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An lntrodqcJotY Reader

BANtiLABESH
NATIONAL CULTURE AND HERITAGE

=: ted bY
A, F, Salahuddin Ahmed
Bazlul Mobin ChowdhurY
A, Majeed Khan
Abdul Momin ChowdhurY
Syed Mohammad Shahed

UniversitY
Press
Limited
In association with

.stl.,,
,.*^:f "h
W
The L niversitr Press Limited
,-1 B lGreenRoad
RH Home Centre (Level 3) ! , r;'rrf r'
Sulte No. 224-239
Tejgaon, Dhaka 1215
Phone: (+8802) 44815288-9
Mobile: (+880) 19 17 7 337 4l
E-mail: info@uplbooks.com.bd i1 \r Ee+
Website: www.uplbooks.com
^;,-;;;*
First UPL edition: ldY 2022
Flrst published 2004

Copyright @ Independent University, Bangladesh (IUB)

Alt rights are reseryed. No part of this publication may be reproduced or,transmitted
in aiy form or by any means without prior permission in writingfrom the publisher'
Any'pirson who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be
liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages'

Cover artwork is an original paintingby S'M. Sultan (208 x 126 cm, 1990)
Courtesy: Barrister Mainul Hosein's personal collection

Coter layout by Mohammad Sajjadur Rahman

Digitization support for the updated and reyised manusqipt: AKM Sharfuddin'
Director, Students Placement 6 Alumni Ofice of IUBAT

ISBN 978 984 s06 272 5

Citation guideiine:
Ahmed, A. F. Salahuddin, Bazlul Mobin chowdhury, A. Majeed Khan, Abdul Momin
Chowdhury, and Syed Mohammad Shahed, eds. Bangladesh National Culture and
Heritage: An Introductory Reader. Dhaka: The University Press Limited (UPL),2022.

published by Mahrukh Mohiuddin, The university Press Limited, T4lBlL Green

Road, RH Home Centre, Tejgaon, Dhaka 1215. Book designed by Md' Nazmul
Haque. Printed at the Kharimati Ad.com, 31 Kalabagan (2nd floor), lst Lane,
Dhaka 1205, Bangladesh.

| - "(Hd
L-.si U.ru ki-'-:d
 Contents

' viii
- ',Lrp,s, Monuments, Figure, Plates and Paintings
xi
, : -:-r.. BOafd
xiii
.'.:':itol-s
. .,..:irAtiOn xv

', ' ;. i Io UPL Edition

xvli
xix
- .. i io First Edition

- -: iuction
3angladesh History and Culture: An Overview
'. F. Salahuddin Ahmed
7
land and PeoPle
9
Phvsical and Anthropoiogical Geography
-,troun Er Rashid
2l
Ethnic DiversitY in Bangladesh
.,,tshanta Tripura

\rchaeological Sites and ir{onuments in Bangladesh

43

;'.;:itnuddin Ahmed
Lecent Archaeological Discovery: Wari-Bateshwar
81

: : tf' Mo stalizur Rahman

103
- \ncient Bangladesh
105
Poiitical HistorY
.:-1, d ul Mo min Ch ow dhurY
12t
SocietY and Culture
il,.tthanara Husain

ll
Vi Bangladesh National Culture and Heritage

3. Muslim Conquest of Bengal r4s

Sultanate: Society and Culture 147

K. M. Mohsin

The Mughal Rule: Politics, Society and Culture 163

Abdul Karim

Islamization of Bengal 183

Abdul Momin Chowdhury

4. Bengal Under Colonial Rule t99

Politics and Society 20t

Zaheda Ahmad

Religious and Social Reform Movement 223

A. F. Salahuddin Ahmed

Evolution of Political Ideas and Movements 243

A. F. Salahuddin Ahmed

Bengali Nationalism and the Emergence of Bangladesh 27r

A. R. Mallick and Syed Anwar Husain

6. Economic and Social Development in Bangladesh 293

Agriculture: Historical Perspectives 29s

M. Mufakharul Islam

Industrialization of Bangladesh in the Nineteenth

and Twentieth Centuries
Wahidul Haclue

Changing Class and Social Structure in Bangladesh

since 1793 JIJ
Bazlul Mobin Chowdhury

7. Education in Bangladesh: An Overview 339

A. F. Salahuddin Ahmed and A. Majeed Khan

8. Science and Technology in Bangladesh JOI

Shamsher Ali
9. The Major Religions of Bangladesh 375
Tony K. Stewart
 Chapter 2

ANCIENT BANGTADESH

tl
 Fctritieal Flistory
Abdul Momin Chowdhury

-:e reconstruction of the history of Bengal in the pre-Muslim period

. ;.rfiicult due to a paucity of sources. This dilficulty is even more acute
: ihe period before the 4th century CE, when Bengal came under the
:-,e of the Gupta Empire. From then onwards, there are written records
- :he form of epigraphs and literature that contain information
on the
--):orv of Bengal. For the earlier period, we have to depend on scanty
:: - :rences to the region in the Vedic, Epic, and puranic literature, as well
.: rrn the available archaeological evidence.
It rnust be made clear at the very outset that by "the region of Bengal,,
- :rean the territories of present-day Bangladesh and the state of west
- .:rsiil in India. It must be realized that the history of the regi rgion in the
- '.-ient period was not separated according to present-day boundaries.
----,::efore,
.-.f^-^ r:^-+L^ ^..^:^-^!-^-,-:^ i :- :'
for the ancient period, it is imperative to consider the history
. .re region of Bengal as a whole.

Background
-. .:e e arliest period, Bengal was knolvn
to be inhabited by several groups
:eople whose names then came to be associated with the area thev
abited. Thus the ancient janapadas of Vanga, pundra, Radha, and
,. -r!1a were inhabited by non-Aryan ethnic groups bearing those names.
--rdra roughly comprised the territories of northern Bangladesh and
.:-:: of northern West Bengal, whereas Gauda denoted parts of central
. .st Bengal. Radha included the southern part of present West Bengal.
'.rqa
denoted the major portion of present Bangladesh: its southern
.: southeastern districts. Samatata was an importantyanapada in the
..:rs-\,leghna region of southeastern Bangladesh (the Comilla-Noakhali
::.r). The name of this janapada was purely descriptive and had no
:nection to ethnicity. The Chittagong region and its adjacent areas
r':e known by the name of Harikela. The existence of these ja napadas

a
rd!fl]]Ilt
 -
i5 111srr 11 iron-r ihe later \-edic litet-;':itrc 'i! '1ic;: ''-l--:-- -::i r'' . -

p.opie.
' :"-
ArYan intluence came to be felt rn the ntrrth\\'!-'':":l '-:r':
India in the middle of the second millennium BCE
5'::: '- ''' -
timelortheAryanstoreachtheeasternlrntit:ot.ihc.r.n'.:..,,:..'..,.
the people of Bengal felt the tide of An'anization
quite 1a:e :: ::- - -
the 5th century BCE,Aryans pushed into Bengal iiom
the
"ri:r *'r: ::
hoie
rIUrc o- !F;-
!'- - -' t=
which it took about one thousand years to Aryanize the
rt'ryanlze LrIe rt
\\
Bengaf it had become lee:'. - :.
tih. time Aryan influence reached India' Thus the pre- \nan c'':':. -'
its long marctr through northern
-crltor.
of the people of Bengal were rooted deeplr; even
: ::-
in the
life anc ;-:-'-=
Aryan influence, they retained many elements in their
that were non-Aryan and even definitely pre-Aryan'
settler::c:::' ---
Stone tools provide the earliest evidence of human
Bengal.Pre-historicStoneimplementshavebeendiscoveredinr-.:._.
and Bu::'" ''
parti of West Bengal in the disiricts of Midnapur' Bankura'
^But
it is difficult to determine, even approximately' the 1i6g '"; r
have taken :'''-'
the people using them first settled in Bengal' It might
to,ObO y.ar, (o..r,.n more) ago' The original
settlers were the floi-:-1' r
ethnic groups-Nishadas or Austric or Austro-Asiatics-rvho
a:' :-
,.pr.r.Irt"diy the primitive peoples known as Kola' Bhil' Santal' S'i '' -
prrli.rdu, etc. At aiubsequent age, peoples of two other ethnic s:-:'-'
settled in Bent''
whose language was Dravidiutt uttd Tibeto-Burman
1960s ha'e lurr'-' - ' -
T-fr" ur."huJological discoveries made during the
in certain Pa:-- j
evidence of a comparatively high degree of civilization
Bengal, even as .uily u, the beginning of the first
millennium BCE-' :
r-a'-'
p.rliup, even earlier. Discoveiies at Pandu Rajar Dhibi in the
Bengal a:-- -'-
ifr" e;uy river (near Bolpur) in Burdwan district of West
have th:- ''
several other sites on the Aiay, Kunar, and Kopai
Rivers
a fresh light on tsengal's pr.-i,i'tory' Pandu Raiar
Dhibi is the ru:: -
a trading"township, which carried on trade not
only with the inte :' ' :
u'orld'
regions If mdiu b.rt ulro the countries of the Mediterranean
It is evident from the Vedic literature that the Aryans regardec: ''
peoples they met in Bengal as barbarians' But evidence
of the hrE:'::
in West Bengal proves be1'oni '-
-ut..iul culture that has cime to light it must be " :
doubt the invalidity of the Aryan idea' At the same time'
that the gradual establishment of Aryan settlements
in Bengal profou: *
affecteditsculture,andthattheprocessofgradualAryanizationfLl].:.-
of the region .. =
the prime point of interest in the subsequent history

ffi.
 ' Political History 107

..::orv- of ancient Bengal fiom the 4th century CE onward, which is more
. -ess clear to us from the written records, is the history of politicai and
.*-:ural Aryan domination.
Greek and Latin sources from the 3rd century BCE to lst century
: reter to a state in eastErn India called "Gangaridae" in Greek and
l:egaridai" in Latin. According to these sources, this state was very
. :-',i18 militarily. Schclars have located "Gangaridai" in parts of southern
. : southeastern Bengal, adjacent to the mouths of the Ganges (i.e., the
: :..qlrathi and Padma).1
-\n rnscription written in the Brahmi script found during excavations
-, :ie site of the city of Pundranagara-now known as the ruins at
, i.:asthangarh in Bogra district-bears testimony to Maurya rule in parts

: 3e ngai in the 3rd century BCE. This inscription, the earliest epigraphic
::,'-rid tound in Bangladesh, establishes the site of ancient Pundranagara.
. -:iranagara is thus the earliest known urban settlement in Bangladesh.
-.:,-:aeological excavations have indicated the continuing existence of
'--: urban administrative and cultural center throughout the ancient
. . - .,J and up io the 12th century CE. The fragmentary Brahmi inscription
-
:.::S to relief measures, such as the distribution of paddy and money,
. .rou1d be undertaken by the administration during natural disasters
- : ::r. collection of the distributed paddy and money when good days
': . *rr. This proves that famines and natural disasters are old companions
, .= reople in this part of the world. The idea of later returning the relief
.:.:-a1s indicates mutual respect between the administration and the
-..:istered.
- -
...e -\rthasastra of Kautiliya from the 3rd century BCE refers to the
,. : - ::ance of the fine cotton fabric of Vanga (southeastern Bengal) for
'-
-: .:roughout India. The Greek and Latin writers also mention it. Thus
--:' re emphasized that the tradition of weaving fine cotton cloth goes
-
- -.. :. a ven early period. It was this item from southeastern Bengal that
:,r-: i ',r orldrvide fame in the 16th and 17th centuries CE as the "muslin"
: :'::ial, and specifically of Dhaka. It may also be mentioned here that the
-- r.. -.-S of terracotta plaques is a very old artistic tradition in Bengal; they
'
- : :'..e r been discovered in the excavations at Pandu Rajar Dhibi.

. tiupta R.ule
.-
: ... ):on'of Bengal from the fall of the Mauryas in the 2nd century BCE
.-.. :r:e of the Guptas in the 4th century CE is obscure. The discovery

I -_ -::L
 tlioeautrru1terra.ottarrgurinesda::]q:i::r]::::-.:.::-:]-._]-::.-
at-\lahasthangarh,Tantralipti.andC:r;:c::,i.:_i::,-..r-..,-:.::,.-: _-:-._
continued to flourish during the Sunga and I\*::::r r:r- l: - ,:_ - _

from accounts in llre Pcripltr: ol tlt, Lrtr,t,.(.;,- \r , ,.- : . .:-.. -. .

the first two centuries of the Christian Era the rrh..lr,.,: -c_.:.- ::. -_
was organized into a por,r'erful kingdom r'itl-r its capira, ;: t :,-...
- -.. -
market town on the banks of the Ganges. Durinq thrs tinre. .... . :.;, i : _: , , :
of widespread trade between Bengal and china as iiell rS trim;r - *r :
The Milinda-Pattha mentions Vanga in a li.t .rinrtnrrnr. -, ..r...r :. .:
ships congregated for the purpose oftrade.
it is likelythat on the ete of Gupta expansion under Sa:::.--ir:._, ,
in the 4th century CE Bengal remained di'ided into indepe .c:rri :.: :
By about the middle of the 4th century cE, ho*'er-e., lnosi i...:.: :. '
states had came under Samudragupta's rule. Samatata ( the ir.,:-... l. :.. -
-
region comprising Comilla-Noakhali area) rernained or,rtsrdc :.,: . _ :
but was reduced to the status of a tributary state. Santuo::g,.:-.-:.
and successor chandragupta II consolidated his possessirr:S -r-. .i.: :,
and waged wars against the Vangas. Gupta suzerarntr- (r-,,i: >::-._,,--
might haye come at a later stage; by the end of the 6th ;r:-..*- _

this area appears to have been ruled by a king lr,hose Diilri ;.._-,:_ ,

-gupta (Vainygupta). Several copperplate inscriptions oi the -i:: - : . . -.

-
Gupta emperors (Kumaragupta-Budhagupta) found in noi-r:t-::. : -
r _

prove the existence of a well-established Gupta rule in rh;.: .. :: ,.

also testiS, to the existence of a well-structured local ad.t-:.,.:,
which representatiyes of the local people had the opporr,.::r-:.. . , _

an important part. It is to the credit of the Gupta empero:> t-: --:

established an administration in Bengal in which the pari:;.:,
the local people was ensured. The structure of the local adn-:-._. :.
as evidenced bv the Gupta copperplates, is undoubtedh ri:. ..: .
instance of local self-government in Bengal that w.e har-e re;,- i*:
and the significance of this cannot be overestimated.
The period of the Gupta Empire is generally considerei .. . ,- -
golden age in Indian history. During this period, India rvas uncie: . , -
-
benevolent central government that brought peace, wealth, and :: ,:.
for a considerable time. Bengal was an important pror..ince anc -:. :
-
the benefits of being a part of an all-India empire, in *,hich d.. :r--. - : -
administration and political stabilityprevailed. This period is re::. .... ,

for its trade and commerce, in which Bengal had its due share. lir .' -. - . ,
visitor Fa-hien states that Tamralipti (modern Tamluk in \l:: .- -'
 Political Historv 109

',','-st
. Bengal) was the great emporium of trade in eastern India.
- .r:\'of large numbers of Gupta and imitation Gupta coins in
:-,::-ate the economic wealth of the region under the Guptas.
r::rnrj is also remarkable for religious tolerance. The imperial Gupta
r:srrhc embraced Brdhmanism and sryled themselves paramabhagavatas
:.:-,.;.:lr-atas, but also pa patronized Buddhiism and ]ainism. The people
r;r. ri enior-ed an environment of religious tolerance and coexistence
.. , -s belieft. The artistic excellence of the Gupta age is well known,
. .... -.renced the artistic tradition of Bengal. The Gupta School inspired
-... school ofsculptural art.

-:--::,e oi the Gupta Empire, the invasions of the Hunas, and the
;::n'and exit of Yasodharman on the political stage of northern
'. '::r
sreat shocks for eastern India. In the first half of the sixth
,- F. south and east Bengal shook offthe suzerainty of the Guptas
: r3r1 importance as an independentkingdom underlocal rulers-
-:.::,-rn.) of \,'anga. Meanwhile, the Maukharis rose to '- rprominence
- -___-_^-_^--
:.:.:ra1 part of northern India and the later Guptas held sway over
:- .,restern and northern Bengal. There was a long, drawn-out
-- a: retl\'een the Maukharis and the later Guptas for the possession
=
. ..::ra (southern Bihar) and parts of western and northern Bengal.

. ',,, -::ds
-1. +]
the^ close
-l^-^ ^tr +L^
of the sixth CE, al-
^:--+L century -n r-i,- -r -
the- kingdom of. Gauda
^
- :rt:.r in parts of western and northern Bengal under the rule of the
, : j -:.as. But by the beginning of the seventh century, Gauda emerged
--^--^o---
-. ... -::dependent kingdom under Sasanka, with Magadha part of his
- .:.:.,ts. There is no doubt that Sasanka occupies an important place
- : :.:ston- of Bengal. He is the first
known king of Bengal to extend
, :.::o1 over territories far beyond the geographical boundaries ofthe
.--!!. 11u aLlrrrrpLru LU cJL4utilrl d 1\urtrl lllulall erIIpIIe alr(J presgryeo
-:e:endence of the Gauda Empire against a very powerful adversary,
- -:, :^.",,'ardhana,
-'-..-,lL^-^ .,,L^ f^...^J^l
who founded a^ -,^^r ^--^-^:,-- embracing
vast empire -,--1-
.-
practically all of
- --:rt .:r TnJi.
India and n.*+" o^,,r'l^^-- T-l:^ T+
"-l parts ^f of southern India. It was no rrrL4rt
vYor rrv ^L:^--^,-- ----
mean 4LltttYgttlgllL
achievement
..: tart ofSasanka to have preserved his independence against such a
=::u-l adversary. For a king of Bengal, it was a great show of strength to
,

:: , '^:e into North indian politics.

...':
do not have any concrete evidence concerning the early life of
::.ia and how he came to occupy the throne of Gauda. But it seems
:-i .r?t he ruled oyer a vast territory. He made himself the master of
110 Bangladesh National Culture and Herrtag-

western and northern Bengal and conquercd territoll :- r:-

':
Lake in Orissa. Parts of Bihar (Magadha) l'r'ere also rr'tl:-:- r.: :- -
He ventured as far as Kanauj in the central part of north':: -:.: ' -'
'-
advantage of the cpntemporary political situation and a:r :"-:.'.-:
Devagupta, the ruler of Malwa in western India. His capitai i(:r" 'i
has been identified with'Rangamati, six miles southrfest r-rI B.:-.-. .-' : -
Murshidabad district of West Bengal.
Sasanka was a staunch Shaivite (follower of Shiva); the Cl::""' : - - -
pilgrim Hsuen Tsang depicts him as strongly anti- Buddhr Si :r - :: - :
many acts of vandalism and enmity against Buddhists t(r :"::" -
-
not know whether the accusations made by this contemPLrri:' -- - : -
author who was a great friend of Sasanka's adversan- Har'::' :::- --
are correct. However, political reasons rather than religiou: ':":-. .

have prompted the persecution of Buddhists in certain are.: '-" :

of the information that is available to us about this great i-:r. ' - - - - '
comes from hostile sources. If he had a biographer like Bar..:: ' '-
foreigner friend like Hsuen Tsang, his character might hale bc::- ' t-' - : '
as attractively as that of Harshavardhana. But it can hardh r: - : - -': -
that he was the first important king of Bengal who laun.l:: :: ---
history of aggressive endeavors to establish supremac\- o-r ir r- - :--

India. In this sense, he was the forerunner of the aggressrr'.' l-

- : .-
Indian policy of the later Pala rulers like Dharmapala and D:..:- ' -
Matsyanyayam is the condition in Bengal follorvrng lr'; -:''
Sasanka that was marked by anarchy and lawlessness. For rr'' r: -'
century, roughly from 650 to 7 50 CE, the history of Gaudr I ' ' '' : ' :
obscure. In northern India, the period was marked bl pi'.::':'' - -
and confusion caused by the death of Harshavardhana in 6- e - - =
- '
the usurpation of his kingdom by his ministers, and the 3i':r' -':
the Chinese envoy Wang-biuen-tse. It was foliowed bv the rrl"::'
the powerful Tibetan king Srong-tsan-Gampo. In the seconi :"'.'
seventh century CE, Bengal witnessed the emergence ol'I'" :'- :

of kings: the later Guptas in Gauda and Magadha (rvesterr' 3::.- -- -

southern Bihar) and the Khadgas in Vanga and Samatata ()Lr;'-:: -- -
south-eastern Bengal). Neither of these dynasties, horveYer' :::'::
have succeeded in establishing a united and strong rule in Be:':'
In the first half of the 8th century CE, Bengal \ras or ir' - : - : -
by repeated foreign invasions, the most notable being the r:-' "
Yasovarman of Kanauj (725-752 CE). The glories of Yasot-;:::-'' :- .

-
soon eclipsed by Lalitaditya of Kashmir. The Kashmiri hi sto: r:: :.. - - .
 Political Historv 111

-;.:r: i,,-, ive Gauda kings who were defeated by Lalitaditya; this clearly
- :. : :. of political disintegration in Gauda, which became a field
: s a state
, .:'-.iie tor local
chiefs who took up independent rule in the absence
' ...", ;-ntral authority. The successive foreign invasions destroyed the
: :.- equilibrium and'hastened the process of disintegration.
. .= :..ndition of Bengal towards the middle ofthe 8th centuryCE, before
" : ' ::
-.i Gopala, was mentioned in one of the Pala records (Khalimpur
" ::,:-ate) as a state of matsyanyq)am. Taranatha, the Tibetan monk
- i: r:. a history of Buddhism in India in 1608 CE, confirms this and
- -::
:-''en' Ksatriya, Grandee, Brahman and merchant was a king in his
-
: - -se (or in the neighbourhood) but there was no king ruling over
' : - *r..1'. ' Gopala, the founder of the Pala dynasty, emerged as the ruler
- . .:..s ;haos, and, as mentioned in the Pala copperplate, put an end to
' : .':.: ,r: Iarrlessness (matsyanyayam).
- . ::rskrit term matsyanyayam has special significance. Kautiliya's
.,,.-i..ir erplains the term as follows: when the law of punishment is
- :r3\'irflce, it gives rise to such disorder as implied in the proverb of
-' : : - i.. the larger fish swallows a small one, for in the absence ofa law-
:-

-
- - -: . ruthority the strong will swallow the weak. The contemporary
:
: - - :. - :i. uses this term to describe the prevailing political situation in
r : - . -. . >:ruation of complete lawlessness originating from the absence
- : r.r-{ ruling power capable of enforcing law and order. Gopala
:- :-.:r :t the helm and succeeded in putting an end to this state of
- ::
r'.ess of Gopala's rise to power has been a matter of controversy
:
- :
:-:iLrrians. Some have argued that the people elected Gopala as
. , - "--.: ":d one has gone so far as to say,
" : -: ::,. niddle of the eighth century A.D. a heroic and laudable effort
- :,.j: to remedy the miserable state of things. The people at last
': -. ::* ::at all their troubies rvere due to the absence ofa strong central
.- - :, andthis couldbesetuponlybyvoluntarysurrenderofpowers
: ::':uiar leader by the numerous chiefs exercising sovereignty
- -.=..:::: parts of the country. [...] It is not every age, it is not every
-,'. : ::-li can show such a noble example of subordinating private
- -: -:: : :-- public welfare.2
frl6out going into the details of the controversy, it may be said that
Cryh c,me to occupy the throne at a time when there was chaos and
dh*n and he must have had the support of a group of influential people
Il2 Bangiadesh National Culture and Heritage

of matsyanyayam rfla '\'

or leaders; his success in putting an end to the state
also have earned him popular support' It is claimed
in the Pala records
that Gopala attained eveilasting peace after having overcomethe po\\ er
other *'ords'
of those who were acting accor&ng to their own desires-in
rn Bengal'3
those who had created ihe situation of matsyanyayam

The Fatra DynastY

ThedynastyfoundedbyGopalainthemid-8thcenturyCEruledBens"'
protracted pe rr' ;
for about 400 years amid various vicissitudes' During this
the fortune' r :'
of 18 generations of kings, there were ups and downs in
thedynasty.ButtherecanhardlybeanydoubtthattheruleofthePa...
histon'
fo.rn.d a giorious chapter in the history of ancient Bengal' The ":
phases: 1i; t:..
the long lire of pa1a.rr1.., .u, be viewed as three different
Period-of Asrrndorcy under Dharmapala (c'781-821CE)
and Der-apa-=
(c. aZt-SOt CE); foliowed by a (ii) Period of Stagnation
(c' 861-995 CE
from which it was rejuvenated by lvtahipala i (c' 995-1043 CE)'
rrh':
the last phase'
considered the second founder of the dynasty; and
'

(i1|) Period of Decline and Disintegration,which was lralted brieflr br

Empire did
vigorous .ri" of Ramapala (c. 1082-1124 CE)' The Pala
rise o:
lalt long after Rampala,s death; its final collapse came with the
Senas in the third quarter of the 12th century CE'
The Period of iscendancy saw the vigorous rule
of Dharmapala
to chaii
Devapala. During this period, the Palas were powerful enough
involved in a triparttte
the mastery of northern India, and became
for power with the Rashtrakutas of southern India and the
P.utihuru, o[ western lndia. As Bengal saw the rise o[ the
Pa]r'
Rashtrakutas wrested power from the Chalukyas in the
Deccan.anc
and Rajastha:-''
Gurjara Pratiharas coniolidated their power in Malwa
norih.r, India, there was a vacuum after the invasions by Yasovarrn"-: '
three nert
Lalitaditya. During the subsequent two generations' the
into nr
of the Palas, Rashirakutas, and Gurjara Pratiharas rushed
India to fill this Yacuum.
Dharmapala's reign saw two phases of this tripartite struggle
for
over northein India. Although he suffered reverses
during the first
bet$'een ti
of this struggle, he achieved some success in the inten'al
his in
and the ,"".lrra phase, when he succeeded in advancing
up to the traditional North Indian capital of Kanaui' where
he

3 Chowdhury, 1967:8-],2.
 =

Political Historv 113

- . -. :rge Chakrayudha on the throne. At this time, the Pala Empire

: : *:i beyond the boundaries of Bengal and Bihar and as far as Kanauj.
- -.

- . :-apaia may have pushed his empire in other directions as well, one
-.- r. - be certain about the magnitude of success. In the second phase of
'- : :::rartite struggle, Dharmapala once again tasted reverses. But there is
' . :oubt that he succeeded in maintaining his hold outside Bengal and
: -.:. Dharmapala's name stands out in the annals of the Pala dynasty
.: : ire ?t conqueror, under whose leadership Bengal's influence came to
. .'.-i in northern India for quite some time.
)rarmapala was a devout Buddhist and a great patron of Buddhism.
j: .s credited with the foundation of the Vikramasila monastery at
.,::::rghata (6 miles north of Colgong and24 miles east of Bhagalpur
: ..:ar), which was one of the most important seats of Buddhist learning
' .:.:ia tiom the 9th to 12th centuries CE. He also founded the Somapura
. --:r'ihara at Paharpur (in Naogaon district of Bangladesh), the largest
:
-*::ist monastery in the Indian subcontinent (about 1000 feet square),
--: :. second largest in the world. Its square floor plan with an open
, -:. rir the middle, the center of which is occupied by a cruciform central
': . built in gradually receding tiers, set the architectural pattern for
- - ..:ic construction in the southeast Asian countries, especially Myanmar
, - : -:donesia. The terracotta plaques decorating the wall surfaces at
: , - .::ur are of exquisite quality, and portray scenes from the every day
. . :re people of Bengal in addition to religious subjects. The Paharpur
: ,.'r-es stand out as the finest specimen of this age-old art of Bengal.
- :'.'apaIa, the son and successor of Dharmapala, maintained his father's
- - : : r s i\-e policies, and during his reign the struggle for supremacy over
.
- - r;rr India continued. He may have had some initial success, but
. - .:elv the Gurjara Pratiharas succeeded in establishing their empire
,' -'..:auj and the adjacent territories. The Pala Empire extended in other
, : , .. --,nS, however, towards the southl,vest into Orissa and towards the
-

" -.-..:t into Kamarupa.

- : :eigns of Dharmapala and Devapaia formed the period of Pala
,: lrr.)c\-. These two rulers consolidated their empire in Bihar and
--. ::u and western Bengal. Under them, Bengal emerged as a powerful
-
-. . \orth Indian politics for the first time in its history. Bengal could
- .> ou-n against powerful rivals, because of their conquests, with
" : : .'...r rulers ended the period of glory.
'
: ?:riod o.f Stagnation continued for more than 100 years and the
- , - : lrve generations of kings. In this period the energy and vigor

;hI----_
114 Bangladesh National Culture and Heritage

manifest during the reigns of Dharmapala and Devapala were totallr-

absent. There were hardly any attempts at expansion of the empire; instead.
the Pala kings were not powerful enough to check incursions from the
outside or uprisings frpm inside. The Kambojas rose to independence in
parts of western and northern Bengal, and for a time the Pala Empire rfas
confined to parts of Bihar.
The reign Mahipala I (c. 995-1043 CE) brought back some vitalitv and
gave a second lease on life to the Pala Empire. He succeeded in regaining the
lost territories in northern and western Bengal and returned the positron
of his dynasty to a firmer footing. But during the reigns of his successors.
the fortune of the dynasty seems to have fallen to its lowest ebb. Repeated
invasions of the North Indian powers (Kalachuris and Chandellas) suggest
the weakness of the Pala Kings. Their weakness was fully exposed during the
reign of Mahipala II (c. 1075-1080 CE), when the revolt of the Samanthas
succeeded in northern Bengal under the independence rule of Dilya, the
Kaivarta chief. when the central authority becomes weak, it is natural that
the forces of disintegration shouid play their part. The success of Din'a is
the most glaring example of this trend.
The vigor and energy of Ramapala (c. 1082-1124 CE) was the las:
significant flicker in the life of the Pala dynasty. He succeeded in restorins
Pala authority in northern Bengal and in demonstrating his vigor througi:
expansion programs. But his success was short-lived, and his successors
were too weak to check the gradual decline. Vijayasena, possibly a feuda-
ruler in the Pala Empire, found the opportunity to gather strength ousted
the Palas from their possessions in Bengal by the middle of the 12th centun
CE. Bengal then saw the emergence of a new power, the Senas, under th'
leadership of vijayasena, whose ancestors hailed from Karnata in southerr
India.
The long rule ofthe Pala dynasty, spreading over about four centuries'
gave Bengal the blessings of a stable government, which bore rich fruits in
the arts of peace. The Palas were able to establish a sound administratile
structure that was based on agrarian activities. Trade and commerce
were not important factors in the Pala economy. Trading activities rvere
possibly confined to within the region or at best just beyond the borders
to the adjacent territories. The decline of the port of Tamralipti after the
8th century CE deprived the Palas of an outlet to a share of the sea-borne
trade of Bengal.
The long Buddhist rule of the Palas generated an environment ol
religious tolerance in Bengal and the atmosphere of Hindu-Buddhist
 -
Political Historv 115

- '-.:.'' and co-existence is noticeable. Their liberal patronage of Hindu

- -. and goddesses as well as of the Brahmins, who were employed in
- :"- state posts, clearly speaks to the sagacious policy ofthe rulers. This
:-: :e sulted in narrowing the gap between the two religions-a process
' .. --ulminated in the dvolution of Tantric cults and practices among
.
3uddhists in Bengal. The socio-religious climate of the pala period
r:r ,r. spirit of tolerance and mutual co-existence, and this spirit had a
'." -::aching impact on the history
of the land.
-re Pala period is also significant for its achievements in the fields
'::s. Buddhist vihara architecture attained maturity in the somapura
----.','ihara at Paharpur, subsequently influencing structures in Southeast
-- .: countries. The terracotta art of Bengal
' also reached a high-water
- .:.' iurlng this period. The Pala School of sculptural art rater came to be
-
: : .rrzed as a distinct phase
in Eastern Indian Art. The artistic genius of
: -... scuiptors
s found full expression in the pala period. Although literary
:, , of the period have not survived in large numbers, the Ramacharitam,
' -:;:i poetic work by the North Bengali poet Sandhyakaranandi, is
: rr.roY to the quality of composition in a rare type of verse where each
- : :! i\\-o meanings. The
anthologies of poetry compiled in the subsequent
: . i ;ontain many yerses composed by poets from the 10th and 11th
: - *:i.s cE. A few illustrated palm-leaf manuscripts of Buddhist
texts
- :::l-rorlstrate excellence in the art of painting. considering all of these
'
- , :. :ireflts, the Pala period can rightly be considered the most glorious
, - -. :he early history of Bengal.
.r!ties of Southeastern Bengal
- -:lstern Bengal seems to have preserved its independence as a
' -':. entity for quite some time during the ancient period. From the
' - : -, - ..r of the Gupta Empire to
the emergence of the Senas, the deltaic
' -' -'3engal was never assimilated into the political system of northern
- ' ..::ern Bengal, though there were occasional attempts to do so.
--: ;rrl' as the first half of the sixth century cE, southeastern Bengal
- i Jependent kingdom-the kingdom ofvanga. The names ofthiee
- -. -

-,
-opachandra, Dharmaditya, and Samacharadeva, are preserved
. . lpperplates. It cannot be ascertained whether Sasanka,s empire
- -:.:-J southeastern Bengal. When the later
' : -:: in rvestern Bengal, southeastern BengalGuptas captured power
saw the emergence of
: :.- ijsa kings. We know about three generations of Khadga kings
' :.--:d Samatata (the Comiila-Noakhali area) from their capital at
 Culture and Heritage
tsangladesh National
116
near Comilla)' Two
sen:r-
(identified with Badkamta Rata' dr€ d::
Karmanta-vasaka
Lokanatha and Sridharana
independen'ft*a"'"w tnitf''
known to have J";t;;f iu*'i"" in the 7th century cE' uni<:
"ltd and mighty kingdom
u'
Southeaster" Btn;;i;'g"d 1-h5t
capital was at Devapan
e:'
Cg' Tireir
the Deva dynasty i"
thg exact location of
rvhich ''
'it'st;'t"it"ty
M"t';;i'-il*J'u'"u' \'ira'ie" '
(a crty in the
Deva rulers (Santideva'
of :
not Yet settled)' they were contempor;r::
'"";';;;;;tions
Anandadeva, una en'uf;;;'i'*itJt"ttatatar ;: :
Bihar and northern
*ho held sway' over
of the early Pala ningi goaattots' and under their patron:='
western Bengal' Tht'ff;";';"tt important Budo::':
area ,or" irrto p.omirarra"a as an €XC&1'&11qr r- :
the Mainamati tflroush archaeological
cultural center' Tht
";;;"tut'f"a of u few"e"ddhist viharas (Budii:i'
p'""t'il;:;;;; \.'": -'
at Mainamat' namelY Salban Vihara'
relieious und educatij"i tsttoiitnments)' their near
:

;i;;ilt bv' the Deva rulers '+::: :

viliara, and Bhoja ;'i';;;' plan of the central shrine
seer'
citv of D"'upa'uuta'' til;tf"rm
; J;. ;;;"t *
n

"r'*P" "'-"o :;' ::h f, : o.;| t *:Y;l : ill I; "

*n.t. ..ttttr and smaller manifestations merit'
pf"q"es of high artistic --':
remains ut'o tontui'?ttt"t"ii" Bengal saw the €nler$€ncc
c'
ett' century c;';;ittJtern '
In the
hu* to'"'ithe area from chittae.'.:
kingdom oruu'irttiu]'It'i:;;"y m the b e gi n r'".'
cr'u"fr ul ;il;;i ;nt Ha'rikela rulers; fro '-:-
Comilla. rnt (Traiiokvci-'::
chandra rulersof
the lOth century t;:;;;;;t;atlons and Govindachandra
:''':
Srichandra, K"ry;;;;i'u''uauf'uthandra' incorporated lh< ':"';
cE)' Their empire
for about rsoytu"'?';til* ;d Samatata' comprisin
g all ot so -::.' ::
that had p"u'o'"r| f
';;;;;; as the Svlhet area' -:.=-:
and southea*"nJffid#il;;:i:.:o'n'u't l--;
district south oi '
in present r''ron'nigun;
vitlu*it'r
capital *u' ut
matchthe po\r cr 'l'' -r : --
The chandrttT:'il;J'i*i"rt" 'ndcould
pu'fus of northern and western
Bengal' Sric:-a-'::;
contempora'it"f" his vigorous i:-' -:'
g'"utt" of the dynasty and under
was the 'J"r *id".pread expansion into territo:-''i -:
chandra e*pir" iritrr.rr.d
."T:ilx;:fi'"T];" rarlaltl rebellion in the Pala
Empr:t ::
of the F':':i
ili"oi'*i *atp""aent rule in southeastern!f
varman ur'"", "' century CE' The Varmans rvere '::*''
the 11th \ r=-'::'
in the last quarter of Five. g.-e:e:-1:1"-:-"t
also ut Vrkramapur'
Bhojavarman) r''r'':
and their .upirui*u, :: :
H;;;;"' samalavarman' and :e.'
(iatavarman'
*"r,fii1. ffi ffiA) being toppled bv the
before "
tess than
"
 q

Political HistorY 117

The rulers of southeastern Bengal commanded

the sea trade through
rhe vast coastal area of the chittagong-comilla
region. Theprofitability
numbers of silver coins
of this trade is attested by the discovery of large
merchants and
Ln various parts of their empire' The accounts of Arab
CE contain evidence
,avigators written betw..ri th.9th and 11th centuries
ofaflourishingseatradeinthecoastalareaofsouth-easternBengal,
"samandar," which has
especially throlgh a port that the Arabs called
port' Through
been identifiea wittt ih. ur.u near the present Chittagong
:histrade,therulersofsoutheasternBengalwereabletoearnthebullion
:]eCessaryforissuingsilvercoins.Wealsohaveevidenceofboatbuilding
of a flo-urishing sea-
.rdustries in the records of the period' The picture
affluence of the
.:ade emerges very clearly, andihe resulting economic
---:ea is beyond anY doubt.

. ,,.. ,*.f !1,r1, fi:,rE;!st!.

- .',rrards the end of the l2th century CE, Viiayasena founded the Sena
:rpire. Although his forefathers hailed from the Kanata country of
.-.r Deccan, Vijayasena initially emerged into the
politics of Bengal
.. a f'eudal ruler in West Bengal during the rule of the Pala Emperor
.,rnayana.DuringtheperiodofdeclineofthePalasafterRamayana's
and gradually grabbed power'
-:rth, Vijayasena rose into prominence
Varmans in southeastern Bengal and then ousted the
- = defeated the to expand
: ..:s irom northern and western Bengal. He also attempted
. ] e mpire into northern Bihar and the adjacent territories. The Palas
.-..,.dforsometimeinsouthernBiharuntiltheMuslimoccupation
::e area in the beginning of the 13th century CE'
lhe Senas held sway over Bengal for more than a century k' 1097 -
(Vijayasena, Ballal Sena'
- - ,: CE), during whictr {rve generations of kings
. ., :.lnana Sena, Visvar,rpu Sat'u, and Kesava Sena) ruled' The first three
'.:.ofthedynasty-Vijayasena(c.1097-1160CE),BallalSena(c.1160.
- .r Cf and Lakshmu.ru S..to (c' 1178-1206 CE)-were important figures
),
.,-e dvnasty. However, the invasion of Muhammad
Bakhtiyar Khalji
.. ::l efld to Sena rule in parts of western and northern Bengal in 1204
: back onto his possessions in southeastern
-:kshmana Sena had to fall
, -.r1. rvhere his two sons ruled for some time after his death'
.'.houldalsobenotedthatbydefeatingtheVarmansandthePalas,
-', :sena succeeded in
bringing the whole of Bengal under one unified
' : ,:at continued until 1201 CE' Tht", in a sense' it can be said that
.. oni)'under the Senas that the whole of Bengal came under a
 , i.i Bangladesh Nationai Culture and Heritage

singie rule. Southeastern Bengal's independence

during the preceding
tour centuries must have had d""p-.ooi"d socio-culturil
in the history of Bengar. vikramapura, the
.o.rr.qr.r.",
capitar of the crrurra.u, ,na
\-armans, was chosen as the Senas,
capital as well.
The sena rulers rvere Hrndus, and their
rule is considered to be a period
of re'i'al of Hinduism in Bengar. Ballal
Sena is known to have attempted
the establishment of an orthodox Hindu
sociar order with caste rigiditv.
This-r'r'as an attempt to restore Hindu orthodoxy in a society thuit ud lorrg
li'ed in a social milieu of religious tolerance
and Hindu-Buddhist amih..
The decline of Buddhism in Bengal may
be ascribed to this J;;;;;;
social order. It is not unlikery that Buddhism
received a rude shock from
this revival of orthodox Hinduism by the
senas; it was not Isram which
o'ercame Buddhism, but a more jearous rivar
of nearer origin and it is crear
that "Buddhism had arready been severery
crippred before the Musrims
reached Bengal."a This scenario of Hindu-iluairrirt
enmity in Bengal and
theattempt to bring back Hindu orthodoxy
during the sena period may be
said to have had a far-reaching impact
on the t itory of nengat- In fact,
it may have indirectly helped the cause of
Islam in the regionl
The Sena period is significant from another
-
deveiopment of Sanskrit literature in Bengar.
poini of view: the
It was partly througn the
direct patronage of the Sena kings, and partiy
because of th. .n,oi.onmenr
created by them that riterary activities in
sanskrit are distinctly rrribl. ,,
this period. By far Bengal's most important
contribution to the poetic
literature in Sanskrit is the Geeta Govi)eraof
/ayadeva, who was one of the
ornaments of the court of Laksmana Sena.
other ruminaries of his court
rvere the poets Dhoyi (author of pavanadufa),
umapatidhara, Govardhana
(author of Aryasaptasati), and.sarana;
these five poets
may be regarded
a: tle
fir'e ratnas (jewels) of the court of Lakshmana
Sena. one anthorogy
(sadt*tikarnamrta) compired
by Sridharadasa during this period stands
out as a treasure trove of poetic works from
both thislnd earrier periods.
It contains 2370 poems composed by 4g5 poets
between the 1Oth and 12th
century cE' Bhavadeva Bhatta and
|imutavahana, two great Dharm,sastr,
rr"riters, belong to this period. Ballal
Sena and Lakshmana Sena
ro'al authors of no mean merit. Halaludha's Brahmanasarvasvawaswere
also
u-ritten in this period. Mention of other
works and authors would only
rnake this list longer. 12th century Bengal
under the Senas witnessed an
unprecedented flourishing of literary uitirifi.,
in Sanskrit.
'
f_
Lrng, i976:323.
 Political HistorY I te

Another arena of the artistic achievements of the period was in the

art. The Bengal school ofsculptural art reached its high
-e1d ofsculptural
-,.,'ater mark in the Sena period and in this phase its regional character

::rarked by individualistic traits became manifest'

Bibliography
......lidhury,A.M,196T.DynasticHistoryofBengal.Dacca:AsiaticSocietyofPakistan.
..Buddhist Bengal and after." In Debiprasad chattopadhyay (ed.), History
. r:. T. 1976.
,ind Society. Calcutta: K. P. Bagchi & Co'
. .. *rrdar, R. C. lg7 2. History of Ancient Bengal' Calcutta: G' Bharadwaj'

.'.ldar,R.C.,ed.1943.TheHistoryofBengal,l,ol.1(HinduPeriod).Dacca:University
.ri Dacca.

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