the competencies-job requirements fit will
determine whether the candidate will be appointed or not. Such a situation
can easily land in court, as seen in Spotlight on the Law.
432
In NEHAWU obo Godrich Gardee and General Public Service Sectoral Bargaining
Council vs ZS Sibeko NO and Mpumalanga Provincial Government, Department
of Co-Operative Government and Traditional Affairs (Cogta) and others [2011]
JR 2723/2011, the respondent advertised the post of Chief Director:
Corporate Services in 2009. The various requirements of the post were
listed in the advertisement. It was common cause that the applicant had
previously applied for the position of Chief Director: Corporate Services
and that he was shortlisted. During this first process, the applicant was
interviewed but was not recommended for the post, which was not
filled at that stage. The post was re-advertised but this time around the
applicant was not shortlisted. The applicant challenged the fact that he
was not shortlisted for the post the second time and alleged that this was
unfair. He claimed that he should be appointed to the advertised position.
The court ruled that the applicant does not automatically qualify for
shortlisting the second time. Therefore, the applicant is not entitled to be
considered for appointment.
Source: Southern African Legal Information Institute (2015: Online)
16.6.2 Compensation
Legislation determines the annual minimum wage in Kenya, which in 2002
was equivalent to USS46 for the two main urban cities, Nairobi and Mombasa,
and US$27 elsewhere. However, in sectors like agriculture and some Asian-
owned institutions, labour laws, including minimum wage legislation, are
not adhered to because of the abundance of cheap labour. In addition to
direct financial rewards, institutions provide housing allowances or housing
and transportation. Other fringe benefits have been eliminated because of
financial constraints (Kamoche etal, 2004: 93).
All employers in Kenya must contribute to the National Insurance Hospital

bund to cover medical expenses. Private institutions normally have separate
medical and life insurance cover. Pensions are administered through the
National Social Security Fund. Many institutions have a provident fund to
which employers and employees contribute. These funds are only accessible
on resignation or retirement. Some institutions provide discretionary benefits
such as loans to build or buy a house and education allowances. These
paternalistic services form an important part of the remuneration package,
particularly when one takes into account the high cost of living and low-
income levels (Kamoche etal, 2004: 93).
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Human Resource Management h Government
15.6.3 Performance management

The evaluation of performance includes self-appraisal, the ranking of
performance on an unsatisfactory-outstanding continuum, commenting
on individual achievements and development during the year and making
suggestions for general improvements (Kamoche etal, 2004: 92).
Particularism is a crucial concern in public institutions. Those who are well

connected to senior leaders and managers are often protected when it comes
to identifying and selecting employees for redundancy and retrenchment. In
such instances, institutional politics and good interpersonal relationships
supersede institutional goal-oriented performance. Ethnicity and kinship
affiliations also play an important role (Nyambegera, 2002: 1082 1084).
Clearly, for institutional effectiveness to be realised in Kenya issues of
exclusion on grounds of ethnicity should be eliminated.
The high level of job insecurity and unemployment in Kenya has further
politicised performance appraisal. Socio-cultural and economic conditions
pressurise managers into pretending to be objective while showing
favouritism. Employees performance directly influences the productivity and
effectiveness of public institutions. It is difficult for employers to determine
the level of performance of recruits from among school leavers. Research in
this field would benefit public institutions when recruiting new applicants
(Kamoche etal, 2004: 92).
16.7 Human resource management in Tanzania

This section deals with resource management, recruitment and selection and
HRD in Tanzania.
16.7.1 Resource management

Under a socialist regime, Tanzania had only one language. Swahili, which
created a sense of national identity and cohesion that transcended ethnic
identity. In Tanzania, unlike many other sub-Saharan African countries,
recruitment and selection, training and development and promotion arc
less influenced by ethnic origin (Kamoche et al, 2004: 72-73). Institutions’
commitment to quality and participation resulted in pluralistic and inclusive
policies without due consideration for what these involved. Joint consultation
between employers and employees formed the core of HRM and trade unions
were the driving force of HRM policies and practices. They were expected
434
co cooperate with government in promoting economic development. This

allowed little room tor HR managers to exercise managerial prerogative in
managing their employees (Kamoche etal, 2001: 210-211).
The Public Service Management and Employment Policy (PSMEP) brought

about a radical shift in HRM in Tanzania, with institutions making optimal
use of resources to recruit, organise, motivate and develop their employees to
achieve effectiveness (Kamoche et al. 2004: 74).
16.7.2 Recruitment and selection

In terms of the PSM EP policy, there is open competition for positions in the
public sector in Tanzania. This means there is an open recruitment approach
without gender bias and with competition from candidates both within
and outside of the public service. This takes place through wide methods
of recruiting with the purpose being to advertise vacancies to as large an
audience of qualified applicants as possible (Kamoche etal, 20 04: 75).
Selection is based primarily on competency criteria and takes into

consideration the job specification and job description. Therefore, a job
analysis forms an essential part of the interview process. It is also crucial for
HR planning, which is an integral part of che Public Service Medium Term
Expenditure Framework (Kamoche etal. 2004: 75).
16.7.3 Human resource development

Investment in HRD declined in Tanzania during the economic crisis of the
1980s and 1990s. The government has taken steps to address HRD. All public
service institutions were instructed to implement training and development
programmes. It has also implemented capacity-building programmes, which
include leadership, change management and skills development courses.
These programmes are conducted by, among others, the Eastern and Southern
Africa Management Institute and the Institute of Development Management,
universities, technical colleges and public institutions (Kamoche etal, 2004: 78).
The Tanzania government with the assistance of the World Bank, has
established a Global Distance Learning Network which allows distance
learning access to the rest of the world. It offers courses developed by the World
Bank Institute. Tanzania experiences shortages in, among others, science,
engineering, technical skills, economics, accountancy and information
technology (IT). These shortages are addressed through on-the-job and
off-the-job training, with inventions provided by training institutions. The
435
challenge for government is to provide more resources to develop its labour

force (Kamoche etal, 2004: 78-79).
16.8 Conclusion
Brom the above discussion, it is clear that many HRM policies and practices
in BRICS countries and Africa are based on those of US and UK institutions.
What is lacking is the contextual background needed to understand the
different manifestations of training and development, compensation,
performance management and work-life-balance in BRICS countries and
Africa. Contextual political, economic and social factors and the level of
educational attainment across populations of the different countries should
be taken into consideration.
Regarding training and development, the developing countries generally

have lower rates of adult literacy and are striving to achieve universal primary
education to redress past imbalances. The literature shows that trust has
adopted a largely Western focus, ignoring how and to what extent trust
formation may vary in other cultural contexts.
The legacy of communist ideology in China and the colonial administrative

heritage followed by parliamentary democracy in India have featured
prominently in the transformation of their HRM policies and practices. The
basic design and control philosophy of traditional Western institutions, with
underlying aspirations of continuous growth and profit, may not be adequate
in harnessing human capital within culturally bound BRICS countries.
These countries can leverage their traditional heritages to design alternative
HRM models.
436

1. What are the similarities and differences between HRM practices in
China and India?
2. How different are the HR practices of the BRICS countries and Africa
to those of the US and UK?
3. What are the similarities and differences in the HR practices of BRICS
countries?
4. What cultural lessons can the BRICS countries learn from each other
and can this make a difference to their HR practices?
5. What cultural lessons can South Africa learn from China and India to
improve its HR practices?
6. What HR practices can Kenya and Tanzania learn from BRICS
countries, the US and UK?
7. What development practices should the BRICS countries apply to
increase their skilled workforce pool?
8. What work-life balance practices can the BRICS countries learn from
the UK to ensure that their workforce enjoys a better standard of life?
9. Compare and contrast the HR ‘Needs Basket Model’ with a Western
HR model and discuss how these models could complement each
other.
10. What cultural lessons can South Africa learn from Kenya and Tanzania
to improve its HR practices?
437
Chapter
4 "7 Decolonisation and human
1/ resource management
Sinval B Kahn
Purpose
This chapter provides an understanding of and analyses of the importance
of decolonisation and human resource management (HRM) in South
Africa.
Learning outcomes
• Deliberate on decolonisation and HRM in South Africa.
• Differentiate between colonisation and coloniality, and
decolonisation and decoloniality.
• Discuss the five stages to attain decolonisation.
• Reflect on Afrocentric HRM principles.
• Discuss how the Afrocentric canon is infused in African management
philosophy and human resource (HR) manager’s capabilities.
• Define the capabilities of an HR manager.
• Discuss how Afrocentric epistemology is infused in HRM.
• Discuss how universities can decolonise HRM.
• Discuss how the pedagogy of possibilities can decolonise education.
17.1 Introduction
Since 2015 the term decolonisation has spread across university campuses,
academic corridors, lecture halls, student centres and libraries. It is the
liberation of the mind which promotes the understanding that all South
Africans are equal. It endeavours to restore the dignity and trust of indigenous
people in their fellow human beings.
We provide a brief overview of colonisation, which is followed by a discussion

of decolonisation ultimately focusing on HRM. This chapter introduces
the fundamental principles of African epistemologies and philosophies
and demonstrates how these principles are infused in western management
philosophies and HR studies. The chapter concludes by emphasising the
critical role of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in leading the change of
decolonisation of HRM.
17.2 Colonisation
To understand decolonisation, we briefly reflect on colonisation and make a
distinction between colonisation and coloniality.
17.2.1 Definition of colonisation

According to Agnes (1999: 288), colonisation means to take control of an
area and send people to live in that area. Stevenson, (Internet: 2010) agrees,
stating that colonisation is when settlers were sent to establish political
control over a territory by controlling the indigenous population and thereby
appropriating the said territory. Colonialism is a total power relation that
must be seen in connection with indigenous people’s loss ofself-determination
to live as indigenous people in their own country (Alfred, 2004: 92-93).
Colonisation endeavoured, to control the memory of the colonised by

mutilating their memory in a process of cultural subjugation through
controlling the education system (Flemming, 2016: 301-304). Silva
(2007: 34-36), who claims that colonialism is the overrepresentation of
the white, bourgeois, male, who rationalises his dominion over those he
deems to be irrational, vulnerable and inferior, underscores this. Nyamnjoh
(Internet: 2016) agrees, stating that colonisation expected African people to
trample on their past primitiveness and to whiten-up so that they may be
seen as progressive. This action is not only dehumanising, but it also denies
Africans their right to identity and self-esteem. The indigenous population
lost their independence and social identity. They were deprived of their rights
and became strangers in their own country (Schutte, 2019: 201).
17.2.2 Definition of coloniality

Coloniality is a structure defining the organisation and dissemination of
epistemic, material, and aesthetic resources. This dissemination happens in
ways that reproduce modernity’s imperial projects, such as the expansionist
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Chapter 17: Decolonisation and human resource management
control of lands, racism, which is che elimination and subjugation of

difference, and epistemic violence, which is the geopolitics of knowledge
production (Maldonado-Torres 2007 cited in Schutte, 2019: 201).
Coloniality is a world system of domination and exploitation that has never

ceased to exist and is evidenced through economic and political structures,
through racialisation and gender relations, and within transnational,
regional and local contexts. Coloniality was never a peripheral aspect of a
nation-building empire that aimed to search for new markets for capital
accumulation. Kat her, coloniality refers to theepistemeand deep assumptions
of a world system that organises nations and people into categories of human
and subhuman, based on their race, gender, religion and other categories,
and exploits indigenous peoples for the benefit of the colonisers, who claimed
solely for themselves the ‘virtues' of intelligence and morality (Monzo &
Mclaren, 2014: 519).
From the above discussion, it is obvious that colonisation has ended, but
coloniality still exists in the hearts and minds of the indigenous people.
Coloniality would end when the indigenous people have regained what they
have lost through colonisation.
17.3 Decolonisation
Here we discover the importance of decolonisation and how it influenced the
lives of indigenous populations.
17.3.1 Overview of decolonisation

In 1960, the United Nations (UN) General Assembly adopted Resolution
1514 (XV) as the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial
Countries and Peoples (United Nations General Assembly & United Nations
Office of Public Information 1974). This resolution required all member states
to recognise that subjugation and exploitation by a foreign nation is a denial
of basic human rights as enshrined in the UN founding documents. It also
required taking steps to grant all regions held in (rust or as non-self-governing
territories their independence (Marnewick, Erasmus & Joseph, 2018: 4). The
administrative and legal systems that were set up under colonial rule had
become (he norm. Many of the cultural institutions that were imported also
remained part of life once the independence of a territory was granted. These
systems were essential for a smooth transition to a new dispensation where
the descendants of the original inhabitants took political and administrative
441
control of public institutions (Wolfe & Mikdashi. 2013 cited in Marnewick,

Erasmus & Joseph, 2018: 4).
The continuity of white rule in South Africa from the period of segregation to
apartheid created new challenges and debates. The African National Congress
(ANC) and its alliance partners could neither agree with the Pan-African
Congress nor with the adherents of the Black Consciousness Movement or
with the followers of the Non-European Unity Movement about the precise
meaning of what self-determination, decolonisation or post-Apartheid might
mean (Sitas, 2017: 34). The ANC became hegemonic and its key ideas gained
prominence, so much so that between 1980 to 2010. it enjoyed the centrality
of any platform or debate. For the ANC, the National Democratic Revolution
- Self-determination = Decolonisation. This allowed the ANC to hold onto
Mandela’s juridical republicanism, non-racialism. black majority rule, trans
ethnic unity as well as Mbeki s ‘two-nations thesis’, the African Renaissance
and even a degree of Marxist ideologies (Sitas, 2017: 34).
17.3.2 Definition of decolonisation

Decolonisation is the act or process of eliminating colonialism or freeing from
colonial status (Agnes, 1999: 3 76). Examples are the withdrawal of France
from the Democratic Republic of Congo and the withdrawal of England from
South Africa. This implies that the previously colonised countries will have
political and economic freedom after decolonisation. Decolonisation focuses
on intellectual views and the liberation of the mind from the ideas that the
colonised country and its indigenous people are inferior (Marnewick. Erasmus
& Joseph, 2018: 4). Decolonisation is a movement to ‘re-centre’ Africa, and
which rejects the assumption that the modern west is the central root of
Africa's consciousness and cultural heritage. It rejects the notion that Africa is
merely an extension of the west. Decolonisation is not about closing the door to
European or other traditions. It is about defining what the centre is, and that
Africa and South Africa, in particular, have to determine its course, directions
and strategies of moving forward to reach its destiny (Mbcmbe. 2015: 17).
Decoloniality is a theoretical lens through which indigenous world views can

claim a vantage point geopolitically. It refers to a physical, economic, racial,
cultural and political positioning that affords a subaltern episteme, one that
can be juxtaposed against the western world view through an examination of
power and the problematic of colomality (Monzo & Mclaren, 2014: 519).
442
17.4 Decolonisation in democratic South Africa

Democracy can be viewed as a form of rule characterised by rhe constitutional
institutionalisation of universal suffrage, regular elections, basic civil rights
and the rule of law or as an institutionalisation of political equality and basic
freedoms (Rudebeck, 2016: 9).
17.4.1 New approach to decolonisation

African indigenous ways of governance revolve around consensus whereby a
council of elders achieve unanimity after all who wish to speak are heard and
a leader is advised accordingly. It emanates from an individual s duty to the
group and community in the spirit of ubuntu (McDonald. 2010: 139). Ubuntu
envelops the key values on group solidarity, compassion, respect, human
dignity, conformity to basic norms and collective unity, in its fundamental
sense it denotes humanity and morality (Keevy 2009: 32 cited in Makoba &
Ruffin, 2016: 148-149).
South Africa adopted and recognised traditional leadership alongside

democratic governance and elected officials (Hinz, 2008: 62). The South
African Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Amendment
Act 41 of 2003 (Republic of South Africa, 2003) codifies traditional councils.
However, Section 211(2) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa,
1996 (the Constitution) empowers the legislature to repeal, amend or replace
customary law with statutory legislation. Cele (2009: 5 cited in Makoba 8c
Ruffin, 2016: 148-149) claims that traditional leaders were co-opted, and
traditional governance systems redesigned by colonialism and apartheid
to benefit the former colonisers and oppressors. Clearly, recognition of
traditional leadership as an indigenous system does not ipso facto mean
that African epistemologies of governance are incorporated in legislative
frameworks. To refute the above argument the South African government
has promulgated legislation to indicate the contrary: The White Paper on the
Transformation of the Public Service of 1997, which endeavours to transform
the public service culture in putting people first in respect to governance
(Republic of South Africa, 1997b). Furthermore, the White Paper on Human
Resource Management in the Public Service of 1997 strives for an efficient
and effective public service with diversity embedded in cultural backgrounds
(Republic ofSouth Africa, 1997a).
According to Mabovula (2011: 8), the way towards epistemological pluralism

is communitarianism which affords an understanding of an individual in
443
terms of social bonds and group traditions. Social contracts, the argument
continues, ensure that choices made by an individual are constrained by the
community’s pursuit of shared ends. Social contracts hinging on liberalism
and individual interests are nnrirheric.il to African epistemologies where
community interests are prioritised. In African epistemologies, the individual
exists in view of the group. The African ethos is based on the belief that: I am
because we are, and because we are therefore I am (Iguisi 2009: 143 cited in
Makoba & Ruffin, 2016: 150).
South Africa isdetermined toattam decolonisation throughconstitutionalism

and thereby achieving economic and social self-determination and
sustainability (Klug, 2018: 471) However, economic inequalities, marked
by unemployment and rural underdevelopment, continue to be a symbol of
South Africa's social structure. The ANC first adopted the Reconstruction
and Development Programme (RDP), which intended to mobilise South
Africans and the country’s resources to exterminate apartheid and
build a democratic, non-racial and non-sexist society (African National
Congress, 1994: 1 para 1.1.1). The ANC adopted restitution (land claims, black
economic empowerment (BEE) and affirmative action) to benefit previously
disadvantaged people.
The lifespan of the RDP was, however, too short. In 1996 the RDP was
replaced with the Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) strategy,
which endeavoured to stimulate economic growth by reducing inflation,
fiscal deficits and barriers to trade (Department of Finance, Internet: nd).
GEAR achieved these macroeconomic goals but failed to produce greater
employment opportunities and reduce inequality. The Accelerated and
Shared Growth Initiative for South Africa replaced it in 2005, and five
years later, in 2010, it was replaced by the New Growth Path. This strategy
ended three years later and was replaced by the National Development Plan
(NDP) 2030 in 2013.
17.4.2 Stages of decolonisation

In this section, the five stages that assist in attaining decolonisation as
presented by Schulte (2019: 201) are considered.
Stage 1: Renewal of the mind: This is the period when the colonised people
show signs of mourning and lamenting their lost identity and social reality.
They lament how they were forced to assimilate the values and culture
of their western masters. The renewal of the mind is the first step in the
decolonisation process. It is an ongoing process that helps Africans to see
444
themselves not as separate from the rest of humanity, but in relation to other
nations, because we all share the universe (Wa Thiongo 1986 cited in Schutte,
2019: 205). Decolonisation is the beginning of a new journey of what is to
be taught in South African schools and HEIs and the terms under which it
should be taught. It is thus a process of re-cantering and of discarding the
idea that Africa is simply an extension of Europe. It is not an act to close the
door to the west or other traditions. It is about defining Africa as the centre.
Africa must act as the centre, not as an appendix. African languages should
be at the centre of its learning and teaching and the future South Africa’s
HEIs must be multilingual instead of monolingual.
Stage 2: Rediscover and recover: This is the time for the indigenous people
to rediscover their cultural heritage, It is a period for people to find and
recover their culture, identity, history’, and language that once belonged to
them. According to Fanon (1969) eked in Schutte (2019: 204), the essence
of decolonisation is self-ownership. Therefore, it should not be a struggle to
take back what once belonged to one. It should be an agreed-upon process to
repossess what once was lost.
Stage 3: Conquering impossibilities: New opportunities provide new

possibilities. It allows indigenous people co open up to new perspectives and
ways of looking at things. They' can imagine alternative possibilities for their
own knowledge systems, histories, and worldviews. Like Martin Luther King's,
‘1 have a dream' the indigenous people have dreams of how their culture can
invigorate, revitalise and rejuvenate them co be the people they ought and could
be. Fanon (1969) cited in Schutte (2019: 204) agrees, stating that decolonisation
is about reshaping; but to reshape without looking at pre-existing models as
paradigms. The quest should be something new. completely’ different from
what existed before because decolonisation is a time for possibilities.
Stage 4: Commitment to decolonise: Here the voice of che voiceless resounds

as thousands of bystanders and observers join the marching throng. 2015 was
that moment in our history' when South Africans from all walks of society
joined the #feesmustfall movement to demonstrate their utter disgust with
colonisation and government's slow process of reform. Five years later and not
much has been done to change the course of history. Gaztambide-Fernandez
(2012) cited in Schutte (2019: 205 206) appeals to the academic community
to create environments which allow for different kind of interactions. First,
an interaction that competes against ongoing colonisation and second, an
interaction that seeks to heal the social, cultural and spiritual consequences
of past colonial history. The author proposes a pedagogy of solidarity for
445
education - an interactive and purposive education. A pedagogy of solidarity

requires a shift of emphasis from explaining current social arrangements and
their implied colonial logic. Unity with decolonisation is to challenge the very
idea of what it means to be human. People have co imagine relations on the
premise of the connection between difference and interdependency, rather
than a resemblance and a rational calculation of self-interest.
A pedagogy of solidarity involves a commitment to three levels of solidarity,

namely relational, transitive, and creative. Relational means to make a
thoughtful commitment to a relational stance. It is to be with and to coexist.
Transitive implies to solidarise with. It requires an active orientation toward
others. To sympathise or empathise with them. Creativity allows people to
engage through words, images and other poetic modes such as gestures,
music and sounds and words. It is to interact with others in unpredicted ways
that can reshuffle the symbolic content of human exchanges to a kind of post-
cukuralism, where culture and identity can be rethought. The pedagogy of
solidarity is thus not an answer but a posture to take for decolonising acts.
Decolonial pedagogy is an episteme of resistance that results from the need for
survival amidst poverty, hunger, alienation, war, anger, pain and humiliation
(Monzo & Mclaren, 2014: 519 520).
Stage 5: Socio-economic transformation: This is a stage of action aimed

at destroying the major evils of apartheid, inequality, poverty and unemploy
ment. Termeer, Dewulf, Breeman and Stiller (2015: 684 686) present four
capabilities, namely reflexivity, resilience, responsiveness and revitalising (4 Rs)
that government can use to eradicate the evils of apartheid. Every capability
includes three dimensions namely acting, observing and enabling. When
dreams are realised, commitment becomes strategies for change and social
transformation. This is where civil societies join forces to move government to
respond to their plea and supplications. This is where economic inclusiveness is
practised and where people enjoy economic prosperity and social advancement,
in brief, a better life. It is here where the different voices of race, gender, sexual
orientation, ethnicity and generations produce a melody and harmony that
move the heart of government to respond to the peoples’ pains, plights, pleas
and desires and dreams. Peoples’ potential must, therefore, be developed
(Republic of South Africa, 1996) so that they can achieve self-actualisation.
An example of the application of decolonisation is the ‘re-centre’ of Africa as
the subject of discussion shown in ‘Did you know’ below.
446
DID YOU KNOW?

Decolonisation is a movement to ‘re-centre’ Africa and which rejects
the assumption that the modern west is the central root of Africa’s
consciousness and cultural heritage. It further rejects the notion that
Africa is merely an extension of the west.
Source: Mbembe (2015: 17)
17.5 Afrocentricity philosophy

Afrocentricity provides opportunities through which human and social
scientists can systematically place African phenomena at the centre of people
development and management. According to Asante (1987: 1) cited in Okeke
and Van Wyk (2018: 6) Afrocentric is a ‘theory of change [that] intends to
relocate the African person as subject’. From a Pan-African perspective,
Afrocentricity becomes the key to the proper education of children and the
essence of an African cultural revival and survival. Certain essential principles
are furthermore proposed which include equality, redress, identity, values,
social justice, fairness, social transformation and democracy and form the
foundation of this philosophy (Asante 1990 cited in Okeke 6c Van Wyk, 2018: 6).
From an Afrocentricity perspective, HRM should promote the identity of

rhe African person, rediscover and embrace African culture, norms, values
and traditions. It should motivate Africans to take their rightful place and
occupy spaces that truly reflect Afrocentric values and endorse HRM to be
Afrocentric in nature. These values require a total radical transformation of
mind, soul and psyche. It not only challenges scholars to change the discourse
of HRM but also allows professional human resource (PHR) managers and
practitioners to embrace and apply Afrocentricity as the centre of HRM.
17.5.1 Afrocentric human resource manager principles

Figure 17.1 illustrates that the Maar is a standard that can be used to judge
the institution’s adherence to HRM principles as well as the attitudes of line-
and HR managers. Furthermore, these principles reveal positive and negative
consequences that employees are exposed to. In short, the Ma’at principles have
an i nd irect bearing on t he effectiveness and productivity of public inst itutions.
For example, the bad treatment that employees endure, negatively affect their
work performance, which negatively impacts institutional effectiveness and
447
service delivery. The opposite is also true, employees' performance excels

when they are treated with dignity and respect. These principles are portrayed
in Figure 17.1 and discussed below (Okeke & Van Wyk. 2018: 8-11).
Ukweli
is a contfuct in PHRM
to represent the truth of
people’s experiences
/ Kujitoa
Ujamoa
is a criterion to
Ma’at
is about working ensure adherence
together towards is an Afrocentric
to righteousness and
mutual benefits and canon which is a show commitment
reciprocity standard or yardstick . to PHRM process
used to judge
principles of PHRM
Maelewano
Uhaki
is about harmony
and expressing is the criterion of
appreciation towards social justice and order
the community in PHRM
Figure 17.1: Ma’at an Afrocentric canon

Source: Adapted from Okeke and Van Wyk (2018: 8)
• Ukweli: Ukweli refers to whether a‘fact’or the Truth’is real or genuine.

As a PHR manager, you must always present the truth without fear or
favour. The truth is colour blind, it knows no race, gender, ethnicity,
social orientation and social power or being connected. The ukweli
principle mandates that FIR managers be fair and transparent when
managing people.
• Kujitoa: Kujitoa requires HR managers to pledge allegiance to uphold
HRM laws, regulations, policies, and practices; to show commitment to
serving the interest of employers, employees, customers and clients. It
requires HR managers to be professional and adhere to sound ethical
448
principles. They muse win the respect of all employees and management.
Neither of these groups must suspect or claim that their rights are
being infringed.
• Uhaki: Uhaki endeavours to advance a spirit of human rights, dignity
and social justice amongst Africans. It holds line- and HR managers
accountable in promoting integrity, fairness, social justice and honesty
from an African perspective. It is expected of line- and HR managers
to be fair, impartial and blameless when dealing and interacting with
employees. Line- and HR managers are expected to serve the interest of
people in an ethical and just manner.
• Maelewano: Maelewano requires line- and HR managers to serve
employees with dignity and gratitude. It expects HR managers to avoid
creating tension between employers and employees. On the contrary,
HR managers are expected to create harmony and good relationships
between these groups (Asante. 1990: 3). Section 7 of the Constitution
(Republic of South Africa. 1996) extends these relationships to include
all South Africans. Therefore, the South African government needs to be
deliberate in building lasting relationships among all communities and
groups. This is a challenge that line- and HR managers need to embrace
as they strive to build sound relationships among all stakeholders.
• Ujamoa: L’jamoa requires individuals to collaborate with communities
for mutual benefits and reciprocity. Line- and HR managers need to
work in the spirit of forming a partnership with the community. Since
HRM is the heart of an institution, it must have close relationships
with all stakeholders. These relationships culminate in organisational
culture, which is the social glue that not only forges unity and cultural
understandingamong people but binds people together and makes them
feel part of an institution or community’s experience (McShane & Von
Glinow, 2007: 257-258). HR managers need to establish a partnership
that is built on trust, integrity, kindness and equality.
It is expected of line- and HR managers to help communities in solving social

challenges. To do this, (hey need to become the ‘voice of the voiceless’. This is
an ethical responsibility (hat they need to assume. They need to play a crucial
role and assume greater responsibility in ensuring equality for all, gender
equality, no sexual, gender and racial abuse and no sexism (Asante 1987 cited
in Okeke & Van Wyk. 2018: 11). They need to use Afrocentric principles to
build and harmonise relationships between diverse cultures, values and the
experiences of the institution thereby unifying these diversifications into one
united whole for the benefit of all stakeholders.
449
17.6 African management philosophy

African management philosophies (AMP) will be discussed in this section. It
will observe how AMP not only form the foundation for HRM but also how
the key capabilities of PHR managers are infused in these philosophies.
17.7 Pre-colonial African management philosophy

Mbigi (1997: 28) contends that the pre-colonial African political systems
heralded consensus, freedom of expression, grassroots participation and
collective solidarity. It means that Africa traditionally operated with consensus
and the principles of unanimity (Chimakonam, Agu & Agbo, 2014: 141).
The AMP is founded in ubuntu. Ubuntu is seen as a pervasive spirit of caring
and community, harmony and hospitality, respect and responsiveness, that
individuals and groups display for one another (Karsten & Illa, 2005: 607).
In institutional life, ubuntu encompasses probity, integrity, compassion and
humility, all grounded in the self-worth that comes from belonging to a
community (Van den Heuvel, 2008: 47).
AMP incorporates the following qualities (Marnewick, Erasmus & Joseph.

2018: 11):
• Solidarity: This is an agreement that exists amongst individuals. These
individuals have a common interest and feel the same about certain
aspects or topics.
• Compassion: This derives from the Latin word compassio which means
co-suffering. Compassion implies that individuals feel for each other
and thus create solidarity.
• Respect: It originates from the way that a person considers the rights of
others. This implies that the rights of the colonised are just as important
as those of the colonisers.
• Dignity: According to this principle there is an intrinsic value to
something about human nature that demands honouring.
• Humaneness: Within the context of ubuntu, this implies that an
individual's personality is dependent on their relationship with
the community at large. Africa should maintain progressive pre-
colonial values (such as humanism) and these should be taken into
consideration when government systems are developed and implemented
(Kanu,2010: 150).
450
• Caring: k rakes place ar six levels, char is. conation (wishing someone
well), cognition (someone is worthy of assistance), intention (one
individual aim co help another individual), volition (acts to help a nother
individual), motivation (acts for another person’s sake) and affection
(feeling good when someone benefits from another’s actions).
• Sharing: This has a positive and negative connotation. The positive is
when one shares in the profit of the institution. The negative aspect of
sharing is the disappointment of loss.
These principles are fair and just. However, human nature dictates how
people respond to these principles. People respond from their personal value
systems, which comprise of several influences, such as family, community,
institutional and societal values and traditions. There is a possibility
for ethical or unethical behaviour. Ethical behaviour may be consciously
wanting to do the right thing, while unethical behaviour may be prompted
by a persons greed and inherent tendency to exploit others. AMP focuses
on groups without negating the importance of the individual. It emphasises
ethnocentrism, traditionalism, communalism. and cooperative teamwork
(Nzelibe, 1986: 11 cited in Marnewick. Erasmus & Joseph. 2018: 11).
AMP claims to defy a society that is not sustainable and not equitable, a
society that is not spiritual and lost its cultural identity. It seeks to challenge
an economy that is not sufficiently creative and innovative. However, it is
not BEE. African management advocates continue to have a mission, while
not touching upon the foundations of capitalist development. African
management does not morally question material wealth (Van den Heuvel,
2008: 50-15). Reflecting on the above causes one to question the rapid increase
of black millionaires in South Africa in a capitalistic society, while millions
live in poverty and starvation.
17.7.1 Capabilities of the professional human resource

manager
HR managers must not only play an active and constructive role in ensuring
that the Afrocentric canon is central in transforming public institutions,
but also need to apply the policies and practices without fear or favour.
These policies and practices need to serve the mutual interest of employers
and employees (Okeke & Van Wyk, 2018: 11). In this regard, Marnewick,
Erasmus and Joseph (2018: 11) reiterate that HR managers need to possess the
following qualities:
451
• Humaneness requires line- and HR managers co meet employees at

their point of need irrespective of their social status and position ar the
institution. They must uplift employees to the next higher level. It is
also expected of line- and HR managers co display characteristics such
as kindness, patience, gentleness, joy, self-control and ethical behaviour.
• Trust is a psychological state comprising the intention to accept
vulnerability based upon positive expectations of the intent or behaviour
of another person. It is putting faith in another person, it is a reciprocal
activity. To receive trust, one must demonstrate it; therefore, employees
will have a higher commitment to the institution the more they trust
its leaders (McShane & Von Ghnow, 2007: 78). Trust enhances caking
co-responsibility in achieving institutional goals.
• Kindness requires line- and HR managers to care about others,
making sure their basic essentials of life are provided for. These include
physiological, safety and protection, social, self-esteem and self-
actualisation needs (McShane & Von Glinovv, 2007: 92-93). The poor,
vulnerable, abusive and lowest end of the hierarchy and social strata
deserves special attention in this regard.
• Relationships allow HR managers to build relationships that ensure
employees' performance is directed towards achieving institutional
goals. HR managers need to assist line managers in building
relationships with their subordinates: getting to know them by doing
things with and for them.
• Unifier motivates HR managers to ensure that directorates, department
and units build relationships through socialisation, dialogues and
interaction (McShane & Von Glinow, 2007: 257-258). Reaching out to
people, mingling with and including them in activities are, for example,
ways of winning their confidence and trust (White, 1905: 143).
• Compassion is derived from the Latin compassio which means co
suffering. Compassion implies that individuals feel for each other and
thus create solidarity.
• Respect treating people with respect in a dignified way (Metz,
2007: 329). It originates from the way that a person considers the rights
of others. HR managers need to know that the rights of all people are
equally important irrespective of race, gender and ethnicity.
Table 17.1 portrays African canon infused in the AMP and PHR managers’
capabilities. It also shows that African epistemologies and philosophies are
laden with HRM concepts. What is needed, is a new mindset from line- and
PHR managers to apply these concepts in public institutions.
452
Table 17.1: Afrocentric canon infused in AMP and HR manager's capabilities
African management
Afrocentric canon philosophy PHR manager’s capabilities
Ukweli Sharing Kindness, compassion
Kujitoa Compassion, caring Trust, compassion

Utiaki Humanness, Humanness, relationship
Maelewano Respect, dignity Respect, trust

Ujamoa Solidarity Humanness, compassion, unifier
Source. Adapted from Marnewick, Erasmus and Joseph (2018: 11);

Okeke and Van Wyk (2018: 8)
17.8 Decolonising human resource management

Here we emphasise the importance of decolonising the theory and practice
of HRM. Since the theory informs the practice, we present the theory first
followed by the practice. It is generally accepted that humankind originated
in Africa, that African civilisation dates back more than 10,000 years, and
that ancient African society initiated the sciences, philosophy, democracy
and other knowledge systems (Williams 1974 cited in Makoba & Ruffin,
2016: 145). The discovery of the Cradle of Humankind in Africa ushered in a
new way of knowledge production in Africa known as Afrikology epistemology
(Nabudere, 2011: 2, 124-125).
Afrikology is not ethnocentric or one-sided. There is no omission of African

consciousness and contributions to the global pool of knowledge in the world.
Nor is there omission of westernised notions. On the contrary, Afrikology
epistemology aims toward transdisciplmanty and holistic and integrated ways
of knowledge production that serves as a humanising force globally and locally
(Makoba & Ruffin. 2016: 146). Afrikology is a strategy for putting people first
by improving service delivery for all South Africans. It is underscored by the
Batho Pule (‘People First’) principles (Republic of South Africa, 1997b: 1). African
epistemologies are ways of knowing and systems of knowledge production
that reflect indigenous and contemporary socio-cultural beliefs and practices
(Nabudere 2011 cited in Makoba & Ruffin. 2016: 143).
453
17.8.1 New human resource management approach

The management discipline within the African context is influenced in two
ways: first, by a modern system originating in the colonial state (Western
context) and, second, by a customary system rooted in an ethnic level
(traditional context) (Zoogah etal, 2015: 13 16). Ruggunan (2016: 104-105)
agrees, staling that management studies at South African HEls suffered from
a colonial double bind. It means that management studies are caught between
two dominant narratives namely the hegemony of Anglo-Saxon knowledge
production and historic Afrikaner-nationalist dominance.
The #FeesMustFall movement in 2015 was the beginning of a process (hat

challenged decolonisation. In 2016, students callee! for the decolonisation of
the curriculum at South African universities claiming that higher education
and the higher education curriculum in South Africa is highly racialised
(Prinsloo, 2016: 166-167). The argued that curricula elevated Anglo-Saxon
and Afrikaner knowledge bases at the expense of‘black African’ indigenous
knowledge (Luckett. 2016: 420-422). Decolonisation does not mean
substituting North American textbooks with African-authored textbooks
that espouse the same managerialist ideology. Therefore, any attempt to
‘decolonise’ HRM studies must cake into account South Africa's racialised
past and present. It is within this context of racialised and unequal higher
education that disciplinary academic and ideological identities developed
(Ruggunan, 2016: 107-109).
Research conducted by Ruggunan and Sooryamoorthy (2014) cited in

Ruggunan (2016: 114-115) of articles published from 2003 to 2013 in the
South African Journal of Human Resources Management (SAJHRM) revealed that
of a total of 259 papers published, more than 86% of articles published were
authored by white South Africans (as first authors). Most of these authors
work or worked at former Afrikaner Universities. The top four producers of
papers in the SAJHRM are from the former Afrikaner Universities. The racial
and gender demographics of authors are shifting across the South African
higher-education landscape due to active state intervention. For example,
women as first authors outnumber men in the SAJHRM. Black (African.
Indian and coloured) authors are still in the minority, but there is an upward
trend in the number of contributions from these groups. This, however, does
not reflect a shift in the type of knowledge being produced in HRM studies.
Ruggunan (2016: 114 115) reiterates three factors. First, HRM practi
tioners and consultants use ubuntu as a tool for diversity management,
454
transformational leadership and conflict management, amongst other types

of HR practice. Second, the positionality of academics because they need to
know for whom and for what purposes the indigenous knowledge is intended.
Third, for epistemic violence to operate, it has to have the following:
/A] subject, an object, and an action, even if the violence is indirect and nonphysical:
the subject of violence is the researcher, the object is the Other, and the action is the
interpretation ofdata that is presented as knowledge (Teo, 2010: 259).
For HRM studies, epistemological violence refers to the interpretation of

social-scientific data concerning the Other. The Other refers to employees and
is produced under certain conditions (Teo. 2010: 259). Critical management
studies must through its three doctrines of reflexivity, denaturalisation
and critical performativity render visible these acts of epistemic violence
(Ruggunan, 2016: 119).
17.8.2 African epistemology and human resource management

Table 17.2 illustrates that the African epistemologies are infused in HRM
studies. It is obvious that not all the functions and processes can be infused
and HR managers must be vigilant about the functions and processes where
African epistemologies can be infused. These epistemologies would contribute
to a more humane way of working with people. Its ultimate goal is not just
profits, but also a focus on business along with morality and social well-being.
These infused epistemologies in HRM concepts will not replace the transfer
of knowledge from the western world but can support the development of a
hybrid HRM system operating in an African context (Karsten & Illa 2005: 613
cited in Marnewick. Erasmus & Joseph. 2018: 11).
With time African epistemologies should be the centre of South African HRM
studies. Zavala (2013: 68) agrees, stating that grassroots participatory action
research would not only enhance people s understanding of what is expected
of universities’ curriculum transformation but also help South Africans to
embrace these epistemologies. It is only when these epistemologies become
every day common usage at home, school and HEls that we would proudly be
South Africans.
455
Table 17.2: Afrocentric epistemologies infused in HRM studies
African management
Afrocentric canon philosophy PHRM functions
Ukweli
Lived experiences, fairness Sharing Employee relations
and transparency Compensation and rewards
Changing work environment
Affirmative action
Kujitoa
Righteousness, commitment Compassion Performance management
to serve, compliance, Caring Motivation
honesty, ethical behaviour
Employee wellness
and integrity
Ethical behaviour
Uhaki
Human rights, social justice, Humanness Human resource management
fairness, honesty, respect Recruitment and selection
and dignity
Human resource development
Human resource governance
Maelewano
Harmony, appreciation, Respect Employee wellness
good relationships, dignity Career management
and respect
Talent management
Ujamoa
Partnerships, organisational Solidarity Diversity management
culture, social interaction
and reciprocity
Source: Adapted from Marnewick, Erasmus and Joseph (2018: 11);

Okeke and Van Wyk (2018: 8)
17.8.3 Transformed workplace

Section 195(h) of the Constitution (Republic of South Africa, 1996: 111)
clearly states that good HRM and the optimal development of human
potential must take place in a changed HR culture (Republic of South Africa,
1997a: 10). Research shows that the current institutional culture of the South
African public service does not reflect the shared assumptions, beliefs and
values of the new public service, which is almost three decades in existence
456
(Kahn, 2017: 88-90). According co Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2013: 387 388), African

epistemologies must have been embedded in the White Paper on Human
Resource Management in the Public Service of 1997. African epistemologies
can be infused in HRM functions, processes and practices. These among
others include employee wellness (emotional, psychological, mental, social
and spiritual well-being); performance management (achievement of
individual and institutional goals); human resource development (HRD)
(training and development); motivation (satisfy needs and self-actualisation),
career management (self-development) and talent management (acquiring
capabilities and competencies).
A transformed workplace is needed where peoples* voices can be heard, and

different perspectives can be debated and respected. There need to be sufficient
levels of trust and space for people to present their views, resentments and
aspirations. The transformed work environment needs to solve differences of
opinions, new views must emerge, new policies formulated and in one accord
employees need to change the course of history. Embarking on a path that
provides equalityjustice, peace and happiness for all citizens (Kahn & Louw,
2016: 747-748; Kahn, 2017: 88-90).
17.8.4 Human resource development

An effective and efficient public service as prescribed in Section 195 of the
Constitution can be achieved through HRD. This is made clear in the preamble
to the Constitution which aims ‘... to free rhe potential of each person’
(Republic ofSouth Africa, 1996: 4). This means that the full potential of each
South African must be optimally utilised (Kahn &. Louw, 2016: 742). HRD that
is geared towards preparedness to meaningfully participate in and ensuring
institutional effectiveness is therefore needed (Makoba & Ruffin, 2016: 159-
160). HRD opportunities should also be holistically linked to community
and departmental needs. For example, attaining knowledge could be aligned
with the theories presented by Afrikology and/or transcendentalists which
utilise both learnt knowledge and the power of reason and the experience and
spirituality of individuals and groups (Buntu, 2013:6). Afrikology can be used
to transform inputs and outputs to outcomes and impacts as it has the power
to undertake knowledge production by relevant parties while simultaneously
disseminating and applying it (Buntu, 2013: 9). Knowledge acquisition,
transformation and application in an African context may require different
skill sets and strategies from those employed as freedom fighters (Makoba &
Ruffin, 2016: 159-160).
457
The centre of government can provide top-down political impetus and

drive that lends legitimacy and urgency to a focus on outcomes. However,
meaningful change in how civil servants think and work needs bottom-up
support, especially from middle management (Harruna&Vyas-Doorgapersad,
2015: 35). If African epistemologies is a response to South Africa’s service
delivery challenges, then policy implemented need to understand and
appreciate epistemologies influencing African behavioural patterns as well
as feasibility and acceptance of government programmes when it comes to
employees and wider society. Considering the African ethos, the measurement
of outputs and outcomes should therefore be linked to societal rather
than individual benefits (Makoba & Ruffin, 2016: 148 151). It means that
individuals can only be considered for performance rewards based on the
overall performance of their respective departments and public satisfaction.
17.8.5 New approach to employee-employer relations

This section considers four factors that line- and PHR managers need to take
cognisance of (Sinwell and Mbatha2016: 7, 15 cited in Ngwane, 2019: 241-242):
• Solidarity: Buhlungu (2010: 140-145) cited in (Ngwane, 2019: 237)
explains that the miners at Mankana went against the wishes of the
National Union of Mineworkers (NUM), a Congress of South Africa
Trade Union affiliate. They challenged management, the ruling
tripartite alliance and the state. Ngwane (2019: 237-238) narrates how
farmworkers in the Western Cape were left to fend for themselves during
a strike when they demanded a living wage. Their union, management
and the government disowned them. These workers are the most
exploited sector of the working class in South Africa.
The solidarity and social reality of thousands of poor South Africans
became the centre of the strikes. The miners produced the wealth of
the nation whereas the farmworkers produced the food for the nation,
yet they enjoyed only the crumbs that fell from the masters’ table. They
shared their meagre salaries with their families and others because of
rampant poverty and unemployment due to a capitalist system. They
provided for their families, raised children, smiled, laughed, shared
and took care to preserve humanity. These strikes demonstrated a total
disregard for Afrocentric canon and showed that the love for money is
more important than love for people.
• Humanness: Workers became the leaders of a militant living-wage
campaign. Many of them died during this social warfare so that
others can enjoy substantive democracy. Workers displayed the organic
458
capacity of the working class to organise and fight for their needs.
They formed workers’ committees that embodied the insurgency of the
workers and because decisions were made through direct democracy,
they expressed in an immediate, unmediated and unmuted manner the
forcefulness of the class. They facilitated the direct expression of the
rebellion (Wesso 2013: 3 cited in Ngwane, 2019: 243). The miners and
farm workers became the vanguard of the struggle for emancipation in
South Africa. Their struggle gave birth to the spirit of Marikana and
farmworkers, which marked the turning point in the struggle in post
apartheid South Africa (Ngwane. 2019: 244).
• Maelewano: The workers thought that in a democratic dispensation
their rights will be respected and guaranteed They did not realise that
they are disposable and worthless in a capitalist society. Capitalism has
bought allies in governmentsand institutionswhich will stop at nothing
to protect capital interests (Fischer 1996 cited in Monzo & Mclaren,
2014: 513). Thirty-four miners died for the penny to drop that the ANC
government is a capitalist government that serves capital. The miners’
death challenged South Africa’s cheap-labour system. It exposed South
Africa’s democratic order as a framework for the continued exploitation
of workers. The mine bosses tried in vain to appease management and
the miners but instead exposed their selfishness and greed. As a result,
the workers tore down the architecture of class collaboration that had
made them willing victims of a system of exploitation fashioned during
colonial times (Ngwane, 2019: 243).
• Kujitoa: The tri-patriate relationship proved that black lives do not
matter because the soul of Africans is being wagered on greed for
wealth accumulation and absolute power. Marx predicted that this
totalising effect of capitalism was self-sufficient and self-propelling,
and would inevitably crash, as human suffering became such that
neither monetary nor other forms of concessions or warfare would deter
the people from rising to demand justice, giving way to the possibility
of a new democratic sociality (Fischer 1996 cited in Monzo & Mclaren,
2014: 513). The NUM and farmers lost their workers’ confidence
because they demonstrated a lack of compassion and caring for them.
An example of the application of the HRM outcome ‘unfair dismissal'
in the workplace is shown in ‘Spotlight on the Law * below.
459
Unfair dismissal
In Mogalakwena Local Municipality v South African Local Government Bargaining

Council and Others (J47/12) [2015] ZALC 1 (4 June 2015) Mr Bodenstein
was charged with two counts of theft for taking property that belonged
to his employer. The charges related to the removal of a bag containing
blankets which had been left at a venue known as Van Rensburg Hall in
preparation for a St John’s Ambulance training programme on 6 January
2011. The bag belonged to the St John’s Ambulance service. He was
dismissed after being found guilty on two counts of theft ofthe applicant's
property and of St John’s Ambulance respectively, though there was no
evidence that the property belonged to any other entity but St John's
Ambulance. The court ruled that the applicant was unfairly dismissed
because the arbitrator’s findings were substantively and procedurally
unfair - the procedural unfairness stemming in part from the improper
conflation of non-compliance with procedural unfairness and a failure to
take account of all aggravating factors not necessarily rendering a finding
on substantive fairness unreasonable.
Source: Southern African Legal
Information Institute (2015)
17.9 Decolonisation of education

Colonisation endeavoured not only to conquer the land, but also the minds
and hearts of indigenous people. Decolonisation of education that involves the
dissimilarities between humans, their history and knowledge is not an easy
task because the colonial connection is intensely entrenched in education,
especially the university and research environment (TakayamacM/, 2016 cited
in Schutte, 2019: 201).
17.9.1 Battle for the mind

Since the battle for the hearts and minds of the indigenous people were central
to colonisation, it is only right that it must be at the centre of decolonisation.
As the battle for the mind intensified over the years, it gradually subdued
the indigenous people to succumb to the wishes of the colonisers. Similarly,
the indigenous people have the power to free themselves from the bondage
of colonisation and coloniality by regaining power and control of their
education system.
460
To decolonise is not merely co tick a diversity or equal opportunity box,

or to increase the number of black students. It also involves addressing
structures, the European epistemic body of knowledge the reins of power,
and the way in which universities think. It is about accepting the plurality
and equality of knowledge, and to learn to unlearn in order to relearn. It
necessitates intellectual modesty and academic rigour (Biney 2016 cited in
Schutte, 2019: 203). Decolonisation of knowledge is a project of epistemic
detachment in the social sphere, as well as in the academic sphere, which is,
in turn, a dimension of the social sphere (Mignolo, 2010: 15).
The demographics of the students, in the post-apartheid era have changed

at universities but the demographics of intellectuals at the universities have
not changed accordingly. The demographic changes of students have, in a
sense, protected the prospectuses of the colonial era (Nyamnjoh 2016 cited in
Schutte, 2019: 199).
17.9.2 New educational approach

The challenge that South African schools and HEls face is that the current
curriculum still focuses on western philosophies. Adopting western HRM
literature poses two concerns. First, the literature is focused on a post
industrial economy, whereas most colonised countries have a developing
economy. Second, western H RM literature is based on the premises of a western
secondary school system, which is very different in content and method from
schools in a colonised country (Hunter 2012 cited in Marnewick, Erasmus &
Joseph, 2018: 5). In South Africa. 60% of grade 4 learners do not comprehend
what they are reading (Janse van Rensburg, Internet: 2016). This is because
English is not their mother tongue, and is used as the medium of teaching
and learning in South Africa. South African HEIs have contributed little
over the last almost three decades to ensure a substantial paradigm shift in
teaching, learning and research to decolonise the curriculum and its content
(Ramoupi 2015 cited in Marnewick, Erasmus & Joseph, 2018: 5).
The solution is to place Africa and its philosophies at the centre of intellectual
discourse, debates and projects. Such a curriculum determines the academic
formation of a new generation of scholars and academics. It assists in creating
people who think in a particular way about particular subjects and talk about
them in a particular language and idiom (Guruba 2015 cited in Marnewick,
Erasmus & Joseph, 2018: 6). HEIs should not shy away from intellectual
decolonisation even if it results in tension between traditional western
philosophies and African philosophies. Intellectual decolonisation should be
461
regarded as an uncomfortable, power-shifting and transformational necessity

for personal and professional practice. It involves a sense of recognition of and
challenge to colonial forms of knowledge, pedagogical strategies and research
methodologies. It contributes to the intellectual sovereignty of indigenous
people (McLaughlin & Whatman, 2011: 366).
Hoppers and Richards (2011) cited in Schutte (2019: 205-206) suggest a frame
work for transformation that seeks consensus by embracing inclusiveness. It
implies a search for invariant relationships as part of science, but not all of it.
Il regards Europeans as part of humanity, but not all of it. Modernity is part of
a culture, but not all of it. European knowledge systems are part of knowledge,
but not all of it. The common vision must include visionaries in diverse cultures,
each with its own way of thinking. People can thus see crises and respond to
them constructively by perhaps using concepts that can be expressed in one
language but not in another. This may be a practical way for all humanity to
see the crisis and to respond constructively. People do things differently, but
embracing inclusiveness opens the curriculum and debate (Schutte. 2019: 201).
The production of anthropological knowledge is a process of knowing

about the Other while never fully acknowledging these ‘Others' as thinking
and knowledge-producing subjects. This underscores the criticism by black
students that academics do not reflect their own lived experiences. They are
the Other, who are only valued and recognised, when they conform (Schutte,
2019: 201). Decolonisation for African students involves the refraining and
reconsidering of curricula by placing Africa centrally in research, teaching
and learning. Currently, black students are confronted by texts and
epistemological content that deny their dreams, history and lived experiences.
Africa and its complexities are not a priority on the list of prescribed topics
discussed in class and lectures (Heleta 2016: 4-5 cited in Schutte, 2019: 200).
To decolonise schools and HEIs, educators and academics must develop a
capacity and a readiness to let go of the old and embrace the new. They must
recognise their dependency on other role players such as ordinary citizens,
indigenous communities, industry and government when it comes to research
and knowledge creation (Le Grange 2014 cited in Schutte, 2019: 200).
17.9.3 Pedagogy of possibilities

In the South African context, the reciprocal relationship between science
and metaphysics is embedded in African epistemologies (Buntu, 2013: 7).
Botha (2010: 37), who claims that the African indigenous ways of knowing
are distinguished by recognition and inclusion of spiritual dimensions,
underscores this. Pedagogy of possibilities takes Africans back to their
462
indigenous knowledge systems. Change management interventions must not

only take cultural considerations into account but also be scientifically sound.
Therefore, community participation must be central to all interventions
(Casto, Barrera & Martinez, 2004: 41). African epistemologies should be
included to ensure that African knowledge that question 21st century global
power imbalances are not marginalised or negated (Nabudere 2011: 387 cited
in Makoba & Ruffin, 2016: 148 156).
Buntu (2013: 5-6) advocates that Afnkology needs to be used as a

t ransdiscipli nary approach because it is inclusiveofall people and isappropriate
for data gathering which reflects community concerns and application of its
ways of knowing governmental mandates. The South African government
convene lekgptla (collective decision-making) and municipalities convene
imbizo (community participation) for consultation purposes. Transformation
means a radical change from the present, which requires that the current
conventions be replaced with new realities that should reflect Afnkology in
the public sector. The prominence of African epistemologies is in ensuring the
transfer of knowledge across generations in the workplace and communities
served by public servants. Pedagogy of possibilities infuse hope and demand
for collective social transformation through critical consciousness and as
a philosophy of praxis it provides opportunities for people to achieve self-
actualisation (Darder 2002 cited in Monzo & Mclaren. 2014: 515-516). A
pedagogy of possibilities can be achieved through the following four steps:
Step 1: Change the status quo: This is a radical move away from the norm,
which requires commitment and determination from the oppressed. They
must lead the liberation because they have insights into the conditions of
oppression that are hidden from the oppressors. They need to liberate
themselves and their oppressors. The power that springs from the weakness
of the oppressed will be sufficiently strong to free both (Freire 1970: 44 cited
in Monzo & Mclaren, 2014: 515-516).
Step 2: Committed academics: The academic community must use their

influence to liberate both the oppressed and the oppressors. They have
developed a theoretical understanding of the social and material conditions
of their oppression. Their commitment to the indigenous people and the
cause of emancipation is fuelled by both their personal experiences and their
critical understandings of how these experiences are constructed out of the
omnipotent relations of capitalist exploitation. Academics are required to
infuse western theories into Afrocentric epistemologies because their fight
is in the lecture halls, libraries, community centres and seminar rooms
(Fischman & McLaren 2005: 440 cited in Monzo & Mclaren, 2014: 516).
463
Step 3: Ethical public officials: Public managers and practitioners must

commit themselves to act towards the humanistic freedom that is
the condition for Afrocentric canon, truth, love, wonder and creation
(Okeke & Van Wyk, 2018: 8-9). These officials need to apply the letter and
spirit of the law. They must be a-political, not bought or sold by any political
party or formation. Their mission must be mercy and justice for the poor,
marginalised and outcast of society (Monzo & Mclaren, 2014: 523). The
principles of the Afrocentric canon must serve as the guiding principles that
guide the functional and ethical behaviour of public officials (Okeke & Van
Wyk, 2018: 10-11).
Step 4: Youth development and employment: The current economic

situation in South Africa has not only contributed to youth unemployment but
also youth rebellion. The current unemployment of youth is 29.1% (Statistics
South Africa, 2019). Education is associated with youth rebellion because
poor youth see education as their only means for economic sustainability
and social mobility. The current rising costs of and government’s cuts to
education and related programmes, along with large outstanding historical
student debt, is a situation that leads to increased uncertainty among youth
for their futures and anger at the system (Monzo & Mclaren, 2014: 517). We
want to advance a pedagogy of possibilities to transform South Africa into
an African society where equality and prosperity reign. An example of the
application of a pedagogy of possibilities is ‘Afrikology’ epistemology shown
in ‘Focus on research’.
Afrikology epistemology is a means toward transdisciplinary, holistic and

integrated ways of knowledge production that serves as a humanising
force globally and locally. Afrikology is a strategy for putting people first
by improving service delivery for all South Africans. It is underscored by the
Batho Pele principles of People First (Republic of South Africa, 1997b: 1).
Would Afrikology put South Africans first by improving their standard of
living and better service delivery?
Source: Makoba & Ruffin (2016: 146)
464
17.9.4 Intellectual decolonisation

Pillay (2015) cited in (Marnewick, Erasmus and Joseph, 2018: 4) claims that
intellectual decolonisation can be achieved by using epistemic violence which
is the battle for one’s mind. Colonisation subdued and controlled the mind
of indigenous people. Decolonisation endeavours restore the mind and social
identity of indigenous people. South Africans can. therefore, only be completely
free and independent when it espouses, teaches and promotes its own
indigenous ideas and values (Hunter. 2012: 1). This is possible through four
steps of intellectual decolonisation (Marnewick. Erasmus & Joseph, 2018: 4):
• Language. Language not only allows communities and societies to
communicate but also instils cultural norms, traditions and values.
Therefore, all citizens must have access to education. Educational
discourse in South Africa requires an African philosophical framework
(Higgs 2012 cited in Marnewick, Erasmus & Joseph, 2018: 5).
• Respect diversity. Diversity serves as an opportunity to learn from
others and be exposed to new ideas. These new perspectives, ideas and
voices can serve to enhance the value created by institutions When
diversity is respected it means that we have a deep admiration for
another's cultural differences. This requires a willingness to coexist
with people who have ideas and opinions other than yourself. This
principle should apply to all communities.
• Lived experiences. We must acknowledge the individual lived
experiences of each person. It requires us to be open to questioning our
own interpretation of the outside world. Personal experiences may be
interpreted subjectively. We may move closer to an objective view of the
world or a particular experience when compared to another individual’s
interpretation. An objective view of the world is more representative
of facts and less influenced by emotions. While acknowledging an
individual s lived experience, we cannot divorce this from reality. When
the opinion derived from a lived experience is incongruent with reality,
that opinion cannot be considered valid, it should be challenged.
• Dominance of established knowledge. South Africa has to challenge
the dominance of western established knowledge. The west is not
the only powerhouse that produces knowledge. As new knowledge is
uncovered, and theories more congruent with reality are developed,
older theories and established facts become less supportive of reality.
Therefore, the dominance of established knowledge is not sacred.
However, to challenge science we need a strong basis. Since we cannot
scrap science because it is considered a neutral concept, the epistemology
465
and ontology of science for colonised nations would have to be called

into question. This decolonised perspective questions 21st-century
global power unbalances (Makoba & Ruffin. 2016: 146). Ndlovu-
Gatsheni (2013: 387) propose a decolonised epistem ic perspective such
as critical theory to confront, critique and expose how Euro-Ainerican
epistemology has displaced or eradicated African knowledge.
17.10 Conclusion
This chapter provided an overview ofdecolonisation from an H RM perspective.
It demonstrated that decolonisation is the process by which indigenous people
regain what they have lost through colonisation. It reflected on Afrocentric
epistemologies and philosophies and showed how these are infused in HRM
studies. This opens the way for HR managers to practice these theories and
concepts in the workplace. The chapter concluded by challenging academics
in taking the lead in making Afrocentric epistemologies and philosophies a
reality at universities and communities.

1. What are the similarities and differences between colonisation and
colomality, and decolonisation and decoloniality?
2. What are the five stages to attain decolonisation?
3. Why are the Afrocentric HRM principles important?
4. What is the Afrocentric canon and how can it be infused in African
Management Philosophy and HR manager s capabilities?
5. What are the capabilities of an HR manager?
6. How can Afrocentric epistemology be infused in HRM?
7. What is the new approach of employee-employer relations in the
public sector?
8. How can universities overcome intellectual decolonisation?
9. How can the pedagogy of possibilities decolonise education?
10. What is the new approach to education?
466
Chapter
18 Human resource governance

Anton Grobler
Purpose
This chapter aims to provide an overview of corporate governance, human

resource (HR.) governance and the related HR metrics (also referred to
as intellectual capital measurement) that can be implemented within the
public sector.
Learning outcomes
• Clarify the concept of governance and its importance in the modern-
day institution.
• Illustrate what HR governance entails.
• Distinguish between corporate governance and HR governance.
• Establish the links between corporate governance and HR
governance.
• Explain the different components of the proposed HR governance
framework and the link between the components.
• Devise and implement an HR governance framework for an
institution.
• Monitor, evaluate (through HR metrics) and report on the areas
included in the HR governance framework.
18.1 Introduction
Traditionally, human resource management (HR M). particularly the relatively
new concept of human resource governance (specifically, compliance), has
been reactive for the most part (Manes, Nicolo & Tartaglia Polcini, 2018: 315).
HRM governance was established to prevent, limit or mitigate the risks and
liabilities associated with non-compliance within the HR function. With the

emergence of strategic human resource management (SHRM), the necessity
arose for an institution to dedicate resources to proactive compliance
measures, such as HR policies and procedures.
Asa result ofSHRM, the HR function is in a constant transformational journey,

changing from the traditional roles of regulator and manager to business
partner and HR governor through the institutionalisation of HR governance
principles and systems. HR governance articulates the areas of focus, based on
strategic, operational and functional accountabilities, thereby contributing to
the more effective management of the HR function in general.
In the past, HR leaders were not challenged to think formally about applying
an approach to governance that focuses on performance (results) as well as
compliance. This is not unique to the HR function; it is also reported in other
key support functions such as finance, information and communications
technology (ICT) and supply chain management (logistics) (Mishari,
2018: 102). In this chapter, we provide a broad overview of current literature
on corporate governance and HR governance and propose an H R governance
system that can be implemented by the South African public sector. The
development of such a system is one of the recommendations of the South
African Board for People Practices (SABPP) (SABPP, 2009: 32).
The principle of governance is based on the idea of regulation and

whether institutions can manage themselves without regulation (Mishari,
2018: 103). Zhou. Simnett and Green (2017: 96) suggests that failure in
corporate governance may be a symptom of a human inability to define
governance objectives and plans for achieving them and to implement actions
or to measure their success issues addressed by integrated reporting. On the
other hand, Zhou, et al (2017: 101) opine that many institutions suffer from
poor governance owing to a lack of clear policies, processes and procedures.
That is why HR practitioners must expand their role from that of‘stewards'
(focusing on workforce compliance and administration) to that of‘strategists'
(affecting every governance, risk and compliance issue with a human element)
(Meyer, Roodt & Robbins, 2011: 4).
Given the important role of HR directors in supporting the King Code on

Corporate Governance (JSE, 2015) and the need for sound governance in South
Africa, the Human Resource Research Initiative of the SABPP has identified
the management of HR risk as one of the most important opportunities that
HR practitioners have in adding value to the new governance dispensation in
the country.
468
Chapter 18: Human resource governance
The SABPP has also asserted that HR practitioners have a key role to play
in the development and maintenance of sound corporate governance
practices. The HR department is the heart of an institution and therefore
has the responsibility to manage good corporate governance from a people
perspective (non-financial), and not necessarily from a financial perspective
(Zhou era/, 2017: 97).
The point of departure in this chapter is that a lack of a proper HR governance

system contributes significantly to poor overall institutional governance. This
situation is exacerbated by the trend of business adopting mainly reactive
approaches to HR management with little or no regard for managing risk
(Feliana & Novita. 2018; Meyer et al, 2011: 1). Deloitte (2008). for instance, has
found that in cases where H R-foe used governance, risk and compliance issues
are widespread or poorly managed, they become major business issues. The
implementation of an HR governance system could alleviate some of these
business issues. HR professionals should use their unique knowledge, skills
and expertise to help business leaders with governance, risk and compliance
issues across the entire institution (Meyer et al. 2011: 4; SABPP, 2009: 12). A
systematic, analysis and reporting system (Zhou et al, 2017) could further
assist the HR professionals to convince business in terms of their contribution
and value add.
Given the challenges that the South African public sector is facing and the
critical role that it plays in the country and continent, it is essential that all
institutions function effectively. Sound corporate governance practices are
critical to ensure the effective functioning of public sector institutions. For
this reason, scholarly debate on corporate governance frameworks is vital and
would benefit all institutions as well as the HR professional community, which
needs to elevate the HR function to a more strategic level (SABPP, 2009: 20).
469
DID YOU KNOW?

Internationally publicised corporate governance scandals such as Enron
and WorldCom precipitated the need for tougher corporate governance
measures worldwide (SABPP, 2009: 3). Asa result, the view that institutions
need to make their governance structures, processes and activities more
effective is commonly held in the world of governance (Du Toit, Van Zyl &
Shutte, 2017: 656).
At home, South Africa has witnessed corporate scandals such as at Steinhoff,
Leisurenet, Corpcapital and Saambou. One of the recent corporate fraud
scandals, Fidentia, involved public funds from the Transport Sector
Education and Training Authority, South African Airways, Eskom and the
South African Broadcasting Authority, confirming that poor corporate
governance is not limited to the South African private sector.
Source: SABPP (2011: 5)
18.2 Corporate governance versus human resource

governance
The distinction between the concept of‘corporate governance’ and that of
'HR governance’ is important. These two concepts function on different
levels, although there is a considerable amount of commonality.
18.2.1 Governance
Governance in the simplest terms refers to the practices and processes that are
put in place to help institutions achieve their goals ethically and in the best
interests of stakeholders (Moore, Internet: 2011). Fombrun (2006: 267) defines
corporate governance as ‘the system of structural, procedural and cultural
safeguards designed to ensure that a company is run in the best long-term
interests of its shareholders’. The SABPP (2009: 11) states that governance
essentially concerns people and how they behave and that it is required at all
levels of an institution.
Corporate governance describes how modern institutions organise their

relations with stakeholders. In the public service, this is typically concerned
with how the interests of the political authorities (at various levels) and senior
managers are brought in line with those of internal and external stakeholders.
This will ensure that managers are accountable to minimise the risks to
470
key stakeholders and/or the owners of institutions (the wealth protection

function); and it will enable them to take risks to pursue innovation and
enterprise (the wealth creation function) (Du Toit etal, 2017: 657). Considered
thus, corporate governance has major implications for employees and how
HR is practised (I'ehana & Novita2018: 615; Konzelmann. Conway,Trenberth
& Wilkinson. 2006: 545).
The purpose of corporate governance is to promote integrity, transparency,

accountability and disclosure, to protect investors and enable improved
relations with various stakeholders (Du Toit el al, 2017: 658; Jhunjhunwala 8c
Mishra, 2009: 62; Padgett. 2012: 206). Corporate governance, therefore, aims
to minimise risk. Governance can be applied on a statutory basis or as a code
of principles and practices, or a combination of the two.
Although governance is implemented mainly as a regulatory measure,

institutions that implement governance can benefit from an enhanced
reputation, constructive engagement based on an inclusive approach, better
ethics within the institution and enhanced sustainability by optimising
performance at all levels (Clayton, Rogerson & Rampedi, 2015: 8).
DID YOU KNOW?

South African institutions are governed by the King Codes on Corporate
Governance (Kingill and subsequently King IV)These Codes of Governance
evolved from the first King Report, which was published in November 1994,
and the changes necessitated by the implementation ofthe new Companies
Act 71 of 2008, as well as changes in international governance trends
(JSE, 2015). The King Codes on Corporate Governance emphasises the
principles of fairness, accountability, responsibility, and transparency. It
applies to all entities, whether public or private, and considers compliance
as international best practice.
A review ofgovernance literature, the KingCodeson Corporate Governance,
in particular, highlights the principles of fairness, accountability,
responsibility and transparency. There can be no doubt that the majority
of the principles of the King Codes on Corporate Governance relate to
corporate and human conduct and, therefore, ultimately affect the domain
of human capital management.
Source: Institute of Directors (IOD) of South Africa, 2015
471
18.2.2 Human resource governance

HR governance is a relatively new practice and does not yet have a universally
acknowledged definition. However, Heslop, Hilbron, Koob and Szumyk
(2003: 13) define HR governance as the act of leading the HR function and
managing related investments to:
• optimise the performance of the institution’s human capital assets;
• define stakeholders and their expectations;
• fulfil fiduciary and financial responsibilities;
• mitigate enterprise HR risk;
• align the function s priorities with those of the business; and
• enable HR executive decision making.
This definition implies the need for an HR governance system that could
assist in dealing with many of the HR problems and challenges encountered
by South Africans, such as HR risk management and corporate ethics, which
appear to arise from ineffective corporate governance (SABPP, 2009: 15).
Kreissl: Internet (2012) postulates that
[hjaving some kind ofgovernance structure in place, both for the HR function
itself and for all types ofpeople management issues, helps treat employees fairly,
consistently and in compliance with the lair and recognised best practices, control
costs and align people management practices with an organisation s overall strategy
and its vision, mission and values.... It also helps provide a framework to ensure an
organisation does not descend into anarchy' in the absence of rules, regulations,
norms and standard operating procedures relating to people management.
Governance is an approach that allows the HR function to achieve its strategic

and operational objectives (Heslop etal, 2003: 16). Governance per se, however,
is not a strategic objective; it is ‘a systematic approach to management that
enables the function to achieve strategic and operational objectives’ (Heslop
etal, 2003: 2). Figure 18.1 illustrates the relationships among business, human
capital and HR functional strategies which influence HR’s operating model
and inform its governance system.
472
HR operating model
Corporate
Human HR function
strategy Sourcing
capital strategy
(public What activities will we do
strategy How will we
sector) ourselves/have others do?
How will we deliver expected
I secure, manage
and motivate a
workforce that
value and
contribution
to the
Infrastructure
What capabilities are needed to
fulfil HR s strategy?
can execute organisation?
Business
strategy
business Technology
strategy?
(institutions) Process
People
Governance
How will we lead the function and
manage related investments?
Performance monitoring and renewal
Figure 18.1: Strategic alignment of HR function

Source-. Adapted from Mercer Human Resource Consulting (2011), as cited in Grobler,
Hyra and Bezuidenhout (2014: 171)
HR governance must not be considered in isolation; it is an important

aspect of corporate governance in general (Adelowotan, Cronje Sc Wingard,
2013: 3250). Mervin King believes that ‘good human resource management is
imperative for good governance' (SABPP. 2009: 3). Furthermore, the need for
HR governance has come about through the changing role of HR in general.
Ulrich and Beatty (2001: 293) opine that the role of HR is changing because of
a change in business demands and this requires an evolution in the HR role.
This is supported by Meyer et al (2011: 4), who agree that ‘the HR profession
is moving beyond the strategic business partner role towards one of being a
driver of business success and sustainability’. Adelowotan et al (2013: 3248),
as well as Feliana and Novita (2018: 615), are of the view that organisations
shifted their focus from physical tangible assets to non-physical intangible
assets, thus, placing a larger premium on the human component.
Beatty, Ewing and Tharp (2003: 258) indicate that because HR has the
responsibility to ensure that laws are followed and is responsible for complex
functions such as reward systems, which may put institutions at risk, there is
a need for an expanded role for the HR function. In addition, these authors
report on a survey that was sent to HR professionals regarding their role in
473
corporate governance, the results of which indicate that the HR function is

vulnerable and that practices such as selection, rewards and compensation,
performance management and communication are all associated with legal,
professional and ethical risk. It is clear that there are a variety of HR practices
that may put an institution at risk, and this supports the need for an HR
governance system that can ensure the governance of the entire HR function.
Five core elements that should be included in an HR governance system are

identified and described in Table 18.1. These elements enable functional
leaders to manage areas of focus and accountability effectively. While these
elements are distinct from one another, they are interdependent, meaning that
each one must be individually articulated and developed to govern explicitly
and effectively (Heslop etal, 2003: 3).
Table 18.1: Core elements of an HR function’s system of governance
Element Description
Structure and accountability Outlines the design of the guiding group as well as its
relationship with stakeholders.
Corporate (public service) Links to structure and refers tc the alignment between
and business (institutional) the corporate and business strategy, specifically in
strategy terms of the involvement of all stakeholders.
Philosophy and operating Describes the functions of risk tolerance, approach

principles to delegating authority and expected levels of
management autonomy at an institutional level.
Core management activities Activities such as HR strategy development, business

planning, oversight of rewards plans and programmes.
HR resource allocation and HR staff development/
leadership succession.
Performance monitoring HR metrics used to evaluate and communicate the

functions of operational effectiveness, compliance and
contribution to business success.
Source: Adapted from Heslop eta/(2003: 3)
Despite the seeming complexity of HR governance, management can simplify

the process, according to Moore: Internet (2011), ‘by introducing four basic
pillars as their governance framework: developing human resources policies,
implementing and adhering to the policies, reviewing and updating policies,
and making sure that human resources expertise is represented as part of the
skill set of the board of directors’.
474
Kreissl: Internee (2012) observes that:

HRgovernance is important because senior business leaders arefinally beginning
to realise that people truly are an organisation's most important asset. And in
many industries, personnel costs represent the single largest expense for an
employer. Therefore, organisations cannot afford to manage such a prised [sic]
resource (and a major expense) m a haphazard manner.
H R governance can have a significant impact on the public service’s operations

by improving productivity and helping to drive change. The benefits of an
effective HR governance system are:
• clear reporting structures;
• role clarity and value-adding HR activities and decisions at each level
of the institution;
• logical decision-making boundaries and controls;
• integration and alignment with business priorities;
• clarity around an institution’s tolerance of duplicative activities; and
• transparency of process and resultant employee trust/commitment.
According to Deloitte (n.d.), HR governance models can define how business

priorities are set, how decisions are made and how communication flows
throughout an institution. The framework for HR governance, according to
Moore: Internet (2011):
... often includes, but is not limited to, the process and practice introduced by
an organisation in determining the roles, authority, responsibilities, decision
making, and ultimately the accountability ofall employees and management for
the benefit ofits stakeholders.
In addition, Martin and McGoldrick (2009: 6) propose the following

framework for the public service sector (Figure 18.2):
475
Figure 18.2: Framework for the public service sector

Source: Martin & McGoldrick (2009: 6)
It is clear from Figure 18.2 that there is a close and sometimes causal link
between how HR is organised, how senior HR leaders perceive and perform
their roles and the three pillars ofgovernance - staff, innovation and corporate
governance. Martin and McGoldrick (2009: 6) elaborate further:
This model [framework] highlights a potentially causal relationship between
innovations in the governance of the HR function itself - how it is structured
and how receptive it is to new knowledge - and the governance of a climate,
which refers to the mechanisms for giving employees greater voice in decision
making and in encouraging them to collaborate and share knowledge. Both of
these internal HR and people management governancefunctions have important
consequences for externally-oriented innovation and corporate governance.
476
DID YOU KNOW?

Deloitte Consulting conducted a study in 2004 at BC Hydro to define
an HR governance system that supports the company in meeting its
strategic objectives. Specific considerations regarding HR governance were
(Deloitte, 2004: 9): HR strategies, HR structures, roles, accountabilities
and linkages - corporate versus lines of business - and relationships with
and management of outsourced providers of HR services.
Based on the study, the following guiding principles were established for
the HR governance system:
• clear primary roles and responsibilities that govern everyday HR
activities;
• collaborative effort of different role players in designing and
developing HR programmes;
• clear accountability for each programme component, which allows
firstly for a single point of contact for programme information and
secondly, clarity in driving performance expectations at all levels; and
• incorporation of simple measures against which the progress of the
HR transformation can be measured in future.
Heslop etal (2003: 8) as well as Adelowotan. etal (2013: 3251) are of the opinion
that several enabling systems directly affect an institution’s ability to succeed
in terms of governance (and have value for the HR governance system as
outlined in this chapter):
• Leadership: to enable the HR executive management team to articulate
a vision and priorities, to engage with its council or board and to manage
decision making.
• Technology: to leverage all aspects of the HR function’s capabilities,
i ncludingservice delivery, knowledge transfer, employee communicat ion,
information gathering, compliance and performance monitoring.
• Stakeholder engagement: to accelerate understanding of the
governance-related activities and to manage any resistance to change.
The SABPP (2009: 18) recommends that H R professionals foster positive
relationships with all levels of corporate (broader public service) and
institutional management, as well as the senior finance manager, chief
risk officer, head of ICT. head of corporate social responsibility (if it
exists) and head of internal audit to promote sound governance.
477
• Employee communication: co explain how HRs priorities and activities

support employee and institutional success. Careful consideration
is given to who receives the information gathered through HR
performance monitoring, so that clear lines of sight can be established
among employees, HR and institutional goals. This view is supported
by Deloitte (2008). which recommends that HR professionals ensure
that the business performance and compliance responsibilities are
clearly communicated to every employee.
• Process management and control: to optimise how the system drives
the achievement of goals. The SABPP (2009: 18) recommends that HR
professionals keep accurate records and compile periodic HR progress
reports for inclusion in sustainability and integrated reports.
• Education in the framework and HR metrics: to fully align process
management and control systems with performance management.
18.3 Human resource governance system for public

service and other South African institutions
An HR governance system provides a conceptual model for systematically
developing and planning HR risk management actions in an institution. The
system is useful for determining the level of HR risk in an institution and for
measuring it (Meyer et al. 2011: 9). The recommended HR governance system
incorporates some key principles that are founded on leading practices.
18.3.1 Framework for governance of the human resource

function
The philosophy and operating principles of the governance framework
describe, at a minimum. HR's risk tolerance approach to delegating authority
and expected level of management autonomy at the business level (Heslop
et al. 2003: 3). The framework is furthermore based on a holistic approach,
encompassing a broader corporate governance framework, defin ite stakeholder
engagement, both internally and externally, risk management (at corporate/
institutional and departmental levels) and. most importantly, HR leadership.
This is shown in Figure 18.3.
478
Figure 18.3: HR governance system for South African institutions.

Source: Adapted from Groblereta/ (2014: 177)
Core managementactivities in rhe framework include H Rstrategy development

- alignment and fit between the HR-related imperatives in the corporate
strategy (public service level) and the business strategy (institutional level),
development and planning, oversight of rewards plans and programmes,
HR resource allocation and HR staff development/leadership succession.
Through these core management activities, the framework ‘sets direction
and priorities* ensures effective execution over time* and enforces internal
controls’ (Heslop et al, 2003: 3).
The proposed HR governance system (as depicted in Figure 18.3) concerns
itself with all aspects of HR functional management and is in line with what
Heslop ef <1/(2003:16) call ‘effective HR governance’. It furthermore clarifies the
rolesand contribution of HR to ultimately enhance institutional performance
(SABPP, 2009: 17). However, ensuring that HR’s involvement impacts on
institutional performance becomes a challenge for HR practitioners as they
have to rethink the nature of their involvement in practices that support
governance (Supangco, 2006: 112).
479
Each of the HR functions (leadership) is briefly discussed below.

• HR risk management: All risks should be assessed based on the likelihood
of their occurrence and anticipated impact and should be categorised
into high, medium and low. The HR department should also have a risk
register, which includes more operational HR-related risks and controls.
The SABPP (2009: 17) recommends that HR professionals proactively
manage HR as well as the operational risk through the design of sound
HR risk practices and contingency plans to ensure business continuity.
• HR internal controls: Internal controls ought to be tested through self
assessment and independent audits. Regular reviews should be conducted
as well as audits of standards to ensure that they reflect internal
developments and changes in law. Areas of non-compliance or weakness
should be identified to understand root causes. Incidents and breaches
should be reported to senior management. Conducting annual HR audits
(internally and externally) is in line with one of the recommendations of
the SABPP (2009: 19, 34) and may enrich HR sustainability reporting and
enhance the governance of accountability and independence. Meyer et al
(2011: 4) posit that the HR director should present senior management
with a complete report of HR compliance and operational risks, as well as
the recommended action, and should accept responsibility.
• HR process management: The reporting structure within the HR
department needs to be considered, as well as centralisation and
decentralisation of functions. Consideration of HR delegations is
important in order to:
■ address anomalies and concerns;
■ speed up service delivery; and
■ empower/motivateand develop managers within H Rand the institution.
• HR transformation: This could, for example:
■ develop action plans to address identified areas of non-compliance
or weakness, and consistently clarify expectations by communicating
commitment;
■ develop specific training plans and curricula for key management by
function and division; and
■ design and deliver training content addressing relevant standards,
procedures and risks for employees.
One of the required transformations is that HR professionals should
build their own capacity and competence into executive business and
HR strategies. In particular, higher HR skill is required in the areas of
480
leadership, governance, remuneration and training (SABPP, 2009: 17).

HR transformation, with a specific focus on governance, necessitates
evolution in staff roles and responsibilities as compliance becomes more
strategic. As the HR compliance system evolves and matures, staff roles
change to include activities such as overseeing compliance training,
managing databases and staying abreast of regulatory requirements.
Furthermore, the HR professional needs to become a ‘steward of change
and build capabilities’ (SABPP, 2009: 17).
• HR quality assurance: Although the principles of the King Codes on
Corporate Governance imply that HR operates only in the area of'non-
financial’ matters, the SABPP(2009:34) recommends that HR professionals
work harder on the financial side of HR to develop metrics and more
sophisticated HR measurements around the cost and benefit analysis
pertaining to absenteeism and wellness programmes, retention schemes
and the business impact and return on investment of HR interventions.
18.3.2 Key aspects of the proposed human resource governance

system
The philosophy of the HR governance system revolves around leadership,
sustainability and corporate citizenship (Murugan. 2016: 464). To facilitate
understanding of the thought process debated and changes in the framework
(1OD, 2009: 10), the following key aspects are highlighted:
• Effective leadership (1OD, 2009: 10; SABPP, 2009: 11) is key to good
governance. Leaders should rise to the challenges of modern governance.
Such leadership is characterised by the ethical values of responsibility,
accountability, fairness and transparency and based on moral duties
that find expression in the concept of ‘ubuntu’. Responsible leaders
direct strategies and operations intending to achieve sustainable
economic, social and environmental performance (IOD, 2009: 10 11).
HR professionals should support leaders to provide effective leadership
and to implement sustainable business strategy.
• Sustainability is the primary moral and economic imperative oft he 21st
century. It is one of the most important sources of both opportunities and
risks for institutions. Nature, society and business are interconnected
in complex ways that should be understood by decision-makers.
HR professionals should firstly provide inputs for the sustainability
section of the integrated report and secondly, assure the integrity of
HR information contained in the integrated report (SABPP. 2009: 45).
481
• Corporate citizenship flows from the fact that any institution

functions as an entity and should operate sustainably. Sustainability
considerations are rooted in the Constitution, which is the basic social
contract that South Africans have entered into (IOD, 2009: 11). HR
professionals could fulfil this role by, for example, considering the
impact of the company’s operations on society and the environment
and by providing input on the triple bottom line reports, as well as by
driving transformation. BEE, human and social capital, and health and
safety (SABPP, 2009:33 34).
The HR governance system will ensure that the HR fraternity provides

sound governance in South Africa by utilising this proactive system. This
will ultimately ensure compliance with the principles of the King Codes
on Corporate Governance, which are also relevant (although not always
applicable) to the public service. It will further leverage and optimise the
people contribution to institutional performance. The HR governance
system, moreover, will enable the HR fraternity in the public service to answer
the following performance questions, as supported by Moore: Internet (2011):
• How efficiently and effectively does the HR function deliver services?
• How effectively does the function focus on priorities and completing
milestone tasks (for example, new programme implementation)?
• Is HR managing its finances prudently and complying with legal,
regulatory and internal requirements?
• What is the HR function contributing to the value of the institution?
18.4 Human resource governance metrics

There is a dire need for relevant, context-specific and accurate metrics for
the human resource component of an organisation, in this instance, the
public service. Literature and practice indicate that it is, however, difficult
to develop such metrics that are considered to be credible (McCracken,
Mclvor, Treacy & Wall, 2018: 131). The metrics to be used as the analytical
backbone of the governance process will largely be determined by the nature
and design of the governance system, as well as contextual factors related to
the specific institution (Adelowotan, ct al. 2013: 3250). The system discussed
in this chapter and the metrics related to it is a combination of Kaplan and
Norton’s Balanced Scorecard, which consists of four measurable perspectives:
Financial, Customer, Internal Business Process and Learning, and Growth.
All four perspectives are included in the proposed governance system and will
most definitely contribute to the execution of the business strategy.
482
The governance system and the subsequent metrics are also aligned to rhe
popular notions of an HR Scorecard (consisting of five interrelated elements
pertaining to the HR function) and the Workforce Scorecard (related to
the nature and characteristics of the actual workforce of the institution in
relation to HR demands). Each institution should aim at the development and
configuration of its own reporting format, based on contextual factors, skill
and capacity to measure and maintain the metrics accurately and transparently.
This should take place within the boundaries of the political and managerial
environment. Remember, HRM in the public sector takes place in a political
environment. In practice, this means that HR decisions are affected by the
interplay of politics and the issues surrounding the political arena.
Table 18.2 gives an indication of some of the metrics across the three typical
reporting systems (Balanced Scorecard, HR Scorecard and Workforce
Scorecard) that could be considered as well as the formula to be used. The
list, however, is not exhaustive and should be aligned with the strategy of the
institution. This is a specialised field on its own and it is recommended that
further reading be done on HR metrics. /\ few metrics related to HR expense;
front office; the cost of turnover; management and leadership; audit; risks are
explained in Table 18.2. Please note that there are many different metrics and
methodologies; this is just included as examples.
Table 18.2: HR metrics associated with an HR governance system
Metric Description/application Formula

HR EXPENSE
HR expense Function indicates the composition of Function HR expense [HR
breakdown - HR operating expenses by functional function]______________ HR
function area. Expenses might include staff expense x 100
compensation and benefits, travel,
technology, training and other operating
costs.
FRONT OFFICE
Client Represents a survey for employees who Survey results
satisfaction have contacted the employee service
centre to determine their (employees’)
satisfaction with the front desk.
483
Metric Description/application Formula

COST OF TURNOVER
Average Represents the average cost of an Total termination value___
termination individual leaving the institution terminations
value Employee terminations can carry
direct costs to the institution, as well
as efficiency and productivity costs or
customer service deterioration.
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP

Employee Represents a survey for employees Survey results
satisfaction to express their satisfaction with the
with institution’s leadership.
leadership
AUDIT
Incidents Represents the number of times that Number of HR-related

of HR HR-related matters are reported in audit matters______________ Overall
department on reports, both internal and external. audit matters reported x 100
audit reports
RISK
Success rate Measures the success rate, in Number of risks [start of period]
at resolving percentage, of risks resolved in the - Number of risks [end of period)
risks period over the overall risk identified for ______________ Overall number
the period. of risks [start of period I
x100
Source. Adapted from Corporate Leadership Council (2UU5)
The governance metrics are divided into two sets of information: reporting
on compliance with the HR service charter and reporting on overall, high-
level HR governance performance.
The areas assessed through compliance with the HR service charter are
inter alia turnaround time for filling vacancies, reasons for terminations
(exit interviews), the turnaround time for making a contract appointment,
number of leave days, and average duration of restructuring performance
management compliance.
484
18.5 Human resource governance reporting

Reporting is aimed at informing interested stakeholders about performance
achieved against targets, the vision and strategy adopted to serve the
stakeholders’ interests and other factors that can influence business
performance in future (Manes, et al, 2018: 815). Clearly, regulations require
institutions to exercise transparency. However, a core fundamental reason
for reporting lies in accountability: an institution needs to account for the
impact it has on the stakeholders it relates to (Institute of Directors ofSouth
Africa, 2015). Not exercising this transparency would impose serious risks,
including high financing costs to compensate for a lack of transparency or
governance (Mishari, 2018). By contrast, a transparent approach would not
only improve reputation but would bind stakeholders such as employees to
the institution's objectives (Murugan. 2016: 464).
HR reporting is done at the following four distinct levels (see Figure 18.4
below):
1. Reporting to and on governance structures as the highest level of
reporting.
2. Assurance reporting.
3. Operational reporting.
4. Reporting on ad hoc issues, from strategy to quality assurance.
Figure 18.4: Levels of HR reporting

Source: Author
485
To do a comparative analysis of, for instance, year-on-year progress, a

decision should be taken on the format of reporting for each of the four
levels of HR reporting. The way of reporting should remain consistent to
ensure comparability. There are many ways of reporting, as may be seen from
Table 18.3 (a combination of Balanced Scorecard, HR Scorecard and Work
force Scorecard) and Table 18.4 (more related to the HR Scorecard). These
reporting formats need to be customised and expanded according to the
contextual realities of the institution.
Table 18.3: HR governance reporting: Overall reporting format
Measurement Performance Metric

focus question
HR delivery How well does Number of In Overdue Com
on strategic HR support (deliverables) progress pleted
imperatives the institution Corporate
in delivery strategy
on strategic
Business
imperatives?
strategy
HR functional How well does Quality/accuracy of information

management HR deliver Process cycle times
services?
Errors/defects
General satisfaction
Workforce Are HR Efficiency of practice

management programmes Timelines of implementation
practices delivering Ease of use
desired results?
Cost savings
Effectiveness of practice
Change in employee or management behaviours
Level of credibility
General satisfaction
Risk mitigation, Is HR prudently Audit results

financial managing its Legal actions
management finances and
Operational performance
and fiduciary complying with
oversight legal, regulatory
and policy
requirements?
486
Chapter 18: Human resource governarce
Measurement Performance Metric

focus question
Business impact How is HR Human capital productivity
of human capital helping to build Culture change
institutional
Attraction and retention
value?
Leadership strength
Competency/skill base
Career development
Source Adapted from Corporate Leadership Council (2005)
Table 18.4: HR governance reporting HR Scorecard reporting format
Performance Long-term Annual Target Frequency Weight Performance

question objective measure factor
How well does HR
deliver services?
Are HR
programmes
delivering desired
results?
Is HR prudently
managing its
financesand
complying with
legal, regulatory
and policy
requirements?
How is HR
helping to build
institutional value?
Long-term objectives: Articulate long-term functional strategy when viewed

as a whole.
Annual measure: Reflect emphasis or action for 12-month performance
cycle with the appropriate mix of lead-and-lag measures.
Target: Performance commitment.
Frequency: Unit of time for performance assessment and reporting.
Weight: Relative importance of measures.
487
Performance factor: Relative difficulty of objective or target. Used with

‘weight’ ratings to assess how effectively objectives
were met.
Source: Adapted from Corporate Leadership Council (2005)
Coremanagementactivitiesin the framework include HRstrategy development

alignment and fit between the HR-related imperatives in the corporate
strategy (public service level) and the business strategy (institutional level),
development and planning, oversight of rewards plans and programmes, HR
resource allocation and HR staff development/leadership succession.
Accurate HR metrics in institutional research and the development of HR

practices
In a stud/ by Erasmus, Grobler and Van Niekerk (2015) a significant

relationship between organisational climate constructs, namely
organisational citizenship, leadership, my manager and compensation,
and employees intent to stay in or to leave an institution, was reported.
It was based on a climate study, with a response rate of close to 39%,
performance management data (all based on accurate HR data) and the
results of a survey. Based on the findings (which relied heavily on accurate
HR data and metrics), recommendations regarding talent retention were
made to the institution’s management.
Source: Erasmus, et al: 58 (2015)
The HR function does not function in isolation, it is often linked to the

socio-economic, political and specifically the legislative environment. An
example of this, that is specifically related to HR reporting, is discussed in the
section below.
488
Accurate HR metrics in regulatory reporting
The reporting of an institutional characteristic at a specific point in

time, as well as longitudinal reporting, is an important part of the HR
function, HR governance and HR reporting, especially within the diverse
South African context. This is evident in the Employment Equity Report
(in accordance with the Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998), which is
focused on the demographic breakdown of an institution. It is required by
law that affirmative action plans should be developed, implemented and
monitored to ensure that suitably qualified people from designated groups
have equal employment opportunities and are equitably represented in all
categories ofthe workforce. The reporting at a specific point in time will give
an indication of the current status (often referred to as a baseline), from
which short-, medium- and long-term targets are set. The measurement
of the obtainment of these targets, which is longitudinal, is very dynamic,
as it is impacted on by the continuous inflow (recruitment), outflow
(voluntary, involuntary and natural attrition; for example, retirements and
medical boarding) and redeployment (for example, promotions and career
changes within the institution). This is a clear example of the importance
of accurate HR data, HR metrics and analysis, and HR governance and
the role it plays in regulatory reporting.
Source: Author
18.6 Conclusion
This chapter discussed the concept of HR governance in relation to the South
African public service, with specific reference to the development of an HR
governance system. In its opinion paper on King III, the SABPP (2009: 34)
indicates that the development of HR governance systems will strengthen the
governance ofSouth African companies. Although not entirely applicable to the
public sector, the King Codes on Corporate Governance provide very relevant
principles of good governance for the sector as well as its respective institutions.
A new era of HR governance has arrived and for many institutions, there is now
an opportunity (soon to become a necessity) to apply a powerful framework
of governance to major functions (Adelowotan, etai, 2013: 3250). Progressive
HR directors and managers will become HR governors - truly high-level
professionals who connect HR with stakeholders. The test of a successful
489
HR function operating from an HR governance perspective will be the quality

and quantity of HR inputs into the institutional integrated report. Only then
will HR be able to claim to have a meaningful impact at senior management
level (Murugan, 2016: 464; SABPP, 2009: 35).
In summary, rhe HR governance system concerns itself with all aspects of HR

functional management and is:
• consciously planned and designed:
• balanced in focus between the human capital needs of the institution
and operational and fiduciary responsibilities;
• understood, accepted and acted on by involved stakeholders within and
outside HR;
• aligned with existing institutional models (e.g. institutional risk
management) to which it must link; and
• able to measure how it contributes to the sustained success of both the
function and the business it supports.

1. Is HR governance essential for the existence of a public service
institution?
2. What is meant by the concept ‘HR governance’ and how does it link
with the notion of SHRM?
3. How should HR operational areas be included in an HR governance
system? How is the performance of each component measured?
4. Are monitoring, evaluating and reporting on the results of an HR
governance system essential?
5. How do you select HR governance metrics and relate them to the HR
governance system in an institution?
6. How do you go about changing the culture of the HR department to
function at an ‘HR governor’ level and inculcate the principles of HR
governance in HR staff?
490
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563
Index
41R see Fourth Industrial B
Revolution (41R) baby boomers 90,131
Basic Conditions of Employment
A
Act 75 of 1997 42,287, 354, 394.
absorptive capacity 415-416, 418, 427
420
big data 37, 84. 85, 95. 103-104,
accessibility 15,21,183 111-112,318
accountability 39,87, 156, 164-165, Brazil 415-418
169,384,471,485
BRICS countries 395.409-410, 436
administrative function 28
budget considerations 123, 132
advisor 15, 22,265
bullying 314, 317
affirmative action 118, 142-149, 151-
business administration 30
161, 163-172, 182,201,247,294
African epistemologies 440. 443- C
444, 452-453, 455,457-458, cadre deployment 87,398
462-463
career
African management philosophies anchors 233-234,240-241
(AMP) 450-453 boundaryless 233 236-237, 417
Afrikology 453,457,463-464 development 205-206, 233-235,
Afrocentric 447, 448, 449 247-248, 251-252. 284, 487
canon 439, 448, 451. 453, 456, management 206. 212,233-
458,464 236,405,456-457
epistemologies 439, 456, 463, management in public service
466 234, 249-253, 405, 456-457
human resource manager management programmes
principles 447 233, 246-247,251
principles 449 pattern 233-234,242-243
Afrocentricity 447 plateauing 233-234, 237,
agency shop agreement 328-329 243-245
Alibaba 430 portfolio 107,233,237
AMP see African management protean 233, 236-237
philosophies (AMP) theories 233-234,238,253
apartheid 40, 41. 100, 147, 231, 325, Career Concepts Model 242
385-387,442-444,446 CCMA see Commission for
arbitration award Conciliation, Mediation and
338-341,375 Arbitration (CCMA)
authority 30, 32, 36, 66 centralisation 30, 32.85. 292, 480
China 211,382,409,425,428-430 human resource development

closed shop agreement 181, 328 457
code of conduct 11-13,21 National Treasury 218
code of ethics 13 occupational health 301
collective people with disabilities 427-428
bargaining 41,162,287,323- public administration 307
326, 329-332, 337, 342, 357 service delivery 222. 231, 396
bargaining/negotlation 329, Constitution of the Republic of
332-334, 349 South Africa. 1996 see also Con
negotiation 330-331 stitution 30, 54, 144, 152. 215,
colonialism 40, 416, 430, 440, 442- 284. 306, 427, 443, 449, 456-457
443 contractual agreement 217, 411
coloniality 439-442,460 coronavirus (Covid-19) 90. 230,
colonisation 439-441,445,460. 300, 382, 391. 393, 400-401,404
465-466 lockdown 90. 108, 230, 300,
Commission for Conciliation. 401,404
Mediation and Arbitration working remotely 90,108
(CCMA) 6,45,158, 160, 166, 334, corporate governance 110, 119,
336-338, 341-342, 345. 360, 376 467-474.476, 479, 481-482, 489
commission model 11-12 corporate plan 116-117,119-121,
Common Law 62, 171. 353.362 123. 139, 182
communication technology 404 Corporate Plan Framework 119
communist ideology 436 corruption 87, 393, 398-400, 403,
compassion 38,52, 189, 194,431. 406-407
443, 450,452-453, 456, 459 Covid-19 pandemic see also
compensation 30, 44-45, 77, 105, coronavirus (Covid-19) 108,
131,278-280, 282-284. 427, 433 300, 400
policy 279-280, 284-285, 296
D
system(s) 15. 279-280, 282-289.
292-294, 296 data management systems 93
conceptual model 478 De Klerk, FW 41
conceptual skills 20 decoloniality 439, 442
conditions of employment 92, 215, decolonisation 52, 380, 439-447,
217,230,327,356-357 453.454, 460-462. 465-466
Constitution 5. 7, 12. 20-21, delegation 18. 480
171,181 demand and supply 123, 135-136,
career development 234, 284 287
employment rights 356-357 Department of Higher Education
environmental rights 62-68 and Training (DHET) 126
566
Index
Department of Public Service and distributive negotiation 330

Administration (DPSA) 7, 115. District Development Model 400
154, 169, 218. 284. 308, 326, 395, diversity and inclusion 18
425 DPSA see Department of Public
compensation 289, 292 Service and Administration
policymaking 11 (DPSA)
Service Delivery Charter 123
strategic plan 121 E
developed countries 409-410, 415 e-learning 255,267-269
developing countries 29, 409, 423, education and training 255-259,
436 260-262, 263, 267-269, 272, 274-
digital 82,97 276. 389
age 82,97 EEO see equal employment
citizenship 105 opportunity (EEO)
connectivity 83 employee
government 97 development 115, 212-214
government trends 105 engagement 35, 38, 55, 184
literacy 102 wellness 47, 278, 297-298, 302,
platforms 105 306, 308, 313-314, 317-319,
technologies 83 456, 457
digitalisation 83. 254, 245-246, 318 wellness programmes 297,
disciplinary 337,360,363 302-306,312
procedures 337, 360, 363 Employee Health and Wellness
process 23, 348, 355, 358 Strategic Framework for the
dismissal 158, 216, 348, 352, 359- Public Service 308
360, 365-370 Employers guide to the Employment
causes of 351, 358 -359 Equity Act 164
definition of 355-356 employment
fairness of 6, 342, 355, 360, contract termination 351-352,
366, 368-369 equity 125, 137, 143-144, 146,
for misconduct 6, 369 147, 159-160, 166, 195, 197
justification for 351,372 equity plan 125, 127, 143, 158,
legitimate grounds of 360 160-161, 163-165, 167, 186
unfair 6, 160, 327, 351, 355, relations management (EKM) 47
361-364, 374-376, 459-460 tests 4, 173, 194. 196, 198. 203
dispute 335 Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998
of interest 335 42, 118, 142. 152, 157, 160, 165-
of right 335 167, 177, 219, 287, 394, 428, 489
resolution 166, 171, 324, 326, Commission for 162
334-337, 339, 347, 349, 410 User Guide 166
567
entrepreneurship 39, 96, 102, H R governance 467,475,476,479

379, 430 legal 109, 111, 181,326
equal employment opportunity policy 103, 170, 252, 392, 394
(EEO) 142, 146, 174, 178, 192 regulatory 99,207-208,214-
Equal Employment Opportunity 215,221,223,297,306,313
Commission (EEOC) 145 statutory 306, 313
equality of opportunity 143, 145- strategic 46, 114, 312
147 theoretical 262
ergonomics 7, 314, 318, fraud prevention 119
ethics 12-13
G
Ethics Institute of South Africa
Generation
(Ethics SA) 13 Alpha 132
executive authority 64, 66-68, 119, X 131,248
156, 170,234,252,354 Y 90.131
executive leadership 310, 381 Z 132
F GHR manager see green human
fairness standards 322, 351, 369, resource manager (GHR
373 Manager)
Fayolism 30
GHRM see green human resource
management (GHRM)
forecasting 120, 123, 127, 132,
global environment 191, 381-383,
133-135
403
Fourth Industrial Revolution
Global Framework for Health and
(41R) 81-82, 85-86, 99, 104-106,
108,116 Safety 306
government 97-98 government system(s) 10, 86, 450
human resource management green human resource management
81,84,87,91, 107, 110 (GHRM) 53-62, 71-74, 76-79
leadership 88 green human resource manager
lifelong learning 95 (GHR manager) 53-54, 57, 60,
performance management 93 62, 73-76, 78-79
skills development 99-104, 106 grievances 17, 43, 213, 223, 226,
talent management 82 337,344, 346-347,396
work remotely 108, 318 Growth, Employment and
framework 119 Redistribution (GEAR) 387, 444
conceptual 145,154 Gupta 399
conceptual and theoretical 54
constitutional 353 H
governance 469, 474, HBM see Health Belief Model
478,479 (HBM)
568
Index
heads of departments (HODs) 11. practices 2, 25, 409

87-88, 121, 164, 166,216,252, risk management 47, 472, 478,
397 479, 480
health and safety 191, 302-303, specialist(s) 8, 11-12, 14-16, 22,
305-308, 311, 313, 318-319, 330, 39-40.45-49, 121, 142, 176-
367, 386, 482 177,281,347
Health Belief Model (HBM) 298-300 Human Resource (HR)
health promotion 297-300. 303, Competency Model 47
310,318 human resource development
HEQC see Higher Education (HRD) 424, 434, 435, 456, 457
Quality Committee (HEQC) human resource governance 467,
Higher Education Quality 470. 472. 478. 481-482. 485, 456,
Committee (HEQC) 272-273 human resource management
HIV. TB and STI 309,312-313 (HRM) 2,54, 117, 152-153, 322,
HIV/AIDS 126-127,136-137,308- 380-381,467
309,311-312.354.367 audit 281
broad overview 3-4
HIV/AIDS and TB 312,354
career management 233
HIV/AIDS and TB management
decolonisation 439-440, 453
policy for the public service 312
developed and developing
HODs see heads of departments world 409,414
(HODs) Fourth Industrial Revolution
HRD see human resource (41R) 81
development (HRD) strategic approach 47, 51. 206,
HRM see Human resource 411
management (HRM) theoretical developments 25-29
HRM System Standards Model 25, human resource management
46-47 see also human resource
human resource (HR) 175 management (HRM)
activities 21,113,206,322 decolonising 453-455
field 323 future of 379
function 19-20, 23, 32-34, hybrid model 35
39-40, 43, 468-469. 472-474, in BRICS countries 414, 428-
488-489 430
governance 467 in India 421
leadership 478. 479 in Kenia 431
manager(s) 9-12, 23, 39-40, 42. in South Africa 40, 425
44, 46, 59, 386, 439, 493 in Tanzania 434-436
planning 9,16,23,169,186, in the public sector context 4,
212,435 170,382,391,397,402-403
569
in the United States and interest negotiation 332

United Kingdom 410 Intergovernmental Relations
integrated process 16, 23 Framework Act 68-69, 396
integrated relationship 23 International Labour Organization
specific responsibility 10 (ILO) 301-302,306, 357,373
Human Resource Management interview 212,227
System Standards Model 46-47 employment 199-200
Human Rights Council (HRC) 301 exit 354,484
humaneness 450,452 group 129, 199
hybrid model 35 individual 129
paperless 77
I performance appraisal 227
IC see intellectual capital (1C) preliminary 793,195,203
ill-health 352, 354-355, 365, 367-368 structured 199-200
1LO see International Labour telephonic 54, 56. 57, 71
Organization (ILO) walk-in 185
incentive method 32 intrapreneur 95
incentive schemes 92, 131,243, IT see Information technology (IT)
281,252, 292, 294-295
India 414, 421-424, 428-430 J
job
individual level 20, 230
analysis 113, 127-130, 132,
Industrial Relations Association
139,411,435
of South Africa 48
descriptions 74,77, 113, 128-
information 130, 178, 183, 187-188, 191,
access to 110 210, 305,435
collecting 195, 196, 200, 203, evaluations 128, 130, 293, 330
238 specifications 128, 130, 148,
disclosure 369 187-188, 191
job 129
junk status 400
obtaining 293
performance 212,222 K
protection of 94,312 Kenya 410, 431-433, 435
sharing 270, 332
key performance areas (KPAs) 123,
Information technology (IT) 15, 128, 130, 188, 211, 224, 227-228
76, 268, 379, 404, 435
KPA see key performance areas
institutional development 212. 214 (KPAs)
integrative negotiation 332
intellectual capital (IC) 35, 422. L
423, 467 labour dispute 335
570
Index
Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995 merit

42, 122, 159, 178,287,327,351, pay 131,282
373, 393 principles 10. 180
leadership 40. 43-44. 88. 240. 248. system 10-11,195
269, 400-404, 430-431,474. 477, micro-environment 381-384, 387,407
487 millennials see also Generation X
accountability 400 90.92. 131
theories 381,402 Millennium Development Goals
learning and development 47. 389, (MDGs) 383
421-422,422 Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of
legislative authority 64, 66, 68. 292 1996 307
lifelong learning 237, 246, 255, mobile learning 269
266-267,271 MOOCs see massive online open
line management 14. 169,425 courses (MOOCs)
line-function
employees 3, 11-12. 14, 16,22.27 N
managers 32. 34 national authority 64
personnel 9 National Development Plan 98.
staff 4. 39 104,312,425
lock-out 334-335,340-342,361 National Development Plan (NDP)
234, 249, 309, 313, 384, 403-404,
M 444
macro-environment 19. 381-384, National Economic Development
387, 392,403 and Labour Council (NEDLAC)
management model 17, 32 333-334, 336, 338-339, 357
management tasks 2-3, 16-17, 19-20 National Environmental
Mandela, Nelson. President 381- Management Act 63, 65, 69
382, 392-393, 393, 407, 442 National Qualifications Framework
massive online open courses (NQF) 197,273-274,394.426
(MOOCs) 269,271 National Treasury 119, 120, 210,
matrix method 6-7 218, 400
Mbeki. Thabo, President 381-382, NDPxee National Development
392, 393, 401-402. 407, Plan (NDP)
442 NEDLAC see National Economic
mediation 334, 339 Development and Labour
Mediu m-Term Scrategic Council (NEDLAC)
Framework 312 needs basket model 421-422
mentoring 5, 38, 96, 179, 220. 247- new public management (NPM)
249, 251-252, 265, 269, 411 33-34
571
new public service model 39, 380 performance

non-financial rewards 213, 230, 281 appraisers 207-208, 219, 223
nonconformists 31 cycle 210-211,217,220,225,
NQl-yee National Qualifications 228, 487
Framework (NQF) rewards 230-231,458
standards 74, 208, 211, 214,
o 220, 225-229, 232,366
obsolescence 233-234, 237, 245-246 performance appraisal (PA) 77,
occupational health and safety 22, 207-209. 116, 227,211-212,222,
126,297,301-302 227,229, 434
Occupational Health and Safety performance management 93,
Act(OHSA) 307-308 207-210,223,406,431,434,
OHSA see Occupational Health and 456-457, 474, 484, 488
Safety Act (OHSA) 307-308 green 74, 77
OL see organisational learning permanent contract 411
(OL) 424 personality types 239
online technology 270 planning, organising, staffing,
Open Education Resources directing, coordinating,
(OER) 271 reporting, budgeting
Organisation for Economic Co (POSDCORB) 31
operation and Development POFPPC see policy making,
(OECD) 246,258 organising, financing,
organisation performance 422 procedures, personnel and
organisational development control POFPPC 43
theory 36 policy developer 15
organisational learning (OL) 424 policy making, organising,
financing, procedures, personnel
P and control POFPPC 43
PA see performance appraisal (PA) policy-making model 11
PA see public administration (PA) policymaking 17-19, 21, 38, 85, 88,
PALAMA see Public Administration 94. 111.284
Leadership and Management political
Academy (PALAMA) function 28
paperless office 78 leadership 380-381
patronage 10, 32, 325, 430, 432 leadership accountability 381,
peer appraisals 220 400
people with disabilities (PWDs) managers 3-4,11
126, 136, 152-153, 155, 158, 247. pol it ics-ad in inist rat ion
388, 394, 425, 427-428 dichotomy 28
572
index
POSDCORB see planning, public administration and

organising, staffing, directing, management 48, 390
coordinating, reporting, Public Administration Leadership
budgeting (POSDCORB) 42-43 and Management Academy
post-apartheid 40. 42. 95. 442, 461 (PALAMA) 389
pre-disnussal arbitration 376 Public Administration
principles of fairness 471 Management Act 234. 389
principles of public public administrators 5,8, 12,28,
administration 215.396 34, 37
privatisation or outsourcing model Public Finance Management Act 1
34 of 1999 10,119,396
probation 202-203. 213, 217, 226, public sector labour relations 324-
250.365-366 326
problem-based learning (PBL) 263 public sector leadership 381 382,
procedural fairness 352, 364, 365. 393, 397
368,369 public sector leadership
professional enquiry 266 accountability 382, 392, 399
professionalism 13. 21. 43, 45. 47. Public Servants Association (PSA)
87, 234, 396, 432 11, 13. 17, 108 181,215-218, 353-
provincial authority 66 355, 368, 394
PSA see Public Servants Public Service Act 103 of 1994
Association (PSA) (PSA) 10, 58, 153, 178, 215-217,
PSC Report 223, 252 284, 287, 353, 393
PSC see Public Service Public Service Co-ordinating
Commission (PSC) Bargaining Council 333
PSCBC see Public Service Public Service Commission (PSC)

Coordinating Bargaining 12.30-31,87-88, 154, 167-168,
Council (PSCBC) 215, 217,333- 210, 237, 325-326, 358, 393, 395
334.338 Public Service Coordinating
PS ETA see Public Service Sector Bargaining Council (PSCBC)
Education and Training 215.217, 329. 333-334, 338
Authority (PSETA) Public Service Mentorship
PSM sec public service motivation Programme 248
(PSM) public service model 38
public administration 20-22. 26. public service motivation
42,94, 132, 143-144,215,234, (PSM) 35.38
273,390 Public Service Regulations of 2016
public administration (PA) 26-28, 16, 125-127, 133, 157. 178,216,
33, 37, 42-43 287,353-354
573
Public Service Sector Education and consultation 122

and Training Authority packages 369,371
(PSETA) 126,275-276,395 reverse discrimination 143, 145,
PWDs see people with disabilities 147-148, 161
(PWDs) reward
and recognition 47, 281
R
financial 213, 220-221,230,
Ramaphosa, Cyril, President 88,
243, 281,433
105, 381, 382, 392-393, 399-401
risk management 119, 305, 476,
recognition agreement 328 478. 485, 490
recruitment and selection 174, 179, robotics 82.91,109,318
394,411,431,456
Russia 88,395,398,418-421
methods 170
policies 130 S
process 52, 178,182 SABPPjee South African Board for
strategy 179, 182 People Practices (SABPP)
Tanzania 434-435 Safety, Health, Environment.
toolkit 183, 195 Risk and Quality Management
recruitment see also recruitment (SHERQ) 310
and selection 114. 180, 186. 399, SAQA see South African
417,434, 456, 489 Qualification Authority (SAQA)
criteria 182-183
science, technology, engineering
evaluation 191
and mathematics (STEM) 90,
green 76-77 96, 98. 104
policy 173, 177-178, 181-182,
scientific principles of
188,202
administration 29
recruitment sources 173,
SCT see Social Cognitive Theory
183,188
(SCT)
reference checks 196,200
Sector Education and Training
replacement planning 133-134
Authority (SETA) 426
Report on Rationalisation of
selection see also recruitment and
Public Administration 393
selection 20. 142. 198-202.369-
resignations 84, 189, 352-353 370,394
resource management 8. 434, and appointment 17, 173, 192-
retention 136, 142, 251-252,26/, 193, 405
279, 406,418, 420.425,481 criteria 371,371,403
retirement 105, 131, 134, 281.282, interview 190, 432
352-353, 355, 362, 370, 433, 489 policy and procedures 173, 192
retrenchment 91,369-372, process 52, 173-174, 178, 192-
431,434 193, 195-196.201,203
574
Index
strategy 179,193-195,203 socio-economic transformation

tests 371 397, 446
self-appraisals 221 Solidarity Fund 401
Senior Management Service (SMS) South African Board for People
7, 294, 397 Practices (SABPP) 25, 33, 39, 42.
Senior Management Service: Public 45-46, 49, 281, 468-470, 477-478,
Service 1 landbook 21 480-481,489
service delivery 4-5, 16, 22, 47, 88, South African National AIDS
143, 195, 388-389,392-396, 458, Council (SANAC) 312
464 South African Qualification
service delivery improvement Authority (SAQA) 272-274
programme 16, 127 South African Qualifications
service delivery protests 208, 222- Authority Act 58 of 1995 42,
223,231,36’3,384,399 394, 426
severance package 122, 371. 388,393 sovereignty 8. 38, 462
Shaik, Schabir 399 STEM see science, technology,
SHERQ see Safety, Health, engineering and mathematics
Environment, Risk and Quality (STEM)
Management (SHERQ) strategic
skills 100 level 7,11,14,52,57,131,138,
auditing of 106 176, 469
development 213, 217, 258, planning 16,34,89,113,116,
269, 275-276, 392, 394-395, 169
404, 425-426,435 planning model 34
inventory 183 planning process 15-16,34,
soft 102,251 115, 120
Skills Development Act 97 of 1998 strategic human resource
42, 126, 161, 219. 275, 287, 394, management (SHRM) 113. 468
426 strategist 15,182,468
Skills Development Levies Act 9 of strikes 340-343
1999 42, 287, 394 management 434
SMS see Senior Management unprotected 342, 357, 362
Service (SMS) substantive employment equity
social 143, 146, 147,
equity 35, 37, 333 substantive fairness 352, 361, 363,
media 94, 179, 221,255, 270 365, 368, 369
security 312,357,404,428, 387 succession planning 118, 133-134,
Social Cognitive Theory 213.247-248,252,411
(SCT) 298-299 supervisor appraisals 220 221
575
T trust management 418,421

tactical level 14. 176. 180 tuberculosis (TB) 308-309, 312-313
talent management 82, 113-114,
142, 173-174, 176-177, 179, 247, U
420,456-457 Ubuntu 431, 433, 450, 454
Brazil 415,417 UNESCO see United Nations
Russia 418-419 Educational, Scientific
Tanzania 434-435 and Cultural Organisation
TB see tuberculosis (TB) (UNESCO)
union-management relations 323-
Technical and Vocational Education
324, 326, 328. 349
and Training (TVET) 90
United Kingdom (UK) 410
technical skills 20, 90, 99. 102-103,
employment relationship 411
175. 198, 435
human resource management
termination of employment
410
services 352-353
talent management 411
theory 26, 258-259, 262 work-life balance 410-414
automatic 352
United Nations Educational,
elective 352
Scientific and Cultural
expectancy 36
Organisation (UNESCO) 271
Holland’s 239
United States employment
Inducement-Contribution 32
relationship 410, 418
Likert 36
management 36 United Stares human resource
management 409-411
participative leadership 402
Super’s process 238 United States of America 373
transformational
V
leadership 401
Van Riebeeckjan 40-41
X-Y 36
traditional leadership 443 W
traditional model 32-33 WEF jee World Economic Forum
training and development 43-44, (WEF)
158, 251-252, 256, 263, 419, 424- wellbeing 63. 278. 297. 302. 306-
426, 457 307,314,319,358, 404
green 74, 77 career 303
India 430 economic 404
Tanzania 434-436 emotional/mental 303
transformational leadership 401 financial 303
Treasury Regulations of 2001 intellectual 311
120,218 physical 302, 303
576
Index
social 303 work-11 fe ba la nee 311, 314 -316, 318,

societal 303 417,436
White Paper on Affirmative Action workforce
for the Public Service of 1998 planning 113-120, 122-123,
181 125-127, 129-130, 132-139.
White Paper on Affirmative Action 171, 186,206
in the Public Service of 1998 planning process 113, 117, 118,
154, 170,394 135-136, 138-139
White Paper on Human Resource workplace
Management in the Public bullying 317
Service 2, 10, 20, 153, 170, 201, forum 163, 334, 336-337, 345-
216-217,394, 443,457 346, 349, 362
White Paper on the Transformation World Economic Forum (WEF) 83
of the Public Service of 1995 96
152, 181,392 World Health Organization (WHO)
White Paper on Transforming 301,302,305-306,316
Public Service Delivery 219, 395
Z
White, Jsobel 42, 49
Zuma, Jacob, President 87-88,
WHO see World Health
Organization (WHO) 381-382, 392-393, 393, 397-400,
402, 407
Wiehahn Commission 41,325
577

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HUMAN RESOURCE

ERNST J VAN DER WESTHUIZEN (EDITOR)

Juta and Company (Pty) Ltd

2021 Juta and Company (Pty) Ltd

ISBN (print): 978 1 48513 114 4

Production specialist: Valencia Wyngaard-Arenz

Printed in South Africa by

Lise of rabies and figures.......................................................................... xxi

Parti: Context and theoretical overview............................................... 1

Chapter 2: Theoretical perspectives................................................................... 25

2.2 Phases of development..................................................................... 26

Part 2: Strategising and planning........................................................... 51

3.6 South African legislation and structures guiding green

Chapter 4: The Fourth Industrial Revolution and human resource

4 2.1 The Fourth Industrial Revolution................................ 82

6.7.6 Income differentials......................................................... 162

Chapter 7: Talent management: Recruitment, selection and

Part 4: Performance and career development........................................... 205

Chapter 8: Appraising and managing employees' performance in the

Chapter 9: Career management........................................................................ 233

Chapter 10: Reflections on learning programmes.................................................. 255

10.5.3 Social media...................................................................... 270

Part 5: Compensating and caring............................................................. 277

Chapter 12: Establishing and maintaining wellness.......................................... 297

12.2 Theoretical perspectives on health behaviour.............................. 298

Part 6: Employment relations................................................................... 321

Public sector labour relations between

Chapter 14: Terminating the services of employees......................................... 351

Part 7: Future of human resource management...................................... 379

15.3 Public Management Transitions in the South African

Chapter 16: Human resource management in the developed and

16.5 Traditional determinants of human resource management

Chapter 17: Decolonisation and human resource management...................... 439

17.8.3 Transformed workplace................................................... 456

Chapter 18: Human resource governance.......................................................... 467

Table 4.1: Requirements for governments to benefit from

Table 5.3: Dimensions of a workforce plan....................................... 137

Sinval Kahn is a Professor in the Department of Public Administration and

Liezel Lues, Ph.D. Public Management, is an associate professor of Public

Shepherd Malefane is a Professor of Public Administration in the

Mike van Heerden was Professor of Public Administration in the Department

Liza Ceciel van Jaarsveldt is an Associate Professor of Public Administration

Luni Vermeulen is an Associate Professor in Public Administration at the

Riana Stone is currently working as freelance environmental consultant for

Vain Jarbandhan is an Associate Professor in Public Management and

Authors previously involved

Hester Nienaber is a Research Professor m the Department of Business

Barney Erasmus was Vice-Principal: Operations at Unisa and Professor of

Heinz Schenk is Professor of Human Resource Management at Unisa.

Ben Swanepoel (deceased) was Professor of Human Resource Management

reflection on che subject, I and others resolved co write a textbook co better

This approach signifies a paradigm change from che traditional model of

Preparation and rationale

• ‘Self-evaluation questions’ included in each chapter serve as a yardstick

This book has several distinguishing features. It covers fundamental HR

Structure of this book

Part 2: Strategising and planning

Part 3: Obtaining suitable talent

Part 4: Performance and career development

Human resource management (HRM) in a public sector context is a stimu