CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

The section elaborates earlier research that are relevant, along with a hypothesis, some

concepts that are applicable and a conceptual framework.

A. Previous Related Studies

Many empirical investigations have been carried out to check critical thinking within

Indonesia and different countries' ESL and EFL learning spaces. Some of them examined the

connection between an individual's critical thinking abilities and their language proficiency in

addition to reading skill ability, critical thinking, and study outcomes. This component will be

talked over.

In the first study, which was carried out by Forood and Farahani (2013), the

researchers investigated the question of whether or not there were significant differences in

the levels of factuality, authority, and reasoning reading competence between high and poor

critical thinkers. An ex post facto design, descriptive methodology was used in the study. A

total of sixty Iranian students from the second year of the English translation and English as a

foreign language program at Roudehen Islamic Azad University comprised the research

sample. Instruments for the study consisted of a Persian version of the Watson-Glaser Critical

Thinking Assessment Test Form A as well as a reading comprehension test derived from the

TOEFL exam. They found that (a) there were huge distinction in achievement on fact-based

reading questions between high and low critical thinking, (b) there were huge distinction in

achievement on reference reading comprehension between high and low critical thinking, and

(c) there were huge distinction in achievement on reasoning reading comprehension question

between high and low critical thinking.

The second research, conducted by Juniardi, (2018), investigated at how students'

critical thinking impacted their understanding of reading. This study focuses on data collected
from students seventh-semester 2010-2011 English department. The outcome of the study

remarks there is direct influence critical thinking on students reading comprehension 0.174. It

implies that students will improve their reading comprehension skills according to the degree

to which they engage in critical thinking. It implies leaners who’s decent in critical thinking

can use their mind in understanding and comprehending a text by using some strategies such

as bottom up and top down, therefore they have good ability in comprehending a text.

The third study was conducted by Fitriani et al. (2020). Using the problem-based

learning-predict observe-and-explain (PBLPOE) learning method, the purpose of this

research was to evaluate the connection between analytical thinking abilities and academic

achievement in the subject of Biology. In this research, a correlational method was employed.

Critical thinking and academic performance are evaluated through essays. The correlation

between students' ability to engage in critical thinking and their level of academic

achievement in biology was shown to be significant by the regression analysis. According to

the regression equation, there is a possibility that students' academic performance will

increase as their capacity for critical thinking grows. As a result, it is recommended that

educators foster critical thinking abilities to increase students' academic progress in the

classroom.

Analysis of the Characteristics of Students' Critical Thinking Skills in Completing

National Exam Questions was the title of the study that was carried out by Afriana, et al.,

(2021). This research aimed to investigate the characteristics of students' critical thinking

abilities while they completed the national test of the HOTS type. Purposive sampling was

used for this research, and the sample consisted of fifty students who were enrolled in class

XII MIA at SMA Negeri 1 Jaya for the academic year 2019/2020. The findings revealed that,

on average, students' critical thinking abilities in answering questions from the HOTS type of

national exams were still in the medium category, with a percentage of 44.6 of the 5
indicators—indicators that offer clear explanations and develop fundamental skills—that

have been well mastered by students. Other indications, such as those that come to a

conclusion, provide more explanation, and establish strategy and tactics, were still in the low

group.

Hosseini et al. (2012) evaluated the link between critical thinking ability, reading

comprehension, and reading methods in a group of seventy Iranian university students who

were majoring in English translation and literature. The participants were both male and

female. A TOEFL reading exam, a critical thinking test, and a list of reading techniques were

used to gather data. Pearson product-moment correlations were performed to find

relationships among each type of reading strategy, reading comprehension, and participants'

critical thinking. Multiple regression analysis was utilized by the researchers to discover

which elements seemed to be the strongest predictor of the dependent variable (reading

comprehension), as well as to calculate the quantity associated with the dependent variable

(reading comprehension) based on a small number of independent variables (reading

strategies and critical thinking). The results showed there was a considerable positive

correlation between readers' critical thinking skills and reading methods in general, as well as

metacognitive and cognitive reading strategies. In addition, critical thinking and reading

comprehension had a strong beneficial association. Also, the findings indicated that critical

thinking skills and cognitive and emotional methods were the greatest indicators of a person's

ability to read.

The previous research above showed the strong impact of critical thinking on English

language achievement. As this was the case, the researcher had an interest in carrying out this

study. Nonetheless, the preceding study had some differences and similarities. The similarity

between the current and previous studies was that the research was correlated and focuses on

critical thinking. In addition, there were a few distinctions, such as those found by earlier
studies, between English language abilities and several other aspects of language. While in

this study, it was more specific and elaborate than other studies.

B. Some Pertinent Ideas

In this section, some essential principles concerning critical thinking and

understanding of reading will be presented. The concepts of critical thinking include the

definition, the fundamentals, the characteristics, the types, the advantages, as well as reading

comprehension and critical thinking. The theory of reading comprehension includes the

definition, elements, level, and phase of reading comprehension.

1. Concept of Critical Thinking

a. Definition of critical thinking

The term "critical thinking" may be defined in many different ways, such as

philosophy, psychology, and education. The ability to think critically involves being able to

locate and analyze information, in addition to identify and analyze issues that is pertinent to

those problems, in order to arrive at suitable conclusions (Watson and Glaser, (2012).

Therefore, before concluding, critical thinkers must identify the information of the problem in

order for them to do an analysis and draw accurate conclusions from the problem. Heard et al.

(2020), said that critical thinking was the capacity to process and combine knowledge in a

smart way to do things like make good decisions and solve problems.

Critical thinking is defined by Bailin and Lai (2011) as considering a capability that

is fundamentally good thinking that fulfills specified criteria or standards for accuracy and

completeness. Identifying, analyzing, and evaluating arguments and statements of truth;

recognizing and overcoming personal biases and prejudices; developing and presenting

compelling reasons to support the conclusions; and making rational and intelligent decisions

about what to trust and what to do are all aspects of critical thinking, G. Bassham (2011).
 In the meanwhile, Ennis emphasizes critical thinking, which involves using one's

rationality, reflection, and reasoning to make decisions about what to accept and do.

Washburn offers another explanation, saying that critical thinking entails taking the other

person's perspective or critiquing them, which may lead to a deeper insight and appreciation,

Phil Washburn (2010). According to Lutfiyana et al., (2021) critical thinking is a necessary

skill for students at the university level and beyond. Students need to learn how to think

critically so that they may go to the next level of problem-solving and grow used to facing

difficulties.

The explanation of critical thinking that may be derived from the preceding

description is the capacity to think logically, rationally, and critically about a subject in order

to reach the right decision. People who can think critically understand the logical connection.

In summary, critical thinking is the ability to conceptualize, analyze, critique, and evaluate

some information to conclude to create thoughts on possible solutions to issues. It is the

approach of studying a few facts around the problem or a few topics of an issue before

deciding what to accept and what to do about it before making a decision.

b. Core of critical thinking

P. A. Facione (2011) proposes six critical thinking pillars. There are some items:

1) Interpretation

The process of understanding and communicating the meaning or importance of a

variety of processes, rules, beliefs, norms, judgements, events, facts, circumstances,

experiences, or criteria is referred to as interpretation.

2) Analysis

The goal of the analysis is to find the intentional and real inference links among

explanations, concepts, questions, statements, or other types of depiction that are meant to

show experiences, information, belief, reasons, judgment, or views. The process of

 analysis includes, among other things, the examination of ideas, the recognition of

arguments, and the examination of arguments.

3) Evaluation

To figure out if a person's statements or other claims about their perception,

experience, judgment, belief, situation, or opinion can be trusted.

4) Inference

Inference requires discovering and securing the components necessary to arrive at

acceptable conclusions, developing conjectures and hypotheses, taking into consideration

significant pieces of information, and limiting the effects of data or other types of

representation.

5) Explanation

The explanation is defined as the ability to present the outcomes of one's

reasoning in a cogent and cohesive manner. Evaluation seeks to provide consensus-based

answers and provide conclusions based on predetermined standards. Explanation is an

imperative skill for any student, regardless of their subject. Like all skills, it takes practice

to become good at explaining. Explanation refers to the capability of elucidating the

presumption that results in the conclusions drawn.

6) Self-regulation

Self-regulation refers to the conscious observation of one's intellectual processes, the

elements used, and the outcomes achieved, primarily via the use of aptitudes.

c. Characteristic of Critical thinking

According to Pirozzi in Mihriay (2020), how can you know what you are thinking

critically? Answering this question involves a discussion of those traits. Critical thinking

requires:

1) Flexibility
 Since it requires one to be open to evaluate a number of different alternatives

before coming to a conclusion, critical thinking is also known as flexible thinking. Those

that are good at critical thinking do not jump to conclusions and do not just automatically

admit what they see, listen to, or read. They are willing to gather more information and take

it into consideration, even if it does not support their initial notion or what it is that they

want to accomplish. You postponed making a decision until you had the opportunity to

gather additional information, despite the fact that you were likely tempted to take the

quick and easy way out of the situation. Realizing that you begin with a response to the

course is negative, but it is still able to keep your mind open and willing to consider other

points of view carefully.

2) A clear purpose

Since it always involves a distinct goal and particular objective, critical thinking is

conscious thinking. As you engage in critical thinking, you are observing for explanations

or clarifications for occasions as different sides of an problem, endeavoring to unravel an

issue, reach a decision, or make sense of a circumstance. In the case study, choosing to

enroll is an objective I had in mind as a critical thinker.

3) Organization

Students complain that they find it challenging to do everything they need to

because they do not have enough time. There is no denying that their schedules are jam-

packed with activities, including going to school, receiving homework and other

assignments, working on projects, studying, and taking tests. Students tend to plan their

daily exercise very carefully thus that they can get all things done. In other words, in order

to make the most of your limited opportunity, you need use some kind of organization or

thoughtful planning. In order to deal with events, instances, issues, judgments, and

circumstances effectively, critical thinkers also depend on organizations.

4) Time and effort

At this point, you will realize that it needs a lot of time and exertion to think

critically. In addition, critical thinkers eager to devote time to other actions to focus on a

particular problematic determination, case, occasion, or situation. The actions you are

requested to perform and the examples that you read both take more time and effort on

your part.

5) Asking questions and finding the answer

In other words, those who engage in critical thinking are always curious, possess

remarkable levels of comprehension, and are tenacious in their pursuit of solutions. They

regularly use words that are found in inquiries, such as when, what, who, how, where, and

why.

6) Research

Critical thinking could deal with an event, case, problem, decision, or situation.

For this reason, it is frequently necessary to do research, which is the act of locating and

acquiring information, in order to acquire the knowledge and comprehension necessary for

a certain subject matter. The type of the study that these critical thinkers organize and the

information sources that they consult are both determined by the issue that is being

considered. For instance, when a young guy wants to get further knowledge on gun control,

he goes to the library or utilizes the internet to read various publications, such as

newspapers, periodicals, books, and reports. As these examples show, critical thinkers are

most likely to provide valuable and authoritative information because they carefully use the

most applicable, appropriate, or relevant sources of information. Accurate and authoritative

information is not only a specific topic.

7) Coming to the logical conclusion

 After doing an examination, critical thinkers make an effort to arrive at logical

conclusions about the occurrence, case, issue, choice, or circumstance they are pondering.

If a conclusion is firmly established on gathered facts or evidence, then it is logical or

reasonable. The only reasonable conclusion is that this particular driver was responsible for

the incident. In point of fact, the overwhelming majority of the evidence goes in that

direction. Yet, if fresh information indicated that the culprit was one of hers, then that

decision could need to be revised.

According to Bassham G. (2011), critical and uncritical thinkers have the following

characteristics:

Table 2.1. Characteristics of Critical and Uncritical Thinkers

No Critical thinkers Uncritical thinkers

Have a strong desire for lucidity, Consider things in ways that are
1 correctness, precision, and norms of unclear, imprecise, and incorrect a lot
critical thinking. of the time.
Are aware of the ways in which Often succumb to incorrect
egocentrism, sociocentrism, wishful assumptions, relativistic thinking,
2
thinking, and other barriers might distort sociocentrism, egocentrism, and
critical thinking. wishful thinking.
Are excellent in comprehending, Often misinterpret or appraise
3 analyzing, and judging the merits of unfavorable arguments and opinions.
various ideas and arguments.
Reason rationally and derive suitable Think illogically and derive
4 conclusions from the facts and data. unsubstantiated inferences from
information and data.
They are knowledgeably truthful with Ignore their limits and act as if they
5 themselves, admitting anything they do knew more than they really do.
not recognize also accepting their limits.
No Critical thinkers Uncritical thinkers
Have an open mind while hearing Are unreceptive to new ideas and
different viewpoints and be willing to staunchly defend their own notions
6
have your opinions and assumptions and dogmas.
challenged.
Instead of basing their opinions on Often base ideas on nothing more
7 personal preference or self-interest, they than just personal taste or self-interest
should base them on facts and evidence.
Are conscious of the prejudices and Lack of knowledge of one's own
8 preconceived notions that influence the prejudices and assumptions.
manner in which they see the world.
Think for yourself and do not be scared to Have a tendency to indulge in
challenge the consensus. "groupthink," which means they
9
follow the views and ideals of the
crowd without questioning them.
Ability to cut through the superficial Lack the capacity to focus on the core
10 aspects of a situation in order to get to the of a problem or issue and are quickly
core of a problem or issue. diverted.
Having the intellectual fortitude to Ideas that threaten their core
confront and evaluate concepts that convictions inspire fear and
11
contradict even their most fundamental resistance.
beliefs in an objective manner.
pursue the truth and are interested in a They often lack inquiry and are
12
variety of topics. somewhat uninterested in the truth.
Possess the intellectual fortitude When confronted with intellectual
13 necessary to seek insights or truths in problems or impediments, they have
spite of challenges or barriers. a tendency to give up.
(Bassham G., 2011)

d. The Kinds of Critical Thinking Skill

Analyzing arguments, coming to conclusions, assessing or evaluating, choosing a

course of action, or finding solutions to problems are all examples of critical thinking.

According to Suhartoyo (2017), this talent has so many different levels of thinking that it

may be broken down into two distinct groups: higher-order and lower-order thinking. Basic
skills, often known as lower order thinking skills, comprise several abilities including

memory, summarization, labeling, observation, and categorization. In the meantime, higher-

order skills, which are typically referred to as synthesis, include application, comprehension

skills, making inductions, defense, investigation, assessment, moral reasoning,

comparison/contrast, and the utilization of deductive and inductive reasoning.

On the other hand, Bloom in Agarwal (2019) proposed six categories of thought,

commonly referred to as 'Bloom's taxonomy’. Synthesis, analysis, application,

comprehension, knowledge, and evaluation are all included in the taxonomy. Knowledge and

comprehension are the primary two categories, both of which are considered minor order

thinking that does not need critical thinking. The final, in contrast, involve critical thinking

skills or higher-order such as synthesis, analysis, evaluation, and application. Here is the

bloom classification table for clarity:

Table 2.2. Bloom Taxonomy

No Categories Definition
1. Knowledge Remembering key information, statistics, and procedures.
Acquiring and demonstrating an understanding of the
2. Comprehension
information and facts
Making broad statements or extrapolating the data to fit
3. Application
other scenarios and settings
Acquiring an understanding of the factors that contributed
4. Analysis to the formation of the facts at hand and tackling one
problem at a time
Creating one's own links among various components and
5. Synthesis
trying to mix those components on one's own
Critical thinking is using one's expertise in an analytical
6. Evaluation
manner to assess the validity of information..

According to the information provided in Table 2.2, it would appear that fundamental

or lower-order thinking refers to the first and second categories of thought. It involves

understanding the facts and realities. Therefore, more advanced levels of critical thinking are
not required. Higher order thinking activities, such as application, analysis, synthesis, and

evaluation, fall under the third through sixth categories. Therefore, these activities require

higher-order thinking, commonly called critical thinking skills. In any instance, making use

of a higher-order ability or critical thinking talent needs possessing both knowledge and grasp

of the subject matter or the reality; hence, all levels of thought should be permitted.

On the other hand, according to Ruggiero in Adhitya et al. (2018), thinking has three

bases: investigation, interpretation, and judgment. See Table 2.3 below for details:

Table 2.3. Basic of thinking

No Activity Definition Requirements

1. Investigation Discovering the evidence, Evidence that is
like knowledge, that will be appropriate and pertinent
the key to solving the issue is is required.
step one in finding a solution
2. Interpretatio Determining the significance The interpretation needs
n of the evidence to make more sense than
the alternatives.
3. Judgment Deciding on a solution to the The conclusion must be
problem logical.
Ruggiero in (Adhitya et al., 2018)

Critical thinking, as defined by the criteria in Table 2.3, entails conducting an

investigation and gathering relevant evidence, such as data or facts, with the goal of arriving

at a satisfactory resolution to the problem at hand. The act of interpretation entails making

decisions about the evidence and meaning, as well as making judgments. This is the process

of resolving the issue. The three suggestions above are all examples of simple but essential

exercises in critical thinking.

In conclusion, a variety of thinking activities demonstrate the capacity for critical

thought. These mental exercises include researching, analyzing, judging, and evaluating.

While some thinking tasks call for a lower level of thinking, others call for a higher level of

thinking, commonly referred to as critical thinking.

 e. Benefits of Critical Thinking Skill
Critical thinking skills are essential in a learner's academic performance and their

dynamic professional life after graduation. In everyday life, critical thinking is extremely

useful. Critical thinkers are cautious about what they do or believe. Before reaching a

conclusion, they dissect and analyze all relevant data. To put it another way, critical thinkers

reflect on the work that they do.

Cottrell in Thao (2021) mentions some benefits of critical thinking ability as follows:

1) Able to work accurately and carefully.

2) Ability to determine more accurately and precisely what is relevant (nothing) in

writing.

3) Ability to solve problems and execute project management accurately.

4) It can inspire confidence in the success of complex problems and projects.

5) Better performance at work or school.

Furthermore, as David Hunter mentioned, the value of critical thinking can be

broken down into two primary categories. The first benefit of critical thinking is increased

knowledge. Second, being independent requires critical thinking. It suggests that someone is

claim of intellectual acumen regarding what to accept or do can be formed by fundamental

consideration, which is fundamental to Hunter (2014).

In conclusion, developing critical thinking skills allows one to reap a variety of

advantages, such as increased learning control and the ability to understand different

viewpoints. Additionally, critical thinking abilities are not specific to one field of study. A

skill that can be used in many aspects of people's lives is the capacity to reason methodically

and solve problems. As a result, those who think critically are better equipped to handle

daily life.
 f. Critical thinking and Reading Comprehension
Schema theory, according to Aloqaili (2011), is linked to the correlation between

reading comprehension and critical thinking. As it strongly believed by Fahim and Sa’epoour

in Ariani, (2020) that the development of critical thinking also known as higher-order

thinking skills, is an essential component of effective language instruction. The most

important educational repercussions that can be drawn from this research are related to the

finding that a substantial association exists between their level of reading comprehension and

students' critical thinking. The more learners who are critical thinkers, the better their reading

proficiency will be. Despite this, the size of the correlation between higher-order thinking

skills and critical thinking is greater. Mora et al. (2021) state that Reading is a participatory

activity wherein the reader intentionally constructs meaning by engaging in a series of mental

activities as they go through the text. The reader creates their own interpretation of the text

based on what they read by making use of their preexisting schemas Gilakjani and Ahmadi

(2011). Schemata play an essential role in the readers' ability to govern and organize their

reading experiences, as well as in their capacity to understand the meaning of the

information. During reading, they have the opportunity to contemplate, which helps them

bridge the gap between the knowledge they already recognize and the new material presented

in the text. (Shihab, 2011) asserts, reading involves an interactive process in which the reader

actively produces meaning through a set of mental processes.

Throughout the process of learning new information and processing it, schemas are

useful in six different ways, according to Anderson as stated in Bormanaki and Khoshhal

(2017). They are:

1) The majority of new knowledge is assimilated into preexisting systems. Consequently,

wherever feasible, specialized learning should be based on prior knowledge.

2) The student's existing schema helps direct attention by highlighting the relevance and

importance of newly presented material.

3) Schemas facilitate and guide the theoretical development of incoming data and

experience.

4) Since they point students in the direction of the information that needs to be reexamined,

schemas make it possible to do memory checks in a time-efficient manner.

5) Schemas make it easy to summarize and edit thoughts.

6) Schemas allow inferential reconstruction in case of amnesia. In other words, it helps

learners form hypotheses about missing information.

To have the intelligence and reasoning abilities necessary to be a competent reader,

one must be able to build connections between the text's material and relevant previous

knowledge that are significant. At the same time, Gallo in Aldana (2022) employ

metacognitive techniques in order to advance critical thinking. To strengthen our capacity for

critical thinking, she recommends that we put more effort into observation, analysis,

inference, and assessment.

2. Reading Comprehension

a. The Nature of Reading

Reading, as defined by Ismail et al. (2017), is a kind of communication via written

language that takes the form of texts. It is the most efficient means of acquiring knowledge

on many aspects of modern life, including the sciences and the arts. Reading is usually

considered to be a multi-dimensional concept, which is supported by reading models that

place an emphasis on varying degrees of understanding, Hosp and Suchey (2014). Reading

allows people to learn a variety of things. Reading plays a significant function and has

become a daily necessity for everybody who wants to obtain any information. Reading is an

essential skill for students who are learning English as a second language. Reading is the

most important skill for most students to acquire in order to achieve success, not only in the

process of learning English but also in the process of studying for any subject class in which
reading in English is essential. If learners can increase their reading abilities, they will be able

to make greater progress overall and develop in all aspects of their learning. Reading is a

tapestry constructed from fundamental threads such as phonemic awareness, fluency,

vocabulary and word recognition, phonics and decoding, comprehension, and higher-order

thinking. Welsh Government, (2020)

Nunan in Devana and Agustiani (2019) stated that Reading is a dynamic activity that

involves combining many types of information and expertise to build meaning. It means that

learners' background knowledge is considered when determining the success of reading

comprehension. Frankel et al. (2016) define Reading may be defined as the act of acquiring

and digesting information that has been written down and stored in a language-based

medium. In line with this, Douglas in Husein and Purnawarman (2019) defines reading as the

acquisition of knowledge about a language via the use of written or printed forms. In this

sense, readers can build their perspective or interpretation from what is said in the printed

materials. In summary, reading makes the content in written or printed materials meaningful

to the readers. This process requires a reader to comprehend the text by combining language

skills and background knowledge.

b. Components of Reading
The reader must be familiar with the elements of reading in order to be able to

understand text. Klingner et al. (2015) mention that the four components of reading

comprehension are vocabulary, fluency, decoding, and word knowledge. Knowing what the

terms in a contest imply is referred to as vocabulary. The students are required to comprehend

the meaning of the term by analyzing it in relation to the content of the text. The accuracy

and quickness of reading are referred to as fluency. It is about reading with proper

pronunciation, spelling, intonation, and stress. Word reading is decoding. It is the process of

examining or sounding out individual letters and words. Furthermore, having adequate

previous information to profit from reading literature is called having word knowledge. In
addition to the four components mentioned by Klingner in Hamra and Syatriana (2015) said

that reading comprehension also depends on students' language competence, such as

morphology, syntax, and grammar.

According to Italia, et al., (2018) Reading is considered to have been successful if the

reader was able to grasp the material that was read. Students who have studied a second

language are expected to understand all that has been presented to them in written form. On

the other hand, students often struggle with issues related to reading comprehension. To

begin, there is a lack of vocabulary among the students. Second, this is due to students do not

have much of a fascination with reading. Finally, they do not have enough grasp of the

textual context.

c. The Process of Reading

A few experts have proposed at least three types of developing meaning forms. The

following form illustrates the three different ways in which the meaning of the text may be

developed;

1) Bottom-up processing

The reading process is treated as a phonemic unit when bottom-up processing is used.

Brown in E. R. Putri (2022) states that Bottom-up processing requires readers to recognize

various linguistic cues such as phrases, grammatical cues, words, syllables, morphemes,

letters, and discourse markers. This means that the reader must read from a letter to letter,

recognize word after word, associate sentences, clauses, and phrases, and finally process the

lexical meaning into phoneme units to make some sense of the writing.

2) Top-down processing

In top-down processing, in order to derive meaning from the text, the reader must

take into account both syntactic and semantic information, Alowalid et al., (2018). The

reader creates their own meaning by applying their prior knowledge to the material that is
 being investigated. This indicates that the reader's prior knowledge contributes

significantly to their capability of comprehending the text meaning. Top-down processing

requires approximately educated guesses about the information that will be presented.

The process continues by taking samples to see if they confirm the predictions made

earlier. In the end, the reader provides confirmation of the prognosis.

3) Interactive processing

The bottom-up processing and top-down paradigms come together to form the

interactive processing paradigm. During an interactive process, the reader speculates on

the meaning of the text and then engages in a bottom-up process to verify that their

interpretation is in line with what the author is trying to convey, Cahyanti and Ananda

(2021). This means that readers recognize words and anticipate the information implied

when constructing the meaning of the text.

It is possible to draw the following conclusion based on what has been said: the

reading process consists of three distinct types. Bottom-up processing, interactive processing,

and top-down processing. Word identification is one of the tasks involved in bottom-up

processing. The top-down processing method focuses on the information that the reader

already knows. In final point, interactive processing bridges the gap between bottom-up and

top-down processing. In this instance, interactive processing blends the reader's previous

knowledge with the process of word identification. The three methods listed above aid

readers in comprehending the content that are read.

d. Definition of Reading Comprehension

Concerning Dias et al. (2015), Understanding is the end aim of proficient reading, and

there are a lot of aspects of reading comprehension that are not exclusive to written language.

According to Caldwell in Sari (2021), comprehension is defined as the capacity to

appropriately grasp and be acquainted with a scenario or a body of knowledge. There are
many processes in comprehension: moving from the written words to the meaning in the

mind; utilizing memory and a knowledge of letter and sound patterns to identify individual

words; matching the resultant pronunciations with meanings; and linking these words into

thought units. She continues by saying that understanding is the only purpose of reading, that

prior information affects comprehension, and that the organization of the text also affects

comprehension. Cooper and Lewy in Putra (2017) state that the process of developing

meaning from textual cues and knowledge from the reader's prior experiences is known as

comprehension, and it includes the reader and the context. According to Febriyanti (2017),

Comprehension does not occur as a result of reading. It is the thinking that occurs prior to,

during, and after reading.

Comprehension as word processing represents the main general concepts and their

integration into new knowledge. It implies that comprehension occurs whenever a reader

successfully gleans valuable information from a book and grows that information into a

greater understanding, E. M. Putri, (2018). Brown in E. R. Putri (2022) asserts that

developing relevant, practical comprehension skills is the primary goal of reading

comprehension. Claker and Chesher (2014) define reading comprehension as deliberate

thought in which interactions between a text and its audience are crucial to the formation of

meaning.

According to Woolley (2011), reading comprehension is a term used to describe the

process of gleaning meaning from written material. As a consequence of this, the objective is

not to extract meaning from individual words or phrases; rather, it is to acquire a

comprehensive understanding of the subject matter that is presented in the text. Concerning

Nunan in Devana and Agustiani (2019), reading comprehension is defined as reading for

meaning, comprehension, and amusement. Hidayati (2018) declares that reading

comprehension is a combination of intellect and perception. Understanding a written

document requires the reader to make use of a variety of strategies, including knowledge of

the background information, vocabulary, and grammatical comprehension. It demonstrates

that reading is a kind of communication between the writer and the person who is reading the

work.

Reading comprehension is often described as an interactive thinking activity

involving a reader's language expertise, global information, and knowledge about a particular

problem, according to Pour-Mohammadi and Abidin (2011). Moreover, they assert that

reading comprehension is a multi-faceted, extraordinarily complex process that includes a

variety of interactions between readers and the resources they bring to the text (previous

knowledge, method usage), as well as text-specific factors (understanding of text types and

interest in text). Schoot et al., cited in Riani et al. (2014), state that reading with

understanding is an active process that involves figuring out what something means and how

much you know about it. In this part, the readers must be able to figure out what the author is

trying to say. Meneghetti in Ramadhan (2018) comprehension reading is a sophisticated

reasoning skill that enables the reader to combine textual information with previous

knowledge, ultimately leading to the explanation of a mental image. Nunan in, Devana and

Agustiani (2019) state that a proficient reader is defined as having at least 70%

comprehension.

Tabel 2.4. Category of Reading Comprehension

No Score Range Category
1. At least 70% Good Comprehension
2. Below 70% Bad Comprehension
Nunan in (Devana & Agustiani, 2019)

A number of factors, including previous knowledge and working memory, as well as

basic reading ability, decoding, vocabulary, text structure sensitivity, inferencing, and

motivation, may have an effect on a reader's level of comprehension. Yovanoff in Gunardi

(2022) state that to comprehend anything, you need to make use of strategic processes like

comprehension monitoring and metacognition. Reading to learn is the ultimate goal of

reading, and as a reader's comprehension abilities increase, they may more swiftly go from

the stage of learning to read to the stage of reading to learn.

Reading comprehension, as defined above, is the process of understanding the

substance of written material to receive information through activating the reader's prior

knowledge. Reading cannot lead to a better knowledge since its purpose is to allow the reader

to grasp what is being read. Reading is a waste of time if you are unable to comprehend the

material that you are reading. Instead of just reading a collection of words strung together in a

phrase, readers should be able to comprehend the content and derive the intended meaning as

well as the relevant information from what they have read.

e. Aspect of reading Comprehension

In order for a reader to comprehend what they are reading; they need to be aware of a

number of different elements. The component of reading comprehension referred to as the

following is described by Cooper and Lewy in Putra (2017):

1) Main Idea

The vital material that elaborates on the overarching concept of a paragraph or

section of a text is referred to as the primary idea. Every reading is organized around a

central theme or topic. The author places the greatest weight on the reader understanding

the author's major point when it comes to the overall concept of the section. As a result,

this might make it more challenging to ascertain what the primary point is. It is possible

for the studentss to miss the passage's major point, as well as its location in the passage,

if they do not pay attention.

2) Detail Information

The reader is able to locate the primary point of the book by looking at the

illustrative examples that are provided. In the portion that is devoted to elaborating on
the central concept, the proponent provides information in the form of specifics. In most

cases, supporting details include information on the who, where, what, why, and how of

the situation. the information included inside.

3) Cause-effect

It is usual practice to order the material in a text according to cause and effect.

Students are able to better comprehend the link between a cause and its subsequent effect

by using a model called the cause-effect model. This literacy tool may be used in a

variety of classroom settings to assist students in gaining an understanding of the

sequence in which activities and responses take place. In the context of anything like a

work of literature, a history book, a scientific experiment, etc. Students may improve

their reading comprehension by underlining passages like these in their textbooks. As

students are reading, they have the option of creating charts on their own or in groups to

map out these relationships.

4) Inference

The process of drawing an inference involves coming at a hypothesis, notion,

judgment, or conclusion that relates to information that is not explicitly expressed

elsewhere in the text. This is the most challenging component of reading comprehension

since the information being sought is seldom presented in a straightforward manner

inside the text. The act of making conclusions on the basis of information that is only

inferred is known as inference. In this regard, the reader is required to form hypotheses

on the content of the text and how it may be expressed.

5) Vocabulary

This indicates that readers may gain the capacity to predict unfamiliar terms by

associating the near meaning of foreign words with the context of the text. When

compared to the meanings of other words, the meanings of two words are considered to

be nearly same if the similarities are strong enough. At this time, it is expected of

students that they will be able to locate and comprehend the meaning of the phrase.
 6) Sequence

The capacity to repeat the events that took place inside a particular text in the

order in which they happened is an important aspect of sequencing. Sequencing refers to

both the ability to recognize the parts of a tale, such as its beginning, middle, and finish,

as well as the ability to do so. One of the most important strategies for reading

comprehension is the capacity to sequence the events in a book, particularly narrative

texts.

7) Author’s Tone

To get a deeper comprehension of a section of text, a reader must first determine

the perspective or mood of the author. The reader gains a deeper comprehension of the

author's argument as well as their intended reason for writing when they evaluate tone.

The tone of the author has a strong connection to the writer's intended audience and goal.

The author will use a certain voice in order to express the most important concept and

goal of a paragraph. This voice often reflects the author's perspective on the issue being

discussed.

f. Levels of Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension may be broken down into three distinct tiers, as described by

Lapp and Flood in Hamra and Syatriana (2012):

1) Literal Comprehension

Literal comprehension entails understanding what the author is honestly saying.

Readers can express themselves explicitly in the text. The ability to recognize and

commit to memory facts, as well as to recognize and comprehend significant concepts

and supporting elements, as well as to classify and comprehend how the text is arranged,

are the sources of this knowledge.

2) Inferential Comprehension
 Inferential understanding is concerned with determining what the author means

by what is said. Readers must be able to integrate information and develop conclusions

or inferences, and they must understand not just what the writer writes about but also

what they mean. In addition to this, it may need comprehension of figurative language,

as well as the ability to make accurate predictions and provide an assessment of the

author's perspective.

3) Critical comprehension

The information that is already available may be used by readers to develop new

knowledge or opinions. Discovering new information, exercising control over the

meanings of sentences, phrases, and words and gleaning the most relevant meaning from

written materials are the goals of reading between the lines.

Literal comprehension can be defined as merely understanding what the text says.

It is important because it creates the framework for more sophisticated information,

which is why it is crucial. Inferential understanding entails determining the meaning of

the text. The reader must obtain information that is not directly expressed. In order for

readers to display critical comprehension, they need to assess what they have just read.

They are then tasked with formulating an opinion on the basis of the data that they have

gathered. Growing one's reading skills may be accomplished most effectively by being

skilled in all three types of comprehension: literal, inferential, and critical.

C. Conceptual Framework

Reading comprehension involves not only being able to comprehend the words in a

passage but also to understand the more general ideas or themes that lie beyond the surface of

the text. Yet, higher-order thinking is required in order to comprehend the deeper, more

symbolic meaning that lies behind the phrases. Students that have developed higher-order

thinking abilities will be able to do this and will be able to determine the genuine value of the
material they have been reading. Higher-order thinkers are readers who are able to display

knowledge and comprehension of the material, as well as the capacity to arrange the

information in new circumstances and develop linkages between ideas.

Reading, according to the perspective of certain knowledgeable individuals, is a sort

of decoding in which the reader is responsible for digesting each letter, making the necessary

sounds, and constructing words. Reading creates a connection between the many ideas that

are presented, as stated by Andrew in Pustika (2015). Reading demands you to organize

disparate ideas into a logical structure so that you can follow the text. Reading is thus an

activity that requires comprehension, and understanding is the capacity to produce the

author's message by using one's past experience, knowledge, language, and cognitive

abilities.

It is impossible to stress how important critical thinking is to one's ability to

comprehend what they read. It would seem that these talents are related in a manner that is

both equal and parallel. It gives the impression that readers ought to be able to comprehend

the contents in question if they are equipped with proper critical thinking abilities. In the

meanwhile, it is well recognized that authors who are deficient in their ability to think

critically also have poor reading comprehension abilities.

Due to the importance of determining the elements that may affect students' reading

comprehension, this research is being carried out with those considerations in mind. Teaching

students to think critically is seen as beneficial to the English language classroom. Using a

correlational approach to research, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the link between

students' levels of critical thinking and their understanding of what they read. The

information was collected in two distinct stages.

At the first stage of the study process, the researcher will acquire data on the students'

critical thinking abilities by having the students complete an examination on critical thinking.

In the next section, the researcher will collect information on the students' reading
 comprehension by having them complete reading exams. The researcher then analyses the

collected data and presents the results. Finally, the researcher makes an interpretation based

on a statistical test result to draw clearer findings from the research.

The overview of the understanding flow of this research is described in the following

conceptual framework.

Students’ Critical Thinking Skills Students’ Reading Comprehension

Critical Thinking Test Reading Comprehension Test

The Correlation Between Students’ Critical thinking

and Students’ Reading Comprehension

Figure 3.1 Conceptual Framework

D. Hypothesis

Based on the theories discussed above and the theoretical outline, the purpose of this

research was to test a hypothesis on the nature of the connection that exists between the two

variables. The hypothesis was presented below:

1. Ho: The English Education Study Program students at Universitas Negeri Makassar's

critical thinking abilities and reading comprehension did not significantly correlate

with one another.

H1: The ability to think critically and reading comprehension of English Education

Study Program students at Universitas Negeri Makassar were significantly

correlated.