Structural Composite Materials: Satish Babu Boppana C. G. Ramachandra K. Palani Kumar S. Ramesh Editors

Composites Science and Technology
Satish Babu Boppana

C. G. Ramachandra
K. Palani Kumar
S. Ramesh Editors
Structural
Composite
Materials
Fabrication, Properties, Applications
and Challenges
Series Editor
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Satish Babu Boppana · C. G. Ramachandra ·
K. Palani Kumar · S. Ramesh
Editors
Structural Composite
Materials
Fabrication, Properties, Applications
and Challenges
Editors
Satish Babu Boppana C. G. Ramachandra
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
School of Engineering School of Engineering
Presidency University Presidency University
Bengaluru, India Bengaluru, India
K. Palani Kumar S. Ramesh

Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Sairam Institute of Technology Jerusalem College of Engineering
Chennai, India Chennai, India
ISSN 2662-1819 ISSN 2662-1827 (electronic)

ISBN 978-981-99-5981-5 ISBN 978-981-99-5982-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5982-2
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Contents
Introduction to the World of Composites

Composites Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Mithun Vinayaka Kulkarni and Satish Babu Boppana
Structural Composites
Composites in Structural Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Satish Babu Boppana and N. Gopalakrishnan
Case Study and Applications of Composite Materials in Various

Engineering Fields
Mechanical Properties of Sandwiched Layers of Natural Fibers
of Sisal and Jute for Automotive Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
S. M. Sanjay Kumar and S. Tilak kumar
Applications of Composites—A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
K. S. Lokesh, C. G. Ramachandra, and D. Shrinivasa Mayya
Various Methods of Processing MMCs, PMCs and Ceramic

Matrix Composites
Processing of Composites with Metallic, Ceramic, and Polymeric
Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
R. Samanta, B. Sengupta, G. Mandal, A. Wazeer, A. Das, and A. Sinha
Experimental Study on Synthesized Graphite Nano Particles
Based PVA Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
K. S. Lokesh, Thandra Paavan Kumar, C. G. Ramachandra,
and D. Shrinivasa Mayya
v
vi Contents
Manufacturing Particulate and Fiber Reinforced Composites

Manufacturing Process of Fibre Reinforced and Particulate
Reinforced Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
K. S. Lokesh, C. G. Ramachandra, and J. R. Naveen Kumar
Manufacturing of Particulate and Fiber Reinforced Composites:
A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Samuel Dayanand and Satish Babu Boppana
Evaluation of Mechanical Properties of Composites Involving

Wear, Hardness
Mechanical Properties of Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites:
Advancements, Opportunities and Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Adil Wazeer, Arnab Mukherjee, Apurba Das, Barnali Sengupta,
Gurudas Mandal, and Arijit Sinha
Mechanical Properties of Light Weight Particulate Metal Matrix
Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
D. Shivalingappa and N. Raghavendra
Open Hole Tensile Test for Measuring Residual Tensile Strength
and Delamination of Glass Fibre Metal Mesh Polymer Composites . . . . . 173
M. Sakthivel, P. Raja, V. Parthiban, and A. Nagaraj
Prediction of Tribological Behaviour of AA5083/CSA-ZnO Hybrid
Composites Using Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
A. Nagaraj, S. Gopalakrishnan, M. Sakthivel, and D. Shivalingappa
Wear Behavior of Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate Reinforced
with Fly Ash Cenosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
B. Krishna Prabhu, A. S. Saviraj, and Ajith G. Joshi
Synthesis and Characterization of Al/MWCNT Composites

Prepared Through Powder Metallurgy Technique
Production of Al/MWCNT Nanocomposite by Powder Metallurgy
to Enhance Dry Sliding Wear Performance Aided by Design
of Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
H. T. Shivaramu, U. Vignesh Nayak, V. Londe Neelakantha,
and K. S. Umashankar
Machining Challenges of Ceramic Matrix Composites

A Review on Conventional Machining Challenges of Ceramic
Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Contents vii
Polymer Matrix Composites: Machining Challenges

Machining Challenges of Polymer Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
K. S. Lokesh, C. G. Ramachandra, G. Ravindra Babu,
Processing of Composites: Challenges

Challenges Faced in Processing of Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Introduction to the World of Composites
Composites Overview
Mithun Vinayaka Kulkarni and Satish Babu Boppana
Abstract From providing shelter for early civilisations to paving the way for
future developments, composites have been particularly important to the humanity
throughout the history. Most notably, composites are advantageous due to their resis-
tance to corrosion, design versatility, longevity, lightweight, and strength. Products
made from composites are not limited to a particular field but finds their applica-
tion spanning across the construction sector, sports, medicine, space applications
and many more. It seems unlikely that projects like rocket ships would have been
implemented without the use of composite materials. New materials, applications,
and methods make this sector fascinating to work in. Using hybrid virgin and recy-
cled fibres speeds up and automates production. Composite materials are rising at
5% annually worldwide. Carbon fibre demand is expanding at around 12% per
year. Nowadays, many composites are manufactured for purposes other than just
improving the materials’ mechanical qualities, such as strength. Composites are also
engineered to be excellent heat conductors or insulators, and/or to have magnetic
characteristics; these features are highly precise and specialised, but they are also
incredibly significant and valuable. Composites find their use even in electrical
and electronic devices, such as transistors, photovoltaic cells, various sensors and
detectors, semiconductor diodes, and lasers, as well as in the production of anti-
corrosive and anti-static surface coatings. Other applications of these composites
include lasers and sensors. This chapter is a collection of topics such as impor-
tance and history of composites, types and manufacturing process materials used for
composite construction, applications and case studies.
Keywords Composites · Carbon fibres · Corrosion resistance · Coatings · Case

studies composites · Carbon fibres · Corrosion resistance · Coatings · Case studies
M. V. Kulkarni (B)
Engineering Department, Mechanical Engineering Section, University of Technology and Applied
Sciences—Salalah, Salalah, Oman
e-mail: Mithun.Kulkarni@utas.edu.om
S. B. Boppana
Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Presidency University,
Bangalore, India
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 3
S. B. Boppana et al. (eds.), Structural Composite Materials, Composites Science
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5982-2_1
4 M. V. Kulkarni and S. B. Boppana
1 Introduction
Composite materials are solid materials made by mixing two or more unique
substances, each having its own properties, to create a new substance with superior
properties for a specific use. A structural material (like plastic) with an imbedded
fibre element is called a “composite” (like silicon carbide). By embedding fibres of
one material in a host matrix of another, composites get their amazing properties [1,
2]. Most traditional composites are constructed in thin layers, which are reinforced
by long fibres put down in a single direction, similar to how plywood is constructed.
These materials only have stronger properties in the fibre direction. The fibres are
woven into a three-dimensional structure where they are laid along three mutually
perpendicular axes to create composites that are durable in all directions. Evidence
related to the use of composites by the early humans has been recovered at various
sites around the globe. It is understood that they used wattle and daub, to build
walls of their houses. The technique involved building a woven mesh made of strips
of hardwood called wattle (treated as reinforcing material), coated with a mixture
prepared from animal manure, moist sand, clay, etc., which is sticky and could be
easily bonded with the reinforcements [3]. This building material has been supplanted
in more recent decades by concrete, a composite made of cement and reinforcements
like gravel (aggregates) [2, 4]. Composite bows, which were at the time extraordi-
narily effective, were first developed by the Mongols in 1200 AD. The bows were
mainly made from materials such as wood and animal remains. The Egyptians began
crafting plaster-soaked papyrus or linen into death masks [5]. Canoe makers in the
late 1800s began experimenting with paper laminates made from various materials.
Shellac was used in an attempt to adhere sheets manufactured from wood pulp. The
years 1870–1890, is being considered as an era of research towards the develop-
ment of synthetic or man-made resins. The molecules of these polymer resins are
crosslinked to change their state from liquid to solid. The 1930s were pivotal years in
the development of resins for the composites industry. Carleton Ellis patented unsat-
urated polyester in 1936 (these resins had the ability to harden rapidly that replaced
previous resin options in the composites industry). By the end of the 1930s, some
performant resins like epoxy resins, were commercially available.
Bakelite, one of the earliest synthetic resins, was developed in 1907 by Belgian-
born American scientist Leo Hendrik Baekeland. Baekeland discovered that by
mixing the resin with cellulose, it became less brittle and more durable. In 1917, Bake-
lite was first put to commercial use when it was used to manufacture gearshift knobs
for Rolls Royce vehicles. During the 1920s and 1930s, new and improved resins
were developed. Polymer resins were further developed by American Cyanamid and
DuPont, two American chemical corporations, in the early 1930s. Both firms origi-
nally developed their own unique formulae for polyester resin throughout the course
of their testing. The Owens-Illinois Glass Company pioneered a method in the late
1930s for pulling glass into thin strands or fibres, which were used in clothing’s
and apparels, and paved the path for developing light weight and durable glass fibre
reinforced polyester resin materials. The first fibreglass and polyester resin dinghy
Composites Overview 5
(small boats that could be used in rescue mission or for racings and recreational
purposes) was created in 1942 by Ray Greene.
With World War II, development and use of composites took a new level. The war
forced composite innovators to create new combinations of materials. These materials
were introduced in the areas of aerospace, construction, and transportation. Also, at
this time fibre reinforced composites development occurred. The two most popular
forms of fibre reinforced plastics (FRP) are glass reinforced plastic (GRP) and carbon
fibre reinforced composite (CFRC). As indicated by the names, carbon and glass were
the fibre materials (or inclusions) used in the fabrication of CFRC and GRP materials,
respectively. More than seven million pounds of fibreglass were employed by 1945,
almost all in the defence industry. The public quickly learnt of the advantages of
FRP composites, particularly their resistance against corrosion. For instance, the
oil sector has been one of fibreglass pipe’s most widespread applications since its
introduction in 1948. Filament winding method provided the foundation for large-
scale rocket engines, which were critical to the advancement of space exploration
during the 1960s and beyond. During these years, other fabrication techniques such
as pultrusion and vacuum bag moulding were also invented and used for large-scale
production of composites.
Carbon fibre composites weren’t commercially accessible until many years after
the initial carbon fibre patent in 1961. The utilisation of carbon fibre contributed to
the development of a wide variety of applications across various industries. A chemist
working for DuPont named Stephanie Kwolek came up with the idea for Kevlar in
1966. Kevlar is simply a tough and durable fibre that finds its use in the development
of superior quality composites as in the development of body armour (resistant to both
bullets and blades). Thus, new and better resins increase composite demand. This was
especially true for composites that were intended for use in environments with higher
temperature ranges or that were subjected to corrosion. The automotive industry
overtook the marine market in the 1970s and is the largest composites market today.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, European and Asian infrastructure projects utilised
composites in building their first highway bridge and bridge deck with composite
reinforcing tendons which was first of its kind in the history of composites used in
infrastructure projects. Other early applications of these composites in infrastructure
were in the United States. In the 1990s, Scotland erected its first pedestrian bridge
completely made out of composites in Aberfeldy. FRP bridge deck was constructed
in West Virginia’s McKinleyville. A large number of pedestrian bridges made of
FRP composites have been placed in secluded areas of state and national parks in the
United States that are inaccessible to heavy construction equipment. These bridges
have also been used to span highways and railroads.
Composites are being specified by an increasing number of industrial designers
and engineers for use in various sectors. Structures made of reinforced concrete or
masonry can be strengthened or seismically upgraded using FRP composites systems.
It wasn’t until the early 2000s that nanotechnology first made its way into consumer
goods and thus certain applications started using carbon nanotubes as reinforcements
in PMCs, which enhanced the properties of materials. The year 2010 brought a
dramatic change in the area of manufacturing by introducing additive manufacturing
(AM). Businesses and customers could interact and corelate their ideas and concepts
with each other using the CAD-based prototypes, which were then printed using AM
technology. Several firms that specialise in composites have recently entered the area
of 3-D printing using reinforced fibres. Reinforcing plastics in three-dimensional
printing techniques often involves the use of discontinuous strands of carbon fibre
or fibreglass. This practise is used in all market sectors, including the automotive,
aerospace, tooling, medical, and infrastructure industries. The reinforcements in the
shortest possible of time enhance the composites strength using minimal material.
Additionally, they may be planned and prototyped from a single desktop. In 2014,
MarkForged made history by unveiling the world’s first 3-D printer made of carbon
fibre.
The composites business is constantly growing and developing. The maritime,
automotive, and aerospace industries have all been significantly impacted by the
increased usage of FRP composites. Also, a large number of unique applications in
infrastructure and chemical processing have witnessed remarkable transformations.
The Institute for Advanced Composites Manufacturing Innovation was announced
in 2015 by the United States Department of Energy as a public–private collaboration
with a budget of 259 million dollars. The Institute will concentrate on lowering the
cost of producing advanced composites and reducing the amount of energy required
for their production, as well as making them recyclable. The resins and fibres devel-
oped would be able to assist in the development of an even wider range of applications
for composites. As the need for stronger composites, lighter, and more environmen-
tally friendly continues to rise, bio-based composites will undoubtedly be used as
alternative materials in the years to come.
2 Composite Manufacturing Processes
The production of composites may be accomplished in one of the three separate ways:
(1) open moulding, (2) closed moulding, and (3) cast polymer moulding. Within each
of these types, there are several processing techniques, and each one has its own set
of advantages.
• Open moulding involves exposing the raw ingredients (which might include resins
and fibre reinforcements) to air while they cure or become more solid. Open
moulding uses various methods, such as manual lay-up, spray-up, casting, and
filament winding.
• Closed moulding refers to the process in which the raw ingredients (fibres and
resin) are allowed to cure inside a mould with two sides or in vacuum. Because
closed-moulding techniques are often automated and require specialised equip-
ment. They are most commonly used in large factories that manufacture enormous
quantities of material (up to 500,000 components annually). Closed moulding uses
various methods, such as vacuum bag moulding, centrifugal casting, continuous
lamination, and resin transfer moulding.
• Cast polymers are unlike any other kind of material used in the composites
industry, since in most cases, they exclude reinforcements in the form of fibres
and are engineered to cater for the applications from the strength perspective only.
The use of cast polymer moulding allows for the production of pieces of any size
or form. Gel coated cultured stone moulding and solid surface moulding are the
two types of cast polymer moulding.
3 Materials
Composites consists of a resin matrix that binds the fibre reinforcements. Addition-
ally, they may consist of core materials, fillers, additives, and surface finishes, all of
which contribute to the provision of one-of-a-kind performance characteristics.
3.1 Resins
Resins are used in composites to (1) act as a stress transfer agent between the rein-
forcing fibres, (2) act as bonding agent to hold the fibres intact, and (3) to act like a
shield that protects the fibres from mechanical and environmental fibres.
Reinforced polymer composites typically employ either thermoplastic or ther-
moset resins in their construction. Figure 1 depicts the use of various resins in the
composite construction.
Resins
Thermoset Thermoplastic
Thermoplastic resins are not cross-

Most composites employ thermoset resins. linked, allowing them to be reshaped
Polymerization—cross-linking—turns them into as many times as necessary before
solids. Thermoset resins are "cured" by heat, being permanently damaged.
catalysts, or both when employed to make
products. Solid thermoset resins are irreversible.
ABS, polyethylene, polystyrene,
and polycarbonate are common
Polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, thermoplastic resins.
and polyurethane are common
thermosets.
Fig. 1 Types of resins

3.2 Reinforcements
Reinforcements may be orientated to match end-product loads and user design

criteria. Most of the commercial reinforcements are manmade. By varying the quan-
tity of reinforcement, product performance, weight reduction, and fabrication related
expenses of the composite can be optimised. Due to the low cost and high strength-
to-weight ratio, glass fibres make up over 90% of reinforced plastics. Composites
as we know are categorised into (1) Metal matrix composites (MMCs), (2) Polymer
matrix composites (PMCs), and (3) Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs). Figure 2
depicts the various reinforcements used in MMCs, PMCs and CMCs.
• Composite materials that combine metal with another material are known as
“metal matrix composites” (MMCs). Examples of MMCs include Aluminium
MMC, Magnesium MMC, Titanium MMC and other MMCs [6, 7].
• Composites made of a polymer (resin) matrix and a fibrous reinforcing phase
that is spread throughout the matrix are known as “polymer matrix compos-
ites” (PMCs). Examples of PMCs include GRP and CFRP, Kevlar (aramid) fibre
reinforced polymers [8].
• When both the reinforcement (refractory fibres) and the matrix material are
ceramics, we obtain a composite material known as a ceramic matrix composite
(CMC). Sometimes the same ceramic is used for both portions, and sometimes
Reinforcements
MMCs
PMCs CMCs
boron, graphite
(carbon), alumina, and Glass fibers, Carbon or graphite
silicon carbide are Aramid (Kevlar) fibers, Ultra
examples for continious High Molecular Weight
fiber reinforcements Polyetheylene (UHMWPE)
fibers, Exotic fibers (boron), Carbon, C
Particulate fillers (ceramic fillers •Silicon Carbide, SiC
alumina and alumina- (calcium carbonate, fumed
silica are examples for silica), metal fillers) •Alumina, Al2O3
discontinuous fiber •Mullite or Alumina Silica,
reinforcements Al2O3-SiO2
A number of metal
wires including
tungsten, beryllium,
titanium, and
molybdenum have been
used to reinforce metal
matrices.
Fig. 2 Reinforcement types [7, 10]

supplementary fibres are added for reinforcement. For this reason, CMCs are
classified as a subset of both composites and ceramics [9].
3.2.1 Reinforcement Forms
Reinforcements come in different shapes and sizes to accommodate several manu-

facturing methods and the needs of the finished products they are used in. Rein-
forcing materials may be provided in various forms, such as roving, milling fibre,
chopped and thermoformable mats. Reinforcement materials may be manufactured
using specialised techniques and shaped into the required form, depending on the
requirements of the final product and the manufacturing technique. The different
reinforcement forms include multi and single-end rovings, 3D fabrics, stitched, mats,
woven, unidirectional, and prepeg, etc. [11].
3.3 Additives and Fillers
To increase the utility of polymers, improve their processability, or lengthen the

product’s durability, a broad range of additives and modifier chemicals may be used.
In comparison to resins, reinforcements, and fillers, additives are often used in much
smaller quantities by weight; yet the tasks that they perform are quite important.
Although the cost of the basic material system is often raised by the addition of
additives and modifiers, the overall cost and performance of the system is always
improved by these components.
3.3.1 Additives
Additives are used to change and improve the characteristics of resins that form a part
of the polymer matrix. Some of the important additives include thixotropes, release
agents, conductive additives, colour and pigments, fire retardants and suppressants,
UV Inhibitors, etc.
3.3.2 Initiators, Promoters and Inhibitors
Catalysts or initiators are the most crucial components in the polyester production.
To get a heat-cured finish, benzoyl peroxide is often used with the resin, whereas
methylethylketone peroxide (MEKP) is used for room temperature curing methods.
Peroxides change into a reactive state (exhibiting free radicals) when heated and or
mixed with a promoter like cobalt naphthenate, that causes the resin to cross-link
and become solid. To slow down the process, additives such as tertiary butyl catechol
(abbreviated as TBC) are often used. Accelerators such as DMA (dimethyl aniline)
and others can speed up the curing process.
3.3.3 Fillers
Fillers not only reduce the composite’s cost, but they also impart performance advan-
tages to the composites that the reinforcement and resin elements by themselves
would not be able to accomplish. Extenders and fillers are two common terms that
are used interchangeably. The key elements can be broken down into three cate-
gories: fillers, resins, and reinforcements. Fillers can improve mechanical properties
such as fire and smoke resistance in composite laminates by decreasing the organic
content of the laminates. Because filled resins contract less than empty resins do,
the dimensional control of items moulded using filled resins may be enhanced using
these resins. By using fillers in the right way, one may increase several key features
of a material, including stiffness, resistance to temperature, weathering and water
absorption. A growing number of composites are also using inorganic fillers. These
fillers are added anywhere between 40 and 65% of the total weight of the composite.
Some of the commonly used inorganic fillers include: calcium carbonate, kaolin,
alumina trihydrate and calcium sulphate.
3.4 Core
Core materials are used to make stiffer and lightweight products that improve proper-
ties such as fire resistance, thermal conductivity, and sound insulation of the sandwich
composites. Sandwich composites represents a class of composites that consists of
core materials embedded in between the layers of laminates and these laminates are
usually known as upper and lower skin. The upper and lower skins are made up of
several layers of resins and reinforcements (for example: epoxy and glass fibre (GF)
sheets as shown in Fig. 3) and the thickness of the skin depends usually on the nature
of application, required flexibility and stiffness without having to increase the weight
of the composite.
Over the last 45 years, composites have relied on bonded sandwich structures. It
would have been impossible to even imagine stiff, yet light in weight composites,
which are durable even in harsh environments by the industries. Sandwich compos-
ites, over the period of time, have been used in marine applications (example: fishing
boats and rescue operation boats), cars, panels used in the construction sector, blades
of the wind turbine, etc. If cores and skin are carefully selected, an increase in weight
by 3% may boost the stiffness by 3.5 and 7 times, respectively. Carbon and glass are
the most frequent face sheets in composites. To improve mechanical qualities, certain
core materials may be formed like waffles or corrugations. The core materials vary in
quality and cost. Some of the commonly used core materials are polyurethane (PU),
Fig. 3 An example of
Resin
sandwich composite
laminate GF
Upper
Skin Resin
GF
Resin
PU
Core Foam
Resin
GF
Lower
Skin Resin
GF
Resin
syntactic, thermoplastic and PVC foams, apart from these balsa and fibre-reinforced
cores are also used.
4 Benefits of Composites
Composite materials comes with several advantages such as strength, low weight,
resistance to corrosion, design flexibility, and long-term durability.
• Strength
Composites are among the most durable materials currently available. When the
material’s density is considered, composites supply superior strength to the vast
majority of construction materials. It’s no wonder that they’re used in almost every-
thing from aeroplanes to autos and in applications that are defined based on the
strength perspective. There are four important properties that influence the structural
design, and these are: specific, tensile, shear and compressive strength.
• Lightweight
Composites are much lighter in weight than most metals and woods. But why is it
preferable to be lighter? Lighter vehicles and planes use less fuel due to the lower
overall weight and since lighter things are simpler to carry and install, anything from
utility poles to bridge decks may receive help from this.
• Resistant
Composites may be used in places where traditional materials would deterio-

rate quickly due to exposure to harsh weather and chemicals. Composites have
been assessed in environments such as sea water, harmful chemicals, extreme
temperatures, etc.
• Flexibility
Composites’ design versatility stems from the vast variety of possible material combi-
nations. Materials may be modified to meet the precise requirements of any given use.
Composites also have the advantage of being simple to form into intricate designs.
5 Applications of Composite Materials
5.1 Aerospace
Top original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) in the aviation industry, like Airbus
and Boeing, have shown that composite materials could be used on a large scale. The
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is always on the lookout
for innovative methods and space-related solutions from composite producers for use
in rockets and other spacecraft. Thermoset-based composites are being requested for
use in an increasing number of bulkhead, fuselage, and wing applications across all
three categories of aircraft. Aerofoil surfaces, antenna structures, compressor blades,
engine bay doors, fan blades, flywheels, transmission structures in helicopters, jet
engines, radar, rocket engines, solar reflectors, satellite structures, turbine blades,
turbine shafts, rotor shafts in helicopters, wing box structures, etc., are just some of
the many other areas where composites find use. Composites are used in diverse types
of businesses nowadays [12, 13]. Mentioned below are some examples of military
and civilian planes used by different countries that use a lot of composites in their
airframes: [14].
• Fighter aircraft
– U.S.: AV-8B, F16, F14, F18, YF23, F22, JSF, UCAV
– Europe: Harrier GR7, Gripen JAS39, Mirage 2000, Rafael, Eurofighter, Lavi,
EADS Mako
– Russia: MIG 29, Su series
• Bomber: B2
• Transport
– U.S.: KC135, C17, 777, 767, MD11
– Europe: A320, A340, A380, Tu204, ATR42, Falcon 900, A300-600
• General Aviation: Piaggio, Starship, Premier 1, Cirrus SR 20 and SR 22
• Rotary Aircraft: V22, Eurocopter, Comanche, RAH66, BA609, EH101, Super
Lynx 300, S92 [15].
Among the key benefits of employing composites in aeronautical applications
include: (1) weight reduction of somewhere between 20 and 50 percent. (2) Structures
made of a single shell may have increased strength while maintaining a reduced
overall weight. (3) A remarkably high resistance to impact. Armor shields made of
Kevlar have, for example, significantly cut down on the amount of damage caused
by accidents to the engine pylons that carry fuel lines and engine controls. (4) A high
resistance to thermal instability; (5) resistance to fatigue and corrosion. (6) Structural
components that are constructed of composite materials are straightforward to put
together [16].
5.2 Space Application
The usage of composites in space applications has been increasing steadily over the
past few decades. Composites are employed in various spacecraft systems, including
those that transport humans, satellites and payload supports, and launch vehicles.
Because of their low weight and resistance towards the extreme temperatures in
the space, composites are a need for spacecraft. They’re also seeing the increasing
use of rockets for various missions. Composites are frequently used to enhance
the structural integrity of solid rocket motors and pressure tanks used to store fuel
and gas. As early as the Apollo programme, composites were used for ablative and
other high-temperature components, including rocket motor nozzles and re-entry
heat shields.
Composite spaceships use high-modulus carbon fibre reinforced laminates.
Human-rated crew capsules use composite panels for re-entry thermal shielding.
Temperature capability and low thermal expansion may minimise the vehicle’s bulk.
Satellites and payload support structures use carbon fibre laminates. Bus frames often
use aluminium honeycomb sandwich panels coated in carbon fibre or aluminium.
Optical benches and other precision constructions are always made of carbon fibre
laminates with low moisture absorption resins, usually cyanate ester. These materials
help maintain dimensions in space’s vacuum and extreme temperatures. RF reflectors
and solar array substrates employ stiff, dimensionally stable high modulus carbon
fibre laminates.
The fabrication of both the disposable payload fairings and the core booster’s
interstage uses composite materials. To manufacture the essential components with
fewer joints and to maximise the benefits of such structures, larger composite struc-
tures require the development of high-quality Out-of-Autoclave composite systems.
This was necessary because of the increased size of the composite structures.
In several space applications, filament wrapped composite structures are used.
Solid rocket motors, which are frequently employed in spacecraft’s upper stages, are
made of filament wound—high strength carbon fibre. Pressurised tanks are normally
made of very thin wall metallic liners that are then covered in carbon fibre and epoxy
resin. These tanks are used for liquid hydrazine fuel and various gases.
The hottest parts of rocket nozzles, such as the throats and exit cones, use special
feverish temperature composites. Re-entry vehicle heat shields are also made of
similar composite materials. They can be divided into two main groups: ablative and
ceramic matrix composites. Carbon or ceramic fibres are reinforced with carbon or
a ceramic matrix in ceramic matrix composites. Of these materials, carbon–carbon

is the most prevalent. The Space Shuttle’s nose and wing leading edge were covered
in carbon–carbon panels to protect it from the re-entry temperatures, which reached
2300 °F. Ablative composites are often silica or carbon-fibre reinforced phenolic
materials that change their state to absorb heat [8].
5.3 Automotive
The automotive sector has been using composites for quite some time. The most
significant advantage of using composite materials is the decrease in overall weight.
A lighter lorry or car will take less gasoline to go ahead, making it more fuel-
efficient. Composites not only enable innovative vehicle designs but also aid in
making cars lighter and more fuel-efficient. Estimates suggest that the weight of
the vehicle accounts for 75% of the total amount of gasoline used. Lightweight
composite materials, commonly known as fibre reinforced plastics (FRP), provide
possibilities for cutting vehicle weight. These materials improve fuel efficiency and
minimise emissions of harmful pollutants, making them an attractive choice for
lighter vehicles. Apart from these, composite materials are also employed in engines,
pistons, cylinders, connecting rods, bodies, and other components. In comparison
to steel, composites offer several advantages to the automotive and transportation
industries, such as: (1) a weight reduction of 20–40%; (2) greater design freedom
in the form of deep drawn panels; (3) a reduction in tooling costs of 40–60%; (4)
a shortening of assembly times and costs through part consolidation; (5) resistance
to corrosion, scratches, dents, reduced noise vibration harshness (NVH), and higher
damping; and (6) the ability to accommodate new materials and processes [17].
5.4 Biomedical Composites
These composites have found application in healthcare. Their medical applica-

tions extend from the safe handling of biological samples to the accurate diagnosis
and treatment of various illnesses and injuries. If they are manufactured correctly,
composite biomaterials can serve as effective replacements for organs compromised
by trauma or disease. The ability to produce composite biomaterials with precise
predetermined physical, chemical, and mechanical qualities for novel applications
is one of the key factors contributing to their current dominance [2]. Biomedical
composites are used in several medical applications, including pacemakers, surgical
and diagnostic tools, implants, surgical and diagnostic devices, electrodes for the
collection or transmission of electrical or optical signals used in diagnosis or treat-
ment, exercise equipment for people with disabilities using wheelchairs, pharma-
ceutical packaging, and instrumentation for the chemical and physical analysis of
medical conditions. Particularly in orthopaedics, they are employed in bone cement,
bone transplants, hip replacements, fixation plates, and bone resections. Dental
implants can be used to replace missing teeth. They were first put into use in the
middle of the 1960s and have since gained considerable attention as an alternative to
removable dentures. Dental implants may be used to support crowns, that are used to
replace single missing teeth, bridges, which are used to repair many missing teeth,
and dentures for patients who have lost all their teeth (toothless). A dental implant
is simply a titanium and zirconia screw or cylinder that ranges in length from 4 to
16 mm. It is placed into a bone socket made in the jaw and serves as a substitute root
for a tooth lost [18, 19].
6 Case Studies
6.1 Boeing 787 Dreamliner
The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is a twin-engine, long-range aircraft with a wide-body

cabin and a lightweight composite frame that accounts for 80% of its capacity [20].
Additionally, the aircraft is composed of ten percent steel, fifteen percent titanium,
twenty percent aluminium, and five percent other elements. Because of the significant
weight reductions that may be accomplished with the help of this structure, Boeing
can realise significant cost savings as a result. The overall weight is reduced by an
average of twenty percent despite the fact that composites make up the bulk of the
construction [21]. Structures made of composite materials are capable of conforming
to any form and thus taking advantage of this, Boeing constructed the fuselage
of 787 using a number of separate barrel parts. Instead of producing numerous
tiny aluminium panels that would need to be assembled. Analysing every part of
the airframe to find the appropriate material for a certain purpose requires consid-
ering the operational environment and loads a component endures during its life-
time. Aluminium handles compression well but tension poorly. Composites manage
tension better than compression. Thus, Boeing claimed that the increased usage
of such materials, especially in the tension-loaded fuselage, significantly reduces
fatigue maintenance compared to an aluminium structure. The Boeing 787 became
the first commercial aeroplane to have most its airframe constructed out of carbon
fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP). This material was used in the empennage, fuselage,
wings, doors, and in most other essential components [22]. Each 787 has roughly
about 35 tonnes of CFRP, which was manufactured using 23 tonnes of pure carbon
fibre [23]. The fact that CFRP materials have a greater strength-to-weight ratio than
typical aluminium structural materials adds greatly to the weight reductions of the
787. Furthermore, the fatigue resistance of CFRP materials is superior [24]. In the
annals of aviation history, the first CFRP primary structure was installed in a Boeing
commercial aircraft in 1984 on the horizontal tail of the Boeing 737 Classic, and in
the middle of the 1990s on both the vertical and horizontal tail (empennage) of the
Boeing 777 [25]. While researching the potential Sonic Cruiser in the early 2000s,
Boeing constructed and evaluated the first carbon fibre-reinforced plastic (CFRP)
fuselage section for a commercial aircraft. This was a 20-foot (6.1 m) long anechoic
chamber, which was eventually used for the Dreamliner [26].
Swift Maintenance
Boeing has created a new line of maintenance repair capabilities that can be applied
to an aircraft in less than an hour. This is in contrast to the traditional bonded repair,
which may require an aeroplane to be grounded for twenty-four hours or more. This
swift method provides the opportunity for interim repairs and a quick turnaround,
while an aluminium aircraft with such small damage may have been forced to make
an emergency landing. That is an interesting take on the situation. The fuselage is
built up of tubular sections, which are then connected to one another during the final
assembly process. It is estimated that the use of composite materials may save 50,000
rivets per aircraft. As a possible point of failure, each rivet site would have needed
to be checked for maintenance every flight [20, 27].
Composites use in the Engines
Both the General Electric (GEnx-1B) and Rolls Royce (Trent 1000) engines, available
for the Dreamliner make substantial use of composite materials. There is a clear
opportunity for composites in the nacelles, which include the intake and fan cowls.
However, composites are employed in so many parts of GE engines that they are even
used in the fan blades. Since the days of the Rolls-Royce RB211, there have been
significant advancements made to the blade technology. In 1971, when the company’s
Hyfil carbon fibre fan blades failed in bird attack testing, it caused the company to
go bankrupt. Since 1995, General Electric has been at the forefront of innovation in
the field of titanium-tipped composite fan blade technology. Composites are used for
the first five stages of the low-pressure turbine in the Dreamliner power plant. This
turbine has a total of seven stages [20].
6.2 Biomaterial for Tissue Engineering
The use of biomaterials as scaffolds infused with live cells to repair, preserve, or
improve deformed or missing anatomical structures dates back to the 1980s. In 1988,
a National Science Foundation workshop formally coined the phrase “tissue engi-
neering” [28]. Generally, tissues can be classified as either “hard” (such as bone and
teeth) or “soft” (such as skin, blood vessels, cartilage, and ligaments). Hard tissues, as
the name implies, are often more rigid and robust than their softer counterparts. Hard
tissue applications typically use metals or ceramics due to their structural or mechan-
ical compatibility with tissues, while soft tissue applications typically use polymers
due to their biocompatibility [29]. Synthetic polymers, such as polycaprolactone
(PCL), polyglycolic acid (PGA), polylactic acid (PLA), and their copolymer poly-
lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), as well as poly(ethers), such as polyethylene glycol
(PEG), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and polyurethane (PU), have all been proposed
to develop scaffolds for soft tissue regeneration [30–32]. These polymers can be
easily manufactured with customised structural conformation and geometry, and
their biodegradation profile can be controlled by changing their chemical composi-
tion. They also show physical, chemical, and mechanical properties comparable to
those of biological tissues. However, they often lack cell adhesion sites, therefore
chemical alterations are needed to improve cellular attachment. Furthermore, note
that PEG is not readily produced: the ethoxylation process requires complex reactors
and safety precautions due to the thermal instability and high reactivity of ethylene
oxide [33].
The goal of tissue engineering is to repair injured tissue by growing new tissue
from scratch using a pre-existing structure, or “scaffold,” made of biomaterials [33].
The goal of this strategy is to use biomaterial scaffolds to repair the previously
injured tissue. Natural extracellular matrix (ECM)-based biocompatible scaffolds
are materials that promote tissue integration [34]. Unique to both cells and tissues,
these scaffolds are a vital part of cell and tissue growth and maintenance. Human cells
can be attracted to and organised efficiently by polymer composites with dimensions
smaller than those of the cells [34, 35]. Cell migration, proliferation, and engraftment
are all aided by the distinctive shape of the polymer composites. Organ and tissue
regeneration relies on advances in polymer composites that promote cell growth
and adhesion [36]. Thus, polymer composites, are attractive models for emulating
natural morphology [35]. Thin films of porous biocompatible protein polymers were
manufactured by Buchko et al. [33] and used in a variety of implanted devices as an
example. Additionally, Huang et al. [31] synthesised and electro spun elastin-mimetic
peptide polymers. They concluded that, with careful choice of protein polymer type,
it is possible to fabricate FRP composites that helps in the creation of artificial organs
with superior clinical performances.
6.3 Sandwich Composites in Boat Building
Sandwich structures are a class of composite materials that are made from two or
more varied materials used to produce products with enhanced physical and chemical
properties in terms of specific strength, specific modulus, corrosion resistance, stiff-
ness, wear resistance, and fatigue life [35–42]. Because of these qualities, sandwich
structures are used in many different fields, including athletics, aircraft, infrastruc-
ture, the maritime industry, the automobile industry, and commercial organisations.
The literature indicates the use of low-density core material such as rigid polyurethane
foam (RPUFs) as a matrix and as well as a reinforcing material. RPUFs are currently
used in several lightweight industrial and engineering applications. Their excellent
dimensional stability, low thermal conductivity, low apparent density, and lower
moisture permeability make them an excellent choice as a core material in sandwich
construction panels, and shipbuilding (used for making ribs for the hull) [40–42].
They are ideal in the construction of fish feeder hulls because of their increased load-
bearing capacity and thermal insulation, decreased water absorption, and decreased
fuel consumption, expense, and pollution. Conventional boats are constructed from
two long, thin pieces of wood that run the length of the vessel [43]. To build the hull,
they are nailed and cemented together. Ribs or perpendicular slabs of wood are used
in the construction of an inner skeleton that keeps the two sides of the boat together
and provides strength. With the advent of composite materials, boat builders began to
experiment with diverse types of fibres (both synthetic and natural) in the construc-
tion of boat hulls. With regard to the use of glass fibre in boat hulls, exhaustive work
has been conducted by Mohan and Araya [44]. A detailed study on the design and
fabrication of FRP boats was undertaken by them. The work also highlighted points
related to the reduction in leakage and biofouling of hull surface due to marine
growth, and critical design parameters in the construction of small-sized pleasure
boats were noted. Tanaka et al. [45] used bamboo fibre-reinforced plastics (BFRP)
in the construction of pleasure boats. They noted that moisture absorption and BFRP
strength were the critical factors during the fabrication process. Further observations
revealed that the delamination was caused due to moisture absorption between the
BFRP and the gel coat. Also, the Non-woven bamboo fibre mats were less effective in
providing the reinforcing effect compared to the short fibres. Kasda et al. [46] worked
on the design of a fish feeder barge boat, focusing mainly on the development of a
low-cost remote control barge boat. Barge boats are a kind of cargo-carrying vessels
used in both canals and rivers for carrying goods or passengers [47]. Rubino et al.
[48] reported that with the use of FRP a drastic weight reduction can be achieved
which results in larger cargo capacity, enhanced buoyancy and stability, reduction in
cost and fuel savings. The sandwich structures especially in marine-based applica-
tions use aramid, carbon and glass FRP skins along with polystyrene and polyvinyl
chloride foams. The use of these fibres results in the development of boats that have
outstanding mechanical properties and dimensions compared to conventional boat-
building materials. Lee et al. [49] conducted research on the structural design and
analysis of a composite boat hull built using Resin Infusion Simulation. Aramid fibre
resin was used in the research work. The results of the study concluded that RTM
(Resin Transfer Moulding) method was a more capable method compared to the
other boat hull manufacturing process.
7 Conclusions
Composites excel because of their strength, rigidity, and low weight. Manufacturers
may create qualities that are a perfect match for the needs of a given construction by
adjusting the ratio of reinforcement to the matrix material. Aviation in the modern era,
both in the military and in civilian life, is a great illustration of this. Without compos-
ites, the effectiveness would be drastically reduced. In fact, the aviation industry’s
need for lightweight but durable materials has been a driving factor in the creation of
composites. The wings, tails, propellers, and rotor blades, as well as a good portion of
the interior structure and fittings, are now often built from sophisticated composites.
Composites are less prone to break under stress than metals like aluminium, which
is important to know while thinking about aircraft. A minor break in metal may
spread rapidly and cause catastrophic damage (especially in the case of aircraft).
Fibres in a composite material serve to prevent the spread of any existing cracks
and distribute the resulting stress more evenly throughout the material. Composites
that are fabricated perfectly are corrosion- and heat-resistant also and thus, they are
perfect for use in items that will be subjected to harsh conditions, such as ships, chem-
ical processing machinery, and even spacecraft. Composites’ additional value lies in
its adaptability in many applications. Moulding composites into intricate forms is a
significant benefit when making surfboards or boat hulls. The creation of composite
materials derived from recycled sources, such as discarded food and construction
materials, or even plastic beverage containers, is also a major area of focus at the
moment. The expense is often the main drawback of composites. The raw ingredients
for composites are pricey, despite the fact that composites frequently result in more
efficient production methods. While composites will never completely replace more
conventional materials like steel, they do serve a useful purpose in many situations.
There’s also the certainty that, as technology advances, new applications will emerge,
yet the full potential of composites is to be realised.
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5918
Structural Composites
Composites in Structural Applications
Satish Babu Boppana and N. Gopalakrishnan
Abstract Composite materials have been used extensively in today’s life owing to its
many advantages and applications. Mechanical properties related to composites have
been improved by choosing right reinforcement and matrix combination. Volume
and weight are two important parameters considered while choosing composites for
specific applications. Alongside if they are to be used for structural applications,
their mechanical properties also play a key role for consideration of composites.
Composite materials are often used in automotive, construction and aerospace indus-
tries. Nowadays, polymers have been used extensively in preparing such composites.
Some of the applications would include their use in aircraft components, nuclear reac-
tors and civil structures. The present paper deals with such structural applications of
composites.
Keywords Structural composites · Applications · Natural fibers · Carbon fibers
1 Introduction
A structural composite usually relates to the combination of both homogeneous and

composite materials. The geometric design is also found to be the deciding factor for
such composites besides the composition of materials. It is generally multi-layered
that often relates to low density with applications involving high tensile and torsional
strengths. Such composites are often known for structural integrity.
Laminar type of composites and sandwich panels are amongst the prevalent kinds
of structural composites.
S. B. Boppana (B)
Bangalore, India
e-mail: satishbabu3@yahoo.co.in
N. Gopalakrishnan
Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Presidency University, Bangalore, India
e-mail: gopalakrishnan@presidencyuniversity.in
26 S. B. Boppana and N. Gopalakrishnan
A laminar composite has 2 dimensional sheets which possess high strength as in

case of wood. Stacking of layers is done and finally cemented to get orientation of
the high-strength direction varied with every successive layer.
If the applications need improved stiffness and strength, relatively light weight
beams or panels need to be designed. If two external sheets are separated and bonded
by adhesive to a core that is thick, we often term them as sandwich panels. Al alloys,
Ti and steel are some of the materials used for preparing the sheets. Certain foams,
honeycombs and wood are often used as core that has minimum weight.
The applications of such panels include walls of buildings, floors and roofs and
in aviation sector involving fuselage and wings.
Fiber-reinforced composites are being used as structural members over the past
few decades since they have good stiffness and comparatively lesser densities. If the
said composite is to be an ideal one, then it must be properly organised in terms
of laminate, ply and structural component. Such composites would be able to be
designed for specific applications with the desired mechanical properties. Hence,
they are used widely in construction, generation of energy, sports and transportation.
The need is to develop FRC that have properties as that of metals while they lack
fire retardancy and high electrical conductivity. Some of these have been overcome
by adding reinforcements in nano scale or by supplementing with additional layers
while incorporating desirable properties.
Polymer matrix based composites are considered to be of prime importance in
the current scenario owing to their high specific tensile properties which can be
tailored easily as per the needs. Hence conventional materials like metals are often
replaced by comparatively lighter weight composites. Usually in most of the cases,
the matrix would be a polymer based on hydro carbons while the reinforcing phase
could be aramid, carbon and glass fibres. Presently, natural fibers have been used
often to overcome disadvantages related to using synthetic fibers. The applications
of such composites are in diverse fields like equipment related to sports and aerospace
components.
2 Various Types of Composites Used in Structural

Applications
2.1 Carbon/Glass Fibre Reinforced Composites

for Structural Applications
Nowadays FRP based laminates are used in aircrafts in the form of housing of turbine
and wings owing to its strength and resistance against corrosion when compared
with materials made up of metals. “Dreamliner 787” was considered to be fuel-
efficient airliner owing to the use of composite materials during its manufacturing
[1]. Challenges were also found in preparing the energy efficient aircraft consisting of
composite materials. One such example is in the case of carbon fiber based polymer
Composites in Structural Applications 27
laminates that has lesser conductivity features. Lightning strikes [2] also damage the
structure due to the said feature. To overcome this, the composite synthesized using
C fiber is bonded to Cu mesh to synthesize a conductive external-layer. The bond
usually adheres metal with the surface of CFRP using a layer of resin [3–5].
In aerospace applications, the structural components are being made conduc-
tive through various modification phenomenon. Priority is given between structural
performance and conductivity. Carbon fiber based composites have offered good
mechanical properties like compressive and tensile strength but often tend to fail
through interlaminar fracture. Synthesis of such materials depend on conditions like
environmental factors, ratio of resin and reinforcement and finally method used for
producing such composites.
The use of glass reinforced concrete in several construction projects including tall
structures across the UK, Europe, Middle East and South East Asia has been docu-
mented by the GRCA International, a trade association which aims at promoting
Glassfibre Reinforced Concrete [6]. The 62 storeyed high-rise 1000 Museum resi-
dential complex in Miami where glass fibre reinforced panels are used as the struc-
tural exoskeleton is an excellent example of Glass fibre composites being used as a
structural material in buildings.
Traditional E-Glass Fibre or borosilicate glass fibre were found to degrade in
highly alkaline environment. Considering the alkaline environment in concrete whose
pH ranges under usual circumstances between 12.5 to 13, Alkali resistant Glass Fibres
popularly known as AR Glass fibres are used in concrete. The Glass fibres are made
alkali resistant by treating them with zirconium dioxide. If alkali resistant glass fibres
are not available, then the alkalinity of the concrete has to be reduced by addition
of pozzolanic materials like silica fume or GGBS to produce a durable glass fibre
reinforced concrete [7].
Glass fibre reinforced concrete (GFRC) owing to their enhanced strength and
durability coupled with light weight have found applications as pipes, permanent
formwork and parapet panels.
Restoration of historical structures is another application where GFRC find wide
application [8]. Polymer in the form of white latex acrylic emulsion is added to
GFRC helps improve the workability as well as long term mechanical properties
while eliminating the need for wet curing [9].
Concrete reinforced with Carbon fibres are gaining popularity not only due to the
enhanced strength and durability of these composites but also due to the reducing
cost of carbon fibres. Another important aspect of carbon fibres is its ability to
bring in substantial improvement in strength and durability that it brings in concrete
even when added at volume fractions as low as 0.2%. The chemical stability of
carbon fibre in the alkaline concrete environment [10]. The major impediment to
the development and use of this material is the challenge of ensuring adequate bond
between the fibres and concrete. To improve the bond between the carbon fibres
and concrete matrix, several methods of treating the surface of carbon fibres have
been found to be effective like heating the fibres to the use of sodium hydroxide
solution. Adding admixtures of the likes of silica fume and latex have been found
to not only improve the bond but also the fibre dispersion in concrete with silica
fume being more effective in fibre dispersion particularly when used in conjunction
with a small dosage of methylcellulose. Carbon fibre reinforced concrete has also
found application in smart structures owing to the sensing abilities of carbon fibres
like strain sensing and damage sensing ability [11]. The benefits of adding Carbon
fibres along with steel fibres, steel rebars as well as carbon reinforced polymers in
concrete is well documented in literature and is found to improve the tensile strength
as well as fracture toughness. Carbon nano fibre reinforced concrete is also gaining
popularity in recent times with their enhanced strength and deformation properties
both in static and dynamic loading conditions as compared to conventional carbon
fibre reinforced concrete [12].
2.2 Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composite for Repair,

Rehabilitation and Retrofit
In order to reinforce beam and column joints in construction industry, fiber reinforced
composite was used. Usually, the reinforcement is done by wrapping the FRP on an
entire surface or at a particular section. A jacket made of steel was initially used to
wrap the column and beam joints. The wrapping methods commonly followed were
by using carbon anchor and hand layup technique. Reinforced concrete structures
wrapped with FRP would improve the structural behaviour [13]. Carbon fiber based
composites are preferred as prestressing tendons owing to its tensile behaviour and
resistance for creep whereas, glass based reinforced polymer is generally utilised
like non-prestressed bar in concrete structures owing to cost factor [14–16].
The beam deflection decreases while improving load bearing capacity when FRP
based laminates are used to reinforce concrete. The cracks that formed were less
severe and widely spaced. If FRP was added in vertical layers, the load carrying
capacity would increase while reducing deflection.
The length of the FRP directly impacts the performance of retrofitted beams. If
the FRP stretches out, the ultimate load would also increase. FRP is responsible for
load–deflection and absorbing energy for cracking stages of beam reinforced with
concrete [13].
In FRP based composites, the volume fraction of reinforcement can be more
than 25%. The matrix of the composite can take up compressive and tensile loads
satisfactorily. The resins also provide adequate toughness compared to concrete.
Bridge deck made up of concrete can be substituted with composite material made
up of FRP. The weight reduction seems to be of prime importance in such cases.
Fiber reinforced composites with polymer matrix have been used in aggressive
environments due to their excellent resistance to corrosion, high strength and low
weights. The composites have been utilised as rods for reinforcing internally in some
concrete structures. Highway bridge superstructures are also being constructed using
fiber reinforced polymer matrix composites. While laying foundation, composite
piles are being used. Space frames are being manufactured to act as primary structures
bearing load. Some of the other applications of using the said composite is in making
chimneys and pipelines.
Fiberglass polymer rebars which are lightweight in comparison to conventional
steel rebars and are also corrosion free have found extensive application in repair and
rehabilitation works where its ultra-high tensile strength is also an advantage. Life
cycle analysis on fiberglass polymer rebars and conventional steel rebars used for a
particular application reveals that the environmental impact and impact on human
health are substantially lower for fiberglass polymer rebars. It is to be noted that
steel rebar requirement is about 8 times the fiberglass polymer rebars for the same
application [17].
Carbon reinforced polymer [CFRP] sheets externally bonded to concrete corbels
for rehabilitation or retrofitting applications have been found to almost double the
original strength when placed in either horizontal or diagonal configuration in both
undamaged condition as well as upto 60% damage levels [18]. Similar results have
been reported in finite element investigations [19] of Steel Plate shear wall with CFRP
sheets with an increase in the energy absorption capacity and lateral load bearing
capacity. The noteworthy outcome observed in the study was that an increase in the
number of CFRP sheet layers prevented the diagonal buckling failure of the shear
wall under lateral/ seismic loading and only separation of the sheets or fracture of
the sheet was observed at the same load which was causing failure in the shear walls
without CFRP.
Use of Composites for Structural strengthening has led to a revolution in the
construction. Several rehabilitation and restoration projects have been successfully
completed in short duration of time without major alteration to the existing struc-
tural system thanks to the near surface mount techniques achieved through CFRP
wrapping. The fibre wrapping technique is achieved through fabrics made up of
unidirectional stitched or woven fibres of glass and carbon impregnated with resins.
The fibre wrapping techniques have the advantage of achieving the strengthening
required without altering the carpet area or the head room available which was a
major drawback in conventional repair methods like plate mounting and RCC jack-
eting. Epoxy and resin/polymer-based Injection grouts have been successfully used
for repair applications in civil engineering structures. Post-tensioned CFRP plates
are another example of successful use of CFRP for strengthening of several building
projects [20]. FRP composites using the external wet lay-up technique have been
successfully adopted in marine and offshore structures for repair, rehabilitation and
retrofit of wooden piles, corroded and cracked RC as well as steel components in
bridges. Addition of Steel bars and steel collar with shear studs in between the original
column and the CFRP layer enhanced the structural integrity [21].
A trenchless method for rehabilitation of steel pipelines onshore and offshore
has been successfully developed using liners made up of carbon fibre and epoxy
combination. This method is being applied from the past decade or so for industrial,
water and sewage pipelines. In addition to Carbon fibre reinforced polymers, aramid
fibre reinforced polymers have also been used due to their excellent properties in
creep as well as fatigue. The peeling away of the fibre reinforced polymer [FRP]
plates from the steel surface has been a challenge in addition to the higher cost of
the FRP Plates [22]. FRP prestressing strands and reinforcements have been used
for construction of new bridges with examples of CFRP being used in bridges in
Canada documented as early as 1993. There is limited knowledge and experience on
the long-term behaviour of the bridges reinforced with CFRP which has made the
rate of penetration of this technology in the market rather slow [23]. A case study of
structural monitoring of CFRP reinforced Beddington Trail bridge in Canada 6 years
after its completion revealed that the performance of the CFRP reinforcements were
satisfactory and in line with its design [24].
ACI and AASHTO standards/guide are available for design and use of CFRP
strands for prestressing. Creep rupture and relaxation stresses should be accounted
for while prestressing the strands. Traditional steel anchors can be used for GFRP
strands hence effectively using traditional prestressing concepts [25].
FRPs in general are believed to be durable as they are highly resistant to electro-
chemical corrosion but the durability of FRP deteriorates under harsh environmental
conditions and severe mechanical effects [22].
2.3 Green Composites Being Used as Structural Composites
It is found that conventional structural materials are being replaced by light weight
composites. The applications of the composite materials are often found to be critical
and require to safeguard properties during their use. Hence, they are generally made
by utilizing conventional materials that are generally non-degradable. Disposing the
composites would always pose a problem. Resins and fibers cannot be separated
for using it further. However, natural fiber based reinforced green composites could
also be developed to have good mechanical properties. They might replace few of
the conventional composites in some secondary structural applications. But liquid
crystalline cellulose based green composites can be utilised in primary structural
applications. Hybrid green resins can be utilised to increase the properties of green
composites. The properties of such composites can also be tailored. Some of the
plant based cellulosic fibers are reinforced with cement to prevent cracks. Short
length natural fibers have been considered to improve strength and decrease the
formation of cracks in cement [26].
Structures involved in critical applications necessitate to maintain properties.
Majority of the composites make use of non-biodegradable composites, however,
disposing them is a cause of concern. Moreover, petroleum which happens to be
a major source while preparing the composites is not a sustainable raw material.
Presently there is an increasing need to manufacture materials that are sustainable
and could be reused and pose no hazards while disposing. Polymeric based materials
need to be developed in such a way that they have minimum interference with green
house effect. Manufacturing green polymers based on plants is the current trend
being seen to lessen the impact on environment. Resins from soy-protein, linseed oil
and natural rubber have been used in preparing composites.
The seats of race car models developed recently are incorporated with carbon
fibers. This will enhance the protection to the driver in case of an accident. The fibers
would tend to absorb the impact by a cushioning effect [27].
Some of the composites prepared from natural fibers could be used in automotive
and construction field as they were comparable with composites reinforced with
aramid and E-glass fibers.
As per statistics, North America remains the major consumers of natural fibre
composites followed by Europe and the use of natural fibre composites it is expected
to see a steady growth rate of about 9.59%. Natural fibre reinforced thermoplastics
are the most popular natural or green composites. The strength and other mechanical
properties of natural composites is improved by ensuring uniform dispersion of
fibres as well as improving/enhancing the interface bonding. Natural nano fibre-
based composites have also received significant attention as a new age material to
the extent of the adoption of 3D printing in recent times particularly using the fused
deposition modelling technique. The tensile properties have received more attention
in research while scant attention has been paid to performance of natural composites
under impact which in general is found to be low [28]. One such study which focussed
on the impact strength of a hybrid composite of Kenaf and Indian almond leaf fibre
layers sandwiched by layers of epoxy resin in between them. The hybrid composite
of consisting of two layers of kenaf fibre with a layer of Indian almond leaf fibre in
between found to have about 40% better impact strength than natural Kenaf fibres
while the tensile strength as well as flexural strength was found to reduce marginally
by about 6% and 10% respectively. The moisture absorption increased by 1.4 times
for the hybrid composite as compared to natural kenaf fibres and also showed higher
biodegradability as compared to natural fibres with an additional weight loss of
10%. These hybrid fibre composites owing to higher impact strength can be used
in damping applications [29]. Another similar study on kenaf fibres, focussed on
a composite of kenaf and jute fibre layers sandwiched between one another with
layers of epoxy resin in between. The study shows that the composite with two
layers Kenaf fibres between a layer of jute fibre performed better than the composite
with two layers of jute in between a layer of kenaf with an improvement in tensile
and flexural strength of about 6% and 32% respectively [30]. It is noteworthy that
both the studies on Kenaf fibre-based hybrid composites discussed above used the
hand lay-up technique with the epoxy resin being made up of a combination of epoxy
and a hardener.
The use of natural fibre reinforcement in hybrid polyester composites has also
found to give promising results showing their potential for applicability in many
structural applications. The use of banana fibre, coconut shell fibre and coir fibre
as well as other natural material like cellulose filler and nano clay for improving
the mechanical properties of polyester composites have been evaluated in various
researches. The issue of high-water absorption and low dimension stability which
are considered as major drawbacks of using natural fibres is overcome by chemically
treating the fibres with hydroxides of Calcium, Sodium, potassium and lithium which
help in removing cellulose content as well as in making the fibres less hydrophilic. A
combination of synthetic and natural fibres induced with inorganic fillers reinforce-
ment to polymers have shown promising results in terms of improving the mechanical
characteristics [31].
Natural Composites made up of a combination of bamboo and wood in the form of
cross laminates with layers of bamboo and wood (timber) have been found to exhibit
excellent shear strength as well as high bending stiffness making them suitable for
application as load bearing members in multi storeyed structures. The combination
of bamboo and wood as layered cross laminates is shown to have a 6–24% increased
bending strength as compared to conventional timber cross laminates [32].
The application of a natural self-adhesive geotextile by using basal fibre in road
pavements has been found to be effective in reducing the possibility of crack develop-
ment as well as control the crack development. The finite element modelling predicts
that the pavement life with the addition of these fibres increases by about 1.75 times
[33]. Jute fibres addition in the subgrade of road pavement has also shown to improve
the California bearing ratio by about 5–6% while also improving the stability due
to its water retention. The biodegradability of jute fibres makes it a safe option
for subgrade of the pavement. The maintenance cost of flexible pavement which in
normal circumstance is very high and is a major factor that dissuades the adoption
of bitumen based flexible pavement has been found to reduce with the usage of Jute
fibre-based geotextile which are bituminized. The paving fabric made up of Grey
Jute fibre (Jute fibre containing Jute waste) was impregnated with different bitumi-
nous mixes and the mix with polymer modified bitumen mix of penetration grade
40 was found to produce a pavement with 3 times higher fatigue life as compared to
conventional bituminous pavement. Field trials under simulation of actual traffic on
a stretch of pavement have reported no signs of visible distress including absence of
any cracks or potholes even after a year [34].
Green composite mortars have been found to be effective in restoration works
of heritage structures where the original lime/sand mortar has been replaced by a
composite made up of a combination of lime, silica fume and biopolymers like
whey protein from milk and egg albumen. The compressive strength of these modi-
fied mortars with silica fume and whey protein derived from milk unfit for human
consumption is found to be 3.5 times the strength of conventional lime mortar even
at milk protein replacement level of about 6%. The diametric tensile strength of these
modified mortars is also found to be about 1.8 times the diametric tensile strength
of conventional lime mortars where silica fume plays a major role in the strength
improvement. These sustainable alternatives produced by addition of waste material
can be been used in the restoration of cultural heritage structures with an improved
mechanical strength primarily owing to the increased carbonation level which is
attributed to the increase in void ratio/porosity [35].
Several Green concrete mixes have been developed in the recent past. Green
concrete with nano waste materials have been developed including lightweight green
concrete. A mixture of Ceramic waster powder and nano calcium carbonate has been
used to produce green concrete with aeration (light-weight) being achieved through
the addition of aluminium powder. The compressive and split tensile strength were
found to improve with the addition of nano calcium carbonate and ceramic waste
powder although the workability takes a hit with increasing percentage of nano
calcium carbonate [36]. A novel green concrete produced with cement being replaced
by silica fume and GGBS both of which are industrial waste products along with
fine aggregate being replaced by a combination of Scrap Tyre rubber powder and
Bambara nut shell (groundnut shell) ash is found to improve workability, strength
and durability [37].
2.4 Hybrid Composites for Structural Applications
In advanced applications, the composites that are used are often fiber reinforced.
During the recent years, hybrid composites are also being used in various engineering
fields. The reason being, its cost effectiveness during its maintenance and operation
[38]. Since hybrid composites are having good specific strength and greater resistance
against fatigue loads, they are commonly used as frames for automotives and coatings
related to fuselage in aircrafts. Researchers tried to use natural fibers along with glass
fibers to manufacture brake levers. Glass fiber and carbon based composites have been
checked for use in bumpers in automobiles [39–42].
When natural and synthetic fibers are combined and reinforced, the resulting
hybrid composite tend to improve mechanical properties. This will also be helpful in
reducing cost incurred in synthesizing composites. Such composites would always
reduce the usage of synthetic fibers which are non-renewable. The impact on envi-
ronment would also be lesser due to hybridisation. Rigidity would increase when
cotton and glass fiber were used in preparing the composite. Flax and carbon fibers
were reinforced to prepare composites and bicycles were manufactured with such
composites. Flax fiber is known to have good damping properties while carbon fiber
is always responsible for improving mechanical properties.
In the year 1941, hemp and flax fibers were placed in a matrix made of resin and
the composite was used while manufacturing a Ford car. The impact strength in such
vehicle was considered to be ten times more than that of steel. Another example of
using hybrid composite consisting of flax/carbon fibers is construction of a small
boat.
The addition of graphene oxide in extremely small quantities in the range of 0.05%
by weight of cement has been found to improve the compressive strength as well as
flexural strength of cement mortar in addition to making the mortar more durable
by reducing the pores and water absorption. It is to be noted that the workability is
substantially reduced even at such small dosage of graphene oxide [43].
2.5 SiC-Matrix Composites for Thermo-Structural

Applications
If SiC/SiC and SiC/C composites are properly synthesized such that matrix and
fiber are properly bonded, they will be regarded as tough ceramics. Some of the
applications include nuclear reactors, engines and braking systems.
The hot structures of aircraft were thought of being synthesized by SiC based
composites. The structures would be under thermal shocks and cyclic loading.
Presently they are thought of manufacturing using carbon fibers. Some coating would
also be used to reduce the rate of recession during oxidation. In case of meteorites
or any such foreign materials striking the satellites, such kind of composites would
be beneficial [44].
Due to its higher thermal stability, hardness and favourable corrosion resistance,
SiC is used in many structural applications. But monolithic silicon carbide is not an
effective material considering its brittle nature. Hence the same was reinforced with
SiC fibers to form a composite that exhibit high fracture energy. They are used in
turbines and spacecrafts. Sometimes BN coating is given on silicon carbide based
fibers to improve interface between the matrix and the fiber. SiCf /SiC composites are
prepared by stacking sheets followed by hot pressing. Electrochemical process can
also be used to fabricate the said composites.
Another unique application of SiC is its addition in concrete used of rigid pave-
ments. Owing to its excellent thermal conductivity, SiC is added to concrete for rigid
pavements in cold countries where de-icing of pavement is a major challenge. A
combination of magnetite and SiC is found to have double the de-icing efficiency as
compared to conventional concrete. SiC in particular is found to enhance the heat
transfer capacity of concrete and this is found to have application particularly when
the microwave heating technique is used for de-icing pavements [45].
Gamma ray shielding effect is an important parameter to be considered for
concrete used in nuclear power plants. Nano particles of Cerium oxide and zirco-
nium oxides are used in concrete to improve the mechanical properties of concrete
at high temperatures and at the same time give an enhanced shielding effect against
gamma rays. A nanocomposite which is synthesized by a combination of Cerium
and Zirconium oxide when added at low concentrations of about 0.25% of OPC in
concrete is found to reduce the porosity substantially, increase the bulk density and
compressive strength thereby having a pronounced improvement in the shielding
effect of concrete [46].
2.6 Composites in Structural Automotive Applications
Sheet molding compounds are used in automotive industry which consists of mate-
rials like chopped glass fibers. Some of the applications include doors and panels
used for opening of grills.
Leaf springs made up of composites can be found to successfully take up fatigue.

The composites could be reinforced with glass fiber. In order to manufacture seats and
backup beams for bumpers, thermoplastic stamping is used. Polypropylene which is
reinforced with glass fiber tend to offer good properties compared to polypropylene
which is filled with wood.
Tail gates and hoods are produced by preparing sheet molding compound and then
subjecting to compression molding. The other method of producing components in
automobiles is by using high-speed resin transfer molding technique. A preform
would be kept in a mold cavity and then a resin is sent in such a way that the
reinforcement is intact [47].
Mercedes-Benz had used epoxy based matrix and jute for its panels of door. Audi
had panels of door synthesized from polyurethane reinforced with sisal and flax.
Toyota also used cover made up of green based composite for its spare tyre [48].
2.7 Energy Storage in Structural Composites
Researchers worked on the synthesis of composites which could store energy. Thin
CNT fibers and polymer electrolyte interleaves were used amidst carbon fibers and
then filled by epoxy. The structure would act as a composite and a capacitor. The flex-
ural modulus and flexural strength were found to be 60 GPa and 153 MPa respectively
[49].
Similarly, two carbon fiber based woven electrodes were separated using a layer
of woven glass fiber, they were then added into an electrolyte made up of polymer.
The resulting product was a multifunctional composite that would play a structural
role as well as store electrical energy [50].
Researchers prepared structural dielectric capacitors which had considerable
improvements in the electrical and mechanical properties [51]. The capacitive func-
tion was also optimum during loading. Nowadays with the advancements in manufac-
turing multifunctional composites, higher energy can be easily stored in capacitors
and the same could be designed as structural elements. This would also help to save
weight in automotives.
In a related research [52], laminated glass and epoxy prepegs were incorporated
with metal-based electrode films. Tests were conducted to find improvements in
mechanical properties along with high voltage performance tests. Some void content
was found to increase when volume of fiber fraction increased, even then the perfor-
mance of the capacitor still offered better results. The resulting capacitor would
decrease weight when compared with existing ones.
3 Conclusion
The use of composites for structural applications depends on the optimum combina-
tion of matrix and reinforcement and the way in which it is synthesized with reference
to processing conditions. The complexity of the behaviour of composite is a matter
of concern for using them as structural materials especially in aerospace industry.
The material needs to be reliable, and safety of the aerospace structure is always
a priority. The use of composite materials in structural applications leads to saving
weight. The technologies associated with synthesizing composites has given a ray of
hope to develop complex and delicate structural components. Newer methods like
resin transfer moulding have substituted autoclave moulding of prepegs. Using some
of the advanced techniques like structural health monitoring will enable to overcome
some of the limitations the composites possess due to their complexity. The next
generation composites would be highly optimized and smart.
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Case Study and Applications of Composite
Materials in Various Engineering Fields
Mechanical Properties of Sandwiched
Layers of Natural Fibers of Sisal
and Jute for Automotive Application
S. M. Sanjay Kumar and S. Tilak kumar
Abstract Due to their minimum weight relative to materials like steel, aluminium,
and synthetic fibre based polymer, natural fibres are encouraged to be used in the
automotive industry due to environmental concerns. A green composite is created for
a variety of uses, including sports equipment, automobiles, and ships, among others.
Due to their wide availability, eco-friendliness, and affordability, other natural fibres
including jute, banana, flax, hemp, and sisal also have exceptional and satisfying
qualities. Industrial items like sisal and jute fibres can use both structural and non-
structural construction depending on the matrix. This work will help us to find out
the mechanical properties of sandwiched composites as per ASTM standards and
results obtained are discussed.
Keywords Natural composites · Mechanical properties · Sandwiched layer · Jute

and sisal fibers
1 Introduction
A composite material is built from combination of two or more distinct materials

with both physical and chemical properties that when joined to develop composite.
The natural fiber has been considered due to its light weight and effective cost. The
first phase of composites is called as matrix having a continuous character. Such
matrix materials have a good binding property and fibers have the desired ability to
arrange itself in position by transferring the loads to reinforcement.
However, nowadays, composites are well-established at high level and reached
out from ordinary things to cutting edge applications. Most of composite material has
legalized appearance at good quality as weight sparing items, and present estimation
is to make them as money related spare.
S. M. Sanjay Kumar (B) · S. Tilak kumar

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJB Institute of Technology, Kengeri, Bengaluru 560060,
India
e-mail: sanjay20376@gmail.com; sanjaykumarsm@sjbit.edu.in
42 S. M. Sanjay Kumar and S. Tilak kumar
Composites made of natural fibre are more affordable and lighter than those made
of synthetic fiber. In an experiment using varied conditions, Sivakandhan et al. [1]
looked at the mechanical characteristics of sisal and jute fibres. When compared to
jute and sisal hybrid epoxy composites, their research demonstrates that the exam-
ination of various hybrid composites offers outstanding mechanical characteristics.
Animal cellulose fibres, which include bast, leaf, seed, and fruit fibres among others,
are categorised as natural fibres. The sisal plant, officially known as Agave sisalana,
is one of the sources of the sisal fibre that has recently made strides in the mechanical
characteristics of sisal fibre reinforced polymer composites. Additionally, these fibres
have been frequently utilised as reinforcing components in cementitious composites
in recent years. This review article’s main objective is to explore the mechanical
characteristics of composites made of sisal and jute fibres sandwiched together.
2 Literature Review
Researchers [1–6] have made eco-friendly natural fabric sandwiched laminated

composite using jute and linen fabric with reinforcement of epoxy. They exam-
ined the hybrid composite with different layers and found that linen fabric laminate
which has five layers possessed more strength than other which has good thermal
stability and better water absorption behavior and also has high flexural strength
when compared to other materials, this can also been used as biodegradable mate-
rials for other house hold application. Researchers [1–6] have tested characterization
of natural fiber reinforced composites between man-made fibers like glass fiber and
natural fibers like sisal, pine apple, date palm. They had chopped the natural fibers
into required length for making hybrid composites, and use electronic tensometer
to examine the tensile strength and also the impact testing machine to measure
the phenomenon governing the life span of the structure. Tests were according to
ASTM standards and concluded that GFRC has high strength than FRC. It was also
concluded that natural fiber reinforced composites with date palm is having high
impact strength, which is suitable for different applications. Some researchers made
experimental instigation on mechanical properties of aluminium sandwiched with
sisal, kenaf, aloevera, jute, flax, natural fiber reinforced composites with different
polymer resins like LY556 and GY250 as determined through various mechanical
tests to ensure better bonding quality. AA6061 sheets were used for making rein-
forced natural fibers composites and it was examined that sisal with AA6061 with
LY556 showed superior impact strength.
Sivakandhan et al. [1] in his study deals with the fabrication of hybrid composites
and mechanical properties like tensile, flexural, compression strength and impact
of sisal fiber and jute fiber combination. Epoxy resin (LY556 grade) and hardener
(HY951) is taken as the matrix and binder. He made five different materials with
different percentage ratio of randomly assigned chopped fibers of sisal and jute fiber
with 35% of fiber and matrix ratio. Then he examined that sisal with jute fiber
reinforced sandwich fiber with epoxy is increased by 32% than that of sisal fiber
Mechanical Properties of Sandwiched Layers of Natural Fibers of Sisal … 43
epoxy in axial and co-axial tensile strength and also has higher superior strength at
flexural and as well as in impact strength than sisal fiber epoxy.
The researcher in his work proposed a detailed study by selecting treated and
untreated jute fiber; one is woven and another is non-woven jute fabric, reinforced
with the help of compression molding process, he made eco-friendly hybrid compos-
ites which with the application of green composites as of dias-deck assembly. It was
also reported that some of natural fiber are too sensitive to attract moisture contents
on fibers and concluded that water resistance coating is required and applied over
the surface of composite materials and might also improve material life.
Balachandar et al. [5], in his work choosed Bamboo fiber, Sisal fiber, Hemp fiber
and Sugar tree fiber as a natural raw fiber then he woven it with woven machine after
woven mats are placed one on upon another to prepare hybrid composites. It was
made by using reinforcing material like Epoxy resin with a suitable resin percentage
as the matrix. The composite material is fabricated by hand layup technique. The
fabricated composite material is tested for its mechanical properties such as tensile
strength, flexural strength and impact strength.
Based on the literature [1–6], synthetic fibers, carbon fibers/glass fibers are widely
used for building automotive parts, industrials applications, mechanical properties
and are comparatively strong. Therefore natural fibers have received great interest in
application of automotive industries for interior and exterior for examples particulates
vegetal fibers reinforced composites, not only vegetal, jute, and sisal offer such
benefits as reductions in weight and cost, and also they are recyclable and bio-
degradable easily.
Nowadays, in the automotive industries there is increase in pressure to fulfill
performance demands and environmental aspects.
In the last decade, green technology in the field of materials science is given
considerable importance.
In this work proposal, natural fiber like sisal and jute fiber and combined fiber mat
are selected to perform different orientation of sandwiched fibers and fabricated by
hand-lay-up techniques to obtain mechanical properties like flexural, tensile stress
by the standard ASTM with the help of universal test machine and bonding quality
of the material is analysed with the help of SEM (Scanning electron microscopy).
3 Materials and Methodology
Selection of raw material it is the basic step the researcher must be carefully while
selecting raw material. All the properties of materials like mechanical, chemical,
properties are to be analysed.
In this investigation, two natural fiber materials are selected, one is sisal fiber and
the other being jute material and polymeric matrix material used is epoxy resin.
Sisal is one of the groups of natural fiber which is extracted from the plant leaves
called agave sisalana, it is the family plants belonging to agave family. The sisal
fiber are prepared from sisal leaves. The fibers one by one from leaves are extracted
by some machine that was invented to extract the fibers threads from the leaves of
the plant. And then the fibers threads may be treated with some chemical treatments
to improve the chemical composition to improve percentage of cellulous, hemi-
cellulous, lignin, wax, pectin. Here, we selected the sisal fiber woven mat to study
the characteristic of mechanical properties of natural fiber with different orientation
by some experimentation. The fibers mats were borrowed from go green product in
Chennai.
The materials for sandwiched composites are sisal and jute fibre because of their
acceptable mechanical qualities for the creation of hybrid composites. The matrix
and binder for the composites are made of epoxy resin of grade LY556 and hard-
ener HY951. Sandwich plates were made in the form of sheets for this procedure,
and samples with various oriented layers were produced using the fibre and matrix
ratio. This process was carried out utilising the hand layup method. Sisal Fiber is
exceptionally durable with a low maintenance with minimal wear and tear.
Properties of Sisal Fibre:
• It is Recyclable.
• High specific strength weight ratio.
• The fibers are yield fibers that have more tensile strength so they used for ropes
and other industrial applications.
Jute fiber is one of the groups of natural fiber which is extracted from the inner
bark vascular tissue of plants of jute. It is the family plants belonging to mallow
family malvaceae. The botanical name of jute fiber is Corchorus olitorius as shown
in Fig. 4.4a, b. It falls into the bast fiber category (fiber collected from bast, the
phloem of the plant, and then that fibers threads may treat with some chemical
treatments to improve the chemical composition such that improve percentage of
cellulous, hemi-cellulous, lignin, wax, pectin, which has follows as bio-fibers. Here
we selected jute fiber mat type materials to study the sandwiched properties.
Properties of Jute fibre:
• 100% bio-degradable recyclable and thus environment friendly.
• The second most important and widely cultivated vegetable fiber after cotton.
• High tensile strength with low extensibility this helps to make best quality
industrial yarn and fabric for application of packaging.
• Very versatile natural fibers that has been used in raw materials for packaging,
textiles, non-textile, and agricultural and also industrial.
• Jute fiber are relatively high strength due to it has yield fibers.
• Jute fibers are cost effective and quite cheap (Table 1).
The following are the properties of materials (Tables 2 and 3).
Resin and Hardener
Epoxy resin is one of the stable fluids with relatively long shelf lives. It is mixed with
an epoxy hardener, epoxy resins are low molecular weighted polymers which contain
at least two epoxide group. The resin contains many grades of epoxy; LY556 epoxy
Table 1 Comparison between natural and synthetic fibers

Aspects Property Synthetic fibers Natural fibers
Technical Mechanical property High Moderate
Thermal sensitivity Low High
Moisture sensitivity Low High
Environmental availability Resource available Limited Infinite
Production High Low
Recyclability Moderate Good
Table 2 Properties of sisal fiber

Properties Sisal fiber
Elongation of break 2.75%
Orientation Woven Fabric
Tensile strength 385–758 Mpa
Young’s modulus 9–22 Gpa
Density 1.58 gm/cc
Diameter of each fibers 0.60 mm
Table 3 Properties of jute fiber

Properties Jute fiber
GSM 400 GSM
Orientation Plain woven fabric
Density 1.45 gm/cc
Elastic Modulus 10–55 Gpa
Tensile strength 399–800 Mpa
Diameter of each fiber 0.35 mm
and hardener HY951 to were used to prepare the composite material as (Figs. 1, 2;
Table 4).
4 Mechanical Testing
The dimension details for testing are mentioned in Table 5.

Fig. 1 Fabricated composite

plate-Plate 1
(Sisal-Jute-Sisal)
Fig. 2 Fabricated composite

plate-Plate 2 (Jute-Sisal-Jute)
Table 4 Composite plate stacking order

Sl.No. Sandwich plates Stacking order
1 PLATE 1 Sisal-Jute-Sisal
2 PLATE 2 Jute-Sisal-Jute
Table 5 Dimension details of the samples [2]

Sl.No. Type of test ASTM standard followed Measurement of the sample
1 Tensile test ASTM D3039 250 × 25 × 3 (mm)
2 Flexural test ASTM D790 127 × 13 × 3 (mm)
4.1 Flextural Test
Testing for flexural strength is used to assess a material’s ability to deform under
load. Using a Universal Testing Machine (UTM) in accordance with ASTM D790
[4], this three-point bend test aims to promote interlaminar shear-related failure.
Flexural strength is determined using the equation.
σf = (3Pmax L)/2bh2 (1)
where L is the specimen length between the two support points, b is the specimen
breadth, h is the specimen thickness, and Pmax is the maximum load at failure [3].
4.2 Tensile Test
Tensile testing is performed to determine the amount of strain or elongation needed

as well as the force needed to break the test specimen using ASTM D3039 specimen.
5 Results and Discussion
For mechanical testing, including tensile and flexural tests, the samples were cut into
slices in line with ASTM standards. The samples are illustrated in Fig. 3a, b (Figs. 4
and 5).
Fig. 3 Specimens prepared a

as per ASTM (D3039 and
D790) standards
b
Fig. 4 Specimen after

bending test
Fig. 5 Specimen after

tensile test
Table 6 displays the results of the various tests that were performed. The tensile
and bending test graphs are shown in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively. Elongation was
limited to 5 mm in Fig. 6, with a maximum loading capacity of 1400 N for the (J
+ S + J) sample. In addition, the elongation was limited to 4 mm with a maximum
loading capacity of 1700 N for the (S + J + S) sample in Fig. 7.
Table 6 Results of mechanical testing

Sl.No. Samples type Max. tensile strength (N/mm2 ) Flextural strength (N/mm2 )
1 Jute + Sisal + Jute 16.2 71.79
(J + S + J)
2 Sisal + Jute + Sisal 16.8 112.82
(S + J + S)
Tensile test
1600
1400
1200
1000
Load (N)
800
600 Samples (J+S+J)
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8
Elongation (mm)
Fig. 6 Load versus elongation (tensile test)
Tensile test
2000
1500
Load (N)
1000
samples (S+J+S)
500
0
0 2 4 6
Elongation (mm)
Fig. 7 Load versus elongation (tensile test)
According to the findings, samples of type (S + J + S) have greater tensile and

flexural strength than samples of type (J + S + J) (Fig. 8).
6 Conclusions
• The mechanical properties of sisal and jute fibre composites are investigated in
this proposed work.
Flexural Test
250
200
150
Load (N)
100 Samples (J+S+J)

Samples (S+J+S)
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Cross head Travel (mm)
Fig. 8 Load versus cross head traveling (flexural testing)
• The tensile strength increased by 0.6 N/mm2 and flexural strength increased by
41.03 N/mm2 for sandwiched layers due to bidirectional orientation of sisal and
jute fibers.
• Sisal fibres have more tensile strength when compared Jute fibres.
References
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Applications of Composites—A Case
Study
Abstract The use of composite materials now a days designs new paradigm for all
kinds of applications specially honours in 3 categories of transport systems such as
roads, navy and flight vehicles which accommodates its integral usage in majority
of the components that are built -in. Recent investigations also highlight the role of
these light weight structures in energy harvesting and storage systems. This book
chapter discuss about the various wide spread applications of all the core sectors
of engineering which indulge the rigid structures which majorly corelates the struc-
tural and functional requirements. The present section also high light the case study
on several applications including Aerospace and automotive and marine structures
which depicts the resonance of utilizing different constituents which plays key role
in performing the specific functions. The property derived application areas clearly
gives the research spotlight on developing novel materials which intern found to be
a better alternative for existing applications which demands for the availability of
resources and process parameters. Hence this section also highlights the utilization
of locally available resources as fillers to modify the matrix system and more likely
to use for particular applications for which the specific properties are improved.
Keywords Case study on composites · Applications of composites
K. S. Lokesh (B)
Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Srinivas Institute of Technology, Mangalore 574143,
India
e-mail: lokeshvijay@sitmng.ac.in
C. G. Ramachandra
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Presidency University, Bangalore 560064, India
D. Shrinivasa Mayya
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Srinivas Institute of Technology, Mangalore 574143,
India
52 K. S. Lokesh et al.
1 Introduction
The most considered composite category is reinforced plastics from fibres [1]. They
are especially helpful related to this because of the extraordinary compositional
properties of carbon and glass fibre conjugates [2]. FRC materials’ low weight, great
strength, durability, and form flexibility makes them a desirable alternative to steel
and other materials. In the first half of the 1950s, new FRC materials were produced
using carbon and glass fibre conjugates along with thermoset matrix system as a
component. They are frequently used in the construction of autos, storage tanks, and
boats [3]. In 2020, the global market for composite materials is predicted to reach
$96 billion, an increase of 40% from 2014. The most prevalent materials are glass
and carbon fibres. Of the $96 billion, carbon and glass fibre conjugates make up
$57 and $30 billion market together. In attempt to reduce the unavoidable negative
consequences, numerous studies have examined the supply due for different light
weight member as amount of trash that is linked with it during the past few years. With
an annual growth rate of 6.6%, the demand for these structures is likely to hit more
than $12 billion in coming days [4]. Figure 1 represents the global market volume of
composites for the year 2020. Table 1 highlights the Case study on usage percentage
of composites referring to various types of applications and Table 2 depicts the details
of matrix/reinforcement/filler systems on applications based on property enhanced
methods.
Applications comprising automotive, aeronautical, building and construction,
energy harvesting and storing navy structures majorly utilize all categories of
Fig. 1 Report representing the of global demand for composites for the marking year 2020 [5]
Applications of Composites—A Case Study 53
Table 1 Case study on usage percentage of composites referring to various types of applications
Application Type of Products made Usage percentage/other benefits
type composite
used
Aerospace Sandwich Airbus commercial 50% of the total weight [6]
made from aircraft B787 Compared to aluminium, tensile and
carbon, modulus strength is superior [7]
laminates of
CFRP and
fiberglass
Automotive CFRC Carbon fiber Drastic reduction in the weight density of
components conventional car by 30% and CFRC also
contributes to the regulating hazardous gas
release through achieving fuel efficiency
[8]
Marine Carbon and Shipbuilding Lighter weight, greater strength, and
glass fibre resistance to wear [9]
conjugates
Construction Hollow Functional bridge Flexibility and ease of application
carbon for highway
composite system
tubes
Table 2 Details of matrix/reinforcement/filler systems on applications based on property enhanced

methods [10–19]
Type of reinforcement Type of Fillers used Recommended applications
and matrix system used production based on property derived
method
Fibre Hand-lay-up Casio3 , waste Light weight structural
reinforced—Woven method rubber, E-waste requirements with good wear
E-glass and chopped glass, mineral resistance
fibres with thermosets filler
Particulate Stir casting Red mud Components made can be used
reinforced—Graphene method particles, graphite for tribological applications
particulate with particles, sic with good resistance to
Al-alloys hardness
Fibre reinforced—Fibre Hand lay-up Mineral Thermal stability of the
orientations fibres, fibre method fillers-waste and composites was achieved and
mat with thermosets scrap glass recommended for application
where strength to be retained
once temperature is varied
Fibre reinforced—Jute/ Hand lay-up Fish scale, Light weight structures well
silk/CSM fibre with method cocopeat powder, suitable where strength to
thermosets waste rubber weight ratio is highly desirabl
Table 3 Composite components made for different passenger aircrafts [20]

Aircrafts name Parts made of composites
F-14 Doors, skins of stabilizer, fairings
F-15 Fins, rudders, vertical tails, speed brakes, horizontal tails
F-16 Vertical and horizontal tails, fin leading edge
B-1 Doors, flaps, slats, inlets
AV-8B Rudders, vertical and horizontal tails, ailerons, fin box
Boeing-737 Spoilers, wings
Boeing-757 Doors, rudders, elevators, ailerons, flaps
Boeing-767 Doors, rudders, elevators, ailerons, fairings
composites. The applications’ specifics are covered in detail, along with case studies
of a few categories.
2 Aerospace Applications
There is a prediction from international organization IATA that 11,000 aircraft will be
discarded during the next ten years. Additionally, employing composites in aircraft
has rapidly risen. Major aircraft producers like Airbus and Boeing have demon-
strated the need for extensive composite uses in aero-industry, which is evident in
the commercial aircraft they make. NASA is constantly searching for cutting-edge
space solutions from composites producers for rockets and other spacecraft. New
manufacturing processes and improved production yields were required due to the
emergence of new competitors and the volume of parts to be produced. New problems
require fresh approaches. In commercial, civilian, and military aerospace applica-
tions, heat resistive matrix systems are in the verge of making specific components for
wings, fuselage parts and bulkheads whereas fibre glass, carbon laminates, and carbon
sandwich composites are primarily used in building major components of aircraft.
Antenna, radar, satellite structures, solar reflectors, and other items are manufactured
for use in aerospace. The aircraft parts made of composites include surfaces of aero-
foils, blades of compressors, engine bay doors, fan-blades, rotor-shafts in helicopters,
turbine blades, turbine shafts and wing box structures (Table 3).
3 Automotive Applications
Due to global CO2 pollution restrictions, composites will play a significant role in
the Automotive and Road Transportation sector. Making an automobile lighter is
one of the simplest ways to reduce emissions. Composites have been used in sports
Table 4 List of properties required with purpose of the requirement specifically to automotive
applications [21]
Properties Purpose
Low thermal expansion co-efficient To know heat flow capability of material
Stability in dimension Retention capability in dimension
Corrosive barrier Resisting property variations against changing thermal
environment
High value of toughness Offer more resistance to sudden failure
Lower density Less weight of the body
vehicles because their low weight enables the highest performance attainable. Recent
improvements in mobility have made it possible for technologies like electric propul-
sion and self-guiding vehicles. To obtain longer ranges between recharging (EV’S),
these cars need lightweight materials, which has increased demand for high-volume
composite production. The automotive sector has a long history with composites
and is the main market for them. Composites provide innovative vehicle designs in
addition to making cars lighter and more fuel-efficient. Performance will be affected
by design or production errors, which could result in a reduction in sales for the
manufacturer. The advantages of composite materials over steel allow them to fulfil
and even exceed the criteria of the automobile industry. The sandwich composites
and laminates made of carbon and glass fibres are the most popular among the
different types of fibres. Automotive needs dependable, coordinated systems with
parts that can tolerate temperature changes, corrosion, and friction. In addition, these
composites’ unique qualities that make them suitable for automotive applications are
quantifiable. Table 4 provides information on the nature and function of features that
contribute to the distinct functions in the automotive industry.
4 Interior and Exterior Applications
A variety of automotive elements, including headlight positioning for placing front

lights, under-the better barrier and temperature restricted assemblies, external body
sections, and inside sized intricate assemblies frequently use composite mate-
rials. More specifically, components like air deflectors and spoilers and other
integrated assembly things are made of composite materials. bumper beams and
bumpers, cylinder head coverings, such as valve, rocker, and cam Window and roof
frames, front grill opening panels, Heat shields (such as those for the engine and
transmission), Pillars and covers, Headlamp housings for forward-facing headlamps.
5 Marine Applications
For many years, fibres impregnated with plastic categories are normally used in
navy applications, including random and mass structures, superyachts, workboats,
and recreational vessels. In less well determined areas, such as topside hatch covers,
propellor shafts and bearings, FRPs have recently been used. One of the earliest
notable applications for glass-fiber composites (GRP) was in the marine industry.
It has completely changed how huge composite structures may be designed and
produced in a number of industries. The UK employs a number of different fabri-
cation techniques to create vessels, such as manual lay-up GRP, infusion method
and better functional carbon conjugates for racing boats. In the offshore business,
these structures are evident to be a driving kit for future market. Composite mate-
rials made of glass fibre (GF) and carbon fibre (CF) are currently very important in
the development of maritime energy and marine engineering repair. The majority
of installations substitute structural sections for conventional construction materials,
which lowers the high freight weight, seawater corrosion, and issues associated with
rebar materials [22]. One of the first industries to fully appreciate the advantages
of composite materials, particularly their simplicity in use and long-term corrosion
resistance due to the millions of cycles that a boat goes through once it begins to
sail, is the marine industry. Hulls for the navigation and bulk heads for industry
and recreational, and military ships and boats are among the marine composites’
applications. For use in corrosive conditions, composites are perfect. Ceilings, struts
pumping components are some of the major applicable areas. Owing to its qualities
of lightness and resistance to corrosion.
The following are the sorted benefits of reinforced plastic categories:
• Adaptability to the environment, including resistance to rotting, corrosion, etc.
• The capacity to form seamless, intricately formed structures.
• The capacity to suit applied load.
• Superior structural aspect ratios.
• Identical steel structures typically weigh half as much as GRP marine construc-
tions.
• Excellent longevity.
• Ease of repair and low maintenance.
Composites are used more frequently in racing yachts than in any other type of
maritime structure. Due to unique needs, the materials used are not those typically
used in marine construction. In order to sail with the most rate and barrier to the effects
of oscillatory distractions in maritime ambience, they must be designed with the least
amount of weight and the most amount of stiffness. Boat hulls as sandwiched foam
like structures, frames, keels, masts, poles, and booms, as well as carbon winch drums
and shafting, are frequently constructed from carbon based reinforced structures.
In the various international sailing conditions, employing light weight structures
improve functioning and reduce risk of navigational issues and other implications.
6 Construction
Fibre composite materials are now more frequently used in structural load-bearing
applications by the construction industry, and they have proven to be a competitive
and viable alternative to steel in reinforced concrete, for rehabilitation and retrofit of
existing civil structures, and to a lesser extent, for new civil structures. Consider FRP
composites for applications in civil engineering for a variety of reasons. Durability,
corrosion resistance, cost, weight, material qualities, and ease of construction are the
primary considerations for engineers when selecting a material to complete a task
(Fig. 2).
FRP bars showcasing excellence while considering axial strength and offer better
response to repetitive loading task i.e. After 107 cycles, long-fiber composites typi-
cally still have a significant amount of their short-term strength. Addition to lower
mass as compare to steel reported they are desirable alternatives to structural mate-
rials like steel, which have a density of about 7850 kg/m3 , ranging from 1200 to
2600 kg/m3 .
The reason that why FRP rebars to be considered is that concrete component that
could corrode from chemicals or chloride ions and for any concrete component that
needs non-ferrous reinforcing because of electromagnetic factors. As an alternative
to stainless steel, galvanised, or epoxy rebars are the suitable alternatives. And also,
applications that demand thermal non-conductivity.
Fig. 2 Usage of FRP’s in construction of RC structures

7 Electronics/Other House Hold Applications
Depending on the fibres and resins chosen, composites can be finely tuned to suit
almost all of the requirements in electrical and electronic applications, including
dielectric characteristics, insulation, even heat or electric conduction. Because of
their excellent dielectric strength and arc resistance, modern Composite Materials
are perfect for electrical and electronic applications. With the flexibility to create
customised formulas, these materials have demonstrated success in supplying the
necessary components to function in other hostile conditions. Frequent temperature
loads, exposure to the elements, harsh weather, anti-static, and chemical assault are
a few examples. The most difficult instances are mining settings and offshore explo-
ration rigs. Lamp housings, terminal boxes, electrical enclosures, plugs, sockets, and
energy distribution components are some of the most typical applications.
8 Energy Production
Through the creation of buildings that make it possible to harness renewable energy
sources, light weight structures make a quintessential role in renewable energy
industry. Composites are currently positioned to enable cost-effective solutions for
large-scale projects because to factors including the less dens differentiable to crys-
talline compositions, lower transportation and construction expense and crucially,
low price handling expense throughout its life cycle. Due to the lightweight and
intricate air foil shape of wind turbine blades, composites are a market leader in this
area thanks to moulds that are designed to efficiently produce blades with little effort.
For both land-based and offshore systems, increased turbine and rotor blade size
is currently the focus of research and development. Some major components such
as rotating sharp structure and devices for blow energy producers are among the
manufactured parts. Multifunctional load preserved composites for sophisticated
energy storage applications. Slices in the battery are anchored by locking mecha-
nisms improving mechanical performance. Multifunctional energy storage compos-
ites tested experimentally exhibit electrochemical behaviour that is similar to the
norm. Comparing MESC to pouch cells at 60% packing efficiency results in a 15
increase in mechanical stiffness. Additional uses for this stream include hydrogen
fuel cells and aeronautical hydrogen tanks. natural composite battery cell.
9 Containers/Vessels
Chemical production facilities have been using composite ducting for more than
25 years. Composite materials saw a significant increase in utilisation in indus-
trial applications during the 1970s. Composite pipe, duct, and tank installations
are becoming more popular nowadays in above- and below-ground construction

for commercial, governmental, and residential uses. As new chemical facilities are
built and existing ones are expanded for chemical processing, cheaper price of gas is
helping to later increase the demand. There are many such applications that container
holds from utilization and goods with pollution prevention, strut operations with
lining and treating polluted water and many more.
10 Sports and Recreation
As the economy grows and people’s living levels rise, more and more contemporary
people are relaxing at various sporting events. Additionally, the improvement and
development of sports equipment is given significant weight in the development
of contemporary athletic sports, which also places a strong emphasis on scientific
training.
Due to its lightweight, high strength, great design flexibility, simple processing,
and easy forming properties, fibre reinforced composite materials have found exten-
sive use in sporting goods. Before the development of fibre reinforced composites,
sports equipment was primarily made of materials like wood, steel, stainless steel,
aluminium alloy, etc. Fibre reinforced composite material offers a clear advantage
over these materials in the few areas like density and design aspects. Table 5 details
about the based on their geometry of structures its application is considered.
Several reports suggested the specific type of reinforcement and matrix system
where the yield of the research directs the corresponding method and material
stream better suitable for wide spread applications. Table 6 details about one
such consolidated data pertains to the works carried out with respect to various
applications.
Table 5 FRP application in sports based on the geometry of the structure [23]
Geometry of the structure Application type
Plate-like structure Skis, surfboards, windsurfing, table tennis boards, slats and gliding
wing spar etc.
Tubular structures Tennis, badminton, fishing rods, golf clubs, baseball bats, hockey
sticks, pole shaft, etc.
Sheet structure All kinds of helmets, golf club heads, the hull structure of the
various boat classes
Other structures Match with a variety of vehicles, Sword, climbing ropes, various
lines etc.
Table 6 Consolidated data pertains to the works carried out with respect to various applications
[8, 9, 21, 23–30]
Method of manufacturing Material system Applications
Hand lay-up Matrix system—Thermoset Wind-turbine blades, boats,
epoxy, polyester, polyaniline architectural shapes,
Reinforcement—Woven, secondary structure in
knitted, stitched or bonded aerospace
fabrics, graphene Composites, automobile
parts, dash board and deck
Spray layup Matrix system—Thennoset, Enclosures, lightly loaded
polyester structural panels, e.g., caravan
Reinforcement—All type bodies, track fairings,
chopped fibers, flanks, bathtubs, shower trays, small
particles dinghies, vent hoods, boats,
shower unit
Prepreg layup Matrix system—Thermoset Aerospace, spoils and leisure,
epoxy polyester automotive and motorsports,
Reinforcement—Glass, ballistic and defence marine
carbon. Boron (roving and
chopped strand mats, woven
raving fabric)
Filament winding Matrix system—Epoxy, Pipe lines, tubing, pressure
polyester, vinyl ester, phenolic vessels, tanks, gas cylinders,
Reinforcement—All types of fire-fighters breathing tanks,
fibres tube light poles, aircraft
fuselages, wing sections,
radomes, helicopter rotor
shafts
Resin transfer molding (RTM) Matrix system—Thermoset, Bath and shower enclosures,
epoxy, polyester, vinyl ester cabinets, aircraft parts,
and phenolic automotive components,
Reinforcement—Woven radomes and submarine sonar
fabric, raving, chopped fiber domes
mat
Vacuum assisted resin transfer Matrix system—Thermoset Bridge sections and rail
molding (VART M) resin-epoxy, polyester and carriages, land-based and
vinyl ester offshore utilityscale wind
Reinforcement—Woven turbine blades
fabric, roving, chopped fiber
mat
Pultrusion process Matrix system—Thermoset Bar and rod, pipe, tubing,
and thermoplastic epoxy, ladder rails and rungs, and
polyester, vinyl ester supports of many kinds,
Reinforcement—Continuous beams and girders used in
roving, fiber chopped strand roof structures, bridges,
mats, continuous filament mat frameworks
(continued)
Table 6 (continued)
Method of manufacturing Material system Applications
Compression molding Matrix system—Thennoset Track parts, aircraft window
(epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl frames, automobile panels,
ester, phenolic), or toys, electrical and aero-plane
thermo-plastic (polypro parts
pylene, polyethylene nylon)
Reinforcement—Chopped
strand mats, woven fabric
(UD/BD), short fibers,
chopped fibers
Centrifugal casting Matrix system—Thermoset Large diameter cylindrical
resin—epoxy, polyester pipes, telegraph poles,
Reinforcement—Chopped cylindrical components
fibers
11 Conclusion
Considering the different class of composites and their influence on property driven
applications leading the industry requirements, the need and necessity terms in this
regard are discussed briefly in this chapter. Various structural aspects out of available
categories of composites are adhere with functional requirement. The data corre-
sponds to various applications with respect to percentage utilization of composites
depicts the overall market potential of composites. Prior to the profound use of
advanced materials which are recently discovered, the usage percentage of existing
composite systems and the benefits of increasing the percentage by weight of these
material system in aircraft vehicles are also highlighted by considering the case
study on reputed aircraft manufacturers. Advancements in materials usage in energy
harvesting and energy storage generates keen concern on novel materials which are
present and future materials for EV’s and aerospace applications especially in multi-
functional energy storage composites. The role of fillers on existing matrix systems
aims to improve the property derived applications of composites thereby increasing
the demands for these structures not only enhancing the structural stability but also
improving the thermal and physical properties of composites.
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Various Methods of Processing MMCs,
PMCs and Ceramic Matrix Composites
Processing of Composites with Metallic,
Ceramic, and Polymeric Matrices
R. Samanta, B. Sengupta, G. Mandal, A. Wazeer, A. Das, and A. Sinha
Abstract One of the key engineering materials invented and explored by researchers
in recent times is Composite materials because of their wide range of applications
starting from transportation to aerospace, leisure industries and electronic indus-
tries. The development of various classes of composite materials requires derivations
and evolution of several processing techniques to achieve successful incorporation
and desired distribution of reinforcements throughout the matrix. In this chapter,
an overview of the processing of various classes of composites viz. “Metal Matrix
Composites” (MMCs), “Ceramic Matrix Composite” (CMCs), and “Polymer Matrix
Composites” (PMCs) are presented along with recent trends in processing.
Keywords Composite · MMC · CMC · PMC · Processing
1 Introduction
In recent years, the evolution of composites has gained a massive momentum as

these materials are increasingly acclaimed as the important and futuristic man-made
materials. The advancement of composites has opened new avenues and new field
of applications in various sectors. In general terms, composite materials are tailor-
made materials suitable for specific applications and are defined as the combination
of multiple distinct materials at a macroscopic level [1]. Various classes of composites
such as MMCs, CMCs and PMCs are known to possess high strength-to-weight ratio,
R. Samanta · B. Sengupta · G. Mandal · A. Sinha (B)

Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Kazi Nazrul University, Asansol, West Bengal 713340,
India
e-mail: sinharijit@gmail.com
A. Wazeer
School of Laser Science and Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal 700032,
India
A. Das
Dept. of Aerospace Engg & Applied Mechanics, IIEST Shibpur, B.Garden, Howrah,
West Bengal 711103, India
68 R. Samanta et al.
hardness, tensile strength and other properties suitable for use in several applications
[2]. The matrix materials support the reinforcements and effectively transfer load
along the composites [3, 4]. These synthetic composites act as an adhesive binder
that effectively supports fibers present in the matrix under compressive loads and it
also grows shear stress-bearing capabilities by distributing load all over the matrix
in the fiber lay-ups [5–7]. On the other hand, the development of several classes of
composites significantly demands the knowledge of various processing techniques in
order to grow in-depth understanding of the science behind the efficiency and effec-
tiveness of the materials [8–10]. The present chapter highlights various conventional
processing methods of MMCs, CMCs, and PMCs along with the recent trends in
processing.
2 Processing of MMCs
MMCs are generally made by dispersion of a reinforcement material into the metal
matrix. The surface of the reinforcement is effectively coated to achieve restricted
oxidation in the matrix, e.g., in Al-matrix, carbon fibers are used in order to synthe-
size composite materials that attributes to higher strength and low density. Several
techniques are used to form MMCs as shown in Fig. 1.
2.1 Solid State Processing
Solid state processing of MMCs methods can be further categorized as “Powder

Blending and Consolidation”, “Diffusion Bonding” and “Physical Vapour Deposi-
tion” as shown in Fig. 2. The processes are described as follows:
Fig. 1 Several processing Solid state

techniques of metal matrix processing
composites
In-situ Liquid State

Reactions Processing
Deposition
Techniques
Processing of Composites with Metallic, Ceramic, and Polymeric Matrices 69
Fig. 2 Solid state processing

of metal matrix composites
Physical
Vapour
Deposition
Processing
of Metal
Matrix
Composites
Powder
Diffusion
Blending and
Bonding
Consolidation
• Powder Blending and Consolidation: In this process, powdered metal alloys are
blended with short fiber and ceramic particles in liquid suspension. This can also
be carried out without using the liquid. After that the mix is processed using cold
compaction, degassing and high-temperature consolidation [11]. In the powder
blending and consolidation process, particles of certain volume fraction present in
the matrix depending upon the type of powder and processing parameters help to
strengthen the composites by the mechanism of dispersion-strengthening as shown
in Fig. 3. Magnesium (Mg) and aluminium (Al) metal matrix composites are
generally prepared using this method. Mechanical alloying (MA) is another solid
state processing method in which the powders of the matrix and reinforcements
materials are milled together inside a planetary ball mill followed by sintering.
• Diffusion Bonding: When two metallic surfaces are brought into contact and
pressure is applied, inter-diffusion of atoms creates bonds between second phase
particles and metal matrices as shown in Fig. 4 [11]. This fabrication method is
used for developing composites with continuous or discontinuous fibers.
• Physical Vapour Deposition: In this process, fibers are continuously passed
through a region having a high partial pressure of the material to be deposited. The
matrix is deposited throughout a fibre preform. In Physical Vapour Deposition,
the deposition rate is approximately 5–10 µm/min [12]. Sometimes composites
are produced as a play by using hot pressing or hot isostatic pressing.
2.2 Liquid State Processing
This includes several methods like “Stir Casting”, “Squeeze Casting” and “Infiltration
Process” as shown in Fig. 5. The processes are described as follows:
Fig. 3 Powder blending and

consolidation process
Pressure
Fibers
Metal Foils
Fig. 4 Diffusion bonding
• Stir Casting: In case of stir casting, solid reinforcements are added to a molten
metal matrix followed by casting in a mould. A common problem encountered
in this process is distribution of the reinforcements throughout the matrix which,
in many cases, may not be uniform [11]. Hence, the melt is continuously stirred
with the help of a stirrer before casting. Mixing can also be improved by allowing
the melt to cool in a semi-solid state.
• Squeeze Casting: In squeeze casting technique, an open die is used in which
molten metal is directly inserted. The die is then closed. After that, the metal
Fig. 5 Several techniques of

liquid state processing
Infiltration
Process
Liquid
State
Processing
Squeeze
Stir Casting
Casting
in molten condition comes into contact with the surface of the dies, and at high
pressure, it starts transferring heat quickly. It ensures formation of very fine grain
composites with negligible pores [13].
• Infiltration Process: In this process, liquid metals are infiltrated into a permeable
form of whiskers or fiber reinforcements. Depending upon the porosity level,
volume fraction of reinforcements is decided and in general, it is fixed as 10–70%
[14]. In order to retain integrity, most of the time metal-based mixtures or silica
is used as binders [11].
2.3 Deposition Techniques
A deposition layer of approximately 5–10% of the surface of the metal is generally

created in this process with the help of whisker or fiber reinforcement, followed by
the consolidation of depositions in full density [15]. In case of MMCs with long
or continuous fiber reinforcement, metal spray is preferred which is sprayed on the
fibers.
2.4 In-Situ Reactions
Here, the reinforcements are generated by the chemical reaction between the
constituent components. As a result, the distribution of the reinforcements is uniform
throughout the matrix and reinforcements are thermodynamically stable [16]. In-situ
process also helps in generating a clean matrix-reinforcement interface [17].
3 Processing of Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
CMCs can be described as a special type of composite material in which only ceramic
materials are used in both matrix material and refractory fibers. It can be produced
by several techniques as shown in Fig. 6.
3.1 Dry Processing Including Pressing
Dry pressing can be described as axial compaction of comparatively loosely granu-

lated ceramic powders of less than 3% moisture within an arrangement of punch or
die. Under pressure, the powder spreads on the surface of the dies or punch faces to
form a specific shape [18]. Powder compaction generally occurs within a rigid-walled
die and usually between a bottom and top punch [19].
In-situ
Processing
Dry processing
including Lanxide Process
pressing
Ceramic
Matrix
Composites
Wet processing
Processing by
including slip
Vapour
casting and
Deposition
tape casting
Sol-gel
Processing
Fig. 6 Several processing techniques of ceramic matrix composites

3.2 Wet Processing Including Slip Casting and Tape Casting
Two widely used wet processing techniques of ceramic materials are slip casting and
tape casting. Slip casting can be described as a ceramic forming process for pottery
and other ceramics [20]. In this method materials which are of difficult shapes are
prepared on a wheel. On the other hand, tape casting is used to manufacture thin
tapes of ceramics and sheets using ceramic slurry [21]. Tape casting is also known
as “knife coating”, “doctor balding” and “shank shifting”.
3.3 Sol–gel Processing
In sol–gel processing, two or more solutions (precursors) are mixed together in the
stoichiometric ratio. At room temperature with continuous stirring, this solution
becomes stabilized. After that a third solution is added to this stirred solution. In this
process, a hydro-gel formation occurs that resulting the increase in viscosity of the
solution [22]. Further, the gel is subjected to room-temperature aging for a couple of
hours followed by washing using distilled water. Once the washing process is done
the precipitate is dried for a couple of hours [23]. Sometimes, pressing and sintering
is carried out after the sample is dried.
3.4 Processing by Vapour Deposition
In this process, through conversion or chemical reaction a solid layer is formed over a
substrate [24, 25]. Deposition can be of two types: chemical vapour deposition (CVD)
and physical vapour deposition (PVD). CVD is more common in case of CMCs. In
CVD process, a solid generated in the gaseous state as a result of a chemical reaction
is deposited over a heated substrate.
3.5 Lanxide Process
Here, a ceramic matrix is generated by the reaction between a molten metal and a
gas. Growth of the ceramic matrix is generally occurred outwards from the surface
of the metal. Lanxide process also can be described as a process where a composite
material is generally synthesized through a controlled reaction impregnation [26]. In
this process particle preforms or infiltrate ceramic fiber is generally used to produce
lanxide materials [27]. One of the major advantages of this process is that the desired
microstructure can be achieved by adjusting the process parameters.
3.6 In-Situ Processing
In-situ composites are known as a multiphase material manufacturing process in

which the reinforcing phase is effectively synthesized within the ceramic matrix
during the process of composite fabrication. In ex-situ composites reinforcing phase
is separately synthesized and after that, it is inserted into the ceramic matrix using a
secondary processing technique like powder processing or infiltration [28]. In in-situ
processes, different kinds of reinforcement morphologies can be obtained and the
reinforcements are mainly ceramic particles [29].
4 Processing of Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)
PMCs are composed of different kinds of continuous or short fibers which are gener-
ally bound together by a composite material matrix of both inorganic and organic
polymers. It can be produced by several techniques as shown in Fig. 7.
4.1 Mechanical Methods Including Hand Lay-Up
In this process, resins are impregnated manually into the fibers using brushes or
rollers. The fibers are in general in woven form or in the form of chopped strand
mat. Liquid thermosetting resin is used. The process is cheap and suitable for a wide
range of resins and fibers [30, 31]. Boats, blades of wind turbines, and architectural
moulding components are processed by this method.
Fig. 7 Processing of
polymer matrix composites
Moulding
Pultrusion
Methods
Mechanical
Filament methods
Winding including
Polymer hand lay-up
Matrix
Composites
4.2 Moulding Methods
In this method, the material is subjected to hot pressing by placing it in the dies. It
then flows into the mould and cured. In order to form a closed cavity mould fiber
cloths are stacked up and then resins are injected into the mould. Train seats and
internal complex components of aircraft are being made using this method [32].
4.3 Pultrusion
Pultrusion is basically a combination of pulling and subsequent extrusion. It is a

manufacturing process of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites. In this process,
the fibers impregnated with resin are pulled through a heated die [33]. Subsequent
cooling is also carried out to control the polymerization i.e. curing. The profile is
then extruded through a die and cut into desired length. Good dimensional tolerance
and high production rate can be achieved by this process.
4.4 Filament Winding
Filament winding process is widely used for manufacturing hollow, circular or oval-
shaped materials. In this method, fiber tows are either passed through the resin bath
prior to the process of winding [34] or impregnated fibers are wound on a mandrel of
definite pattern. This process is economical and extensively used in the manufacturing
of boat masts, pressure vessels, chemical storage tanks, and pipes [35].
5 Recent Trends
Several new processing techniques for MMCs have come up in recent years. These
include “cryomilling” and “spark plasma sintering” (SPS) [36], “laser additive manu-
facturing” [37], “Accumulative Roll Bonding” (ARB) etc. In case of cryomilling,
nanocrystalline powders are fabricated by mechanical attrition technique in a cryo-
genic medium like liquid nitrogen. SPS is an advanced consolidation technique of
powder materials in which a pulsed direct current is used along with a uniaxial pres-
sure. Processing of CMCs is also carried out using SPS. Compared to the conven-
tional sintering, SPS can consolidate samples at a relatively lower temperature in
a comparatively shorter duration. Emerging techniques for the processing of PMCs
include additive manufacturing and processing using microwave energy [38]. In
case of “laser additive manufacturing” or “laser melt deposition” (LMD) technique,
a metallic substrate is taken on which a laser beam forms a pool of melt into which the
reinforcement powders are fed. A nozzle is used to transport inert gas and powder
into the small area around the focus of laser beam. Using this, layer by layer the
composite structure is built up. ARB is a severe plastic deformation method in which
two or more sheets are stacked together with the reinforcement powder placed in
between the sheets. The sheets are then given a large amount of deformation by
passing through the rolls which induces solid state bonding between the sheets.
Recently PMCs are processed (curing, joining, moulding) using microwave energy
in which uniform heating is expected to occur. As a result, the process becomes more
efficient. Microwave hybrid heating is also carried out in which microwave energy
is used to cure several layers of the PMC to build up a complete part.
6 Future Prospects of Composite Materials
An extensive discussion on the processing of MMCs, CMCs and PMCs has been
carried out in this study. In foreseeable future, using these methods composites
materials can be manufactured by altering parameters to get desired properties.
Figure 8 shows some of the key advantages and areas that can change the course
of manufacturing industry.
• Ultra-Lightweight Composites: Aluminum MMCs are mainly used in the devel-
opment of electric and hybrid automobiles. It is also used in process of power
transmission cables [39]. Ultra lightweight composites i.e. carbon nano-reinforced
composites have been used in wind turbines and that is 30% lighter than existed
Fig. 8 Future prospects of

composite materials
Smarter
Engineering
Components
Future
Prospects of
Composite
materials
Ultra-
Eco-Friendly
Lightweight
Materials
Composites
wind turbines [40]. As it is ultra-light the capacity for generating electricity is

much higher.
• Eco-Friendly Materials: Advancements in green technology force manufac-
turing companies to utilize composite polymers more often in order to produce
efficient and lighter materials that help to increase fuel efficiencies in aerospace
and automobile industries. In order to sustain in the foreseeable future develop-
ment of nano resins or fiber has become a necessity as it can be recycled and
reused further [41].
• Smarter Engineering Components: In recent few years the evolution of
composite materials changes the whole course of material applications and their
usage in various sectors. Composite enables the intuitive design of structural and
internal components previously design of such components was beyond the imag-
ination of the designers [42]. Shaping conventional materials in such a way has
become a revolution and that makes composite materials more inevitable.
7 Summary
Composite materials are increasingly becoming new state of the art engineering
materials as they fulfil desired criteria for critical applications. In this chapter, a
comprehensive study of the processing of various classes of composite materials has
been summarized. Extensive discussions have been carried out regarding processing
of MMCs, CMCs and PMCs. In case of MMCs, “solid state processing”, “liquid state
processing”, “deposition techniques” and “in-situ reactions” have been described. For
CMCs, “dry processing including pressing”, “wet processing including slip casting
and tape casting”, “sol–gel processing”, processing by vapour deposition, lanxide
process and in-situ processing have been discussed. Outlines of PMC processing
techniques like “mechanical methods including hand lay-up,” “moulding methods”,
“pultrusion” and “filament winding” have been elaborated. Recent trends in various
composite processing techniques are also highlighted in this chapter.
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Experimental Study on Synthesized
Graphite Nano Particles Based PVA
Nanocomposites
K. S. Lokesh, Thandra Paavan Kumar, C. G. Ramachandra,

Abstract The present work aims to develop Graphite Nano Particles (GNP’s) based
Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA) nano composites. Cold water soluble PVA is used in the
present study which is blended fractionally with synthesized graphite nanoparticles
in the ratio of 0.25, 05, 0.75 and 1% by weight by open mold method followed
by autoclave curing to ensure proper curing of prepared samples. The synthesized
graphite nanoparticles were subjected to UV–vis spectroscopy analysis, where in
the highest peak was observed at 255 nm. Major contribution of this present inves-
tigation deals with the computational studies of composition elements to study
various factors such as nuclear structure using the Density Functional theory (DFT).
Stability analysis of each molecule is performed separately using the UB3LYP calcu-
lation method with the help of 6-31G basis set function. Addition to this Nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) study and vibration analysis were performed using
GAUSSIAN 9, Gauge-Independent Atomic Orbital (GIAO) method was used for
NMR determination.
Keywords GNP’s · PVA based composites · Molecular study
K. S. Lokesh (B)
India
T. P. Kumar
Department of Nanotechnology, Srinivas Institute of Technology, Mangalore 574143, India
C. G. Ramachandra
D. Shrinivasa Mayya
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Srinivas Institute of Technology, Manglore 574143, India
1 Introduction
In the present day, polymer/layered-inorganic, polymer–clay nanocomposites are

engineered every day for the future they promise in the advancement of present-
day technologies, the notable ones include electro-chromic displays, sensors, cata-
lysts, etc. The fact being that, nanocomposites provide significant proof in change
at their behaviour and properties at ultra-low loads of such nanofillers as graphite
nanoplatelets, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Graphite is a single layered material
which is made up of single sheet of carbon which is one-atom thick. The structural
foundation of graphite consists of silicate layers and their integration to their coun-
terpart, the carbon nanotubes (CNTs) propose that graphite makes a better nanofiller
in a wide array of scientific and technological aspects. Aspect ratio of a particular
graphene sheet can be increased just by separating their graphite layers by a degree,
this in turn can satisfy the high aspect ratio requirement for nanocomposites [1].
Graphite crystal when converted into nanoparticle size, we can observe edges that
surround the particles. Graphite nanoparticles are made up of nanosized graphene
sheets whose peripheries are formed with the help of s-dangling bonds, the stacking
arrangement remains constant. These dangling bonds are responsible for the reaction
between foreign chemical species such as hydrogen or oxygen with the actual bonds
of the structure. In this sense, a nano graphite is made up by finite flat graphene
sheets having open edges. There are many methods which have been engineered to
design graphite nanoparticles and sheets, they include micromechanical cleavage,
chemical vapor deposition (CVD), solvent thermal reaction, thermal desorption of
Si from SiC substrates, and chemical routes via graphite intercalation compounds
(GIC) or graphite oxide (GO) [2–5]. The best method which gave the maximum
output is the chemical treatment of graphite. But, the only downside of this method
is that it involves the use of undesirable solvents under extreme conditions. The
process of chemical exfoliation involves chemical treatment which produces some
impurities, on the other hand, mechanical milling is another suitable technique for the
preparation of graphite nano powder and nano structured sheets [6]. In the solution
method, poly vinyl alcohol is used as polymer matrix material for the synthesis of
graphite nanocomposites. The resulting nanocomposites have been investigated for
its barrier properties. Polyvinyl alcohol is a water-soluble synthetic polymer and it is
preferred for their excellent hydrophilic interactions, biocompatibility, and non-toxic
nature. The model properties of PVA include better adhesion, emulsification, thin
film forming, and that became the reason to use it as a wrap sizing, paper-coating
agent, adhesives, drug delivery agent, and as an important aspect in biomedical and
material packing [7–9]. Physical and electronic aspects of nanoparticles synthesized
from graphite from any other conventional methods are characterized and investi-
gated with the help of Scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Electron
spin resonance (ESR), Raman scattering and magnetic susceptibility. They proved
quite resilient in both the mechanical applications from the industry of packings to the
armour designs of the defence and to the fields of the semiconductors such as sensors
and actuators, The experimental findings suggest that the synthesized nano graphite
Experimental Study on Synthesized Graphite Nano Particles Based PVA … 83
arranges itself in a polyhedral fashion, whose faces consist of a stack like structure
arranged in stacks of 3–6 planar graphene sheets with an in planar size of 7–8 nm [10].
Density of states for this structure is considerably enhanced due to the consistence of
edge-inherited non-bonding p orbitals in their fermi level, which is consistent with
the theoretical suggestions [11]. The current output of the composite is achieved
by optimized dispersions, interfacial chemistry and the nano size morphology, the
advantage here being enormous surface area per unit volume, which is a common
property of a nanofiller. Irrespective of the degree of polymerization of PVA, which
is enhanced by annealing, the tensile strength and dynamic modulus of PVA hydro-
gels, the water content in the hydrogels has decreased respectively. PVA has a high
mechanical strength. Additionally, the hardness of PVA hydrogels can be improved
by decreasing the water concentration in their composition. The hydrogel when
prepared from PVA with a degree of polymerization of 11,000, annealed at 1400 C
for 24 h, has resulted in its highest tensile strength of 20 MPa and the best dynamic
modulus of 180 MPa can when it is [12].
A review on rapid innovation in nanotechnology in the recent years has enabled
multiple developments in advanced metal matrix nanocomposites for structural engi-
neering and functional device design and their fabrication. Carbon enriched materials,
such as carbon nanotubes (CNT’s), graphite, and graphene contain unique magnetic,
mechanical, thermal, electrical properties [13]. Due to their lubricious nature, these
carbon rich materials have increased attention and researchers started to synthesize
light-weight, self-lubricating metal matrix nanocomposites with superior tribolog-
ical properties and mechanical properties for multiple applications in aerospace and
automotive industries [14]. From literature it was clear that the less work carried
out on synthesis of the graphite nano particles blended with polyvinyl alcohol with
rare computational studies, hence the present work aims to synthesize graphite nano
particles and develop graphite based nano composite blended with PVA along with
parallel computational studies carried out to investigate the nuclear structure using the
Density Functional theory (DFT). Stability analysis of each molecule is performed
separately using the UB3LYP calculation method with the help of 6-31G basis set
function and also NMR analysis of the computed structure.
2 Materials
2.1 PVA (Poly-Vinyl Alcohol)
PVA is an excellent bio-based polymer which is non-toxic and odourless in nature,

the most important properties of PVA include its chemical resistance and mechanical
properties. PVA exists in various forms depending upon the function of the user, most
of the time it is used in the form of fibre, powder, film without any separation of its
monomer units. PVA based upon the length of its monomer unit ‘vinyl acetate’ varies
its core properties such as molecular weight which generally ranges from 20,000 to
400,000, the degree of hydrolysis which varies in accordance with the change in its
molecular weight. Generally, this range lies around 80–99%. Increase in molecular
weight has proved a significant increase in the tensile strength, solvent and block
resistance. On the other hand, the properties such as solubility, water sensitivity,
flexibility. The best application of PVA is the ‘packaging’, the reasons being many
but, the main one is the reaction of multiple hydroxyl groups on its surface, this
makes PVA one of the most hydrophilic polymers with high moisture sensitivity,
the resulting blends and composite materials, for this reason have become more
prominent in the packaging applications. According to Grande et al., PVA may be
used as a compatibilizer for other biopolymer blend systems. For example, Chitosan/
PLA blends in the presence of glycerol as a plasticizer has been improved greatly in
terms of miscibility and formability, PVA on the other hand acts a dispersion medium
for 9 polymers. PVA and its blends/composites due to their high material performance
has increased its dominance over the industries for packaging applications over the
recent years.
The conventional laboratory synthesis included a series of treatments since PVA
production on a large scale is very difficult when its monomer units are directly
polymerized due to the disturbing by-products and their interferences over the main
applicants. The saponification reaction was employed according to the following
scheme shown above in Fig. 1, the reaction is interpreted in the following chemical
reactions wherein reaction A is depicted as the alcohol conjunction of poly vinyl
acetate, whereas the reaction B indicates the saponification of poly vinyl acetate; the
reaction C results in the retrieval of methyl acetate. Industrially, acetylene or ethylene
are used as base materials in the preparation of vinyl acetate within the presence
of acetic acid and/or oxygen, the polymerization is initiated with the application
of heat, this heat is used to activate the vinyl acetate in the presence of methanol
solution, Poly vinyl alcohol is produced via the application of saponification, during
the polymerization process more than 70% of the monomer units are converted to poly
vinyl acetate. PVA is prepared by partial or complete substitution of ester groups from
the poly vinyl acetate in the presence of hydroxyl groups in the hydrolysis process,
in the presence of sodium hydroxide or anhydrous sodium methylate.
Fig. 1 Reaction series of PVA

2.2 Graphite Nanoparticles
The basic definition of a nanoparticle is that it is a particle of matter which is stable

in the size range of 1–100 nm. The basic difference between micro particles (1–
1000 μm), coarse particles (2500–10,000 nm), fine particles (100–2500 nm) and
nano particles is their behaviour at their size ranges. At each of their size ranges,
they have very different physical and chemical properties which include electronic,
magnetic, optical and colloidal properties [15]. Graphite powder with a standard size
of 28 μm and 99.75% pure is used as the base for this experiment. A Planetary Ball
Mill (Retsch PM100) was used to carry out the ball milling process. The diameter
of the balls used as the milling medium was 8 mm via the diameter, there were 20
balls used in the process along with a stainless-steel grinding jar of 50 ml capacity
[16]. The ball to powder ratio (BPR) considered was 10:1 and the rotation speed of
the jar was adjusted to 200 or 250 rpm in all the runs carried out. Pure and fresh was
considered for each run to avoid and prevent sample mixing.
2.3 Physico-Chemical Properties
Graphite on the other hand is in crystalline form and is an analogue of carbon, the
atoms are arranged in a hexagonal fashion. Under standard condition, it is the most
stable form of carbon and it is a naturally occurring carbon-based structure. A study
that worked on the composites made from graphite and nano-MgO proved better with
the increased concentration of nanoparticles along with the support from the graphite
base, through the aforementioned conclusions, it was established that the hybrid
composite of aluminium, 5 weight percent graphite, and 2.5 weight percent nano-
MgO has comparatively ideal mechanical and wear properties [17]. It is converted
to diamond when exposed to high temperatures and pressures. The most basic use
of graphite is seen in pencils and lubricants. Better properties of graphite can be
described by using its good conductance towards heat and electricity. The high
electrical conductivity of graphite makes it useful in the production of electronic
products such as electrodes, batteries, solar panels, etc. Graphite is sp2 hybridized
and the atoms are arranged in plane with each atom bound to 3 nearest neighbours
with a bond angle of 120°. The individual layers arranged are called graphene. The
graphite nanoparticles on the other hand consist of the following parameters with
their melting point staging at 3550 °C and the boiling point at 4027 °C. The density
of the particles on the conventional scale is 2.26 g/cm3 . The average particle size
< 50 nm, the size here varies, depending on their concentrations but never cross
50 nm [18–21]. The thermal expansion of the graphite nanoparticles being 6.0 W/
m–K and the thermal expansion being 4.9 μm/m–K, the young’s modulus was found
to be 21 GPa. These nanoparticles in some ways are similar to Si3 N4 nanoparti-
cles formed a well-compacted tribolayer that was retained across extended sliding
distances, considerably influencing the hybrid nanocomposites’ wear resistance [22].
2.4 Methodology
The present research aims to developing the GNP’s filled PVA nano composites with
varied GNP percentage of 0.5, 0.75, 1, and 1.5% by weight. The prepared graphite
powder is analysed from the obtained values of wavelength confirms the presence of
nano particles through UV spectroscopy. Samples are prepared using polycarbonate
plates as a die with dimensions of 200 × 4 mm to accommodate the PVA and GNP’s
mixture added proportionally to get the cured samples when cured under oven for
the period of 72 h.
2.5 Preparation Methods
The preparation method opted here is the ultrasound irradiation where the graphite
structure is treated with variable ranges of ultrasound and the changes made to the
structure was analysed by Transmission Electron Microscopy, laser light scattering,
Raman spectroscopy for the structural modifications made. The crystalline graphite
structure is subjected to irradiation with the frequencies ranging from 20 to 500 kHz,
this analysis was performed in 3 varying solvent solutions: water (which is the best
medium for cavitations), the surfactant (OMImBr) which is aqueous in nature and the
solution containing sulphuric and nitric acids in mixed proportions, this resulted in
the intercalation which led to exfoliation of the sample. The original basal particle of
size 1681 m was ultimately reduced to 41 m after the ultrasonication, which delivered
an insane energy density built up to 1.2 MW/m2 . Modifications in time for sonication
and the nature of solvent has resulted in crystal structure, which affected the out of
the plane thickness and the basal width as well. The ultrasonication promoted the
disordering of the graphite tridimensionality stacking for all solvents used, with its
strongest effect in acidic medium. With the use of a surfactant as sonication medium,
the exfoliation of graphene flakes has been observed along with the formation of
Turbostatic structures [17]. The next treatment which involved intercalation in acid
medium before the application of ultrasound produced similar effects. Ultrasonic
Processor (Sonics and Materials, 500 W Ultrasonic Processor-VC505) with 20 kHz
converter, 350 W output which was adjusted with an ultrasonic probe (with amplitude
of 431 m, and 19 mm diameter, Sonics and Materials) has been opted and used for
the experiment. The probe is immersed inside a double jacketed reactor (cylindrical
structure) with an internal diameter of 80 mm, containing 1.2 g of pure and fresh
graphite powder treated with 60 ml solvent. In order to achieve precise temperature
control, 50 °C constant temperature was maintained inside a double-jacket for the
circulation of cooling liquid (with the help of a cryostat) inside the experiment setup
to neutralize the temperature inside the reactor to ambient (250 °C). A ‘rosette’
type of reactor was used to carry out the sonication of graphite structures under
the presence of sulfonitric-medium and water. The sonication of water suspensions
containing GN4 graphite at 20 kHz which were set at a period of 1–22 h range [22].
Residual intercalation compound that was obtained by a consecutive treatment of

water immersion and sulfonitric medium, this was subjected to ultrasonic irradiation
at 20 kHz for 5 h. Sonication to GN4 graphite was performed at 20 kHz in a 4/1 (v/
v) sulfonitric medium consisting of nitric acid (30% mass) and sulfuric acid (30%
mass) for a time period of 40 min. A few suspensions (which are synthesized in the
presence of water or in presence of OMImBr solutions) were subjected to irradiation
at 500 kHz inside a homemade cup-horn reactor in the absence of cooling. The
process of irradiation of GN4 in the presence of OMImBr solutions was carried out
for a time period of 120 min at 500 and 20 kHz. The resulting KS4 samples was
subjected to irradiation for 1 h at 20 kHz and for 10 h at 500 kHz inside water. The
synthesized graphite nano particles from graphite powder are as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 a Dispersion of synthesized GNP’s, b mixture of PVA blended with GNP’s, c prepared and
cured sample
2.6 UV Spectroscopy
UV spectroscopy is a structural spectroscopic study which is performed to identify

the physical attributes of an unknown sample, the main principle used behind the
UV studies is the Beer-Lambert law, this law proves states that for every solution in
stable and meta-stable state, the concentration of the solute is directly proportional to
the absorbance of the solution. The follow up theory states that whenever a molecule
absorbs radiant energy from any region of the light spectrum, the atoms excite and
due to the excess energy in the system, they move towards higher energy levels and
return after a short interval leaving most of the excess energy in the form of heat
or radiation, this emitted energy is often recorded as spectra, and is measured by
a UV Spectro-photometer. Almost all of the chemical systems (compounds) absorb
radiation either from UV region or visible region. The initiation of the process begins
with a beam induced with power I, and it is shot onto the sample solution. Absorbance
takes place when the sample molecules absorb some part of the incident radiation
and the resulting beam is transmitted back, this transmitted beam is measured to
calculate the ratio of absorbance by % T or %Transmittance. That is
%T = 100 × (I/Io ) (1)
Absorbance is defined with the help of Beer-Lambert Law in the following way
A = −Log(I/Io ) = ECD (2)
Here, E = Molar Absorptivity, C = Concentration of the Solute, MD = path length

in cm. So, from the above equation
A = −LogT = ECD (3)
For the thin film samples Eq. (2) is modifies as
A = −Log(I/Io) = ECT(where T is the thickness) (4)
Therefore, absorbance is more useful compared to transmittance as it has a direct

linear relationship with the concentration of the solute. Varian Cary 5000 UV–vis-
NIR spectrometer was employed to observe the changes in the optical absorption
spectra at various dilutions. Here, two empty optical cells were used to adjust the base-
line correction. 0.15% polyvinyl alcohol solution, which was used as the dispersing
agent in the original solution was taken as the reference. Transmittance recording
mode spectra was adjusted from 300 to 1300 nm for pure dispersion samples and two
other diffusions which were synthesized by the dilution of pure dispersion samples
that are taken at 20 times and 40 times and fused with a neat PVA solution. The
transmittance for the pure dispersion samples remained almost zero all through the
range of wavelengths opted and the most important observation is that there were no
Fig. 3 UV-plot depicting the wavelength versus ABS
peaks in the spectra. The sensors were fabricated with the help of spray coating and
dispersion [23]. UV–Vis spectroscopy with a range of 300 to 3000 nm was opted
to read and record the transmittance data for every sample. The reference sample
substrate opted was made with Polyester-imide. This reference sample was used
to measure and obtain the transmittance values for the thin films. Experimental UV
spectroscopy peak is observed and reported for the present synthesized graphite nano
particles are shown in Fig. 3.
3 Results and Discussions
3.1 Computational Studies
The current computational modelling studies are performed using the Density Func-
tional theory (DFT) for the investigation of the electronic structure (mainly the ground
state) of the multi-atomic systems, molecules, and condensed phases. Using this
theory, the properties of multi-atomic systems can be determined by functional, i.e.,
functions of another function, in the DFT, these are functions of the spatially depen-
dent electron density. DFT studies is one of the most prominent, popular and versatile
methods available in condensed matter physics, computational physics, and compu-
tational chemistry. It was first put on a firm theoretical footing by Walter Kohn and
Pierre Hohenberg in the framework of the two Hohenberg–Kohn theorems (HK).
The current study focuses on the structure of the PVA along with Graphite nanopar-
ticle {which has been assumed as two graphite rings} and its prepared polymer
which consists of PVA and Graphite nanoparticles which are treated in the ratio of
1:0.25, etc. To reduce the computational time cost we have used an input of monomer
molecule of PVA and two rings of graphite molecules, the main factors of the compu-
tational studies which affects the performance is that the input components and the
computational time, the specifications of the device which the work is performed
too plays an equal role too. The input components however, can be optimized and
taken by preferences; the computational time however, is dependent on the type of
calculation and the no. of atoms taken from the molecule. The observed facts are
that the more the no. of molecules the more the computational time. The ground
state optimizations of PVA and graphite nanoparticle were carried out in Gaussian 9
software employing FOPT Simple calculation with the RB3LYP as the calculation
method and with the 6-31G basis set. The following calculations has been performed
separately for PVA, graphite nanoparticle and the polymer (PVA + Graphite np):
• Structure optimization—to refine the structure and remove any or all chemical
restraints. (No change observed in structure as well as energy).
• Stability analysis—to check the stability of the molecule.
• Time dependent density functional theory calculation (TD-DFT)—To study the
absorbance effects and plot a UV appropriately.
• NMR analysis—To plot the NMR graph for the polymer.
• Vibration analysis—To check the molecular oscillation of the computed structure
and find any or all the imaginary molecular frequencies.
3.1.1 Stability Analysis
Stability analysis of each molecule is performed separately using the UB3LYP calcu-
lation method with the help of 6-31G basis set function [24]. This is the general basis
set function used for every conventional computational calculation, the stability of
each molecule used and the final polymer is presented below:
• PVA (poly vinyl alcohol)—a PVA monomer as a repeat unit was selected as the
starting polymer material. In Fig. 4b, the stability is achieved by performing the
above analysis. The resulting parameters we observed here is that there are no
imaginary frequencies available. The spin type observed is singlet. The total poten-
tial energy of the molecule (E(RB3LYP)) being − 153.759419 a.u. (a negative
value), this happens because when considering electrostatic potential we multiply
charges, so for a − 1 and + 1 charge the results is always negative meaning attrac-
tion (but for two negative or two positive charges it’s always positive, meaning
repulsion). The dipole moment of the stabilized structure came to 2.1358 Debye.
• Graphite nanoparticles—Graphite nano particles are consistently formed as
nanosheets when observed at nano scale, the original crystallographic structure
of a graphite nanoparticle can be seen in Fig. 4a, and in Fig. 4c here we took 2
rings of one graphite nanoparticle sheet as representation, but when we increase
the concentration to a few more rings, multiple properties may vary. The stability
analysis is performed by using the above specifications and we observed that the
Fig. 4 a Graphite nano particle. b Graphite computed structure. c PVA structure. d Combined
polymer (PVA + Graphite NP’s)
spin type is doublet. The total potential energy of the molecule (E(UB3LYP) is −
348.23038136a.u. The dipole moment of the stabilized structure is 0.3763 Debye.
• The polymer—The polymer taken here is the final product of the project and it
is the mixture of PVA along with graphite nanoparticles. The stability analysis
is performed by using the above specifications and we observed that the spin
type is doublet. The total potential energy of the molecule (E(UB3LYP) is −
497.38629372a.u. The dipole moment of the stabilized structure is 6.5416 Debye.
The stability was a typical analysis done here; there was a slight confusion at the
beginning, due to the bond interactions of the graphite nanoparticle to the PVA.
So, we had to carry out 3 iterations
(a) Attachment of graphite group to the oxygen atom—During this iteration the
computational result gave a perfect crystal structure with the dipole moment
being 6.5416 Debye units.
(b) Attachment of graphite group to the hydrogen atom—during this iteration
the structure gave a fatal error because hydrogen has only 1 valence electron
and by binding it to the graphite molecule became unstable and the molecule
broke.
(c) Attachment of graphite group to the double bonded carbon atom—during
this iteration the computational result gave a perfect crystal structure with
the dipole moment of 2.5395 Debye units.
So, out of the 3 iterations performed the first iteration was considered for the
further study because of its dipole moment, because the higher the dipole moment,
higher will be the ionic character of that bond and lower will be the covalent character
of that bond. If the ionic Character is higher, then the reactivity will also be higher,
and ultimately the stability will be higher.
3.1.2 TD-DFT Calculation
Time-dependent density-functional theory (TD-DFT) is a quantum mechanical

theory used to study the properties and dynamics of multi-atomic systems and many-
body systems in the presence of time-dependant functions, these are potentials which
can be represented with the help of electric or magnetic fields. The change in the
properties of the system due to the interference of such potentials on molecules and
micro solids can be analysed with the help of TDDFT. The features such as excitation
energies and frequency response properties and photo absorption spectra are some
examples. Gaussian software can determine the simulation of vibration electronic
spectra described by three basic parameters (position, intensity and width), which
can be used for the estimation of fundamental transition characteristics as well as
quantitative analysis. The excitation energies and oscillator strength for each excited
state were evaluated by QM calculations. Generally, absorption spectrum consists of
a number of absorption bands plots of the molar extinction coefficient (ε) versus the
excitation energy/wavelength (λ) in nm. The peak for the computed structure came
around at 936.83 strength, where the peak is observed at 936.83 nm (Fig. 5).
3.1.3 NMR Analysis
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance is a most powerful tool for extracting the structure of
many-body systems, this makes the tool a practical analysis method for the study
of organic compounds, therefore the calculation of H and C chemical shifts, as
well as coupling constants, it is helpful in the notation of measured signals on a
spectrum to an actual functional group. NMR shielding tensors may be computed
with the Continuous Set of Gauge Transformations (CSGT) method and the Gauge-
Independent Atomic Orbital (GIAO) method. Magnetic susceptibilities may also be
computed with both GIAOs and CGST. Gaussian also supports the IGAIM method
(a slight variation on the CSGT method) and the Single Origin method, for both
shielding tensor and magnetic susceptibilities. The NMR of the current sample is
calculated using the SCF GIAO Magnetic shielding method where a graph is plotted
Fig. 5 Excitation energy against oscillations
on degeneracy versus shielding (ppm), with the degeneracy tolerance value set at
0.05. Figure 6a gives a glance at the NMR calculation of O shift, where the highest
peak is observed 6th O atom at degeneracy = 1 and shielding = 337.204 ppm. The
second Fig. 6b gives a glance at the NMR calculation of H shift, where the highest
peak is observed on 20th H atom at degeneracy = 2 and shielding = 27.69. The third
Fig. 6c gives us a glance at the NMR calculation of C shift, where the highest peak is
observed at 10th C atom at degeneracy = 1 and the shielding value = 115.116 ppm.
3.1.4 Vibration Analysis
The vibration states of a particular molecule can be identified and probed in various
ways. The best option available is the method of infrared spectroscopy, the vibration
transitions generally demand certain amounts of energies which link to the infrared
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Currently, infrared spectroscopy and Raman
spectroscopy use visible light to the measure vibrational frequencies directly. These
two techniques are complementary to each other and can provide useful information
such as in the case of the rule of mutual exclusion for centrosymmetric molecules. In
the present study, the sample has been analysed under 63 modes and the IR spectrum
graph has been plotted with the resulting data, the highest peak was observed at 51th
mode with the frequency at 1609.39 cm−1 . One outcome of this test is to check any
imaginary frequencies of the computed sample, imaginary frequencies signify a local
maximum on the potential energy surface, the presence of an imaginary frequency
signifies that there is a negative Eigen value in the equation, while computing, which
means that one of the square roots contains a negative number inside, which leads to
an imaginary frequency state at one of its modes. Figure 7 shows the NMR analysis
Fig. 6 a NMR analysis of the computed structure in Oxygen (O)-shift. b NMR analysis of the
computed structure in Hydrogen (H)-shift. c NMR analysis of the computed structure in the
Carbon(C)-shift
Fig. 7 NMR analysis of the computed structure in the Carbon(C)-shift
of the computed structure in the carbon(C)-shift. In the present study, however there
were no imaginary frequencies observed in the computed structure shown in Fig. 7.
4 Conclusion
Developing the GNP’s filled PVA nano composites with varied GNP percentage of
0.5, 0.75, 1, and 1.5% by weight. Synthesized graphite nano particles are analysed
through UV spectroscopy where in the highest peak was observed at 255 nm. Compu-
tational studies were performed on the sample, by measuring important parameters
such as total energies, absorbance, and resonance of each element and vibration
energy of the sample. Stability analysis was done to various configurations of the
same structure, out of which 3 structures have been selected; the final structure has
been selected due to its optimum dipole moment. The spectrum analysis was done to
check the absorbance nature of the computed structure by taking its position, inten-
sity into consideration. The NMR study was performed to check the shifts at different
degeneracies for each of the elements present in the structure and the highest peaks
were observed at where the highest peak is observed on 20th H atom, 6th O atom
and 10th C atom. Finally, the vibration studies are performed to check the presence
of imaginary frequencies and none have been found so far. These studies prove that
the produced structure is stable and strong in all of its aspects, when compared with
the conventional ones.
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Manufacturing Particulate and Fiber
Reinforced Composites
Manufacturing Process of Fibre
Reinforced and Particulate Reinforced
Composites
K. S. Lokesh, C. G. Ramachandra, and J. R. Naveen Kumar
Abstract Composite structures meant for structural uniqueness and property

enhancing members in the broad areas covering the areas of aerospace and automobile
applications concerning the aspects relates to weight. Meantime manufacturing the
light weight structures owing to their specific features measures the type of methods
followed is another important factor. The present report discusses about the various
manufacturing methods involved in producing the prominent category of composites
which aims to establish the research aspect as well as commercial aspects. One such
combination that composite manufacturers are ever look in to is fibre reinforced and
particle reinforced composites. The present work also emphasizes the comparison
of various manufacturing methods adopted with various benefits, limitations for the
both manufacturing methods.
Keywords Manufacturing methods · Particulate composites · FRP composites
1 Introduction
Due to Considerable improvement in mechanical and physical properties, as well as

their high performance, fibre and particle reinforced composite materials are seeing
increased use in a variety of technological fields. Composite Materials created using
either of these techniques are frequently utilised for a variety of structures like as
aircraft, robots, tennis rackets, bicycles, manufacturing machinery, and so on. Fibres/
particles serve as a load carrying medium in fibre and particle reinforced composite
K. S. Lokesh (B)
India
C. G. Ramachandra
J. R. Naveen Kumar
Department of Electronics and Communication, Srinivas University Institute of Engineering &
Technology, Surathkal, Mangalore 574146, India
Fig. 1 Brief classification of composites
materials, while the matrix serves as a load transporting medium [1–3]. Different
techniques, including filament winding, hand lay-up, stir processing etc. are used to
create composite components including foam cored structures [4, 5]. They may need
to be machined after fabrication to enable dimensional control for simple assembly
and for functional aspects.
1.1 Classification of Composites
Composite structures are widely categorized in to fibre reinforced, structural and

Particulate Reinforced Composites in which fibres are further divided in to contin-
uous and discontinuous with uni and bi-directional group and randomly oriented and
aligned manner respectively. Whereas the structural composites are categorized with
laminates and sandwich panels and particulate reinforced in to dispersion strength-
ened and large particles. Figure 1 shows the brief classification of 3 categories of
composite structures.
1.2 Fibre Reinforced Composites Production Techniques
Depending on the product’s use and the type of reinforcement used, many proce-
dures exist. Figure 1 depicts the classification of composite manufacturing processes.
Fibre reinforced polymer composites are made using a variety of methods. Refer to
Manufacturing Process of Fibre Reinforced and Particulate Reinforced … 103
According to the types of reinforcement employed, the matrix system used, the
application, and the cost of production, Table 1 compares various manufacturing
procedures, the product’s quality, and the production rate.
1.2.1 Hand Lay-Up Method
The hand lay-up open moulding technique can be used to create a variety of composite
goods, from very small to extremely large. Despite the modest manufacturing volume
per mould, several moulds can be used to create significant production quantities.
The simplest composites moulding hand lay-up which is as shown in Fig. 2 which
offers inexpensive equipment, straightforward processing, and a variety of part sizes.
Modifications to the design are simple. Equipment requires a minimum investment.
Good production rates and consistent quality are achievable with trained operators.
1.2.2 Spray-Layup Technique
When spraying a mixture of chopped fibres, resin, and catalyst onto a mold’s surface,
a spray gun is employed. Open mould and a semi-automatic method are used here.
Air trapped inside fibres is squeezed out using spray rollers. Figure 3 depicts the
process of developing FRP composites by spray lay up method.
1.2.3 Filament Winding
The process of filament winding is typically applied to the production of hollow,

spherical, or prismatic objects, such as pipes and tanks. A customised winding
machine is used to wound continuous fibre tows onto a rotating mandrel. The
aerospace, energy, and consumer product industries frequently use filament wound
parts. The filament winding machine receives continuous fibre tows through a fibre
supply system, and then winds them onto a mandrel in a present, repeating geometric
pattern. A fibre delivery head that is fastened to a moveable carriage on the filament
winding machine directs the tow location. The winding angle, or angle at which the
tow is in relation to the mandrel axis, can be adjusted to create the necessary strength
and stiffness. Once there are sufficient amounts of two layers, the resulting laminate
is cured on the mandrel. The mandrel shape and laminate thickness dictate the overall
size and shape of the completed item. Method of Producing cylindrical materials as
shown in Fig. 4.
1.2.4 Resin Transfer Moulding
Figure 5a designates the RTM method, for the compression of the curved like surface,
RTM uses a resin transfer technique with vacuum assistance and a flexible solid
Table 1 Distinguishing features of various manufacturing methods for the production of FRP
composites
Method of Details of the Material system Benefits Limitations
manufacturing methods followed
Hand lay-up Fiber layers are laid Matrix Process is Fibre volume
[6, 7] up to the system—thermoset simple, fraction will
appropriate sample epoxy, polyester, inexpensive, be less
thickness, then they polyaniline and quick
are thoroughly Reinforcement—fabrics
impregnated with that are knitted, bonded,
resin woven, or sewn
Spray layup When spraying a Matrix Shape It can produce
refer Fig. 3 mixture of chopped system—thermoset, complexity volatile
[7–10] fibres, resin, and polyester may be chemical
catalyst onto a Reinforcement—all type achieved substances,
mold’s surface, a chopped fibers, flanks, using this dangerous air
spray gun is particles process, pollution, and
employed. Open which also being heavy
mould and a produces and resinous
semi-automatic medium to
method are used big
here. Air trapped components
inside fibres is more quickly,
squeezed out using at a lower
spray rollers cost, with
greater
versatility,
and with ease
Prepreg layup Cured Matrix This method Compared to
[11, 12] pre-impregnated system—thermoset is quicker hand layup,
resin textiles are epoxy polyester and offers a cost is
used in the Reinforcement—carbon good fibre enormous.
procedure. The tool with glass. Boron (roving volume ratio Prepreg
is coated with and chopped strand should be
pre-impregnated matting, woven roving handled
resin, and the final fabric) (roving and carefully,
step is curing the chopped strand mats, stored
component, either at woven roving fabric) correctly, and
ambient the resin’s pot
temperature or at a life checked
higher temperature before use
Filament To create cylindrical Matrix system—epoxy, As a high Because of
winding refer pieces, a rotating polyester, vinyl ester, fibre volume the initial cost
Fig. 4 [13, 14] mandrel is wrapped phenolic fraction is is high, mass
under tension in the Reinforcement—all types possible, the production is
right pattern with of fibres process is preferred
roving or filaments automated
from bobbins
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Resin transfer A closed injection Matrix The product Because each
molding moulding method is system—thermoset, that comes part needs a
(RTM), refer the RTM. In the epoxy, polyester, vinyl out of this unique cure
Fig. 5 [15] RTM method, dried ester and phenolic close-mould and custom
cloth is first placed Reinforcement—roving, process is tooling,
in a closed mould woven fabric, and mat well finished production
and then resin is made of chopped fibre on both sides time and costs
injected into it are slightly
under high pressure higher
Vacuum A different RTM Matrix The method The area of
assisted resin procedure—vacuum system—thermoset of achieving interest for
transfer bag, release or resin-vinyl ester, smoother further
molding distributor film, and polyester, and epoxy thickness was research in
(VART M) sealing tape are Woven fabric, roving, made simpler VARTM is
refer Fig. 5b used to wrap the and chopped fibre mat by using control over
fabric after it has serve as reinforcement flexible, part thickness
been placed on a simple variation
mold. before being moulding
vacuum-bagged components
The resin
flows into
and out of the
system
Pultrusion The continuous Matrix To create Not
process refer roving is pulled system—thermoset and consistent cost-effective
Fig. 6 [16] from the bobbins thermoplastic continuous cross for batch or
and directed into the roving, fiber-chopped sections, the unit
resin tank, where it strand mats, polyester, method is production
is mixed and runs vinyl ester, and epoxy utilised in
through the reinforcement mass
pre-heater to take on production
the desired shape
before going
through the heating
die for the final
curing
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Compression Temperature, Matrix It requires For the best
molding refer pressure, and time system—thermoset less trimming product
Fig. 7 [16] are the three key (epoxy, thermo-plastic and finishing, quality, there
variables in the materials (polypropylene, has excellent must be ideal
compression polyester, polyvinyl ester, part-to-part adjustment of
moulding process, phenol) polyethylene repeatability, pressure and
and they all depend nylon, polyether ether and is less temperature
on the size, shape, ketonetc) expensive between the
and thickness of the Reinforcement—woven top and
pieces as well as the fabric (UD/BD), short bottom
required curing fibers, chopped fibers, moulds mold
cycle and chopped strand mats
Centrifugal Resin and chopped Matrix This process Centrifugal
casting [17] fibres are spun into system—Thermoset flow is force must be
cylindrical shapes resin-epoxy, polyester uninterrupted produced by
using centrifugal Reinforcement—chopped and best fit the
force fibers for mass component
production rotating
Fig. 2 Hand lay-up method
counter tool. This procedure results in improved strength-to-weight properties, higher

laminate compression, and a high glass-to-resin ratio. Two finished surfaces are on
RTM pieces. The mould is filled with reinforcement mat or woven roving before
being sealed and clamped. Up until the mould is completely filled, air is displaced
and vented at the edges as low-viscosity resin that has been catalysed is poured in
under pressure. Typically, composite or nickel shell-faced composite construction is
used to create the moulds for this low-pressure system. In order to produce uniform
homogenous cross section of the final product vacuum bagging shown in Fig. 5b
Fig. 3 Spray lay-up method
Fig. 4 Filament winding process
method is adopted where bag is compressed by vacuumizing the air inside the bag
thereby creating the pressure inside to the layup to obtain the nice surface which
forms the inner contour of the mold used.
Fig. 5 a and b Represents resin transfer moulding and vacuum bagging method
Fig. 6 Pultrusion process
Fig. 7 Compression molding
1.2.5 Pultrusion Process
The continuous roving from the bobbins is directed to be gathered and combined in
the resin tank, where it then flows through the pre-heater to take on the desired shape
before passing through the heating die for the final curing. In contrast to extrusion,
this method involves pulling a portion using a system-provided pulling mechanism.

A cutting saw is used to shape the finished product into the required shape at the
conclusion of the procedure. The method is employed in mass manufacturing to
create continuous cross sections, but it is not cost-effective for individual or batch
production. Typical manufacturing process flow is as shown in Fig. 6.
1.2.6 Compression Molding
A measured quantity of moulding material that is usually preheated (referred to

as a charge) is compressed into the desired form using two heated moulds during
the manufacturing process known as compression molding. Figure 7 represents the
production of FRP parts by compression molding method. Following are the steps
in the sequential compression moulding process:
1. There are many ways to make tooling, including machining, die casting, and 3D
printing which demonstrates creating a part.
2. Depending on the particular machine or device you’re using, this may entail
cleaning the mould, turning on the heat, and other preparation procedures.
3. Prepare the charge by choosing the material type and calculating the necessary
quantity.
4. Position the charge from the middle of the mold at the bottom.
5. Close the top mould, apply pressure, and wait for your component to form to
compress the portion. Heat is another common manufacturing technique used
during compression, which softens the raw materials and helps hasten production.
6. Remove the finished piece.
7. Resin flash around.
8. Before the final assembly, the part may need to be cleaned and the edges manually
cut off or removed.
1.2.7 Centrifugal Casting
High material soundness components are produced by centrifugal casting. As a

result, it is the technology of choice for many high-reliability products, including the
compressor casings for jet engines, hydro wear rings, and numerous military items. It
has been demonstrated that forgings and fabrications are inferior to a more affordable
to provide shapes and lower manufacturing costs and less machining requirements.
The first step in the centrifugal casting process is the pouring of molten metal into
a heated, spinning die. Depending on how the intended part is set up, the die may
be orientated either on a vertical or horizontal axis. Though the different production
methods yield different outcomes with different compositional arrangements, there
also exists the specific methods could yield different outcomes in conjunction with
utilization of different reinforcements, fillers and matrix systems. In this view, few
reports reveals that the effects of layup method to draft the considerable outcomes
while processing it with different reinforcements and fillers. One such method is
Table 2 Role of production methods to yield significant outcomes through various fillers on type
of reinforcement combined with polymer/metal matrix composites [18–31]
Type of reinforcement Type of production Fillers used Results observed
method
Fibre reinforced-woven Hand-lay-up Casio3 ,waste Significant
E-glass and chopped fibres method rubber, E-waste improvement in
glass, mineral filler wear resistance
Particulate reinforced-micro Stir casting method Red mud particles, Hardness and,
and nano particulate with graphite particles, compressive strength
al-alloys Sic is improved greatly
Fibre reinforced-fibre Hand lay-up Mineral Tensile and flexural
orientations fibres, fibre mat method fillers-waste and properties are
scrap glass enhanced greatly for
different loading of
fillers
Fibre reinforced-jute/silk/ Hand lay-up Fish scale, Tensile and flexural
CSM fibre method Cocopeat powder, properties are
waste rubber improved
Particulate Thin film Reduced graphene Accuracy in
reinforced-polyethyleneimine deposition oxide sensitivity of
detecting CO2 gas is
achieved
hand-up method which is adopted to process different reinforcements with different

fillers generated considerable enhancement in the mechanical results. Table 2 repre-
sents the Role of Production methods to yield significant outcomes through various
fillers on type of reinforcement combined with polymer/metal matrix composites.
2 Particle Reinforced Composites
2.1 Methods of Manufacturing
One significant kind of material is particulate composites, which have a poly-

mers and metal matrix system. These substances are typically utilised as building
materials, high-performance engineering substances, or protective organic coatings.
Cutting tools made of metal matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles and
high-temperature environments can both benefit from ceramic matrix composites.
Normally particulate composites are prepared by various methods including In-Situ
reaction precipitation, Powder metallurgy technique, Liquid In-filtration method etc.
Some of the familiar manufacturing methods for producing particulate reinforced
composites are discussed as follows. Table 3 depicts the various manufacturing
methods for the production of Particle Reinforced Composites.
Table 3 Distinguishing features of various manufacturing process for the production of particulate
reinforced composites
Method of Details of the Benefits Limitations
Agitation-preparation Here, a specific Practically all casting It is vital to maintain
method of mixing techniques may be control over the mixing
results in the direct used to create it, and speed to ensure consistent
addition of particle it has low equipment mixing of the particles in
reinforcement into needs, a the matrix and prevent
the molten metal straightforward clogging
melt, dispersing manufacturing
the particles process, and broad
throughout the particle type and size
melt of the adaptability
aluminium alloy
In situ production Chemical Strong resistance to The mechanical properties
method processes inside a wear and corrosion of in-situ composites
solid or liquid reinforcements with created using fluid and
matrix can provide minimal sensitivity to strong state powder
reinforcement thermal shocks and handling processes depend
elements for temperature changes on a number of complex
composites and factors, including the
thermodynamically weight rates of reactants,
stable reinforcements response time, sintering
temperature, tension of
hot–cold squeezing, and
warming cooling rates
Powder metallurgy Using metallurgy Using metallic Because the pieces are
method in powder the powder, the powder made from powders and
powder metallurgy metallurgy process is the procedure is not
procedure entails composed of three efficient, the difficult and
three steps: phases: mixing, labour-intensive, intricate
mixing, compaction, and shapes and interior pores is
compaction, and sintering not entirely eliminated
sintering
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
Method of Details of the Benefits Limitations
Spray deposition Cost savings are Mainly cost savings Mainly cost savings are the
method the key advantage are the advantage of advantage of spray
of spray spray deposition. deposition. Spray
deposition. The Spray deposition is a deposition is a method for
process of spray method for producing producing materials that
deposition can be materials that cannot cannot be produced
used to create be produced traditionally
materials that traditionally
cannot be
produced
traditionally
Infiltration method A molten matrix Components with Porosity in the composite
metal is used to fill complicated shapes cast can result from
the spaces between and a potential for solidification that occurs
the prepared high fibre volume before complete infiltration
dispersion phase fractions if the fibre temperature is
inclusions too low. On the other hand,
(ceramic particles, a fibre temperature that is
fibres, or weaves) too high results in a
lengthy solidification
process
2.1.1 Agitation Preparation Method
Method for preparing agitation the primary idea behind the agitation method, some-
times called the whirlpool method, is to feed the using a specialised mixing technique,
particle reinforcement is added directly to the molten metal melt, causing the particles
to disperse throughout the alloy melt. Mechanical agitation, high-energy ultrasonic
composite method, and electromagnetic stirring method can all be used to separate
this, according to the increased particles and aluminium liquid mixing method. Prac-
tically all casting procedures may be used to create the mechanical agitation method,
which has cheap equipment requirements, an easy procedure, and extensive particle
type and size adaptability.
2.1.2 Preparation by In-Situ Reaction Method
Chemical reactions inside a solid or liquid matrix can produce the reinforcement
elements that make up composites. This method of making composites (in situ)
has several great benefits, including a clean interface between the reinforcement
and matrix, excellent compatibility, steady thermodynamic reinforcements, and a
strong bonding force between the reinforcement and matrix as well as inexpensive
fabrication costs. Figure 8 represents the simplified production method for developing
solidified particulate composite through in-situ production route.
Fig. 8 In-situ reaction process
2.1.3 Extrusion Casting
Casting by extrusion Constrict Casting. The high-pressure solidification of the

composite improves the wettability of the molten metal and the reinforcing particles
and defects such looseness and porosity are also eliminated, considerably enhancing
composites’ strength and plasticity. Consequently, the developed material systems
have greater quality.
2.1.4 Powder Metallurgy Method
With the use of extreme pressure, powdered metals and alloys are pressed into a rigid
die during the production process of powder metallurgy, which produces extremely
exact and accurate parts. As a result of the design and use of technological develop-
ments, powder metallurgy has developed into an essential process for the production
of bushings, bearings, gears, and a variety of structural components. Utilizing powder
metallurgy few steps make up the powder metallurgy procedure. Minimal interfacial
reactivity, adjustable enhanced phase content, uniform enhanced phase distribution,
steady performance, and ability to machine using traditional techniques are some
of the benefits of the products. Figure 9 represents the Steps involved in powder
metallurgy technique.
2.1.5 Spray Deposition Method
It includes atomizing molten metal, but the in order to form billets for later forging,
spray is collected on a substrate. Rather than being left to solidify as powder. During
the atomization process, the metal stream is filled with the reinforcing particles. Spray
Fig. 9 Steps involved in powder metallurgy technique
deposition appears to have a bright future. Al alloys, Cu alloys, superalloys, stainless

steels, and high Cr alloy steels are just a few of the materials that are processed
in this method. The fundamental advantage of spray deposition is cost reduction.
Among the materials that can only be produced using spray deposition and cannot
be produced traditionally.
2.1.6 Infiltration Method
By soaking prepared dispersion phase (ceramic particles, fibers, or weaves) in a

molten matrix metal, which fills the space between the dispersed phase inclusions,
composite materials are created in the liquid state. Infiltration processes can be driven
by external pressures (gaseous, mechanical, electromagnetic, centrifugal, or ultra-
sonic) applied to the liquid matrix phase or by the capillary force of the dispersed
phase (forcing infiltration). The liquid infiltration method first creates a prefabri-
cated portion by adhering the reinforcement phase to it with glue. The metal is then
hydraulically pressed into the gap of the prefabricated part and solidifies to create
the composite material.
Figure 10 depicts the method of manufacturing particulate composite by infiltra-
tion method where powdered composite is infiltrated through liquid metal there by
initiating the formation of embryo of final composite with the help of hot crucible.
Fig. 10 Infiltration method

of producing composite
3 Conclusion
Composite designs implied for primary uniqueness and property improving indi-
viduals in the expansive regions covering the areas of aviation and vehicle appli-
cations concerning the perspectives connects with weight. Interim assembling the
light weight structures attributable to their particular elements estimates the kind
of techniques followed is another significant variable. The current report examines
about the different assembling techniques engaged with delivering the conspicuous
classification of composites which expects to lay out the exploration perspective as
well as business angles. One such blend that composite producers are at any point
search in to is fiber supported and molecule built up composites. The current work
additionally concluded with stresses that correlates with different production tech-
niques states it from conventional to advanced level of production methods take off
with different advantages, restrictions for the both research and commercial aspects.
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Manufacturing of Particulate and Fiber
Reinforced Composites: A Review
Abstract Composite materials, which have greater strength, less weight, and better
attributes, are progressively replacing traditional materials in use. The globe is
investigating the use of particle and fibre reinforced composites in all applications,
including toys, instrumentation, medicine, the building sector, air, land, and sea trans-
portation. Particle and fibre reinforced composites can be manufactured in a hetero-
geneity of methods depending on the application and type of reinforcement utilized.
As the trade improves in need for light-weight materials with higher strength for
particular purposes, composites reinforced with different fibres of natural or synthetic
materials are finding more importance. To identify the particle and fiber reinforced
composite material for important applications, an outline of a large assortment of
fibres, its classification, their attributes, functionality and different fibre composite
manufacturing procedures is offered. Polymer fiber reinforced composites exhibit
superior and superior qualities such as great damping property, durability, impact,
stiffness, flexural strength, and resistance to corrosion and wear. The production of
various particle and fibre reinforced composites components using diverse manu-
facturing procedures has been extensively covered in this chapter. The utilitarian
attributes of different fibres that are promptly accessible all over the world, and the
fabricating methods to manufacture the composite materials, should be concerted on
to decide the improved attribute of the material for the expected application.
Keywords Particle · Fibres · Composites · Manufacturing
S. Dayanand (B)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Government Engineering College, Ganagavathi 583227,
India
e-mail: samueldayanand@gmail.com
S. B. Boppana
Bengaluru 560064, India
120 S. Dayanand and S. B. Boppana
1 Introduction
Rapid evolution in the manufacturing unit has generated an ultimatum for materials
that are stronger, denser, stiffer, cheaper, and more viable [1, 2]. Composite materials
suit one of the important materials with such enhanced and increased strength that
they may be used in a wide range of ventures. Steel and aluminium have largely
been replaced with composite, which has frequently demonstrated improved perfor-
mance. By using composites, it was shown that the weight of steel and aluminium
may be reduced by 60–80% while maintaining or improving their qualities [3, 4]. The
word “composite” cites to a material fabricated of two basic components: reinforce-
ment and matrix [3, 5]. Three categories, polymer matrix composite, metal matrix
composite, and CMC (Ceramic Matrix Composite), can be used to classify composite
materials. Fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) composites are made when fibres are mixed
with resin or plastic [6–8]. A composite can have a metallic, ceramic, or polymeric
matrix and reinforcement. When adding reinforcement to various forms of matrix
material, a variety of mechanical property considerations are involved. For instance,
continuous fibre reinforced polymer matrix composites give a considerable increase
in strength and stiffness over unreinforced polymer matrix composites [9, 10]. Metal
Matrix Composites (MMC’s) have better temperature resistance and stiffness than
the parent matrix, but less ductility. In order to boost toughness without sacrificing
the parent ceramics, numerous desirable qualities, such as stiffness, wear resistance,
and refractoriness, reinforcement of ceramic materials is used. Composites may be
constructed to have certain physical characteristics in addition to their mechanical
characteristics [11]. For instance, MMC’s can be manufactured with nearly perfect
dimensional firmness throughout a broad temperature range which is advantageous
in space shuttle applications. Particulate composites come in a wide diversity of
structure and sizes [12, 13].
Very fine particles of 0.25 μm and chopped fibres (like glass), hollow spheres,
platelets or novel materials like carbon nanotubes can all be part of the particulates.
In each instance, the matrix serves as the binding medium required for structural
application purposes while the particles offer desirable material qualities. Particu-
late composites have a number of benefits. They strengthen the material by adding
reinforcement to the matrix material. Specific material qualities may be provided by
the reinforcement and matrix mix. For instance, adding conductive reinforcements
to a plastic can result in slightly conductive plastics. Particulate composites can
frequently be produced using more affordable, conventional techniques like injection
moulding [5–7, 14, 15].
The various parts created with FRP materials have exceptional advantages over the
traditional materials, together with high strength to minimum weight ratio, dimension
stability, good impact resistance, good corrosion resistance, durability, and ease of
moldability among others. Various production techniques are used for processing
composites. Numerous processes evolved and expanded over time. Consideration is
given to fibre and particle reinforcing of materials [16]. The variety of reinforcement
types and their influence on mechanical characteristics and processing are among
Manufacturing of Particulate and Fiber Reinforced Composites: A Review 121
the universal issues covered. It addresses the numerous problems with reinforcing
different matrices, such as the higher specific strength and stiffness of continuous fibre
reinforced polymers and particle reinforced metals and the improvement in firmness
of reinforced ceramics. The negative effects of reinforcing various matrices, which
can be related to cost, fabricating challenges, as well as loss of specific features, are
addressed. Axial particles inserted into a matrix material make up fiber-reinforced
composites (FRCs). To fabricate a material with a higher specific modulus and higher
specific strength is the goal of fiber reinforced composites. The fibers can transfer
load that has been put on matrix and strength can be achieved. At the end, interfacial
bonding is crucial for FRCs. Traditional FRC examples include wood and fibre glass
[17, 18].
Due to their favorable performance and mechanical and physical characteristics,
fibre and particle reinforced composite materials are finding more and more applica-
tions in a variety of technological fields. A wide range of structures, including aero
sectors, robots, tennis rackets, bicycles, industrial machines have frequently utilized
composite materials. Reinforcement fibers and particles serve as a load-carrying
capacity medium and the matrix serves as a load-transporting media in fibre and
particle reinforced composite materials. In order to maximize each phase’s strengths
and reduce its flaws, two or more phases are used [17, 19–21].
Since continuous fibre reinforcements affect the most types of matrix materials’
attributes, they will be the subject of attention. The world focuses on structural
applications since this is currently the main application sector and polymer compos-
ites account for the vast majority of the composite market. First, a general discus-
sion of some of the most important features of using reinforcements will be given,
followed by sections on different types of reinforcement, fundamental mechanical
behaviour, and processing [22]. This study also provides the several basic manu-
facturing methods accessible to the FRP sector and contrasts them in terms of their
benefits, drawbacks, applications, types of fibres and resin systems, needed part
quality, cost, and production rate. Other important considerations for determining
the correct procedure include component size, shape, and desired qualities [23].
1.1 Types of Reinforcements
The reinforcement phase of a composite material can take on several forms, such
as continuous, short fibre, platelet, sphere, spheroid, and is categorized according to
its shape, geometric arrangement, aspect ratios and concentrations. Continuous fibre
reinforcement can be of uni-axial, bi- or multi-directional in plane, or 3-dimensional.
When applied perpendicular to the direction of the fibres, the continuous fibre rein-
forcement types offer the best mechanical qualities among the several reinforcement
kinds. Even if their nature is locally diverse, the behaviour of particulate systems is
nonetheless primarily isotropic [10–14, 22, 24]. A significant amount of anisotropy
is present in continuous fibre systems, meaning that the attributes parallel to the fibre
direction and those along the fibre direction differ significantly. Depending on the
anisotropy, composites can be very helpful in some applications, however laminates,

which are made up of layers of fibres oriented at various angles, may be built if a more
isotropic behaviour is desired. Other varieties of continuous fibre systems include
built on woven fabric, which offers reinforcement consisting of two orthogonal direc-
tions or non-fabrics, which are made up of layers of fibres in different orientations held
together by through-thickness stitches. The through-thickness reinforcing provided
by the stitches in non-crimp fabrics enhances the characteristics (strength and tough-
ness) in this direction. In comparison to their non-woven equivalents, composites
with woven fabric reinforcement offer better processing flexibility (particularly with
regard to drape) while preserving appropriate mechanical qualities [24–28].
Continuous fibre composites typically get their strength and its stiffness from
fibre characteristics. The strength and firmness of fiber composites as a rule get from
the fiber reinforced attributes. The amazing attributes of the strands are evident.
The greater part of the strands are fused into polymer matrix. Bigger width SiC
filaments, produced by compound fume testimony methods are the most widely
recognized continuous fortifications for MMCs. For few matrix frameworks, over-
whelmingly silicon carbide filaments, created by pyrolyzing a polymer forerunner
are the most concentrated on fortifications however interest in oxides strands is
expanding [5–7, 29–31].
Of the different reinforce types, those in view of constant filaments give the best
mechanical attributes, when stacked and lined up with the fiber heading. Particulate
frameworks, albeit nearby heterogeneous materials in nature. They are transcendently
isotropous in their mechanical and physical way of behaving. Short fiber frame-
works are frequently planar isotropic. Constant fiber frameworks display significant
anisotropy. This anisotropy material can be exceptionally useful in specific appli-
cations yet in the event that a more isotropic way of behaving is wanted, layers
of filaments situated at various points are included. Different sorts of constant fiber
framework depend on woven material, which gives reinforcement in two symmetrical
headings, or non-pleat textures, that contain layers of strands at different direction
kept intact with increase in density. The fastens present in non-pleat textures give
through-density reinforcement, which works on the attribute’s principle (strength and
durability) towards this path. Composites in view of woven texture reinforce offer
more prominent adaptability in handling (particularly as to wrap), contrasted with
their non-woven partners, while keeping up with satisfactory mechanical attributes
[24, 30–32].
Fiber reinforcement can be gotten from providers in various structures, for
example consistent or cleaved rovings, whirl mat, slashed strand mat, woven textures,
non-pleat textures or even weaved pre-structures, customized to the state of the
possible part. These filaments then must be joined with the lattice somehow or
another. On the other hand, for persistent fiber materials, material might be accessible
in a transitional structure, where it has proactively been joined with the framework.
For PMC’s, ‘pre-pregs’ are a halfway structure, wherein the fiber reinforcement
has been joined. Layers of ‘pre-preg’ can be rested up with the reinforce at explicit
directions and stiffed at temperature and strain to give an inflexible overlay. Handling
of fibre reinforced endlessly, involves careful assessment. The interaction includes
drawing heaps of filaments along a slurry. For some of the MMC’s there is likewise
a halfway structure gotten from putting varieties of strands between dainty metallic
thwarts (this should be possible basically through a fiber twisting activity) preceding
hot squeezing. Ceaseless rovings of fibers can be cleaved to give spasmodic fiber
reinforcement [3, 30, 31, 33].
A predetermined number of various materials are accessible in bristle structure.
The high angle proportion (for example a couple of micrometers in breadth and
several micrometers in length) of silicon carbide might be integrated into matrix’s,
normally ceramic. This kind of reinforce will in general create better durability
attributes than lower angle proportion fortifications yet issues connecting with the
particular wellbeing dangers related with whiskers and handling troubles might have
forestalled more broad utilization of them. Possibly, any material in the form of
particulate structure can be utilized as the second stage in spasmodic composites yet
similarity all through the handling steps prompts numerous blends being unsatisfac-
tory. Further, a few blends give no benefits above the base matrix material so practi-
cally speaking, the quantity of mixes that are accessible financially are restricted. The
mass of well-known of these will be talked about in the pertinent materials segments
[30, 34–36].
2 Role of Particulate Reinforcements
Particle reinforced composites (PRC’s) are less viable in fortifying than fiber rein-
force. PRC’s chiefly accomplish increase in stiffness, however they additionally can
accomplish expansions in toughness and strength. Regardless, the upgrades are less
than the accomplished FRC’s. The fundamental advantage of PRC’s is their minimal
expense and simplicity of creation and framing contrasted with FRC’s. Specifically,
PRC’s finds various applications where elevated degrees of wear-resistances are
needed. The reinforce material is implanted into a matrix. The reinforce doesn’t
necessarily serve a simply underlying errand (building up the compound), but at
the mean time is used to change actual attributes like wear resistances, thermal
conductivity and friction coefficient. The reinforce can be either continuous, or
broken. Broken MMC’s can be isotropic in nature, and can be operated with quality
metal working methods, like expulsion, forging or rolling. Likewise, they might be
machined using traditional procedures, however generally would require the use of
poly crystalline diamond tooling [1, 5–7, 25, 30, 31, 37, 38].
Consistent reinforcements uses single filament strands, like carbon fiber or SiC
particle. However, the wires/strands are lodged into the base matrix in a specific
course, the outcome, is an anisotropic construction wherein the ordering of the mate-
rial impact its strength. It is noted that, the primary MMCs involved boron (B) fiber
as reinforcement. Broken reinforcement utilizes whiskers or particulates. The most
well-known reinforced materials in this classification are alumina and SiC particulate.
Ceramic materials provide various advantages in different ventures. They give higher
wear, intensity and erosion resistances along with high rigidity, dielectric strength,
modulus of versatility and volume resistivity. These materials likewise offer low
thermal extension than metals or plastics, and a more drawn out specimen life at
unique plan aspects and resistances [13, 14, 29–31, 34, 35, 37, 39, 40].
2.1 Size and State of the Particulates in Composites
For a particle reinforced composite, the calculation and size of particles are significant
in deciding composite attributes like mechanical attributes. Particle scattering and
dissemination in a composite assume a basic part in deciding composite attributes. For
superior execution of particulate bio ceramic-polymer composites, particle agglom-
erates should be separated during composite handling into essential particles (i.e.,
the littlest particulate bits of the minor part existing in as-manufactured or as-gotten
ceramic powder), which show adequate scattering and sensible appropriation in the
polymer matrix. Scattering particles from the dense state isn’t sufficient as the particle
reaching the upper layer in the composite will give break commencement destina-
tions, hence causing untimely failure of the composite when the composite is under
mechanical load. In a perfect world, particles present in the composite ought to be
in a scattered state. Subsequently, uncommonly planned handling gear or potentially
great creation methods are frequently required, which produces shear powers suffi-
ciently huge to conquer different particle grip powers during composite handling with
the goal that particle agglomerates can be diminished to tiny particles and can be
equitably dispersed in the composite. By and large, there is a basic measure of partic-
ulate reinforce for the composite, just above which, wanted attributes can be gotten
for the composite. In such a circumstance of profoundly filled polymers, handling
of the composites turns into a test, in some cases outlandish. Surface treatment of
bio-ceramic particles might ease handling troubles however may not be guaranteed
to prompt improved particle scattering [10, 30, 37, 41–44].
Aluminum Oxide or alumina: It has great electrical and mechanical attributes,
wear resistances and corrosion resistances. It has somewhat unfortunate thermal
shock resistances. It is utilized as an electrical cover for various electronic and elec-
trical ventures, along with flash attachment separators and electronic items substrates.
It is additionally utilized in synthetic, clinical and wear resistance applications
[1, 13, 29, 30, 45, 46].
Zirconium Oxide: Particulate zirconium oxide (ZrO2 ) has the most noteworthy
crack strength of any high level specialized clay. It’s known for strength, corrosion
resistances and mechanical attributes. ZrO2 is having thermal extension coefficient
that is extremely near steel, which makes it perfect for use in applications of steel. A
few ecological circumstances can make the material unsteady, making it no longer
have its mechanical attributes. Its moderately lower hardness and higher weight
likewise limit, its wide use in wear ventures [1, 31, 47].
Silica (SiO2 ): Silica is an amazing barrier pertaining to thermal property and has
basically zero thermal extension. It has great synthetic protection from liquid metals
yet is restricted by its exceptionally low strength. It is utilized for various hard-headed
and glass type ventures [1, 30, 48].
Titanium Diboride: Particulate titanium diboride (TiB2 ) is an electrically leading
artistic and can be machined utilizing unconventional electrical discharge machining
methods. It is an extremely harder material; nonetheless, it has poor mechanical
attributes. Its significant uses are in metallurgical attributes applications, including
liquid aluminium. It is likewise utilized for some restricted wear attributes appli-
cations, for example, ballistic protection to stop enormous measurement shots
[1, 30, 49].
Aluminum Diboride (AlB2 ): Aluminum diboride (AlB2 ) is a synthetic compound
produced using the metal aluminum and the metalloid boron. AlB2 particle is found
to be one amongst mixtures of aluminum and boron, the other is AlB12 , which are
both generally alluded to as aluminum boride. High immaculateness, submicron and
nano powder structures are associated with the compound. Borides are hard, high-
softening materials with metal-like conductivity. They are utilized in semiconductors,
superconductors, diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, turbine cutting edges
and rocket spouts. Borides have as of late been found to be superconductive and
super incompressible [50, 51].
Zirconium Diboride (ZrB2 ): Zirconium diboride (ZrB2 ) is an exceptionally cova-
lent unmanageable ceramic material with a hexagonal gem structure. ZrB2 is an ultra
high temperature ceramic (UHTC) with a dissolving point of 3246 °C. ZrB2 is a cova-
lent bond fortified with a (HCP) hexagonal crystal structure. Because of it’s hardness
held up to higher temperatures and flexible modulus, great abrasion, and creep resis-
tances, it is thought of as the base material for a wide scope of mechanical applica-
tions. For example, heater components, higher temperature cathodes, rocket motors,
thermal insurance structures for space shuttles vehicles with temperature capacities
at high temperature and uncompromising wear applications. Great thermal conduc-
tivity, idleness to liquid metals, good thermal shock resistances, and higher electric
conductivity, permit forming of ZrB2 -based ceramic through EDM. This will also
help in the forming of ZrB2 -based materials into complex designs [1, 52].
Boron Carbide: Boron carbide (B4 C) is one of the strongest materials following
diamond, and has extraordinary wear resistances. It is utilized widely for indignant
covering and impact spouts. B4 C is likewise a neutron safeguard, going with it an
essential decision for control bars and other atomic applications [1, 53].
Graphite (Gr): Graphite comprises of sheets of three-sided planar carbon mate-
rial. The singular layers are named graphene material. In each and every layer, the
carbon particles are organized in a honey-comb matrix with a good bond length and
the distance between each plane is 0.336 nm [2–4, 30–34, 54]. The same can be used
in powder form.
Silicon Carbide: Particle Silicon carbide (SiC) has exceptional wear attributes and
thermal shock resistances. It has great mechanical attributes, particularly at higher
temperatures. SiC is a good material for semiconductor having excellent electrical
resistivities. It is utilized broadly for mechanical adhesive due to its compound and
wear resistances [13, 14, 55].
Tungsten Carbide: Tungsten Carbide (WC) related cermets or clay metals have
wider use in cutting devices and other metal-framing instruments. Unadulterated
WC particle can be made utilizing a higher temperature using hot isostatic squeezing
method. WC material has extremely higher hardness, strength and wear resistances
and is utilized for grating water fly spouts; nonetheless, its weight restricts its
utilization in numerous advantages [2–4, 56].
Graphene: Graphene has some of the stand-out attributes: higher surface zone,
high electron transportability, high Young’s modulus with an incredible conductivity.
In view of its thermal conductivity, it is a fair competitor for the stronghold of an
aluminium matrix to update the thermal conductivity [50, 57].
Aluminum Nitride: Aluminum nitride (AlN) has an exceptionally higher thermal
conductivity being used as an electrical insulator. It is used as an optimal material for
different applications in thermal and electrical administration circumstances [58].
Boron nitride: Boron nitride (BN) is of hexagonal shape and a pasty white color
material which is frequently named as white graphite particle. It has extraordinarily
higher temperature resistances in dormant climates yet can’t be utilized above a
temperature of 500 °C temperature in an atmosphere air. It is utilized as a higher
temperature protector and in mix with TiB2 in numerous ferrous and aluminium
metallurgical usage approach [1–4, 59].
Silicon Nitride: Silicon nitride (Si3 N4 ) has the good blend of thermal, electrical
and mechanical attributes of any high-level specialized clay material. Its higher
strength and durability go with the material for car and used in bearing automotive
demands [1, 15, 60].
3 Fabrication of Particulate Reinforced Composites
The composite is prepared by joining powdered materials in a matrix. A number of

methods are available for preparing these [1–5, 30–34, 61].
3.1 Powder Metallurgy (PM)
Powder handling techniques related to deformity handling are utilized to create

particle or polymer fiber reinforced composites. This normally includes cold
squeezing and hot squeezing to create fundamentally particulate reinforced MMCs.
The base matrix and the reinforce powders are mixed to deliver a clear homogeneous
circulation; it is normally utilized for higher liquefying point matrix and dodges
isolation impacts and fragile response item development inclined to happen in fluid
state processes. This technique grants to acquire intermittently particulate reinforced
aluminium MMCs with the most noteworthy mechanical attributes. Aluminium
MMCs are utilized for armor applications yet stay restricted for enormous scope
creation. PM process is fundamentally comprising of three stages. The principal
stage gives the readiness of the powder and it accompanies the progressive stages,
after the first stage the powder items are combined as one with the reinforce. The
next interaction is the course of union, amid which, the powder form of worked blend
are joined jointly by sintering [31, 33, 61, 62].
3.2 Diffusion Bonding
It is a typical strong state handling strategy for joining comparable or different

metals. The dissemination of particles between clean metallic surfaces at a raised
temperature, prompts holding. The chief benefits of this strategy are the capacity
to deal with a wide assortment of metal matrices and influence of fiber direction
and volume portion. Amidst, the disadvantages are longer handling times, higher
handling temperatures and an impediment on the intricacy of shapes that could be
created. There are numerous variations of the essential dispersion holding process,
albeit every one of them include synchronous use of strain and higher temperature
[1–4, 31, 33, 61, 63]
3.3 Stir Casting
The least difficult and most financially utilized method is known as ‘vortex strategy’.
It is the result of effortlessness, minimal expense of handling, adaptability, generally
efficient for huge estimated parts to be ready as well as creation of close to net molded
parts. The vortex procedure includes the presentation of pre-treated particulates into
the vortex formed of liquid composite made by the turning impeller [1–6, 31, 33,
55–58, 61, 64].
An intriguing late improvement with regards to mix projecting is a two-step
blending technique. In this cycle, the base matrix material is heated to over its fluids
temperature; so, the metal is completely dissolved. The soften is then chilled off
to a required temperature in between the fluids and solid focuses and retain in a
semi-strong state. Then the preheated particulates are included and blended. The
slurry is once more heated to a completely fluid state and blended completely. This
two-step blending method has been utilized in the creation of aluminium. Amongst
all the deep rooted metal composite manufacture strategies, the said one is the most
affordable [55–58, 61, 64].
3.4 Squeeze Casting
This is also referred to a role as fluid metal forging. The liquid metal filled the
base portion of the pre-thermalled die. As the metal begins to harden, the upper
top half applies strain. How much strain subsequently applied is fundamentally not
exactly utilized in forging. Curing can be utilized with this cycle to shape openings
and breaks. The porosity is very low and the basic mechanical attributes are moved
along. Both the materials from ferrous and nonferrous can be delivered utilizing this
strategy [1, 31–34, 61, 65].
3.5 Compo Casting (CS)
It is a fluid state method in which, the reinforce particulates are included to a melt
that is to be solidified. It is noted that the strong particles previously formed in
the semi strong slurry can precisely entangle the reinforcing particulates, forestall
their gravity isolation and decrease their formation of cluster. These will bring about
better dispersion of the reinforce particulates. The low porosity observed in the
prepared castings has been credited to the good wettability in between the lattice and
the reinforce particulates along with the low volume shrinkages in the composites
[31, 61, 66].
3.6 In-Situ Synthesis
The composites arranged by ex-situ strategy experiences thermodynamic unsteadi-

ness among lattice and fortifications, accordingly restricting their surrounding and
high temperature mechanical attributes [4]. Ex-situ process has downsides like
agglomeration, unfortunate wetting and heterogeneity in microstructure. As of late,
another course is created for manufacture of composites through in-situ blend. In-
situ combination is a cycle where in the fortifications are formed in the frame-
work by the managed metallurgical responses (exothermic response), which shows
a spotless matrix/reinforce interface, that prompts better enhancement in mechan-
ical attributes of the composites. In situ composites are multiphase materials where
the building up stage is blended inside the lattice during the composite manufacture
[31, 46, 51, 61, 66, 67].
3.7 Advanced Shear Innovation
The above traditional strategies produce agglomerated structures displaying lower

strength and malleability due to non-wettability of reinforce by matrix composites
and thickness contrasts between the two materials and absence of effective blending
innovation to accomplish a uniform dissemination of fine-size reinforce inside the
lattice. Thus, the presentation and maintenance of building up particles in lattice is
very troublesome [31, 61, 66].
To defeat this, a new rheo-handling strategy called the melt conditioning using
advanced shear technology (MCAST) process has been created for assembling close
net-shape MMCs with homogeneous dissemination reinforce in the matrix. The key
thought is to apply adequate shear pressure (τ) on particle bunches implanted in the
fluid metal to beat the typical rigidity of the group [26–32, 66–68].
3.8 Distributive Blending
Distributive blending utilizes ordinary mechanical mixing to pre-blend the Al

compound with building up particles. The blending hardware is same as regular
mix cast arrangement. A controlled argon climate will be kept with a heater all
through the entire investigation to forestall liquefy oxidation. The reinforce particles
are moved gradually and ceaselessly into the liquefy which would be precisely mixed
at 600–800 rpm. After all the reinforce is brought effectively into the fluid metal, the
composite blend would be permitted to set in the pot and accordingly thermalled to
the preset dissolving temperature, and afterward mixed, however it produces agglom-
erated structures. Agglomerated structures will be formed in stale zones (e.g., close
to pot walls) because of absence of adequate shear force in distributive blending. To
separate the agglomerates, it is essential to apply a satisfactory shear pressure which
defeats the typical strong power or rigidity of the bunches. The course of disper-
sive blending under escalated shearing creatively takes on a high-shear dispersive
blending activity of the twin-screw component to the errand of conquering the firm
power of agglomerates. The twin-screw system is utilized for the MCAST cycle
comprising of a couple of co-turning, completely intermeshing, and self-cleaning
screws. The screws have extraordinarily planned profiles which bring about high-
shear rate and focused energy of disturbance. The fundamental capability of the twin
screws is to separate the agglomerates and groups implanted in the fluid liquefy under
a high-shear pressure and scatter the particles consistently under the extreme focus
of disturbance [31, 61, 66–68].
3.9 Ultrasonic Assisted Projecting
As of late, metal matrix nano composites research is going on, in a more promi-
nent degree. It beats numerous restrictions like flexibility, low crack strength and
machinability.
Anticipating, as a liquid stage technique, is outstanding for its ability to convey
as cast light weight portions of metal matrix nanocomposites with incredible support
dissemination. Regardless, nanosized particles present irksome issues: it is excep-
tionally difficult to disperse them reliably in liquid metals by virtue of their lamentable
wettability in metal framework and their gigantic surface-to volume extent, which
successfully impels agglomeration and gathering. To achieve uniform dispersing
and movement of nanoparticles in aluminum system nanocomposites, researchers

encouraged a creative technique that joined solidifying processes with ultrasonic
cavitation-based dissipating of nanoparticles in metal melts. Transient cavitation
could convey an implosive impact adequately ready to isolate the clustered fine
particles and disperse them more reliably in liquids [31, 61, 66–69].
3.9.1 Friction Stir
The above existing strategies are not reasonable for creating surface composites with
particulate reinforce, due to arrangement of unfavorable stages and furthermore it
structures interfacial response among reinforce and metal matrix. The above issues
can be abstained from by setting up the composite underneath the melting place of
substrate.
Friction stir processing, is one of the newer and promising thermo mechanical
handling procedures that changes the microstructure attributes and good mechanical
attributes of the material in single pass to accomplish most extreme execution with
low creation cost significantly quicker utilizing a basic and modest device. Its rule is
same as rubbing mix welding, in which a non-consumable pivoting device with an
exceptionally planned pin and shoulder is dove into the connection point between
the two plates to be welded and navigated along the line of the joint. The contact
brought about by the pivoting instrument thermals up the materials around the pin to
a temperature beneath the softening point and disfigures plastically. The turn of the
device “blends” the material and reinforce together and brings about a combination
of the two materials [12, 31, 55, 61, 66–68, 70].
4 Fiber Reinforced Composites (FRPs)
Depending on the fibers that are present in the composites, FRPs can be categorized.
The one that has longer fibers relate to diligent fiber reinforced composites, on the
other hand, the composites that have shorter fiber strongholds are arranged under non-
uniform fibers, while some have dual kinds of fibers. Fibers can be put mono direc-
tionally in the network development of reliable FRPs, and can take stress and load
applied on the composite framework, the fibers that are broken ought to need longer
length to absorb proper load while restricting split advancement. The processing
method and course of fibers define the various attributes and basic approach to acting
of composite material. Enhancement in attributes, for instance, impact sturdiness and
shortcoming strength ought to be noticeable while dealing with artificially treated
typical fibers. Strands related to glass and basalt in the uniformly distributed stage
were regularly used in composite materials. Important attributes of typical polymer
fiber composites have likely applications in the state-of-the-art business, as experts
as of now are obliged towards the headway of innocuous to the biological system
materials in light of serious environmental guidelines [16, 23, 25, 71–74].
4.1 Natural Fiber Reinforced Composites
Huge attributes of natural polymer fiber reinforced with polymer fiber composite
(NFPCs) have possible ventures in the cutting edge manufacturing, as analysts
presently are constrained towards the advancement of harmless ecosystem mate-
rials because of severe ecological regulations. There are different strands avail-
able for composite materials and they are basically delegated typical or designed
fibers. Further, late assessments have disclosed sensational material attributes, when
two strands are joined, blending in with a grid material to approach a combination
composite material. Natural fibres are particularly simple to get and are available in
nature. They uncover a couple of wonderful material attributes, insignificant cost to
unit volume, higher strength and express firmness. Composites are built of regular
fibre and fortifications appear to convey a few different attributes over manufactured
filaments, like decreased weight, cost, harmfulness, natural contamination, and recy-
clability. These monetary and ecological advantages of natural fibres composites
made them prevalent over manufactured FRPs for current advantages. Contingent
upon the sort, normal strands have comparative designs with various structures. The
consideration of longer and shorter regular strands in thermoset lattices have showed
elite execution application [8, 10, 19, 28, 30–32].
4.2 Synthetic Fiber Reinforced Composites
Artificial strands that are conveyed by compound mix are named synthetic fibers and
additionally named normal or inorganic considering their substance. Glass fibers
composites are for the most part comprehensively involved amid all of the produced
strands as they provide eminent strength and firmness, warm consistent quality, insur-
ance from impact, substance, disintegration, and wear attributes. Regardless, the
machining operations of glass fiber-built up polymers is reasonably difficult. Glass
fibers also convey the damage of evacuation around the completion life. In any case in
specific advantages, more immovability is essential, carbon fibers are used as opposed
to GFs. Graphene strands are one more sort of unrivaled execution of carbonaceous
fibers that give back higher inflexibility with redesigned electrical conductivity when
diverged from carbon strands. A couple of updated attributes of graphene fibers show
their chance in various advantages, similar to light weight conductive connections
and wires, knittable super capacitors, micromotors, day-light based cell materials,
actuators, etc. [8, 10, 17, 19, 28, 30–32].
4.3 Hybrid Filaments Reinforced Composites
Thermoplastic reinforced composites with normal fiber, by and large, show unfortu-
nate strength execution when contrasted with thermoset composites. Consequently,
to gain advantages of plan adaptability and reusing potential outcomes, these normal
fiber reinforced composites are blended with limited quantities of engineered fibers
to make them more alluring for specialized applications.
Particle Reinforced Composites (PRP) contrasted with FRC, PRC isn’t that
compelling through material strength and crack resistances property. In any case,
ceramic, metal or inorganic particulates confine the twisting and give great material
firmness. As of late, PRCs are likewise getting a touch of consideration because
of their isotropic material attributes and cost-viability. Besides, these reinforced
composites are fabricated utilizing comparable procedures utilized for stiff mate-
rial. PRCs are utilized for common applications like streets and substantial designs,
where a serious level of wear resistance is normal, one such example is concrete that
goes about as a folio material, total span of coarse stone or rock as an additional
material gives good stiffness and hardness. [3–6, 8, 11].
Contrasted with FRC, particulates reinforced composite (PRC) isn’t that effective
through material strength and crack resistances property. Be that as it may, metal,
ceramic or inorganic particulates limit the distortion and give great material stiff-
ness. As of late, PRCs are likewise getting a touch of consideration because of their
isotropic material attributes and cost efficacy. Also, these reinforced composites are
fabricated by comparative procedures utilized for stiff material [5, 6, 8, 59, 60, 64].
4.4 Manufacture Strategies for Fiber Reinforced Composites
Treatment of FRP composite incorporates gathering of fibers and subsequently

building up fibers, using network material through numerous strategies. The work
incorporates twisting around, winding around, plaiting, and sewing of fibers.
In the present scenario, automated facilities, using an advanced computer might
also help the way in which the fiber angle can be varied. The volume of fibers to be
used while preparing composites can also be known easily [31, 32, 75, 76].
4.4.1 Hand Layup Method
It is the one of the most notable and extensively used open shape composite prepa-
ration technique. From the get go, fiber executes are kept through a definite shape;
a coat would be enforced in basic removal process. Resin is poured while using a
brush. A roller is finally used to send the resin while packing on the surfaces for
securing a redesigned relationship in between the ever-evolving thin layers of the
build-up and the grid materials [8, 10, 17, 19, 28, 30–32, 75].
4.4.2 Spray up Process
This method is nearly same as the hand rest up. In any case, it utilizes a handgun
that splashes tar and cleaved filaments on a shape. All the while, a roller bar is used
to mix these strands into the matrix material. It is an open form sort of technique,
where slashed strands give superior comparability and very quicker than hand layup
[8, 10, 17, 19, 28, 30–32, 76].
4.4.3 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
Vacuum implantation is one more new turn of events, where fibers are put on a shape
and a chamber is organized between a vacuum pack and a mould. Vacuum forces
make the material to be siphoned into the chambers around the fibers to join the cover
structural property. For the enhancement in the strength of material composites, fibers
need to undergo surface treatment [8, 10, 17, 19, 28, 30–32, 77].
4.4.4 Vacuum Bag Molding
Generally, the vacuum sack shaping method would be made by the hand recharge
method. Overlay is first made by employing the hand recharge methodology, subse-
quently, the same is used under vacuum pack. Air present would then be taken care
while pneumatic force packs the part. Different evened out composites were formed
with multi scale fortresses of carbon fibers with the help of a vacuum terminating
process, which killed potential outcomes of unmistakable porosity and less than ideal
impregnation of twofold strongholds, with extensions in flexural, and inter laminar
shears attributes, independently. The fiber support mat coordinated at the base piece
of the shape and pre heated pitch is directed under strain through an injector. Various
blends of fiber materials with its heading, along with three dimensional fortresses,
can be done by RTM process [8, 10, 17, 19, 28, 30–32, 78–80].
4.4.5 Pultrusion
Pultrusion cycle involves strands of constant fibers getting through a pitch shower.
The fibers are additionally combined using a die that is relatively warm. The persis-
tent interaction is valuable one in the manufacture of composites involving steady
cross segment that has extensive length. The method also empowers creation using
robotization that often reduces the price of manufacturing [16–18, 30–32].
4.4.6 Injection Molding
The method can manufacture composite specimens, with higher accuracy and at
extremely low process durations. In a common place infusion shaping cycle, fiber
composites as pellets are taken care of through a container, and afterward they are
instructed by a screw with a thermalled barrel. When the necessary measure of mate-
rial is liquefied in a barrel container, the screw infuses the material into a spout into
the form, where it is to be cooled and gets the ideal shape. Infusion shaping is viewed
as very proper manner for thermoplastic embodiments of electronic items expected
in clinical enterprises. Enhancement in fiber matrix similarity and consistency in the
scattering of fibers in the lattice material is accomplished [19, 20, 30–32, 79, 80].
4.4.7 Electrospinning Process
The arising nano technology has incited scientists to search out new nano-scale
fiber producing methods for composite assembling. An electro static, fiber manu-
facture method named electro spinning process, utilizes electrical powers to create
continuous filaments of two nano-meters to a few micrometers. Natural polymer
arrangement catapulted into spinneret structures a persistent fiber, which is gath-
ered. It serves enhanced mechanical and physical attributes; adjusting over process
confines. Some applications involve its use in wound recuperating, tissue designing
frameworks, drug delivery, as a layer in bio-sensors, beauty care products, and so on
[22, 30–32, 81].
4.4.8 Computerized Assembling Process
It is a steady collaboration that present self-computerization, which prompts reduced

amount. Fiber winding is very useful to make axi-symmetric, along with some non-
cylindrical symmetry composite parts, for instance, pipe turns. Guided by a couple
of pulleys, steady ‘prepreg’ thin sheets, rovings together with single filament would
be built such that it is subjected under pitch shower while its being received under
a turning mandrel. Then, ensuing to solicit number of layers in mandrel, which has
the best condition of the thing, is set for alleviating at the lab temperature. The
prepared mechanical filament winding method is outfitted with a cutting-edge robot.
The benefits are better method monitoring, accuracy, repeatability while displacing
human executive [30, 82, 83].
4.4.9 Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM offers an elevated degree of mathematical intricacy for the creation of completely

modified objects as it exploits PC helped planning and furthermore wipes out the
necessity of moulds, which reduces cost and assembling process. Additive Manufac-
turing relates to main advances in composite assembling since the technique gives
extensive reach while determining fiber orientation, its direction and volume frac-
tion. It can cross over plan thought in the final item rapidly without burning through
material and process duration, which makes it good model for prototype and personal
[30, 31, 84–88].
5 Execution of FRP
There are a few variables, compared to composite material elements and assembling
methods, that influences the FRP’s composite execution.
5.1 Interphase
The area over the fiber/powder relating to a structure of a matrix is generally pertained
to interphase. While stress is caused at inter-phase, move from cross section to fiber
occurs under stacking. Thusly, surveying contents of composite and various attributes
of its materials, is of prime importance. Further, knowing the approach of acting of
interphase is critical [8, 10, 30–32, 42, 71, 83].
5.2 Pre-treatments
Alkalization, preheating, utilization of silane pairing specialist to adjust fiber over

the matrix brings about the enhancement of bond at the point of interaction and
combination of the matrix to the fibers [8, 10, 30–32, 42, 71, 83].
5.3 Fiber Volume
It is the percentage of volume of fiber in the whole volume of composite material.

It is dependent on weight and density of matrix and fibers. Usually, it is found that
when the volume of fiber increases, the modulus of elasticity of the composite was
also found to increase [8, 10, 30–32, 42, 71, 83].
5.4 Fiber Direction
The composite’s strength and stiffness is based on fiber’s direction and thus its
completely relevant to the mechanical properties of the prepared composite. Direc-
tions associated with composites are random, multi-directional and sometimes
uni-directional [8, 10, 30–32, 42, 71, 83].
5.5 FRP Supplanting Traditional Material
When a fiber reinforced composite, is considered that has the blend of unquestion-
able base matrix, offering a redesign in attributes of materials compared to polymers,
pure metals or mixtures, FRP reinforced composites become most compatible for
needed application. Strands as support in a grid of a composite development go prob-
ably as a stack conveying part. While the major material of matrix can keep fibers
in their normal position and bearing, it similarly works with pressure movement.
FRP reinforced materials have been seen as better compared to metals for various
advantages. Other than the striking wear attributes, polymeric composites offers flex-
ibility in multipurpose functioning and serve as newer tri-biological materials. For
vehicle and aeronautics ventures, MMC composites with carbon fibers is overriding
existing ascast metals since it gives fantastic mechanical, good electrical attributes
alongside redesigned wear and erosion insurance at higher load applications. The
most broadly perceived kinds of FRP composites used as support in the significant
plans are CFRP composites. These FRP’s show extraordinary security from shear
and also flexural stresses. For the significant plans to persevere in an unforgiving
environment, build up materials ought to be non-corrosive and non-magnetic. FRP’s
bars have these attributes and can be considered relevant for the various RC struc-
tural property over ordinary steel support. Expansion in versatility with increase in
damping extent has been taken note. Besides, there was reduce in weight saving
because of a decline in material thickness. Hybrid composite with jute material
alongside fibers of carbon offer monetary, doable choices compared to the CFRP
composites, uncovering uncommon damping attributes [8, 10, 30–32, 42, 71, 83].
6 Difficulties in Using FRC
For the composite, to become serious with various metals, it is critical to diminish cost
alongside required ensured strength, practicality and dependability. A few significant
difficulties with FRPs are absence of information and normalization, nonbiodegrad-
ability of manufactured filaments, high unrefined substance price, little endeavors
being developed of items and applications. Once in a while, it has been seen that indi-
viduals don’t share their insight for improvement to the general public and attempt
to keep their syndication. This is the initial step for research that the exploration
ought to be moral and ought to be advancement for the general public. Artificial
engineered material accessible for composite isn’t biodegradable and establishes
issues for climate. In India, significance of exploration isn’t that basic as different
nations and consequently, advancement of composite innovation is turning out to be
extremely tedious and expensive cycle [8, 10, 30–32, 42, 71, 83].
A critical test in making FRC reinforced material is the shortfall of fiber-
framework depiction discernment. Increasing demand of FRC, because of the auto-
motive business, prompts more critical bet of placing assets into normal substances
[8, 10, 30–32, 42, 71, 83, 89, 90].
7 Conclusions
This review manages not just investigating different particle and fiber reinforced
composites, yet additionally it features ongoing turn of events and future market
prerequisites. Composite materials are uncovering different updates specifically
material attributes since their improvement to some degree. An attempt is made
all over the world to know about possible alternative for traditionally used mate-
rials particularly through composites. All through late numerous years, strongholds
involving fibers or particulates that pertains for structural development showed excep-
tional results, considering notable selection relevant to most noteworthy advantages.
Various categorization of composite materials, close by the attributes of their element
parts, were analyzed for finding the use of composites in day to day activities. Fiber-
supported composite material would often be considered as supreme uplifting rein-
forced composites due to its strength associated with the vast majority of purposes
from most noteworthy fields. Composite materials are made with different different
strategies, although every strategy is relevant for explicit material. Success of the
material is based upon the blend of type alongside volume of matrix as each composite
has different genuine attributes, namely stiffness, melting point, unbending nature,
etc. Composites, offered increase in strength of material, but decrease in terms of
weight was appreciable. Further assessment is required for knowing newest plans
involving a mix of various varieties that embrace recent synthesizing strategies. It
has been seen, there is immense effort in synthesizing fiber and particle supported
composite which consolidates various applications. The present world has been keen
enough to know the importance of economically and effectively synthesizing fiber
and particle reinforced composite and implement the same in a majority of diverse
applications.
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298
Evaluation of Mechanical Properties
of Composites Involving Wear, Hardness
Mechanical Properties of Aluminium
Metal Matrix Composites:
Advancements, Opportunities
and Perspective
Adil Wazeer, Arnab Mukherjee, Apurba Das, Barnali Sengupta,

Gurudas Mandal, and Arijit Sinha
Abstract Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) have rapidly gained prominence for
prospective deployments in the aerospace and automotive sectors owing to its greater
strength-to-weight ratio and greater temperature tolerance. MMCs are formed by
incorporating a reinforcing element into a metal matrix. Due to its exceptional
strength, stiffness, wear resistance, thermal stability, and a variety of other char-
acteristics that vary depending on the type and quantity of reinforcements used,
aluminium-based metal matrix composites are considered as one of the best engi-
neering structural elements. The chapter examines the mechanical properties of
Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites as well as the progress accomplished in this
area. Opportunities and perspectives are also provided in the chapter.
Keywords MMC · Composites · Mechanical properties · Reinforcements ·

Composition
A. Wazeer (B)
School of Laser Science and Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700 032, India
e-mail: wazeeradil@gmail.com
A. Mukherjee
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Netaji Subhash Engineering College, Kolkata 700 152,
India
A. Das
Titragarh Wagons Ltd., Anandapur, Kolkata 700107, India
Titagarh Firema, Loc. Ponteselice, Via Appia Antica, 81100 Caserta, Caserta, Italy
B. Sengupta · G. Mandal · A. Sinha
Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Kazi Nazrul University, Asansol 713 340, India
146 A. Wazeer et al.
1 Introduction
The correct choice of correct material for a particular application is an arduous task
in engineering. There are various types of materials to choose from but selecting
the correct appropriate material is crucial in achieving a successful product. The
properties of material are largely affected by geographical conditions like tempera-
ture, precipitation, and pressure. Light-weight materials is not seen to have enough
strength whereas brittle materials are subjected to constant failure due to low tough-
ness resistance. Aluminum, being the most abundant metallic element found in Earth
has been used in various applications since its advent in fifteenth century. Nineteenth
century marked the first commercial use of aluminum during which the uses were
immense [1]. With the introduction of alloying aluminum, it could be widely used
for more various purposes and in industrial sectors making it at par with iron and
steel [2].
The performance (strength, stiffness, etc.) of the metal and its alloys can be further
improved by combining it with another material mainly other metal, ceramic or
organic compounds resulting in the formation of metal matrix composites (MMC).
Incorporating particles like whiskers, fibres or hollow micro balloons of different
material to meet specific design needs [3]. Properties for both the matrix and rein-
forcement can be achieved from a MMC by combining the reinforcement strength
and the ductile properties of the matrix [4]. Aluminum has been a prime choice in
the composition of metal matrix composites [5]. It is mainly due to its light weight,
abundancy, economically viable, high corrosion, and wear resistance. Due to the
aforesaid properties aluminum MMCs are mostly used in aerospace, automobile and
in railway industries [6]. SiC, graphite, Al2 O3 , ZrO2 and Zr are some of the most
common reinforcements used in the manufacture of aluminum metal matrix compos-
ites [7]. The reinforced composites are generally of three types as (i) long-continuous-
unbroken fibres reinforcement of high strength material, (ii) whiskers reinforcement,
(iii) equiaxed particles reinforcement of high strength material [SiC reinforced].
Reinforcement with silicon carbide (SiC) increases the strength (tensile), hardness,
density, and the wear properties [8]. The material’s hardness can be increased by
adding Boron Carbide (B4 C) reinforcement to the Aluminium matrix [9]. Zircon as
a reinforcement improves the wear resistance by a significant amount [10]. Adding
fly ash as reinforcement improves the wear resistance but decreases the corrosion
resistance [11]. Using metallic glass as reinforcements improves the density and the
overall strength of the metal matrix while reducing the ductility [12]. Stir casting
method from liquid phase processing technique and powder metallurgy from solid
phase fabrication techniques are the most used processing methods for the Al MMC
[13, 14]. In stir casting technique reinforcement materials are mixed to the molten
aluminum by mechanical stir process which are shaped thereafter [14, 15]. Fine,
powdered particles are pushed together to form the appropriate shape in the powder
metallurgy process, and then the materials are heated to join them [15].
Mechanical Properties of Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites … 147
2 Mechanical Properties from Mechanical and Tribological

Behavior of Particulate
2.1 Tensile Strength
Direct and indirect strengthening are the two types of strength to be predicted in a
matrix composite. The direct stress is due to the changes in the microstructure in the
metal matrix. Whereas indirect strengthening is due to the microstructural changes
and alterations that occurs during the process of fabrication and processing. Due to
this reinforcement strengthening the overall mechanical characteristics of the matrix
are changed significantly.
Reinforcements has a key part in governing the mechanical characteristics of the
composite materials. Al6061/SiC has proved to have a greater tensile strength then
Al6061/graphite composites [16]. Similarly, aluminum alloys like Al7075 reinforced
with silicon carbide and red mud provides more tensile strength than that with silicon
carbide and fly ash [17]. Reinforcements added to the aluminum matrices helps in
increasing the modulus of elasticity and the overall strength of the composite by
distributing the load bearing capacity to the reinforcements as well [18] instead of
monolithic alloys [19–22]. Although addition of reinforcements beyond the needed
limit led to decrease in tensile strength [23], dipping the reinforcement size is found
to be an improvement for the overall strength in the matrix composites [24]. Sulaiman
et al. investigated on heat treatment method to enhance the tensile properties of the
composites due to weak interface between the matrix and the reinforcements [25].
For ease of fabrication and improvement in the mechanical characteristics, they are
pre heated to a peak aged condition [26]. After heat treatment of the composites, an
increase in strength and precipitation hardening is seen to improve with the reduction
in the cracking tendency [27]. Pre-heating the reinforcements can increase the mate-
rial’s tensile strength [28]. Addition of commonly used ceramic reinforcements like
SiC and Al2 O3 in AMMCs results in an increase in elastic modules, strength as well
as hardness of the composites. It has been seen that up to a 10% increase in SiC wt%
reinforcement leads to an improved strength beyond which non uniform distribution
causes cluster formation [16]. Increasing the wt% of Al2 O3 reinforcement in Al 1100
alloy up to 6 wt% was seen to increase the tensile strength to 188 MPa, above which
the strength value decreased [29]. Stir casting method helped in the fabrication of the
A356/15%SiC composite. The mechanical properties of the composite were repre-
sented by the size of the impeller, temperature, and stirring rate [30, 31]. Altering
the conditions resulted in dissimilar tensile properties up to 309.83 MPa. Hot rolling
of A356/3%B4 C improved the maximum strength of the composites by reaching a
maximum tensile strength of 310 MPa [32]. Fabrication of AA430/7.5% SiC MgO of
reinforcement size 15 μm increased tensile properties with reinforcement size [33].
Centrifugal casting of Al/SiC composite increased the tensile strength, the maximum
being 144 MPa. Using some other reinforcement particles, not conventionally used
like Gr, WC, B4 C, ZrO2 , TiB2 and others on various aluminium alloys has been
studied and experimented by past researchers [34–39]. Addition Bio reinforcements
like rice husk on A356.2/SiC composite improved the damping capacity by 0.06 at
a frequency of 16 Hz [40]. Strength was found at to be 150 MPa with 10 wt% SiC
reinforcement and 0% GSA (Ground nutshell) in Al–Mg–Si alloy [41].
2.2 Hardness
Adding TiC particles in Al6063 alloys increased the 20% hardness, i.e., hardness
value is proportional to the amount of TiC particles added [42]. There was an improve-
ment in the Brinell hardness value with 63.7% for single reinforced composite and
81.1% for hybrid composites [43]. Alumina particles enhances the hardness of the
Al7075 alloy, the hardness is seen to decrease with the addition of graphite [44].
Reheating the aluminium MMC with reinforcements like TiC, MoC, WC and Fe3 C
increases the hardness [45, 46]. For SiC reinforced aluminium alloys, the hardness
increases with the increase in SiC particles [16, 47].
2.3 Impact Strength
When a load is suddenly applied on a body, the amount of load resisted by the
impacted material is called impact strength or toughness. Among the mechanical
properties studied on AMMCs, impact strength holds a relatively limited infor-
mation. Studies made by Hasson et al. on the thermal treatment of Al6061/SiC
composite showed that orientation of the grains depicted on the toughness value
[48]. Highest toughness value was found for the case with least SiC whiskers in a
crack plane. Table 1 shows us the toughness values for some aluminium composites
[49]. Increasing in diameter of Boron reinforcement in Al/B composite, the tough-
ness was seen to increase [50]. Fibre orientation was also seen to play a part on
the toughness value [50]. High ductile matrices also improved the toughness value
for boron reinforced aluminum alloys [50]. Nardone et al. studies on the Charpy
impact test on SiC/6061 composite and concluded that a low tensile strength value
was found for toughened composites by impacts [51]. The impact energy value was
seen to decline within a few hours for thermal ageing of alumina reinforced AMMCs
conducted by Unsworth et al. [52]. Impact behavior Al2014/Al2 O3 and Al6061/
Al2 O3 AMMCs was studied in the higher temperature range by Bonollo et al. [53].
It was seen that for both the composites, the impact energy generally increased with
the increase in temperature from 25 to 200 °C. An increase in temperature led to the
value of fracture energy for Al2040/Al2 O3 composite to decrease while the unrein-
forced aluminium alloy showed an increase in the fracture energy value [54]. Ozden
et al. performed Charpy impact test on SiC reinforced Al alloys and concluded that
the particle agglomeration, clustering, and low matrix bonding affected the impact
behaviour of the composite [55].
Table 1 Al/B composite

Matrix Fibre diameter Fracture energy
toughness with fibre diameter
(μm) (kJ/m2 )
[49]
Al1100/B 100 90
140 150
200 200–300
2.4 Compressive Strength
Increase in compressive strength of Al356 alloy reinforced with fly ash particles was
observed to enhance the compressive strength to a maximum of 738.21 MPa [56].
For Al5083 alloy with 10 wt% SiC as reinforcement also increased the compressive
strength to 350 MPa. Compressive strength was found to increase from 221.1 to
351.6 MPa for Al6063/6% Al2 O3 /1%Gr with hardening [34]. A 40% increase in
compressive strength was observed by Kurtyka et al. for A339 alloy with SiC as
reinforcement fabricated through FSP process [57].
3 Tribological Properties
The term tribology defines as the study of surfaces interacting under relative motion
under the application of surface friction, wear, lubrication, and other aspects [58].
Due to sliding of the solid materials, there is a loss of material on the interacting
surfaces [59, 60] and so the strengthening of solid surfaces against the effect of
friction and wear is required [61]. In case of aluminum metal matrix composites, the
strengthening can be achieved via two methods, the direct and indirect mechanisms.
For the direct mechanism, the load bearing capacity is transferred to the reinforcement
using shear lag theory [62–65] and homogenization method [62, 66–70]. For the
indirect mechanism, the load bearing capacity gets transferred to the matrix from the
reinforcement [71]. In case of the later mechanism, refinement of the microstructure
predicts improved tribological and mechanical properties.
3.1 Wear Resistance
Relative motion between two mating surfaces results wear leading to loss of materials.
Past research on wear property of MMCs have shown that MMCs tend to have better
performance than the unreinforced ones [70, 72–74]. The wear resistance is seen
to rise accordingly with the enhancement of reinforcement content in an MMC.
This is due to the property of high strength and hardness of the MMC. Addition
of reinforcements like alumina [75–77], silicon carbide [78–82], granite [83], glass
[84], boron carbide [85, 86], nickel aluminide [87, 88], aluminum diboride [89] and
others have shown an improvement in wear property. Carbon nanotubes were found
to be a primary material in the improvement in the wear resistance of the aluminium
MMCs [90–92]. Adhesive, fatigue, abrasive and corrosive wear are some of the
common wear mechanisms for MMCs [93]. Adhesive wear is due to the formation
of strong forces due to the relative contact motion of the surfaces leading to shearing
of the adhered junctions. The rubbing of a hard surface on a softer surface or a hard
particle getting trapped between the sliding surfaces lead to abrasive wear. Because
of cyclic loading conditions, fatigue wear is predominant on all surfaces. Corrosive
wear occurs due the reaction of surfaces with the environment leading to removal of
surface material in the process.
Of all the reinforcements, silicon carbide (SiC) is the most widely used AMCs
because of its good mechanical properties, availability and economically viable.
Effect of wear reduces in AMCs with an increase in wt% of the SiC matrix reinforce-
ments [94, 95]. Reinforcement size of 120 μm proved to be better in performance than
those of 47 μm sized particles [96]. For a same volume fraction, dual sized parti-
cles also were found out to have better performance than the smaller ones. Apart
from reinforcement types, the selection of the type of aluminium in the matrix also
determines the wear resistance [97]. AA7010 alloy shows maximum wear resistance
with the addition of 25 wt% SiC as reinforcement [98]. For Al6061 alloy, addition
of SiC by 6 wt% showed better tribological properties than addition of 2 or 4 wt%
SiCP [94]. Adding copper by 5 wt% in Al–Mg–Cu alloys, the wear resistance was
seen to improve [99]. Improved wear resistance of SiC reinforcement are observed
compared to Al2 O3 for Al–Cu based alloys [79]. The wear constant is found out by
the Eq. 1 as shown.
W
K = Hv (1)
L
where
K = wear constant,
W = wear rate,
L = load applied,
Hv = Hardness of material.
Effects of SiC emery paper and Al2 O3 emery paper as counter face material on
SiC reinforced AMCs is shown in Eqs. 2 and 3 respectively [79] to calculate the wear
rate (WR).
WR(SiC) = 0.0206 + (0.0034 ∗ D) + (0.0046 ∗ P) + (0.0059 ∗ R)

+ (0.0012 ∗ D ∗ P) + (0.0007 ∗ P ∗ R) + (0.0014 ∗ R ∗ D)
− (0.0003 ∗ D ∗ P ∗ R) (2)
WR(Al2 O3 ) = 0.0122 − (0.0014 ∗ D) + (0.0023 ∗ P) + (0.0054 ∗ R)

− (0.0001 ∗ D ∗ P) + (0.0007 ∗ P ∗ R) − (0.0012 ∗ D ∗ R)
− (0.0008 ∗ D ∗ P ∗ R) (3)
where
P = applied load,
R = size of abrasives,
D = sliding distance.
Considering two more parameters of sliding speed (N) and volume percentage
(V), wear rate of Al7075/SiC can be determined by Eq. 4 [100].
WR = 24.604 + (1.9585 × R) − (3.375 × V) + (3.2086 ∗ P) + (4.042 ∗ N)

− (2.209 ∗ H) + 0.9979 ∗ R2 + 0.4979 ∗ V2 + 0.4979 ∗ H2
− (0.3130 ∗ R ∗ V) − (0.938 ∗ R ∗ P) + (0.3125 ∗ R ∗ N)
+ (0.56250 ∗ V ∗ P) − (0.938 ∗ V ∗ N) − (0.3130 ∗ P ∗ N) (4)
3D response surface curves for SiC reinforced AMC based on SiC volume frac-
tion, on wear loss with respect to Al matrix size and SiC particle size was calculated
out [101]. It was found out that with decreasing SiC size and increasing the aluminum
matrix size, the wear loss increased. With a higher value of counter-surface tempera-
ture, a more ductile matrix was formed with the reinforced particles to enter the matrix
leading to wear loss [102]. Improvement in wear performance was seen with the heat
treatment of the aluminium metal composites due to the removal of dendritic structure
on heat treatment [103]. Advanced composites like functionally graded composite
materials (FGCM) can be controlled in the mechanical and tribological aspects by
varying the microstructure and composition [104–106]. A356/SiC with 10 and 20
wt% SiC was investigated by Karun et al. [107] in which the author found out that
a better wear resistance was achieved by centrifugal casting method for higher SiC
reinforcement in the outer most ring of FGCM.
3.2 Friction
The resistance faced by a material when having relative motion between another
surface or object is friction. Friction is calculated as μ = F/P, where μ is the
coefficient of friction, F is the frictional force acting and P is the force normally
acting between the two bodies. The friction acting between surfaces lead to wear on
the material surfaces leading to fatigue failure. So, researchers have been studying
various methods to reduce this friction acting. One of them being the addition of DLC
as a surface coating where aluminium proved to show a lesser value of coefficient of
friction [108]. With the inclusion of reinforcements such SiC, Al2 O3 , and ceramics,
the physical and mechanical characteristics of the MMC could be changed, which
improves wear loss and lowers friction coefficient [109, 110]. Some solid lubricants
like graphite also help in decreasing the frictional coefficient value to some extent
[111]. So, the addition of reinforcement has a natural tendency to decrease the fric-
tional coefficient and improve wear loss [70, 73, 74]. AMC has a lesser frictional
coefficient value than those of unreinforced aluminium alloys [112].
4 Recent Developments
Manufacture of aerospace and automobile components are done by AMMCs owing

to its outstanding properties like decreased wear resistance, low friction coefficient
and some other mechanical properties [113, 114]. The ever-evolving properties of the
AMMCs are replacing some of the conventional metal alloys used in aviation and in
automotive field like the fuselage, the wings, the piston, the drums, and others [115,
116]. Two manufacturing process for aluminium composites are mainly solid state
and liquid state processing. The non-uniform distribution and thorough mixing of
the reinforcing particles in the liquified metal present a challenge during the ex-situ
procedure [117]. However, the chemical reaction of the particles reinforced in the
melt matrix in the in situ process led to the resolution of this issue.
Aluminium matrix metals are generally processed by three different processes
namely solid-state processing friction stir processing and powdered metallurgy.
Among this processes friction stir processing is a new method which provides us
with a refined grain structure. In this process the metals attain plastic flow and ulti-
mately grain refinement due to the heat generated from the friction. This process
showed better tensile strength and yield strength then stir casting method while
maintaining the ductile property as well [118, 119]. For powder metallurgy process,
a good mechanical strength with minimal porosity was achieved using vacuum
sintering process [120]. In case of microwave sintering, AA2024 alloy reinforced
with SiC provided excellent strength while Al2900 reinforced with alumina proved
to be better in ductility and formability properties [121]. Ultimately microwaved
sintering process proved to be better in exhibiting mechanical properties than the
other sintering process. In liquid processing process, the vapour infiltration method
proved to have a good thermal conductivity in which reinforcement is done on infil-
trated molten metal [122]. Casting method is the most popular of the liquid dispensa-
tion methods in the manufacture MMC. With the increase in stir time and temperature
in stir casting method, a better incorporation of SiC particles is achieved [123].
Reinforcement plays the vital role in the characterization of the matrix composites
in terms of strength, hardness, wear loss and other defects. Among the reinforcements
used silicon carbide is the most extensively used reinforcement and has been thor-
oughly explained in the above sections. There are numerous recent developments
on this matrix composite with SiC reinforcement. Minimal defect and homoge-
nous distribution of the matrix particles were observed for Al/SiC and Al/TiB2
[124]. Also, similar homogenous distribution of SiC reinforcement was observed

using AA7075 matrix processed via the squeeze casting process [125]. For A359/
SiC matrix composites, failure or fracture occurred in the particle due to the stress
concentration effect of the sharp edges [125]. The load bearing capacity of the TiC
reinforced AA6082 composite was increased due to homogenous distribution of the
TiC particles without any segregation [126]. Hot forging method results in the grain
refinement which breaks down the TiC clusters easily and thereby reduces the size of
the particles [117]. This hot forging fabrication method was studied for the Al6061/
TiC composite using salt reaction synthesis [127]. Nano sized hexagonal and rect-
angular ZrB2 particles was examined by the in-situ reinforcement of the AA5052/
ZrB2 composites [98]. For in-situ ZrB2 particles reinforced with aluminium alloys,
grain refinement was achieved due to nucleation sites formed by the reinforced parti-
cles thereby resisting the grown of the α-Al during the solidification process [128].
Nano alumina acts as nucleation sites when reinforced with A356 alloy and thus a
smaller grain size when manufactured using the compo casting method [129]. This
inclusion of nanoparticles is responsible for grain refinement but a slower solidi-
fication time. A finer grain structure can also be attained by restricting the grain
growth according to the need [130]. A composite material free of porosities lead to
an improved tensile strength. This can be achieved by the reinforcement of alumina
oxide in the Al-Si alloy fabricated by a high speed sir casting method and so getting a
homogenous composite [131]. The high elastic modulus value of carbon nanotubes
(CNT) makes it a suitable and effective reinforcement for the AMMCs. Addition
of MgZn2 to aluminum alloys mainly Al7075 reinforced with CNT improves the
interfacial bonding of the composite where the CNT helps in quick precipitation
hardening [132]. Plasma-Sprayed ZrO2 , Al2 TiO5 , and Cr2 O3 experimentation was
done on Al–Si (LM13) materials as ceramic coatings to study on the microstructure
and the hardness [133].
5 Opportunities and Perspective
AMMCs finds its usage in various sectors and domains like automobile, aerospace,
railways, biomedical, marines, construction and much more. Using combinations of
various aluminum alloys and reinforcements enable researchers to alter the properties
(mechanical and physical) of the composite according to the purpose related to the
different sectors. It is used mainly for its wear resistance, light weight, and good
fatigue life in the automotive and aircraft industries. Using the composite material
for railway cars also offers in better strength and durability while keeping the overall
weight to a minimum. The aluminium composites are also used in construction and
biomedical purposes for its overall performance in terms of strength and rigidity.
Friction stir casting process for the manufacture of the composites are much utilized
in the recent times due to the improvement in the ductile property and the wear
resistance of the composite fabricated. The FSP casting method is also a prime choice
in the fabrication of the aluminium composites due to cost reduction and is a time
saving process. Though hybrid aluminium metal matrix composites are not different
from the conventional aluminium matrix, it is used in mechanical and electronic
sectors for its improvement in the ductility and malleability of its properties.
As useful as it sounds, aluminium metal matrix composites face many hurdles in
the steps of processing and manufacturing. Choosing exact materials and composite
particles for specific purposes requires numerous trial and errors as the materials
tend to show properties with a wide range of deviation. Carbon nanotubes as a
reinforcement has not been thoroughly investigated and very few literatures have
been published in this area. Finding of other reinforcement sources also holds a
great potential in improving the composites and needs to be studied in the future.
Utilization of bio wastes or bio products as reinforcement needs more attention to
detail. Bio reinforced composites could play a major role in the medical sector in
developing ultra-light weight components. Porosity is formed due to much nucleation
sites when nano reinforced particles are used, and few studies have been conducted
on this topic to eliminate or minimize porosity. Studies related to controlled grain
growth to get a uniform homogenous composite particle also needs further research
studies.
6 Conclusion
This work discusses on the importance of composite structures with AMMCs with
the focus on the mechanical properties with different types of reinforcements. Addi-
tion of reinforcements helps to enhance tensile strength of the AMMCs. Heat treat-
ment prior to manufacture of composite can enhance tensile properties along with
improving other mechanical properties. Better results with the tensile strength of
the composites were obtained by adding SiC reinforcement. Altering the weight
proportions of SiC and Al2 O3 reinforcements lead to gain the required hardness.
Researchers have explained that a uniform distribution of reinforced particles led to
an increase in the toughness value to an extent. Among the various manufacturing
techniques of the composites, FSP technique is mostly a prime choice. Tribolog-
ical properties show a significant amount of improvement with implementation of
the indirect method of strengthening in which the load carrying capacity is trans-
ferred from reinforcement to the matrix. Hybrid AMMCs show better results than
those of single reinforced aluminium composites by possessing better mechanical
and microstructural properties when fabricated with proper reinforcements as per
need.
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Recent advances in mechanical engineering 2021. Springer, Singapore, pp 907–916
Mechanical Properties of Light Weight
Particulate Metal Matrix Composites
D. Shivalingappa and N. Raghavendra
Abstract The knowledge of mechanical properties is essential for designing the

mechanical and structural components used in all engineering applications. As lighter
metallic structural material, aluminium and magnesium alloys play a vital role in
aerospace, automotive and defence sectors because of their low density, higher
strength and stiffness combined with high wear resistance. Desired specific prop-
erties of these alloys can be enhanced or altered, by using reinforcements while
making composite materials, based on the applications. Metal matrix composites
are well recognized for their combination of light weight and superior mechanical
behaviour. The hardness and tensile properties are essentially required to control
the dry sliding wear characteristics of the materials. Many researchers have inves-
tigated the hardness behaviour of particulate metal matrix composites (PMMCs)
and reported that presence of particulate reinforcements have led to a considerable
increase in hardness of a matrix material. The tensile properties, except the ductility,
show improved values by reinforcing light weight structural metals with particles.
Further, researchers have reported better mechanical properties in PMMCs fabricated
by generating the reinforcing particles in the matrix material during processing, over
conventional or ex-situ technique, in which reinforcement particles are gradually
poured from outside to the matrix material during processing.
Keywords Light weight metal · MMCs · Particulate reinforcement · Mechanical

characteristics
1 Introduction
The mechanical characteristics, especially the hardness and tensile, are the important
characteristics which control the dry sliding wear characteristics of the materials.
The hardness and tensile characteristics of the PMMCs depend upon the type, size,
D. Shivalingappa (B) · N. Raghavendra

Department of Mechanical Engineering, B. N. M. Institute of Technology, Bengaluru 560 070,
India
e-mail: dsivadvg@gmail.com
162 D. Shivalingappa and N. Raghavendra
shape, amount of reinforcement and the particles distribution inside the composites.
Normally, mechanical properties of MMCs are depending on the particle–matrix
interface characteristics, which are governed by the wettability of reinforced particles
in a melt and affinity of the particles to be attached to the gas bubbles either sucked into
the melt during mixing by stirring or being available on release of dissolved gases by
the molten metal during its solidification from a high processing temperature. Many
researchers have tried to enhance the hardness and tensile properties of light weight
structural metals (aluminium, magnesium and titanium) by particulate reinforcement
through stir casting or powder metallurgy technique and some of them are discussed
in the following sections.
2 Hardness Behaviour
The hardness of a material is its ability to resist permanent deformation by inden-

tation. Investigation of hardness for a material is very important especially, when
it is subjected to wear. Many researchers have investigated hardness behaviour of
number of particulate metal-matrix composites.
(a) Powder Metallurgy Technique
Micro-hardness and macro-hardness investigations conducted out by Hassan and
Gupta [1] on nano-Al2 O3 reinforced magnesium composites produced using powder
metallurgy process (PM) and by hot extrusion are as reported in Table 1. There
is an increment in hardness of magnesium (matrix) with increased amount of nano-
Al2 O3 . The main causes of this behaviour are (a) the addition of substantially tougher
particles to the matrix, (b) the fact that localised matrix deformation is restricted
as a result of their existence, and (c) smaller grain size. The hardness behaviour
of cast magnesium and magnesium/2.5 wt% Al2 O3 nano-composites created using
the disintegrating melt deposition process (DMD) has also been studied by Hassan
and Gupta [2]. They reported that nano-Al2 O3 reinforcement has improved macro-
hardness of Mg in the case of DMD processed material (65 15HRT) compared
with PM processed material (60 15HRT). Due to rather uneven distribution and
minimal impact of grain refinement of reinforcement, increase in hardness of PM-
processed material (40%) as compared to DMD-processed material (76%) is not very
significant.
Wang and co-workers [4] investigated the hardness values of TiB2 /Mg particulate
composites fabricated through PM technique with varied volume fractions of TiB2
particulates. According to their findings, hardness of composites supplemented with
10, 20, and 30 vol% TiB2 particles rose by 41% (45 HB), 106% (66 HB), and 181%
(90 HB), respectively, as compared to as cast pure Mg (32 HB). This is because (a)
the magnesium matrix comprises tougher TiB2 particulates and (b) the presence of
TiB2 prevents localised matrix deformation during indentation.
Wang et al. [5] investigated the hardness characteristics of magnesium alloy
composites strengthened with 2, 5 and 7.5 wt% fine TiB2 . In the fabrication of
Mechanical Properties of Light Weight Particulate Metal Matrix … 163
Table 1 Hardness values of Mg and alumina strengthened Mg composites (Hassan and Gupta [1];
Srikanth et al. [3])
Materials Mg Mg/ Mg/ Mg/ Mg/
0.22 vol% 0.66 vol% 1.11 vol% 1.00 vol%
alumina alumina alumina alumina
Macro-hardness 43 ± 0 51 ± 0 56 ± 0 60 ± 1 –
(15HRT)
Micro-hardness (HV) 37 ± 0 44 ± 0 50 ± 1 70 ± 0 52 ± 3
composites, TiB2 –Al compacted powder was prepared and added to magnesium in
semi-solid state. They have mentioned that, hardness of Mg alloy composite is higher
and increases with increasing TiB2 content compared to as-cast AZ91 (Fig. 1).
Comparison of hardness values of typical in-situ particulate AZ91 composites
and their matrix alloys (Table 2). Jiang et al. [6] have reported the highest hardness
value (83 HB) in their in-situ 10 vol% TiCp /AZ91 composite. They have used powder
metallurgy route in the preparation of master alloy as well as in-situ composite. Wang
et al. [7] and Ma et al. [8] have also used similar technique in the preparation of master
alloy/green perform for their in-situ composites. By dispersing copper particulates
(between 5 and 15 wt%) in an aluminium matrix using a stir-cast technique, the
effect of particulate composition was explored [9]. It was found that while hardness
increases with particulate contents, strength and strain decrease by 13% and 15%,
respectively, compared to matrix alloy. Susila et al. [10] synthesised Al–Cu–Mg alloy
reinforced with 6 wt% and 7 wt% SiCp through powder metallurgy technique and
Hardness (HB)
80 82
74
62
As-cast AZ91 2wt%TiB2/ AZ91 5wt%TiB2/ AZ91 7.5wt%TiB2/ AZ91
Fig. 1 Brinell hardness values of Mg composites strengthened with TiB2

16 h of aging and concluded that 7 wt% SiCp content Al–Cu–Mg alloy composite
gives better hardness values.
(b) Stir-casting Technique
Hardness behaviour of cast in-situ Mg-9wt% Al composite resulted by reinforcing

Al3 Ti–Al2 O3 particles studied by Shivalingappa et al. [11] have shown the improve-
ment by a factor of 1.41 from 607 ± 32 to 794 ± 65 MPa. Their studies are showing
negligible effect of the processing temperature on the hardness and enhanced with
increased amount reinforcing particles. Saravanan and Surappa [12] have measured
hardness values of pure Mg-30 vol% SiCp composite fabricated through stir casting
method and reported higher hardness value for the composite (55 VHN) compared
to pure magnesium (45 VHN).
Abdulhaqq and co-workers [13] have investigated hardness characteristics of
Al (Mg, Mn)–Al2 O3 (MnO2 ) in-situ composite with different processing variables
(processing temperature 670–850 ºC and stirring time 3–15 min). They found that
when the processing temperature was raised up to 780 ºC for in-situ composite, the
hardness increased, but dropped once it was raised over 780 ºC. However, they found
negligible influence of stirring time on hardness of composite.
They [14] have also investigated hardness behaviour of commercially pure
Aluminium strengthened with in-situ formed Al2 O3 particles by addition of TiO2
particles and small amount of Mg along the height of the casting synthesized at
780 ºC. Mg was put to the Al melt prior to addition of TiO2 to improve wetta-
bility of generated Al2 O3 particles during reaction between Al and TiO2 . Authors
have concluded that, the hardness of the composite was relatively constant from the
bottom to the middle of casting, but drastically decreased at the top, may be due to
increased porosity.
Jenix et al. [15] studied the mechanical behaviour of Al6063 strengthened with
ZrSiO4 and Al2 O3 particles of total 8 wt% hybrid reinforcement in the combinations
of (0 + 8)%, (2 + 6)%, (4 + 4)%, (6 + 2)%, (8 + 0)% using stir casting technique
Table 2 Hardness values of AZ91 and in-situ particulate AZ91 composites

Sl. Primary processing Materials Hardness Investigators
No. (HB)
1 Semisolid slurry stirring technique As-cast AZ91 60 Jiang et al. [6]
In-situ 10 vol% 83
TiCp /AZ91
2 Stir casting technique AZ91D alloy 60 Wang et al. [7]
In-situ 5 wt% 80
TiCp /AZ91D
3 Remelting and dilution stir casting AZ91 alloy 56 Ma et al. [8]
technique In-situ 5 wt% 79
(TiB2 -TiC)p /
AZ91
and reported (4 + 4)% combination is giving optimum mechanical (hardness and

tensile) properties.
3 Tensile Properties
Tensile properties, except the ductility, show higher values when reinforced with
magnesium, aluminium and their alloys with particulates. Following four different
mechanisms are thought to be responsible for increasing strength and elastic modulus
[16].
• Orowan mechanism: The particles and dislocations are interdependent.
• Strengthening by reducing grain size or stabilizing.
• Dislocation around the particles Increases and the internal stress are developed
due to misfit during thermal expansion.
• Different strain properties of both matrix and particles will be strengthening the
matrix.
Due to their high stiffness, strength, and chemical stability, SiC particles are
frequently utilised to create particulate reinforced metal matrix composites. For
example, Laurent et al. [17] explored the tensile properties of extruded AZ91D-
15 vol% SiCp composites processed in the semi-solid temperature range between
581 and 587 ºC prior to extrusion. The tensile properties were compared with the
room-temperature tensile test results published by the Dow chemical company for
AZ91D alloys. They found that in composites containing 15 vol% SiCp of size 54 µm,
the room-temperature yield strength (YS) was 257 MPa, a value 20% higher than
the yield strength of 215 MPa observed in unreinforced AZ91D alloy. UTS in the
same composite was 289 MPa, a value close to 296 MPa, observed in the unrein-
forced alloys. Improvement in modulus of elasticity (E) of up to 46% observed in
the AZ91D alloy but the total elongation of the composite decreased drastically to
0.7% compared to 10.2% measured in the unreinforced alloy for die cast AZ91-15
vol% SiCp reinforced composites.
Lloyd [18] reported typical properties of some of the commercially available
magnesium alloy composites and unreinforced base alloys as provided by Dow co.
The YS for AZ91 alloy strengthened with 9.4 vol% and 15.1 vol% SiCp were found
to be 191 and 208 MPa, respectively, although the UTS for both of these composites
were 236 MPa. In these composites, the elastic moduli were 47.5 and 54 GPa in the
composites containing 9.4 vol% and 15.1 vol% SiCp respectively but the elongation
observed were 2 and 1% respectively. When the base alloy has been changed to
AZ61 containing lower amount of aluminium but reinforced with 20 vol% of SiCp , it
was observed that the YS of the unreinforced alloy, 157 MPa, increased to 260 MPa
in the composite. The UTS of the unreinforced alloy, 198 MPa, also increased to
328 MPa in the composite. There was very little reduction of percentage elongation
with reinforcement from 3.0 to 2.5%. The elastic modulus increased considerably
from 38 to 80 GPa on reinforcement. Thus, it appears that one may get relatively
better tensile strength, elastic modulus and percentage elongation in lower aluminium
alloys.
Lee and co-workers [19] have investigated the tensile properties of AZ91 and
AZ91/SiCp composites produced by powder metallurgy technique, using 8, 30,
50 µm size SiC particles. According to their findings, extruded composites have
YS and UTS than Mg alloy, and the YS of magnesium alloy/SiCp(8 µm) compos-
ites is higher compared to Mg alloy/SiCp(50 µm) composites. This improvement is
attributable to the matrix’s finer grain structure.
Chua et al. [20] investigated influence of size (15, 20, 25, 38, 50 µm) of SiCp
reinforcement on mechanical characteristics of Mg/SiCp composites. Authors have
observed small differences in YS and UTS for composites reinforced with 15–25 µm
particles and much lower strengths with 50 µm particles. However, they reported
an increased modulus and decreased ductility with increased particle size. Tensile
properties of some of the SiCp reinforced magnesium composites are summarized
and presented in Table 3.
After SiC particulate reinforcement, extensive work has been taken place in Al2 O3
particulate reinforced aluminium based composites, however, very few researchers
have tried to synthesize Al2 O3 particulate reinforced magnesium based compos-
ites. The tensile characteristics of elemental magnesium reinforced with nano-Al2 O3
particulates made using PM technique and hot extrusion were examined by Hassan
and Gupta [1]. The gradual addition of nano-sized Al2 O3 particles, according to
their research, significantly improved the YS, UTS, and ductility of Mg in tensile
tests carried out at room temperature (Table 3). Improvement in tensile properties
(YS, UTS and ductility) of composite compared to pure Mg may be attributed
to the combined effect of applied load transfer to the properly bonded strong
nano-alumina and the creation of dislocation at the matrix-reinforcement interface.
Table 3 Tensile properties of Mg/SiCp and Mg alloy/SiCp composites

Sl. No. Material 0.2% YS UTS (MPa) E (GPa) Ductility (%) Investigators
(MPa)
1 AZ91/15 257 289 _ 0.7 Laurent et al.
vol% SiCp [17]
2 Mg/10 vol% 120 160 45 2.0 Krishnadev
SiCp et al
3 AZ91/16.1 191 236 47.5 2.0 Lloyd [18]
wt% SiCp
4 Mg/10 vol% 135 152 44.7 0.8 Luo [21]
SiCp
5 Mg/15.1 100 150 _ 1.0 Vijaymohan
vol% SiCp et al. [22]
6 Mg/30 vol% 229 258 59 2 Saravanan
SiCp et al. [12]
7 Mg/9.3 120 ± 5 181 ± 6 44 ± 2 4.7 ± 1.3 Gupta et al.
vol% SiCp [23]
Hassan and Gupta [2] have also studied tensile behaviour of magnesium/2.5 wt%
Al2 O3 nano-composites and magnesium processed through DMD technique and hot
extrusion.
They reported a substantial improvement in UTS, YS, and ductility of Mg due to
the inclusion of Al2 O3 nano particles processed sing DMD technique compared to
PM technique as shown in Table 3. They have mentioned better tensile properties
for alumina reinforced magnesium nano-composites compared to AZ91Mg alloy
strengthened with higher quantity of micron size SiC particles and reinforcement of
pure Mg with nano-Al2 O3 particles had changed its brittle fracture to ductile.
Shivalingappa et al. [11] have studied tensile behaviour of cast magnesium, Mg-
9 wt% Al alloy and Mg-9 wt% Al/Al3 Ti–Al2 O3 particles composite. Great improve-
ment in modulus of the composite compared to cast Mg and Mg-9 wt% Al alloy is
reported (Table 4). However, reinforcing particles have negative impact on tensile
strength and ductility. Increasing trend in UTS with increasing processing tempera-
ture and negligible effect on ductility have been reported. Decreasing tensile strength
and ductility with increasing porosity content in the composite is also highlighted.
Even though SiCp reinforcement has been extensively used to manufacture partic-
ulate metal matrix composites, one can understand from the available literature that,
the inclusion of SiCp in Mg, in spite of increasing its Young’s modulus and YS, often
reduces the ductility of magnesium, and therefore its use in composite fabrication
is not so favourable. The reduced ductility of MMCs reinforced with SiCp might be
due to coefficient of thermal expansion mismatch, modulus of elasticity and crystal
structure between SiC and magnesium.
Table 4 Tensile characteristics of Mg and Mg/Al2 O3 MMCs

Sl. Material 0.2% YS UTS E Ductility (%)
No. (MPa) (MPa) (GPa)
1 Pure Mg [24] 69–105 165–205 40–44 5–8
2 Mg (Cast) [12] 135 196 38 12
3 Mg (PM) [1] 132 ± 7 193 ± 2 41.2 4.2 ± 0.1
4 Mg (DMD) [2] 97 ± 2 173 ± 1 42.8 7.4 ± 0.2
5 Cast Mg-9 wt% Al [2] – 203.7 ± 9.2 38.6 ± 1.6 9.3 ± 0.9
6 Mg/0.22 vol%Al2 O3 (PM) 169 ± 4 232 ± 4 42.5 6.5 ± 2.0
[1]
7 Mg/0.66 vol%Al2 O3 (PM) 191 ± 2 247 ± 2 43.4 8.8 ± 1.6
[1]
8 Mg/1.11 vol%Al2 O3 (PM) 194 ± 5 250 ± 3 44.5 6.9 ± 1.0
[1]
9 Mg/1.11 vol%Al2 O3 (DMD) 175 ± 3 246 ± 3 52.7 14.0 ± 2.4
[2]
10 Cast in-situ Mg-9 wt% Al/ – 144.8 ± 1.5 47.8 ± 1.3 2.8 ± 0.1
Al3 Ti–Al2 O3 [12]
11 AZ91/16.1 vol% SiCp [18] 191 236 47.5 2
Alternatively, some of the metallic particulates and intermetallics with stronger

and comparable physical properties to magnesium may be suitable for reinforcing
magnesium and magnesium alloys. In this direction, few of the researchers have
investigated the reinforcing effects of intermetallics, copper, nickel and titanium
particulates.
Lu et al. [25] examined the tensile characteristics of in-situ formed Mg2 Si rein-
forced magnesium composite through powder metallurgy technique and reported
improved yield and ultimate tensile strengths compared with magnesium alloy.
Further, there is improvement in YS of the composite from 201 to 245 MPa as
the amount of Mg2 Si reinforcement increased from 5 to 15 vol%. Formation and
microstructure refinement of Mg2 Si might be attributed improvement in the mechan-
ical characteristics of the composite. Addition of aluminium to magnesium silicon
alloy will cause the solution strengthening effect by the Al in Mg leads to higher
tensile strength than magnesium silicon alloy. Results of the investigations by Manju-
nath et al. [26] from the effect of bismuth on tensile characteristics of Mg–Al alloy
strengthened with in-situ magnesium silicide particles using stir casting technique
reveals that magnesium silicide (Mg2 Si) particles are highly brittle and appear to
deteriorate the tensile characteristics. However, by refining the Mg2 Si particles using
bismuth these properties can be improved for Mg–Al alloy.
Hassan and Gupta [27] investigated tensile properties of magnesium reinforced
with fine elemental titanium particles and reported an improvement of YS and
ductility, and marginal decrement in UTS values due the presence of titanium rein-
forcement (Fig. 2). Perez et al. [28] studied the mechanical characteristics of a Mg-10
vol% Tip composite in 25–300 ºC temperature range. They reported 160 MPa tensile
strength with 8% elongation, which is higher than most of magnesium compos-
ites strengthened with ceramic particles. At temperatures above 100 ºC, there is a
high ductility and a declining trend in strength, from 160 MPa at room tempera-
ture to 70 MPa at 100 ºC. Ho et al. [29] showed that AZ91 reinforced with small
copper particles had improved stiffness, 0.2% YS, and UTS with only minor ductility
deterioration.
Xi and co-workers [30] studied the tensile characteristics of Mg strengthened
withTi–6Al–4V particles reinforced composite and reported a marginal improvement
in modulus of elastic, YS, UTS values and slight reduction in ductility of magnesium
alloy (ZK51) by the inclusion of Ti–6Al–4V particles. According to the authors,
incorporation of Ti–6Al–4V particles appears to be better choice for the ductility of
Mg composites than the incorporation of SiCp . Xiaoqing Liu et al. [31] examined
mechanical characteristics of pure Al strengthened with CNT using PM technique.
They have milled the CNT and Al powder mixtures for 2 to 12 h before compaction
and sintering and observed highest yield strength (210 MPa) and the UTS (253 MPa)
for the powder mixture milled for 12 h. Longer milling time may have helped with
the enrichment of mechanical characteristics by facilitating the in-situ production of
Al4 C3 , grain refining of the Al matrix, and uniform distribution of CNTs.
Lu et al. [32] examined mechanical characteristics of magnesium composites
strengthened with different amount of SiC, TiC, TiB2 and ZrB2 particles processed
using powder metallurgy route. They observed the strengths of 246, 245 and 235 MPa
Reinforcement 0.2% YS UTS

(vol%) (MPa) (MPa)
258 ± 16 248 ± 9 239 ± 5
163 ± 12 154 ± 10
100 ± 4
0 2.2 4
Mg Mg/5.6 Ti Mg/9.6 Ti
Fig. 2 Tensile characteristics of Mg and Mg/Tip MMCs
for the Mg composites strengthened with 5 vol% ZrB2 , TiC and SiC particles
respectively. Authors reported maximum yield strength for composite reinforced
with ZrB2 particles and minimum for composite reinforced with TiB2 particles.
Decreased ductility with increased amount of particles has been reported for all
the four composites and maximum ductility for SiC particle MMC while second
maximum ductility for ZrB2 particle MMC. Even though TiB2 is a prominent rein-
forcement for aluminium MMCs, it is not a suitable reinforcement for magnesium
MMCs.
The mechanical characteristics of in-situ particulate composites have been eval-
uated by several workers. Better mechanical and wear properties can be expected in
in-situ composites compared to composites processed by conventional method due
to better dispersion of finer in-situ formed strengthening particles. Westwood and
Winzer [33] were the earliest researchers to report the superior mechanical character-
istics of in-situ composites. TiB2 particle reinforced Al in-situ composite produced
by XD process, exhibit up to 40% more moduli than that of pure aluminium [33].
Kuruvilla and co-workers [34] compared tensile characteristics of in-situ TiB2 /Al
composites synthesized by XD process with those of the composites processed by
conventional methods containing similar amount of reinforcing phase (20 vol%).
Their results have summarized and presented in Fig. 3. Although the convention-
ally processed composite exhibits significantly better qualities than those of unre-
inforced pure aluminium, it appears that the hardness, modulus and UTS of the
in-situ composite are comparably better compared to the conventionally processed
composite. Such better properties in in-situ composites are primarily due to uniform
distribution of finer high-modulus TiB2 particles and cleaner interfaces leading to
strong bonding with the matrix.
Ma and co-workers [35, 36] studied the tensile behaviour of in-situ (Al2 O3 +
TiB2 )/Al particulate composites processed by reactive hot-pressing route. They
demonstrated that as boron content in the Al–TiO2 –B system is increased, TiAl3
YS UTS (MPa) E Elong. Hardness (VHN)

(MPa) (GPa) (%)
334
235
166
121 131
96 110
90 85
64 70
21 37
16 7
Pure aluminium Ex-situ 20 vol% TiB2/Al In-situ 20 vol% TiB2/Al

composite composite
Fig. 3 Mechanical properties of pure aluminium and TiB2 /Al composites
intermetallic phase size and amount decrease, and more TiB2 particles form in-situ,
boosting the strength of the in-situ particulate composites significantly. They reported
the YS and UTS values of 109.53 MPa and 144.76 MPa respectively in in-situ (10.5
vol%Al2 O3 )/Al composite, whereas those properties improved to 339.74 MPa and
381.16 MPa respectively in in-situ (10.5 vol%Al2 O3 + 9.5 vol%TiB2 )/Al composite.
4 Conclusion
Hardness, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and Young’s modulus are the
primary characteristics which control the wear behaviour of materials. In the above
studies it is observed that the better mechanical properties, both at ambient tempera-
ture as well as at higher temperatures can be obtained by reinforcing magnesium and
aluminium alloys with suitable ceramic or metallic particles. Al2 O3 , SiC, TiC, TiO2
and TiB2 ceramicparticles are compatible and stable particulate reinforcements with
magnesium and aluminium matrix composite materials to achieve better mechanical
properties. Reinforcement particle size may vary from few nm to 50 µm and quantity
of reinforcement in the range as small as less than 1 vol% upto 20 vol%. Even few
of the researchers have investigated the reinforcing effects of intermetallics, copper,
nickel and titanium particulates, and the results found are not so attractive.
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by the thermal explosion synthesis reaction in molten magnesium. Mater Lett 57:2580–2583
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Open Hole Tensile Test for Measuring
Residual Tensile Strength
and Delamination of Glass Fibre Metal
Mesh Polymer Composites
M. Sakthivel, P. Raja, V. Parthiban, and A. Nagaraj
Abstract Glass Fibre Metal Mesh Polymer Composites (GFMMPC) are one of the
alternative for engineering materials because their elevated mechanical properties.
This work focuses on tensile test with open hole which is based on optimization of
parameters. For the drilling experiment, Taguchi L8 two level orthogonal array a
strategy was used to examine each parameter’s influence and systematically evaluate
the experimental parameters. Spindle speed, feed rate, and condition (dry and wet)
with two levels are some of the drilling parameters that were chosen. Eight drilling
tests were carried out, each in a different order. After the drilling trials are finished,
hole properties are observed using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) this was
done to assess the degree to which drilled holes are delaminated. The Corel draw was
used for measuring the delamination factor. Also residual tensile properties measured
using tensile test. Based on responses the optimized parameters are higher for high
spindle speed (4000 rpm) and low feed rate (50 mm/min). Morphological study of
the fractured samples are analysed using SEM.
Keywords Open hole · Residual tensile strength · Delamination factor · Drilling ·

Glass fibre
M. Sakthivel (B)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur 635130,
India
e-mail: metalsakthi@gmail.com
P. Raja
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Prathyusha Engineering College, Chennai, India
V. Parthiban
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT-Madras, Chennai 600001, India
A. Nagaraj
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Star Lion College of Engineering
and Technology, Thanjavur 614206, India
e-mail: naga.nagaraj.raja@gmail.com
174 M. Sakthivel et al.
1 Introduction
Most of the engineering disciplines, including the transportation, commercial avia-

tion, shipbuilding, sporting events, and civil infrastructure industries the composite
materials widely used. As a result, only the primary parts—not the secondary ones—
are produced using composite materials. As is common knowledge, both automobiles
and airplanes have a complex structural design. Numerous sorts of failure or damage
result from the load being applied to composite materials because the joints between
the components with holes used for joining the elements. In order to prevent failure,
the industrial field relies heavily on the understanding of forces, stress, and strain
[1–5].
Metal fibre laminate is a combination of metal and Fibre Reinforced Polymer
(FRP) points of interest to produce greater mechanical qualities than traditional
laminates. They have a few key points, like improved impact and fatigue fracture
growth damage tolerance. They are typically employed in a variety of practical and
crucial applications, including transportation, aviation, and other barrier applications
[6–8].
These composite structures must be drilled in order to add fasteners for assembly.
Numerous defects, including fibre pull-out, fuzzing and flaws akin to those seen in
metal drilling, are created during the drilling of composite. The faults in the holes
account for about 60% of the rejections of aeronautical parts. These flaws would
result in a loss of fundamental stability, causing distinction in the dynamic execution
of the complete structure. The use of suboptimal machining conditions and cutting
tool outlines is the cause of the aforementioned problems [9–13].
The Taguchi design of the experiment is used to guide the execution of the exper-
iments. The findings imply that spindle speed and tool shape were most susceptible
to changes in feed rate, followed by residual strength and delamination factor [14].
Open-hole composites with three different layers were put through tensile strength
tests. A probabilistic neural network method is projected to predict the tensile strength
of composite panels based on sparse experimental data. The predictor uses the statis-
tical parameters, layup characteristics and tensile stress of open-hole composites as
inputs and uses the classification function of PNN to provide the protection status
as an transitional result. The results are satisfactory, and the errors of the forecasts
are analogous to the coefficient of variation of the investigational data. To show the
model’s effectiveness in predicting the experimentally recorded open-hole tensile
strength of composite plates data from earlier investigations, additional assessments
are conducted [15].
Long kenaf composites with drilled holes and long kenaf/woven glass reinforced
polyester composites’ tensile properties. The measurements were made using the
residual tensile strength of open-hole and impact-damaged specimens. The damaged
area of the composites might then be projected from there. It was found that the
hybrid kenaf/glass composite was fewer notch sensitive than the kenaf composite.
The hybrid composite outperformed kenaf composite in terms of strength [16].
Open Hole Tensile Test for Measuring Residual Tensile Strength … 175
Due to their increased strength, glass fibre with metal wire mesh reinforced in
polymer which effectively to form a barrier [17]. According to the authors, the created
replica was capable to precisely forecast the investigational values of tensile strength
[18, 19].
There have only been a few studies on GFMMPC open hole tensile strength.
The study emphasises OHT strength. The hole on the specimen is drilled using the
Taguchi method, and the GFMML composites are constructed. The responses, such
as the delamination factor and tensile strength, are then optimised. Using a scanning
electron microscope, the fragmented surface is examined (SEM).
2 Experimental Methods
A Glass fibre woven material is used as reinforcement. The use of the epoxy resin
and hardener improves the composite’s interfacial bonding. Based on their litera-
ture research, a 10:1 resin to hardener ratio was chosen. Stainless Steel Wire Mesh
(SSWM) is another reinforcing material used in composites. The mesh was washed
with alkaline soap for 30 min prior to usage, and then rinsed with deionized water.
The layer of glass fibre was detached before metal mesh was applied to pile in order
to retain the same laminate thickness.
Vacuum bag moulding is used to create the GFMMP composites. The centre layer
of the composite has a 10% weight fraction of SSWM remaining, with the top and
bottom layers of the composite containing 50% weight fractions of woven glass fibre
[17]. A releasing agent is used after cleaning the mould surface. The composite is
then employed under pressure for two hours, followed by a 24-h pre-curing period
in the mould. The finished laminate is then post-cured for up to three hours at 100 °C
in the hot air oven. The layers are organised in this fashion to create the six possible
combination composites, each with a 2 mm thickness. The fabrication process is
shown in Fig. 1.
The drilling experiment used the Taguchi method to methodically examine the
experimental parameters and determine the relative contributions of each component.
One of the crucial elements in the Taguchi method’s parametric analysis is the choice
of appropriately controlled parameters and their levels are shown in Table 1 with two
levels. For experimentation, a carbide tool with a 6 mm diameter [9] is employed.
The drilling experiments are conducted using machining centre which is shown in
Fig. 2.
Figure 3 standard tensile specimen in accordance with ASTM 3039. This was
accomplished using UTM, as shown in Fig. 4, which included a 10 kN load cell.
For static tests in stress, the testing apparatus’ crosshead speed was 2 mm/min. The
specimens with the hole in the middle had nominal length, breadth, and thickness
measurements of 250 mm, 25 mm, and 2 mm, respectively.
On a numerically controlled machine, holes were machined out of GFMMP
composite. The centres of the test specimens the drill holes were placed. The selected
parameter levels the investigational configuration is created by means of the Taguchi
Fig. 1 GFMMPC fabrication process
Table 1 Selected process

Level Spindle speed Feed rate Condition
parameters and levels
(rpm) (mm/min)
1 2000 50 Dry
2 4000 100 Wet
Fig. 2 Drilling experimental setup
method, as exposed in Table 2. The process are carried out, each in a different order.
After the drilling experiments are finished, SEM is used to observe the character-
istics of the holes. This was done to assess the degree to which drilled specimens
delaminated.
Fig. 3 Standard tensile specimen as per the ASTM 3039
Fig. 4 UTM for open hole tensile test
Table 2 Taguchi L8 orthogonal array with parameters and results

Sl. No. Spindle speed v Feed rate f (mm/ Condition Residual tensile Delamination
(rpm) min) strength (MPa) factor
1 2000 50 Dry 132.25 1.115
2 2000 100 Dry 120.25 1.125
3 4000 50 Dry 135.11 1.105
4 4000 100 Dry 130.56 1.121
5 2000 50 Wet 133.93 1.109
6 2000 100 Wet 125.25 1.118
7 4000 50 Wet 135.68 1.095
8 4000 100 Wet 129.25 1.115
Fig. 5 Open hole tensile and fractured tensile specimens
The delamination factor is given by
Dmax
Fd = (1)
D
where Dmax = Maximum diameter of delaminated area, D = Actual diameter.
GFMMP composites residual tensile characteristics were assessed in accordance
with ASTM 3039. The open hole tensile specimen, UTM, and fractured tensile
specimens are displayed in Fig. 5. In every experiment, at least three samples are
examined. The residual tensile strength is calculated using Eq. 2 [20].
Fu
σ = (2)
(W − D)t
where σ = Residual Tensile strength (MPa) Fu = Ultimate load (N) t and W are
Thickness and Width of the specimen (mm), D = Diameter of the drilled hole (mm).
3 Results and Discussion
Due to hole is in the specimen’s centre, where stress concentration is more likely to
occur, the open hole strength of composites is decreased. Based on these findings,
it can be said that the GFMMPC composites created in this work have acceptable
mechanical properties for structural applications.
On the GFMMPC specimen with a hole in the centre, the tensile stresses as a
function of strain curves for eight trials are shown in Fig. 6. The experimental tensile
strengths are, as is clear, between 120 and 140 MPa. These consequences of the
GFMMPC composites strength was considerably reduced to just under half related
to the non-drilled samples. Though, it’s possible that the residual tensile strength is
not accurately represented by direct measurement [14]. Therefore, it is recommended
that the apt residual tensile strength of samples are calculated using Eq. 2 based on
the narrated tensile force [20]. Figure 7 shows the GFMMPC composite specimens
tensile strength under various experimental circumtances.
When it comes to delamination damage, it is frequently linked to the inter-ply
failure phenomenon brought on by drilling. Equation 1 is used to compute the delam-
ination factor. In summary, these data clearly show delamination factor with a highest
value of 1.125 and a minimum of 1.095, which are evident that delamination damage
has been minimised compared to non-drill composite specimen. The comparison
between delamination factor with experiments is exposed in Fig. 8.
The response graphs are shown in Figs. 9 and 10, indicate the impacts of varying
parameters specifically spindle speed, feed rate, and condition (dry or wet), on the
responses. The linear trend of the slope on the graph illustrates how that factor
influenced the experiment’s outcomes. These numbers demonstrate that increasing
residual tensile strength and decreasing delamination factor is most significantly
affected by adjusting feed rate. The outputs are clearly adversely affected by adjusting
120
100
80
Stress(MPa)
60
1
40 2
3
4
20 5
6
7
8
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Strain(%)
Fig. 6 Tensile stress verses tensile strain curves
Fig. 7 Comparison of residual strength with experiments

Fig. 8 Comparison of delamination factor with experiments
the feed rate, and a lesser feed rate is preferred to increase residual strength and reduce
delamination. Furthermore, it is evident that tool geometry has little impact on these
two outputs. To obtain elevated residual tensile strength and minimal delamination
factor, v2f1c2 is the best drilling parameter combination.
The ANOVA Tables 3 and 4 shows how the total variations of the mean are used
to calculate the specified factor and the errors. These findings are frequently used to
assess the relative contributions of each element. In addition, the estimated F-values
for each component are compared to the crucial F-value at the 95% confidence level
to establish their relative significance. It is significant to keep in mind that a factor’s
impact on performance characteristics depends on the size of its F-value. As is clear,
Fig. 9 Response graph for residual tensile strength
Fig. 10 Response graph for delamination factor

Table 3 ANOVA table for residual strength

Source Sum of squares DoF Mean square F value % Contribution
v 44.78 1 44.78 13.24 22.76
f 125.28 1 125.28 37.04 63.68
c 4.40 1 4.40 1.30 2.24
vf 11.74 1 11.74 3.47 5.97
vc 6.88 1 6.88 2.03 3.5
fc 0.26 1 0.26 0.08 0.13
Residual 3.38 1 3.38 1.72
Cor total 196.73 7 100
Bold indicates feedrate is the most significance parameter compared with other parameters
Table 4 ANOVA table for delamination factor

Source Sum of squares DoF Mean square F value % Contribution
V 1.20E−04 1 1.20E−04 38.44 18.61
F 3.78E−04 1 3.78E−04 121 58.61
C 1.05E−04 1 1.05E−04 33.64 16.28
Vf 3.60E−05 1 3.6E−05 11.56 5.68
Vc 1.00E−06 1 1.00E−06 0.36 0.155
Fc 1.00E−06 1 1.00E−06 0.36 0.155
Residual 3.00E−06 1 3.00E−06 0.465
Cor total 6.45E−04 7 100
Bold indicates feedrate is the most significance parameter compared with other parameters
the feed rate has a 63.68% impact on residual tensile strength, whereas the spindle
speed has 22.74% impact. The impact of altering feed rate also makes up 58.61%
of the equation. The impact of varying feed rate has a similar effect, accounting for
58.61% of the delamination damage. According to the ANOVA analysis, the condi-
tion had a negligible impact on the both responses, with percentage contributions
2.24% and 16.28%, respectively.
Figure 11 depicts the surface morphology of the GFMPC composites’ cracked
surface after a tensile test. In this instance, fibre ripping is seen along with matrix
cracking and SSWM necking. The surface of the fibres that were pulled out reveals
the tenuous interfacial bonds between the fibre and matrix. The formation and spread
of a microcrack in the matrix, which is prejudiced by the shape, size and orientation
of the reinforcement, determines the composite’s strength. Figure 11 clearly shows
the crack propagation through the matrix and glass layers debonding at the contact.
Matrix crack Necking
Fig. 11 Tensile fractured surface morphology
4 Conclusion
The following findings are drawn from the experimental work:

• Open hole strength analysis it was discovered that for high spindle speed and low
feed rate, residual tensile strength is higher.
• It was noted that the samples damage behaviour happened in the matrix near the
hole, which caused cracks to spread between the layers. The laminate cracked as
a result of the stiffness reduction caused by propagation between layers.
• The outcome shows that the feed rate has a noteworthy impact on both responses.
• The spindle speed at 4000 rpm, feed rate at 50 mm/min, and wet condition are
the best settings for both responses.
• The matrix crack, fibre failure as well as pull-out are the failure mechanisms
identified by the SEM micrograph of the fractured specimen. In composites with
high strengths, there was very little fibre pull-out due to the matrix and fibre
wettability.
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Prediction of Tribological Behaviour
of AA5083/CSA-ZnO Hybrid Composites
Using Machine Learning and Artificial
Intelligence Techniques
A. Nagaraj, S. Gopalakrishnan, M. Sakthivel, and D. Shivalingappa
Abstract Aluminium Alloys AA5083 dispersed with varying fractions of reinforce-

ment was fabricated through the stir casting method. In varying weight percentage
combinations, zinc oxide (ZnO) and coconut shell ash (CSA) particles were combined
to create hybrid reinforcement particles. Using a pin-on-disc tribometer, the wear
characteristics of the developed AA5083 hybrid composites were estimated. The
volumetric proportion of hybrid reinforcement particles CSA (3, 6, 9 and 3 ZnO wt%),
load (20, 30, 40 N), sliding velocity (2, 3, and 4 m/s), Cumulative Time (4.16, 5.55,
and 8.33 min), and sliding distance are some of the experimental parameters (1000 m).
Wear analysis revealed effective bonding and homogeneous dispersion of hybrid rein-
forcement particles onto the AA5083. Analysis of Specific Wear Rate (SWR) results
showed that Specific Wear Rate rose with load, sliding velocity, and sliding dura-
tion while decreasing with hybrid particle dispersion. This research proposes the use
of several intelligent classification techniques using Machine Learning (ML) and
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) to predict the wear rate of an AA 5083 hybrid
composite. For estimating wear quantities, the algorithms Random Forest (RF),
Neural Network (NN), and k-nearest neighbours (kNN) are utilized. Six inputs are
utilized to train and evaluate the Machine Learning (ML) algorithms: the Applied
Load (N), Sliding Velocity, Sliding Speed, Cumulative Time, Percentage of Rein-
forcements, and Sliding Distance. The output is the Specific Wear Rate (SWR). The
A. Nagaraj (B)
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Star Lion College of Engineering
and Technology, Thanjavur 614206, India
e-mail: naga.nagaraj.raja@gmail.com
S. Gopalakrishnan
Department of Mechanical Engineering, K. S. Rangasamy College of Technology,
Thiruchengode 637215, India
M. Sakthivel
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur 635109,
India
D. Shivalingappa
Department of Mechanical Engineering, B. N. M. Institute of Technology, Bengaluru 560070,
India
186 A. Nagaraj et al.
RF, NN, and KNN algorithms all produced success rates of correlation between
experimental to anticipated of 0.90, 0.84, and 0.90, respectively. The same model
data was utilised to train and evaluate Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), with the
Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) network having the lowest Mean Square Error (MSE)
to improve machine learning prediction accuracy. Maximum estimate error range
of 0.1%, training and cross-validation of 0.00000496 and 0.0261, respectively, with
linear correlation coefficient in testing of 0.9999 or 99.9% better prediction accuracy
rate. The AA 5083 composites were designed and implemented using this machine
learning and artificial neural network model for forecasting specific wear rate.
Keywords AA 5083 · Stir casting · Hybrid composites · Wear · Machine learning

(ML) · Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
1 Introduction
Aluminium Metal Matrix and Hybrid Composites (AMMHCs) are used in aerospace,
automotive, ballistic, electrical, aviation, tribological, space and air vehicle, thermal,
structure, defence industries, military, transportation, engineering, and mineral
processing applications due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, good corrosion,
oxidation, and wear resistance, and high thermal conductivity [1].
Due to extensive passivation, aluminium (Al) is one of the most frequently utilised
metals in industries. It is a very strong, wear- and corrosion-resistant alloy that is
lightweight. By changing their elemental compositions, aluminium alloys may have
improved chemico-physical properties. To create varied concentrations of defect-
free and evenly dispersed aluminium composites, stir casting technology is often
used. AA5083 Due to its light weight, fabricability, physical characteristics, corro-
sion resistance, and affordability, aluminium–magnesium alloys are often utilised in
the aerospace, automotive, shipbuilding, and construction sectors. The majority of
aluminium–magnesium alloys, nevertheless, seem to have minimal wear resistance.
There have been some recent findings on the tribological behaviour of different
aluminium alloys [2].
Zhang and Li investigated the impact of yttria addition on aluminum’s wear
resistance in dry and corrosive environments. They discovered that the scattered
yttria particles significantly improved the aluminium matrix composites resistance
of aluminum to corrosion, corrosive and dry wear [3].
The use of agricultural waste (rice husk ash, coconut shell ash, bagasse ash, and
corn cob ash), industrial waste (fly ash), or recycled materials has been a new break-
through in composite materials. Agro-waste products that have been reinforced have
appealing qualities including cheap cost, low density, and less environmental contam-
ination. Coconut shell ash (CSA) particles are used extremely seldom, despite the
fact that many studies have researched the improvement of mechanical characteristics
of AMCs by the inclusion of agro-wastes. The authors’ decision to concentrate on
Prediction of Tribological Behaviour of AA5083/CSA-ZnO Hybrid … 187
creating high-performance aluminium matrix composites with reinforcements made

from coconut shell ash was driven by the paucity of existing research [4].
Zinc oxide (ZnO), an n-type semiconductor, is a very interesting material because
it can be used to make solar cells, sensors, displays, gas sensors, varistors, piezoelec-
tric devices, electro-acoustic transducers, photodiodes, UV light emitting devices,
and antibacterial materials [5]. Due to its distinctive mechanical, electrical, and
optical characteristics as well as its many uses, zinc oxide (ZnO) is a significant
substance in the metal oxide family [6]. The mechanical characteristics of the
extruded Mg materials are improved by the addition of modest volume fractions of
nano-particulate reinforcements such as nano-Al2 O3 , nano-ZnO, to pure Mg/alloys
[7].
This study looked at how ZnO particles affected the stir-cast aluminium metallic
matrix composite’s compressive strength, hardness, and wear properties. The rein-
forcement included various weight percentages of ZnO (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10) with
wear characteristics that improve as the weight percentage of ZnO rises. For speci-
mens of aluminium reinforced with 2, 4, 6, 8, or 10 weight percent ZnO particles, the
increases in Brinell hardness are (15%), (25%), (35%), (40%), and (50%) accord-
ingly. It was discovered that by increasing the zinc oxide content and going above the
composite minimum quantity, which reflects the overall percentage of zinc oxide,
the volume loss was significantly decreased (10 percent) [8].
Aluminium matrix composite with graphite and Coconut Shell Ash (CSA).
Modified stir-casting creates Al-1100 composites. Three more Aluminium with
Aluminium oxide, Aluminium–Aluminium oxide–Graphite, and Aluminium-
Coconut Shell Ash composites were developed. The Al-CSA composite outperforms
the other three composites in terms of mechanical and tribological characteristics
including tensile strength and hardness. Gr incorporation aids in the hybrid Al-CSA-
Gr composite’s improved tribological characteristics while allowing for a somewhat
lower specific strength [9].
Composites A and B with Al-5083 matrices reinforced with 5 and 10% wt% B4C
particles were manufactured by cryomilling and consolidating. Composite pins were
tested for dry sliding wear using a pinon-disc tribometer. Composite B (10 wt% B4C)
wore 40% less than composite A (5 wt% B4C) under the identical circumstances.
This experiment suggests that B4C particles improve composites wear resistance
[10].
After ECAE, the alloy’s wear resistance rose with the least amount of mass loss
and friction coefficient. As a result of ECAE processing, the alloy is now resistant
to scratch deformation. The mechanical and wear characteristics of aluminium 5083
alloy were improved via ECAE processing. The alloy may now be used in a variety
of technical applications that call for high strength because to improvements in its
mechanical and wear qualities [11].
According to wear experiments, the Al 5083/SiCp nanocomposite has a much
lower specific wear rate than the nanostructured Al 5083 alloy. In contrast to Al5083/
SiCp, which showed a wear mechanism of adhesive wear to abrasive wear, nanos-
tructured Al5083 alloys had a mix of abrasive and delamination wear processes
[12].
There have not been many research specifically looking at coconut shells in metal
matrix composite. A low-weight metal matrix composite with high thermal and wear
resistance has been produced using CSAp in certain studies [13].
The Al 6063 alloy/coconut shell composites mechanical and corrosion character-
istics. They observed an improvement in hardness and tensile strength as coconut
shell % weight increased and corrosion resistance decreased [14]. Similar results
were obtained when coconut shell was used to enhance recycled scrap aluminium’s
mechanical and wear qualities [15].
Machine-Learning (ML) techniques have recently been used to anticipate the
characteristics of metallic materials. ML models, for instance, may be used to look
for shape memory alloys with certain transition temperatures [16]. A method for
designing materials that combine tests with ML models to create high-entropy alloys
with high toughness. A deep neural network was used by Feng et al. to forecast the
flaws in stainless steel. ML models to forecast the capacity of binary metallic alloys
to make glass. The design of tailored metallic glasses was confirmed using commer-
cially feasible manufacturing techniques using a machine learning framework for
speeding design. High-throughput experimentation and machine learning-based iter-
ation to quickly find novel glass-forming systems ML techniques have been used in
many research to determine the relationships between an alloy’s capacity to produce
glass and its empirically observed characteristics [17]. Thus, these experiments
provided conclusive evidence that ML techniques were effective and dependable
for identifying novel metal matrix composites and predicting their properties.
Random Forests are trained using bootstrapped datasets of the same size as the
training set (RF). Randomly resampling the training set produces these datasets.
Once a tree is generated, out-of-bag (OOB) samples are used as the test set. OOB
generalization error estimate is all test sets’ categorization error rate. Bagged classi-
fiers have the same OOB error as using a training-set-sized test set. OOB estimation
no longer requires a separate test set. Each CART tree votes for one class, and the
forest predicts the class with the most votes to categorize input data [18].
A mathematical or computer model called a neural network replicates the structure
and functionality of a biological neural network. It uses artificial neurons to process
information in a connectionist manner. Modern neural networks are non-linear statis-
tical modelling tools that are often used for simulating intricate relationships between
input and output while looking for patterns in data. The neural network approach is
based on the same assumptions as how the human brain functions. The human brain
has a vast network of neurons that link sensory and motor nerves. The majority of
scientists thought that neurons in the brain communicate with one another by firing
electrical impulses across synapses [19].
A broad family of algorithms used in classification, regression, and density estima-
tion is called artificial neural networks (ANN-s). A function known as a Multilayer
Perceptron (MLP) may be imagined as a network made up of multiple layers of
neurons coupled in a feedforward fashion. Input neurons are the neurons that repre-
sent input variables in the first layer. The output neurons in the top layer are those that
deliver the function result value. Hidden layers are those layers that exist between
the first and final levels. Every neuron in the network acts as a perceptron, accepting
input values x1, x2, … xk and using the formula to calculate output value o;
∑
k
O=∅ (wixi + b) (1)
i=1
where wi, b are the neuron’s weights and bias, and is a nonlinear function. (x) is 1 /
1 + e ax or tanh (x). The multilayer perceptron is trained by finding the weights and
biases of all the neurons that will result in the network having the least amount of
error on the training set. A nonlinear decision border between classes is modelled by
the multilayer perceptron, a nonlinear classifier. Since the training data we employed
was linearly separable, as was discussed in the preceding section, using a nonlinear
decision boundary had little chance of enhancing generalization performance. As a
consequence, the basic perceptron’s output is the best one we could hope for. Another
issue in our situation is that a network with 20,000 input neurons makes it difficult
to perform effective backpropagation learning. Therefore, reducing the number of
features to a manageable number would be the only practical approach to deploying
multilayer perceptron [20].
The k-NN method is the most fundamental ML technique, and it may be used
for both classification and regression. To put it simply, k-NN uses the average of the
object’s k-NNs as the property value for regression purposes. It is common practise
to utilise K-NN to predict forest attributes from data collected across disciplines. The
distance measure and closest neighbour weighting used in k-NN implementations
are also factors. The accuracy and efficiency of computations depend on accurately
determining k. To determine the best value for k, we employed a combination of
the leave-one-out (LOO) cross-validation technique and the v-fold (dividing training
samples into two v-fold halves, v − 1 for prototype and one fold for validation)
(1–20). For the k-NN estimator, the LOO is a recognized technique for producing
unbiased estimates of predicted classification or estimation error. In this method,
the algorithm selects k with the lowest RMSE after computing RMSE in validation
sample sets for each value of k [21].
To assess the wear resistance of abrasion-resistant tribological materials to be
employed under various operating circumstances, several research are needed. These
tests may take a long period. Thus, there has been a growing need to create machine
learning algorithms, such as the ANN-MLP algorithm, which have recently been
able to utilize experimental data to anticipate wear behaviours of materials in order
to decrease the number of tests and lower the cost of experimental investigations.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Preparation of Coconut Shell Ash
The surface skins of the coconut shells were cleaned and smoothed after they were
purchased from a nearby market. The material was then crushed and ground in a
ball mill and a jaw crusher, respectively. The ground material was separated using
100 mesh-size screens. The powder was burned for three hours at 1200 °C (1473 K).
Once again, a ball mill was used to grind the resulting ash. The material was screened
to a 240 mesh size (50 μm).
2.2 Preparation of AA5083-Based Hybrid Composites
The matrix alloy chosen for the development of composite material is Al–Mg–
Mn alloy and designated by the aluminium association as AA 5083. The chemical
compositions of the matrix material are given in Table 1.
Percentage of Zinc oxide and the chemical composition of coconut shell ash
burned at 700 degrees Celsius were also identified by XRF, and the results are shown
in Table 2.
Aluminium Alloy (grade AA5083) was cut from an ingot and preheated at 300 °C
for 1 h. The material is in a 1073 K bottom-pouring furnace (800 °C). Inert Ar
prevented oxidation during melting. The furnace’s stirrer was controlled by a PID
rheostat. Slowly lowering the rotating spindle formed a vortex in the pool. Rein-
forcement particles were put into the liquid melt vortex at 1223 K (950 °C). The
spindle was moved from top to bottom with such a 2-mm clearance. This ensured
a smooth melt. Slowly decreasing the melt’s temperature between 1123 K (850 °C)
and 1023 K (750 °C) increases its viscosity. This retained fine particles in the liquid
melt. The liquid that contained the particles was put into a steel mould that had been
warmed to 673 K (400 °C). The melting furnace is shown in Fig. 1. Four Aluminium
alloy composites, namely AA5083, AA5083-3%CSA-3%ZnO, AA5083-6%CSA-
3%ZnO and AA5083-9%CSA-3%ZnO reinforcement were cast under different
conditions were added separately with different casting in the form of Table 3.
Table 1 Chemical composition of aluminium (5083) alloy in weight percentage

Constituent Al Mg Cr Cu Mn Fe Si Ti Zn Others
Percentage 92.6 4.9 0.25 0.1 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.15 0.25 Max 0.20
Table 2 The wt% of CSA

Elements CSA ZnO
and ZnO in the chemical
composition SiO2 45.05 –
Cuo – 7.44
TiO2 – 0.26
Al2 O3 15.6 –
Fe2 O3 12.4 5.68
CaO 0.57 –
MgO 16.2 0.50
SO3 – –
K2 O 0.52 0.07
Na2 O 0.45 0.22
ZnO 0.3 84.6
MnO 0.22 0.33
Others Balance Balance
LOI 8.69 0.94
3 Experimental Work
From the castings, ASTM test specimens were machined. Three of each test type were
performed. Figure 2 demonstrates dry slide wear testing using DUCOM’s pin-on-disc
apparatus [22].
The pin (workpiece) was against the disc’s 105 mm wear track. The disc’s pin
was deadweight-loaded. Many samples were examined with 20, 30, and 40 N loads
at 2, 3, and 4 m/s. Similar wear testing reveals a 1000-m sliding distance. 6 mm pins
were 35 mm. Before the test, the pin worm surfaces were slid with an emery sheet
to touch the steel disc. The sample and worn track were cleaned with acetone and
weighed to 0.0001 g before and after each test [22].
3.1 Microstructure Analysis
The microstructure of cast samples and wear debris surface morphology were
examined using a LEICA S440i SEM equipped with an Oxford INCATM EDS
system. Before placing the samples in the sample chamber, they were taped on using
double-sided carbon tape. The SEM accelerated at 5 to 20 kV.
Fig. 1 Melting furnace-stir casting
Table 3 Percentage of AA
Samples Aluminium 5083% CSA % ZnO %
5083 hybrid composites
1 100 0 3
2 94 3 3
3 91 6 3
4 88 9 3
3.2 Architecture of Artificial Neural Networks
An effective data modelling technique that can capture and depict complex input
and output interactions is an artificial neural network. Identification of the network
architecture, including the number of input and output neurons, hidden layers, and
neurons in each hidden layer, as well as the network parameters, is necessary for the
construction of ANN models (Activation Function and Learning Rate). Using both
Fig. 2 Pin-on disc wear testing machine
supervised and unsupervised learning techniques, artificial neural networks include

at least three layers, an input layer, several hidden layers, and an output layer.
3.3 Inputs and Outputs for ML and MLP-ANN
Six input neurons (Ni = 6) represent the variables of loads (L; N), sliding velocities
(v; m/s), sliding speeds (N; RPM), reinforcement percentages (Reinforcement;%),
cumulative time (t; mints), co-efficient of friction (μ) for AA 5083 CSA and ZnO
hybrid composites. One neuron represents the value of the corresponding Specific
Wear Rate (mm3 /N.M) in the output layer. For predicting the Specific Wear Rate
of AA 5083 composites, ANN (MLP) was tested. The experimental data sets for
Specific Wear Rate are 36 samples.
4 Result and Discussion
4.1 Tribological Behaviour
The tribological behaviour of the hybrid composite with the AA 5083 matrix was
followed through several phases. The tests were performed in conditions without
lubrication on samples with the best structural, mechanical, and anti-corrosion char-
acteristics. The wear loss was measured during the testing. The wear loss, one of the
major parameters for wear monitoring, was estimated based on the volume of worn
material, sliding velocity, sliding time, and a constant1000 m sliding distance.
Tribological Sample, Table 4 provides the specific wear rate values for the tested
materials based on the loads, sliding velocity, and sliding speed. Due to the exten-
siveness of the obtained results, a partial number of experimental values of wear loss
is shown in Table 4. First, the testing of the base material aluminium alloy AA 5083,
was performed, and then 3 wt% CSA, 6 wt% CSA 9 wt% CSA with 3 wt% ZnO
was added in the base. The Specific Wear Rate decreased by increasing CSA with
3% percentage reinforcements and increasing load and sliding velocity to the base
material of the hybrid composites. The coefficient of friction of the AA 5083 hybrid
composites was significantly reduced by adding only 6 wt% CSA and 3% ZnO. With
the addition of 3 and 9% CSA, the co-efficient of friction increased while increasing
loads and Sliding velocity at certain intervals, while in others it decreased.
4.2 Effect of Applied Loads and Sliding Velocities on Specific

Wear Rate and Co-efficient of Friction
The applied load is one of the most important determinants of the specific wear
rate of the composites. The unreinforced aluminium 5083 alloy is shown to have a
higher specific wear rate than hybrid composites. This is mainly because the hard
dispersoids on the surface of the composites function as protrusions and protect the
matrix from hard interaction with the counter surfaces, causing hybrid composites to
wear less gradually than alloys under all loads. Figure 3 shows that the specific wear
rate of the composites decreases with increasing load at a constant sliding distance
(1000 m).
At 20 and 40 N loads, the composites containing 6% CSA and 3% ZnO had
the lowest specific wear rate. At 30 and 40 N, composites containing 6% CSA and
3% ZnO hybrids exhibited an essentially same specific wear rate. When the load
is increased from 20 to 40 N, composites with percentage increases reveal a lower
specific wear rate than all the hybrid composites.
From Fig. 4, composites with more reinforcements have stronger wear resistance
at 3 m/s sliding velocity, constant sliding distance, and constant load 20 N. This
might be because CSA and ZnO particles are easily ploughed away from the matrix’s
surface, increasing wear at 4 m/s sliding velocity. In hybrid composites containing
zinc oxide particles, the particles fragment into small pieces and continue to inhibit
particle removal, decreasing wear.
Figures 5 and 6 By incorporating weight percentages of CSA and ZnO, the
composites coefficient of friction was significantly lowered. The co-efficient of fric-
tion increased in certain periods and decreased in others with the addition of weight
percent of reinforcements, increasing load, and sliding velocity.
Table 4 Experimental wear analysis of AA 5083 hybrid composites
Sl. Composition Load Sliding Sliding Cumulative Initial Final Wear Coefficient Wear rate Volumetric wear Specific wear
No. of AA 5083 (N) velocity speed Time (sec) mass mass Loss of friction Δm/L × rate (wv × 10) rate (ws ×
(m/s) (rpm) (m1) (m2) (Δm) (Ff/N) (μ) 10−8 (m/L) [Δm/ρt] (mm3 /s) 10−1 ) [wv/vs
(N/m) FN] (mm3 /
N-m)
1 Pure 5083 20 2 364 8.33 3.4649 3.4566 0.0083 0.6738 8.3 6.2 1.56
2 Pure 5083 30 2 364 8.33 3.4579 3.4487 0.0098 0.6375 9.8 7.4 1.23
3 Pure 5083 40 2 364 8.33 3.4487 3.4389 0.011 0.6388 11 8.3 1.03
4 Pure 5083 20 3 546 5.55 3.4699 3.4649 0.005 0.5825 5 5.6 0.94
5 Pure 5083 30 3 546 5.55 3.4389 3.4317 0.0072 0.645 7.2 8.1 0.9
6 Pure 5083 40 3 546 5.55 3.4317 3.4239 0.0078 0.6625 7.8 8.8 0.73
7 Pure 5083 20 4 728 4.16 3.4848 3.4744 0.0104 0.6075 10.4 15.6 1.95
8 Pure 5083 30 4 728 4.16 3.4744 3.463 0.0114 0.82 11.4 17.1 1.43
9 Pure 5083 40 4 728 4.16 3.4712 3.4588 0.0124 0.6931 12.4 18.6 1.55
10 3% CSA 3% 20 2 364 8.33 3.1619 3.1546 0.0073 0.7588 7.3 6 1.5
ZnO
11 3% CSA 3% 30 2 364 8.33 3.1546 3.1457 0.0089 0.6083 8.9 7.3 1.22
ZnO
Prediction of Tribological Behaviour of AA5083/CSA-ZnO Hybrid …
12 3% CSA 3% 40 2 364 8.33 3.1457 3.1364 0.0098 0.6338 9.8 8.1 1.01
ZnO
13 3% CSA 3% 20 3 546 5.55 3.1663 3.1619 0.0044 0.675 4.4 5.4 0.91
ZnO
14 3% CSA 3% 30 3 546 5.55 3.1364 3.1311 0.0053 0.6058 5.3 6.5 0.73
ZnO
15 3% CSA 3% 40 3 546 5.55 3.1311 3.1249 0.0062 0.6106 6.2 7.7 0.64
ZnO
195
(continued)
Table 4 (continued)
196
(N/m) FN] (mm3 /
N-m)
16 3% CSA 3% 20 4 728 4.16 3.1789 3.1707 0.0082 0.6413 8.2 13.5 1.69
ZnO
17 3% CSA 3% 30 4 728 4.16 3.1707 3.1667 0.004 0.7175 4 6.6 0.55
ZnO
18 3% CSA 3% 40 4 728 4.16 3.1667 3.1652 0.0015 0.8213 1.5 2.5 0.15
ZnO
19 6% CSA 3% 20 2 364 8.33 3.2208 3.2134 0.0074 0.8 7.4 5.7 1.43
ZnO
20 6% CSA 3% 30 2 364 8.33 3.2124 3.2035 0.0089 0.5767 8.9 6.9 1.15
ZnO
21 6% CSA 3% 40 2 364 8.33 3.2026 3.1916 0.0093 0.5113 9.3 7.2 0.9
ZnO
22 6% CSA 3% 20 3 546 5.55 3.225 3.2208 0.0042 0.6363 4.2 4.9 0.81
ZnO
23 6% CSA 3% 30 3 546 5.55 3.1916 3.1862 0.0054 0.6092 5.4 6.3 0.7
ZnO
24 6% CSA 3% 40 3 546 5.55 3.1862 3.1791 0.0071 0.5344 7.1 8.2 0.69
ZnO
25 6% CSA 3% 20 4 728 4.16 3.2551 3.2305 0.0078 0.49 7.8 12 1.51
ZnO
26 6% CSA 3% 30 4 728 4.16 3.2305 3.2265 0.004 0.7242 4 6.2 0.51
ZnO
A. Nagaraj et al.
(continued)
Table 4 (continued)
(N/m) FN] (mm3 /
N-m)
27 6% CSA 3% 40 4 728 4.16 3.2265 3.2259 0.0006 0.6656 0.6 0.9 0.06
ZnO
28 9% CSA 3% 20 2 364 8.33 3.0084 3.0017 0.0067 0.79 6.7 5.6 1.39
ZnO
29 9% CSA 3% 30 2 364 8.33 3.0009 2.9927 0.0082 0.5717 8.2 6.8 1.14
ZnO
30 9% CSA 3% 40 2 364 8.33 3.9927 3.9835 0.0085 0.605 8.5 7.1 0.88
ZnO
31 9% CSA 3% 20 3 546 5.55 3.012 3.0084 0.0036 0.7188 3.6 4.5 0.75
ZnO
32 9% CSA 3% 30 3 546 5.55 3.9835 3.9787 0.0048 0.6392 4.8 6 0.67
ZnO
33 9% CSA 3% 40 3 546 5.55 3.9783 3.9722 0.0061 0.5856 6.1 7.6 0.63
ZnO
Prediction of Tribological Behaviour of AA5083/CSA-ZnO Hybrid …
34 9% CSA 3% 20 4 728 4.16 3.0216 3.0146 0.007 0.6125 7.0 11.6 1.46
ZnO
35 9% CSA 3% 30 4 728 4.16 3.0146 3.0126 0.002 0.7092 2.0 3.3 0.28
ZnO
36 9% CSA 3% 40 4 728 4.16 3.0126 3.0122 0.0004 0.7769 0.4 0.7 0.04
ZnO
197
1.6
Specific Wear Rate x 10-1 (mm3/N-m)

1.5 AA 5083
1.4
AA 5083+ 3%
1.3 CSA + 3% ZnO
1.2 AA 5083 + 6%
1.1 CSA + 3% ZnO
1 AA 5083 + 9%
CSA + 3% ZnO
0.9
0.8
20 30 40
Loads (N)
Fig. 3 Variation of aluminium alloy 5083 based composite specific wear rate with load
Specific Wear Rate x 10-1 (mm3/N-m)
2.1
AA 5083
1.9
1.7
AA 5083+ 3%
1.5 CSA + 3% ZnO
1.3 AA 5083 + 6%
1.1 CSA + 3% ZnO
0.9 AA 5083 + 9%
0.7 CSA + 3% ZnO
0.5
2 3 4
Sliding Velocity (m/s)
Fig. 4 Variation of aluminium alloy 5083 based composite specific wear rate with sliding velocity
4.3 Wear Mechanism
Multiple factors contribute to the specimens effective wear. Increased load causes
hard asperities of the counter surface to penetrate the softer pin surface, micro
cracking of the subsurface, and deformation and fracture of softer asperities. Beyond
each composite critical load, the wear rate increases dramatically. The transition load
is when a specific wear rate suddenly increases [23].
0.85
AA 5083
Coefficient of friction
0.75
AA 5083+ 3%
CSA + 3% ZnO
0.65
AA 5083 + 6%
CSA + 3% ZnO
0.55
AA 5083 + 9%
CSA + 3% ZnO
0.45
20 30 40
Load (N)
Fig. 5 Variation of aluminium alloy 5083 based composite coefficient of friction with Load
0.85
AA 5083
Coefficient of friction
0.75
AA 5083+ 3%
CSA + 3% ZnO
0.65
AA 5083 + 6%
CSA + 3% ZnO
0.55
AA 5083 + 9%
CSA + 3% ZnO
0.45
2 3 4
Sliding Velocity (m/s)
Fig. 6 Variation of aluminium alloy 5083 based composite coefficient of friction with sliding
velocity
4.4 SEM Worn-Out Sample Images of AA 5083 Hybrid

Composites
After Wear test worn-out samples were tested are shown in Fig. 7a AA 5083, Fig. 7b
AA 5083 with 3% CSA + 3%ZnO, Fig. 7c AA 5083 with 6% CSA + 3%ZnO,
Fig. 7d AA 5083 with 9% CSA + 3%ZnO.
AA 5083 HBMMCs are susceptible to delamination and adhesive wear as wear
mechanisms. Here, it is described how surface morphology relates to each of the
processes. Analyzed is a comparative research of hybrid composites made of 3%,
6%, and 9% CSA and 3% ZnO and 5083 aluminium. Unreinforced 5083 alloy and
AA5083/CSA/ZnO hybrid composites are evaluated under constant load (40 N),
sliding velocity (4 m/s), sliding time (4.16 min), and sliding distance conditions.
Fig. 7 SEM Images of AA 5083 and its hybrid composites
The results of these tests are photographed in scanning electron microscope (SEM)
images (1000 m).
Figure 7a–d shows SEM micrographs and enlarged morphologies of AA 5083
matrix, CSA, and ZnO/AA 5083 hybrid composites at 40 N. AA5083/CSA/ZnO
hybrid composites scratch less than AA5083. At 40 N, composites wear with large
Fig. 7 (continued)
grooves and debris. The magnified morphology shows the AA5083/CSA/ZnO hybrid
composites low applied load wear mechanism. Figure 7b–d reveal that micro-cutting
and abrasive wear are the primary wear mechanisms Fig. 7d. The rather minor
delamination layer occurrence of AA 5083/9% CSA/3% ZnO hybrid composite
demonstrated significantly increased wear resistance, which is comparable to Fig. 7d

[24].
When the increased load is 40 N, layers of delamination attach to worn surfaces,
as seen in Fig. 7a–d. At 40 N and 4 m/s sliding velocity, AA5083/CSA/ZnO hybrid
composites show substantial to wear. Figure 7b–d show the enlarged morphology of
the worn surfaces of AA5083/CSA/ZnO hybrid composites under 40 N loads.
CSA hard reinforcement changed pin and disc contact characteristics. The AA
5083 matrix was worn out first due to the hardness difference between the rein-
forcement and matrix. Grooves are formed as a result of debris being removed and
pushed into ridges along the direction of sliding during the wear process. The defi-
ciency of AA 5083 matrix increased the load-bearing function of CSA and ZnO
particles and desquamation. Desquamated CSA/ZnO and AA 5083 matrix altered
wear behaviours and generated abrasive wear. As sliding speed increased, AA5083/
CSA/major ZnO wear mechanism changed from abrasion to adhesion. In the pin
and disc counter body wear system, shear stress desquamated the AA5083 matrix,
causing periodic plastic deformation of the AA5083/CSA/ZnO hybrid composite.
Adhesion wear and a delamination layer were generated as a result of stress concen-
tration between the pin and the disc. These features provided to shield the composite
from further friction and to increase its wear resistance [25].
Figure 7 AA5083/CSA/ZnO hybrid composite is economical, efficient, and
high wear resistant. Figure 7b–d Co-efficient of friction and Fig. 7b wear loss of AA
5083 matrix and AA5083/CSA/ZnO hybrid composite at various loads and sliding
velocities. CSA and ZnO changed the pin-disc interaction properties. Due to the hard-
ness discrepancy between the reinforcement, The adhesion wear delamination layer
improved the composites wear resistance. Considering its economy, efficiency, and
good wear resistance, the hot-press sintered AA5083/CSA/ZnO hybrid composite
can be widely utilized in wear resistance applications.
4.5 Machine Learning (ML)
Open source ML and data visualisation system evaluated data. These metrics repre-
sent ANNs and provided outputs in terms of Specific Wear Rate (SWR). Per sample,
the algorithm estimated Specific Wear Rate (SWR) using RF, NN, and kNN. Table 5
displays ML training parameters.
Random Forest (RF) is the most suitable assessment method, the estimate that was
created by (just) the NN methodology was provided in that figure. This is because
the Standard Deviation percentage (σ%) of Table 6 indicates that the RF is the most
appropriate evaluation method. The NN demonstrates a good connection between
the experimental dataset and the predicted Specific Wear Rate with a value of 32%
and 37% for AA 5083 hybrid composites. However, this correlation is not perfect
(SWR).
Table 5 Parameters for

Random Forest
machine learning methods
Number of trees 15
Fixed seed for random generator 32
Do not split subset smaller than 5
Neural network
Learning speed 0.6
Inertial coefficient 0.5
Test mass tolerance 0.02
Tolerance of the learning set 0.03
Number of layers 8
k-Nearest Neighbours (kNN)
Metric Chebyshev
Number of neighbor 2
Weight Uniform
Table 6 displays the Mean value (μ), the Standard Deviation (σ), and the Relative
Standard Deviation (σ %) to illustrate the variability of the overall value and compare
the various techniques.
This prediction ensures a substantial coincidence in SWR averages (0.98 vs. 0.96)
and variability.
Additionally, it seems that any Random Forest (RF) approach under examination
may provide a reliable estimate. Figure 8 illustrates this feature by showing values
from the various approaches (RF, NN, and kNN) in the context of, for instance,
AA5083 hybrid composites.
Even though the specimens were taken from identical tribological conditions,
this result may be seen as being more than suitable since the experimental results
were subject to some inherent variability (σ = 0.96). Even while it is also clear that
there is a trend toward a decrease overall, this variability was translated via the ML
procedure. Neither as a structure nor during training, ML algorithms have not been
optimized. Without going into specifics of AI Methods, this decision is tied to an
investigative technique that aims to demonstrate their universal applicability.
The correlation between measurements and estimates as predicted by RF, NN, and
KNN is shown point by point in Fig. 9. It demonstrates the ability of the Machine
Learning technique to identify correlation (r = 0.92 on RF, r = 0.84 on NN, and r
= 0.90 on kNN). This excellent match is shown by the clustering of data around the
diagonal. They also demonstrate that there are values that significantly vary from this
linearity. The distribution of points above and below the line suggests no systemic
errors in the estimate.
Table 7 Showed Random Forest (RF) R-square value is more than 0.92 and 0.90
on KNN and 0.84 on NN algorithms in machine learning. Compared with the least
values of error MSE, MAE and RMSE, RF model is less and a good prediction
algorithm in Machine Learning.
Table 6 Parameters in machine learning

S. No. SWR RF NN KNN
1 1.46 1.41 1.53 1.56
2 1.20 1.27 1.23 1.23
3 0.99 1.02 1.02 1.03
4 1.02 1.22 0.93 0.94
5 0.99 1.05 0.81 0.90
6 0.95 0.61 0.69 0.73
7 1.48 1.61 1.82 1.95
8 1.04 0.92 0.99 1.43
9 1.05 0.81 0.85 1.55
10 1.35 1.57 1.53 1.50
11 1.16 1.34 1.23 1.22
12 0.98 1.03 1.02 1.01
13 0.97 1.14 0.93 0.91
14 0.75 1.02 0.81 0.73
15 0.72 0.63 0.69 0.64
16 1.19 1.40 1.82 1.69
17 0.44 0.95 0.99 0.55
18 0.47 0.47 0.85 0.15
19 1.37 1.45 1.46 1.43
20 1.16 1.18 1.19 1.15
21 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.90
22 0.96 1.02 0.86 0.81
23 0.73 0.92 0.71 0.70
24 0.71 0.63 0.67 0.69
25 1.40 1.38 1.60 1.51
26 0.43 0.70 0.53 0.51
27 0.66 0.43 0.10 0.06
28 1.33 1.14 1.41 1.39
29 1.16 0.83 1.15 1.14
30 0.98 0.67 0.89 0.88
31 0.81 0.71 0.78 0.75
32 0.68 0.75 0.69 0.67
33 0.70 0.53 0.66 0.63
34 1.31 1.05 1.48 1.46
35 0.43 0.53 0.40 0.28
36 0.44 0.04 0.05 0.04
Mean (μ) 0.96 0.96 0.98 0.96
(continued)
Table 6 (continued)
S. No. SWR RF NN KNN
St Dev (σ) 0.31 0.36 0.42 0.47
St Dev (σ%) 32 37 43 49
2.00
1.80
Specific Wear Rate (SWR)
1.60
1.40
1.20 SWR
1.00
RF
0.80
0.60 NN
0.40 KNN
0.20
0.00
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34
Number of Experiments
Fig. 8 Experimental SWR versus ML for AA 5083 and its hybrid composite
4.6 Artificial Neural Network (MLP Model)
The experimental data on AA 5083 composites was used to produce the data for
training the ANN Multilayer Preceptron (MLP) model. A dataset consisting of a
total of (9 × 4 = 36) samples were collected, 3 for each combination of sample
materials, specific wear rate and other parameters with six different inputs Load,
Sliding velocity, Sliding speed, coefficient of friction, Cumulative time and % rein-
forcement as inputs and Specific Wear Rate as output (26 Samples) was used to train
the ANN-MLP model. 15% (5 Samples) of total input data was used for test data and
cross-validation (5 Samples). Cross-validation stops network training. This approach
detects data error and stops training when it increases. The best generalization occurs
here. Figure 12 specifies cross-validation and testing data sets. Figure 10 shows the
MLP structure design, output, input, transfer functions, and hidden layers.
A wide range of composites were tested for Specific Wear Rate. Data has been
statistically and ML-analyzed. ANN-MLP method improved specific wear rate
prediction.
Fig. 9 The correlation between specific wear rate data and estimates is predicted by RF, NN, and
kNN techniques
Fig. 9 (continued)
Table 7 Comparison of test results ML

Model MSE RMSE MAE R2
Random Forest 0.040 0.201 0.099 0.92
Neural network 0.064 0.254 0.198 0.84
kNN 0.048 0.219 0.149 0.90
Fig. 10 Multilayer preceptron (MLP) network architecture design
4.7 ANN-MLP Training and Testing
The training results indicate good functionality and a low inaccuracy of 0.00000496 at
2991 epochs. 2991 epochs later, training is complete. Mean Square Error MSE curve
MSE versus Epoch for MLP Network

0.04
0.035
0.03
0.025
MSE
0.02
0.015 Training MSE
0.01 Cross Validation MSE
0.005
0
300
599
898
1
1197
1496
1795
2094
2393
2692
2991
Epoch
Fig. 11 Training performance of the multilayer preceptron (MLP) network
Predicted Specific Wear Rate Output and Actual Network

Output
Output (Specific Wear Rate)
2.5
1.5
Specific Wear Rate
1 (mm³/N-m)
0.5 Specific Wear Rate
(mm³/N-m) Output
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34
Number of Samples
Fig. 12 Testing Performance of the multilayer preceptron (MLP) network
shows weight decay, indicating superior functioning. The network’s functioning is

further analyzed. Figure 11 shows training and cross-validation results.
The testing operation’s MSE is 0.00001599 and MAE is 0.00276. This indicates
good performance. NMSE is 0.0000749, while r is 0.99996. The reason that the
components are so close to forming a straight line, as shown by the linear correla-
tion value of 0.99996, suggests that there is a strong link between them. Figure 12
demonstrates the projected MLP Specific Wear Rate network output matches the
actual rate.
5 Conclusion
The following are the findings of the present investigation:

Coconut Shell Ash (CSA) can be utilised to manufacture Aluminium Metal Matrix
Hybrid Composite. It can replace aluminum-heavy materials. CSA can be used to
make composites from agricultural waste. This helps with CSA storage and disposal.
Stir Casting successfully incorporates CSA and ZnO into aluminium alloy 5083.
This approach produced hybrid composites with 3, 6, and 9 wt% CSA and 3 wt%
ZnO. Stir Casting successfully incorporates CSA and ZnO into aluminium alloy
5083.
Specific wear rate reduces with increasing CSA weight%, and ZnO particles have
outstanding tribological features, the least wear loss and coefficient of friction in
all test settings. Increasing CSA and ZnO particles lowers Aluminium 5083 alloy
friction. 6% CSA and 3% ZnO hybrid composites increase friction coefficient at 20
N and 30 N, 2 m/s sliding speed. Poor interfacial bonding between the reinforcement
and matrix alloy increases friction.
At applied load 40 N, micro-cutting and abrasive wear were the major AA5083/
CSA/ZnO wear mechanisms. Load 40 N supported micro-cutting and adhesion wear.
Adhesion wear created a delamination layer that increased composite wear resistance.
Mchine learning methods predicted AA5083 hybrid composites wear rate.
Using machine learning methods, the suggested model predicted wear.
Machine learning uses RF, NN, and KNN to predict SWR. NN had the lowest
success rate, but RF and KNN were equal; R-squared was 0.92 in RF, 0.84 in NN,
and 0.90 in KNN. The RF method had improved RMSE and MAE values. The RF
method developed the most efficient model among the presented machine learning
techniques for predicting wear rate.
To increase the prediction accuracy and R-square value ANN (MLP) Multilayer
Perceptron neural network was used to train and test the network.
Accuracy and error percentage compared in both results for the regression coef-
ficient of machine learning and artificial neural network with two models ML-NN
design and ANN-MLP design Specific Wear Rate was adopted.
The regression R-square values for this network were 0.84–0.99. An Error of
0.16 to 0.01 and prediction accuracy of 84% to 99% and 15% improved by using this
Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) network is more accurate for AA 5083 hybrid compos-
ites and any other types of materials. So, therefore the Artificial Neural Network can
be used for predicting tribological parameters and showed good coincidence with
the experimental results of these AA 5083 hybrid composites.
This results in the conclusion that both ML and ANN may be useful in preparing
an AA 5083 hybrid composite with the optimal ratio of reinforcing elements.
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Wear Behavior of Recycled Polyethylene
Terephthalate Reinforced with Fly Ash
Cenosphere
B. Krishna Prabhu, A. S. Saviraj, and Ajith G. Joshi
Abstract Polymers and their composites are emerging as viable alternative materials
to metal and alloy-based ones in many general purpose and special purpose engi-
neering applications. Further, the recycled engineering plastics like post-consumer
Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate) (r-PET) can be viewed as an economical alternate
feed systems for the production of parts which would have been otherwise made
from non-recycled materials. In the current work, the tribological performance of
Fly Ash Cenosphere (FAC) filled rPET composite is experimentally investigated
to understand the influence of percentage of FAC and the Silane treatment of FAC
(TFAC) using pin-on-disc apparatus. Also, wear behavior of TFAC filled rLDPE
blended rPET (M-rPET/TFAC) composite is studied. Specific wear rate (SWR) of
rPET/TFAC was found to be lower compared to rPET/FAC. Further, M-rPET/TFAC
composite has exhibited better wear resistance yielding minimum SWR compared
to other composite samples studied. Thus, it can be concluded that rLDPE blended
rPET/ Silane coated FAC (M-rPET/TFAC) composite possess better tribological
characteristic and reveal the fact that modification of both matrix and reinforcement
enhances the wear resistance of rPET composite.
Keywords Recycled PET · Recycled LDPE · Fly ash cenospheres · Dry wear ·
Compression moulding
1 Introduction
A natural fiber composite material consists of natural fibers and polymeric resin
which are glued together under optimum operating conditions. A proper knowledge
on the properties of reinforcing fiber, polymeric matrix, the process of fabricating
the composite material, and proper bonding at the interface is a crucial aspect which
contributes a lion’s share in determining the properties of the material [1]. In general,
B. K. Prabhu (B) · A. S. Saviraj · A. G. Joshi

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Canara Engineering College, VTU Belagavi, Bantwal,
Karnataka 574219, India
e-mail: kpbantwal@gmail.com
214 B. K. Prabhu et al.
a variety of natural fibers are available for the use of reinforcement. Among them,
flax fiber proves to be the best in terms of.
There is an ever-growing interest in developing newer materials for engineering
applications that suit the requirements such as high strength to weight ratio for
general applications. Towards this end, polymers and their composites meet the
requirements to a great extent. While most of these are tailored to meet the demands
of high-tech applications, very few have been developed for low tech applications
for instance gears in domestically used products. Manufacturing such products at
low cost to meet the needs of customers is a big challenge [1]. In this context, use
of post-consumer plastics can be an intelligent choice that not only reduces the cost
involved with raw materials but also lessens the environment related problems. With
increase in problems of dealing waste plastics, considerable attention is being paid
in recent years for their recycling by blending them with suitable reinforcements/
inexpensive additives. Such approaches enhance their potential for manufacturing
recycled products. As cost of the manufactured products is a major factor in a compet-
itive market, post-consumer thermoplastics and inexpensive reinforcements offer a
very good economic viability. One of the post-consumer plastics that have high recy-
clability is Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate) (PET) (resin code 1). PET is an engineering
plastic with good stiffness. It is used in bottles and other packaging products in huge
amounts and calls for recycling.
In the domain of plastic recycling, it is a well-established fact that multiple recy-
cling cycles continuously degrades the properties of the plastic [2]. However, among
various grades of plastics that are mechanically recycled, recycled Polyethylene
Terephthalate (rPET) offers comparatively better retention of properties but with a
small increase in brittleness [3, 4]. Retention of engineering properties post recy-
cling combined with ease of availability makes rPET a front runner as an alternate
material for several engineering applications. Reducing the brittleness of rPET and
enhancing its retention capacity of properties respectively through blending and rein-
forcing have been a keen area of interest for several researchers [5], but still there
is a wide scope for exploring different material combinations of rPET specifically
focusing on the resulting wear properties. Wear resistance is an important consider-
ation if low tech gears are intended application. Fly Ash Cenospheres could be one
source of reinforcing material for rPET that have good mechanical and rheological
properties and are environment hazardous [6].
Fly Ash Cenospheres (FAC) are hollow particles retrieved from waste fly ash,
emitted in the vicinity of thermal power stations whose disposal has been a matter
of concern throughout the globe [7]. FAC are the constituents of Fly Ash (FA) with
least density. They are spherical hollow alumino-silicates with around 52.53% SiO2
and 30% Al2 O3 as main constituents. Micro structural investigation of fly ash filled
composite for frictional properties reveals positive outcome towards incorporation
of FA in the polymers [8]. The successful reinforcement of FAC in rPET matrix
calls for the subsequent verification of mechanical and tribological behavior of the
resultant composite [5, 9]. As the materials are procured from recycled arena, there
would be a considerable cutoff in the cost of materials. The cost of processing, that
decides final cost of the product, however can be reduced by selecting a suitable
Wear Behavior of Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate Reinforced … 215
process for shaping the composite. The use of a low-cost moulding process such as
compression moulding helps in reducing the cost due to processing. This moulding
technique combined with materials from recycled sources could bring down the final
cost of the product.
2 Materials and Methods
R-PET is the matrix system studied in this work. PET beverage bottles are cut into
smaller pieces, treated with detergent to remove impurities and then washed with
clean water. This is followed by extensive drying to remove moisture and then shred-
ding into flakes with the help of an industrial granulator. Cenospheres used as rein-
forcements are extracted from Fly Ash (FA). FA is obtained from Raichur Thermal
Power Station (RTPS), Raichur, India. A density separation is used for separating
Cenospheres from the FA followed by drying. The Cenospheres used have an average
particle size of about 50 microns. For making samples of composite, rPET is blended
with recycled Low Density Poly-Ethylene (rLDPE) [10], 30% by wt and FAC are
treated with 3 Amino trimethoxy silane (3APTMS—10% by weight) before intro-
duction. Blended r-PET would be referred as M-rPET and the treated FAC as T-FAC
hereafter. Blended r-PET matrix reinforced with treated FAC composite would be
referred as M-rPET/TFAC.
Composite samples for wear testing are processed by compression moulding in the
machine made by PLUS ONE MACHINEFABRIK (Belgaum, India) with a capacity
of 32 tons, 250 × 250 mm platen, 200 mm ram stroke and 1.5 kW/platen heating.
Samples are moulded in a male–female type of mould using pressure and heat. The
dough prepared from r-PET and FAC is transferred to the lower half of pre heated
mould. The upper mould half is then forced down to fill the cavity completely.
As per ASTM G 99-95 standards, bar specimens of the composites of size 8 mm
× 8 mm × 4 (±0.4) mm were prepared by the above-mentioned process. A Pin-on-
disc (POD) machine, TR-201CL, wear and friction monitor with facilities to monitor
wear and friction is used in this study. Load on the specimen, sliding distance, speed
of rotation and surface roughness of the disk are the four wear factors studied in
this work. The former three factors are adjusted to the needs by the controls on the
machine and the surface roughness is altered by fixing the SiC abrasive paper on
the disk made of steel. Separate abrasive papers are used for each specimen in order
to maintain required roughness. All the tests are performed with fixed wear track
diameter (30 mm) in order to provide identical conditions for every set of experiments.
Rotational speed (rpm) of the disk is, hence, considered as a test parameter instead
of sliding velocity.
The pre-conditioning of the wear samples involves rubbing them over a 600 grade
Si–C paper so as to ensure uniform contact with the counter surface. The samples
are then thoroughly cleaned with soft paper soaked in acetone and dried to remove
moisture. The initial weight of the samples is measured on a high precision Precisa
XB120A. The counter face disc is covered with Si–C paper and the sample is made to
touch the counter face using a dead weight. As soon as the sample runs the required
sliding distance, the test is halted by the timer installed in the machine. The final
weight of the sample is measured and weight loss is noted down. A minimum of five
trials are carried out for each composition of the composite. From the weight loss
details, specific wear rate Ko in m3 /Nm is calculated using (1):
Ko = Wl /(d × Ds × L) (1)
where Wl is the weight loss in kg, d is the density of the composite in kg/m3 , Ds is
the sliding distance in meters and L is the load in Newton.
Five specimens each for every combination of the materials are moulded. The
samples are then tested on a POD machine. Subsequently, the weight loss data is
collected and specific wear rate is determined [10–12].
3 Results and Discussions
The wear testing results of r-PET composites in terms of mean SWR (KO ) are
computed for all experiments (Fig. 1).
In view that rPET/FAC composite is brittle in nature and that the reinforcing FAC is
poorly bound to the matrix (Fig. 2), attempt is made to improve these properties of the
composite treating FAC with 3-(Aminopropyl) Trimethoxy Silane (3APTMS), 10%
by weight and rPET/TFAC composite is studied for its SWR. And then the matrix
is modified by blending it with r-LDPE, 30% by weight and reinforced with T-FAC.
The modified composite, M-rPET/TFAC, is also studied for its Specific Wear Rate.
Figure 3 shows the wear behavior of rPET/TFAC and M-rPET/TFAC in comparison
to that of r-PET/FAC composite.
It is evident from Fig. 3 that rPET/FAC composite shows an initial 34% increase
in the wear rate which subsequently reduces to 4% with increase in FAC content
from 5 to 15%. The initial increase in the wear rate could be the result of weakening
of the composite owing to de-bonding of FAC as observed in Fig. 3. The drop in
SWR at higher content of FAC could be due to some kind of lubricating action of
Fig. 1 Plot of specific wear

Ko (*10-12) Nm/M3
rate of rPET/FAC composite 20

for varying ratios of FAC 18
16
14
12
10
8
0 5 10 15
FAC %
Fig. 2 SEM micrographs of failed surface showing brittle nature of the matrix and de-bonded FAC
20
Ko (*10-12) Nm/M3
18
16
14 r-PET/FAC
12 r-PET/T-FAC
10 M-r-PET/T-FAC
8
0 5 10 15
FAC %
Fig. 3 Plot of specific wear rate of rPET/TFAC and M-rPET/TFAC composite in comparison with
rPET/FAC composite for varying ratios of FAC
spherical, hard FAC particles. Surface treated FAC composite at 5% filler content
display an initial drop of 35% in SWR. This could be due to the fact that there is
improvement in binding of the filler to the matrix (Fig. 6b).
A marginal raise in SWR of these composites can be attributed to the agglom-
eration of fillers. FAC treated with 3-APTMS may increase the chances of electro-
static attraction between filler particles especially at higher concentrations of TFAC.
Figure 4 exhibits the regions of agglomerations seen under SEM. Further, it is worth
noting that, although there is raise in the wear rate of surface treated FAC composite,
the Specific Wear Rate is less by at least 6% for higher FAC content when compared
to rPET/FAC composite.
The wear behavior of M-rPET/TFAC composite displays a 52% drop in the SWR
of the composite in comparison to rPET/FAC and 8% drop in comparison to r-PET/
T-FAC composites at 5% FAC. This could be due to the surface treatment of FAC in
matrix modified rPET composite. The rLDPE being a plastic with low glass transition
Fig. 4 r-PET/30% r-LDPE/15% FAC (10% APTMS) composite exhibiting regions of agglomera-
tion of fillers on the failed surface
Fig. 5 Wear mechanism
temperature (Tg ), improves the flexibility of the matrix. Under the action of tearing
forces, the rLDPE component of the matrix modified composite can stretch and
absorb energy from the moving counter face (Fig. 5). On releasing the contact, the
stretched blend recoils and prevents the breakage of lump of the composite from
the parent sample providing better resistance against wear to the composite. Such a
pulling and recoiling of the composite could have led to the formation of hill like
structure that can be seen in Fig. 6a. Further, better binding of FAC to the matrix
improves resistance to the tearing forces and hence to the wear. Well bound FAC
owing to surface modifications can be seen on wear surface in Fig. 6b.
Fig. 6 SEM micrographs for M-rPET/TFAC composite
It could be deduced from the study as stated above that the overall wear loss
of FAC reinforced rPET composites consists of weight loss due to dislodged FAC,
weight loss due to brittle cracking of matrix and weight loss due to tearing of the
matrix as depicted in (2), which is also observed in the SEM micrograms in Figs. 2
and 6.
As observed in Fig. 3, first and second components of (2) are predominant in
r-PET/FAC composite. In contrast of this, M-rPET/TFAC could be reducing the brit-
tleness of the matrix, wt loss due to tearing down and tendency of FAC to dislodge, as
they are bound properly to the matrix by virtue of surface treatment. Such phenomena
could be observed as hill like structures and proper binding in the micrograph in
Fig. 6a, b.
Overall wear loss = Wt loss due to dislodged FAC particles

+ Wt loss due to brittle cracking of the matrix
+ Wt loss due to torn particles of the matrix (2)
4 Conclusions
The experimentation conducted to develop a rPET/FAC composite reveal an initial

increase up to 34% in SWR followed by a drop of 4%. Moreover, the composite
seems brittle with poor binding of FAC to the matrix.
R-PET/T-FAC composite displays 35% drop in SWR at 5% FAC content. A
marginal raise in Specific Wear Rate owing to the agglomeration of TFAC is observed.
M-rPET/T-FAC reveal the facts that both matrix and reinforcement modifications
improve the wear property of rPET composite. Surface coated FAC binds the rein-
forcement better with the matrix reducing the loss of weight due to dislodging of
FAC. Matrix modifications carried out by blending rPET with 30% rLDPE reduces
the loss due to brittle cracking of the matrix. SWR of the order of 12 × 10–12 m3 /
Nm is observed in rPET/TFAC composite which was further lowered to less than 10
× 10–12 m3 /Nm in M-rPET/TFAC composite at 5% FAC.
Acknowledgements The authors express their gratitude to the Department of Science and Tech-
nology (DST), Government of India, New Delhi and the management and the Principal of Canara
Engineering College, Bantwal for providing support and assistance.
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Synthesis and Characterization of Al/
MWCNT Composites Prepared Through
Powder Metallurgy Technique
Production of Al/MWCNT
Nanocomposite by Powder Metallurgy
to Enhance Dry Sliding Wear
Performance Aided by Design
of Experiment
H. T. Shivaramu, U. Vignesh Nayak, V. Londe Neelakantha,

and K. S. Umashankar
Abstract Aluminum (Al) reinforced with 0, 0.5, and 1.0 wt% MWCNT metal
matrix nano-composites were fabricated via powder metallurgy (PM) route. Chem-
ical stability between the matrix (Al) and reinforcement (MWCNT) was analyzed
using X-ray diffractometry. Wear experimentations were investigated using cylin-
drical test pieces on a rotating disk wear apparatus. Compositions, applied loads, disk
rotation speeds, and traversing distances were optimized using Taguchi’s L9 orthog-
onal array. The 0.5 wt% MWCNT reinforced composite showed higher resistance
to wear. The consequences of variables on rate of wear are presented. SEM micro-
graphs of the investigated cracked surface were observed to judge the mechanism of
fracture and MWCNTs effects.
Keywords Aluminium (Al) · Multi-walled carbon nano tubes (MWCNTs) ·

Wear · Powder metallurgy (PM) · Design of experiments (DOE)
H. T. Shivaramu (B) · U. V. Nayak · V. L. Neelakantha

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering,
VTU—Belagavi, Moodbidri, Karnataka 574225, India
e-mail: shivaramu@mite.ac.in
U. V. Nayak
e-mail: vignesh@mite.ac.in
V. L. Neelakantha
e-mail: neelakantha@mite.ac.in
K. S. Umashankar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, K V G College of Engineering, VTU—Belagavi, Sullia,
Karnataka 574327, India
224 H. T. Shivaramu et al.
1 Introduction
A sizable proportion of the materials utilized in engineering are aluminium alloys

and composites. These materials indicate higher specific strength, excellent ductility,
and anti-corrosion properties compared to steel. The properties of Al alloys cannot
be tailored to the level of those provided by the composites of Al. Therefore, there is
an increased research focus on Al composites. Typically, the AMMCs are produced
using Al–Si alloys. These alloys have demonstrated greater wear resistance compared
to pure Al and are the most popular aluminum alloy that is extensively utilized
in the automobile sector. However, their wear resistance is limited and their wear
performance is relatively unaffected at high fractions of Si additions [1, 2]. Indistinct
findings have been published with respect to the consequence of parameters on the
sliding performance of Al metal matrix composite (AMMC).
AMMC can be fabricated through various manufacturing techniques such as
stir casting, gravity casting, centrifugal casting, squeeze casting, liquid metallurgy,
forging, diffusion bonding, semi-solid, and powder metallurgy. Metal matrix compos-
ites (MMCs) are made using the stir casting process by mechanically stirring a molten
metal with a reinforcing phase, such as ceramic particles or short fibers. The stirring
action helps to distribute the reinforcement evenly throughout the matrix, resulting in
a composite materials with improved strength, stiffness, and other properties. Gravity
casting is a casting process in which molten metal is transferred into a mold under
the force of gravity. This is in distinction to other casting methods, such as pressure
casting, where the molten metal is forced into the mold under pressure. Centrifugal
casting is a production procedure for creating hollow parts from composites. In this
process, a mold is revolved at a higher speed while a mixture of resin and reinforce-
ment is deposited inside. The centrifugal force forces the resin and reinforcement to
spread evenly throughout the mold, resulting in a strong and uniform part. Squeeze
casting is a production process that combines forging and casting. In this process,
molten metal is poured into a heated die and then pressure was applied to force the
metal to fill the mould cavity. This procedure is employable to produce high-quality
metal matrix composites with good mechanical properties. The metal is shaped by
compressive forces during the forging production process. This is a versatile process
that can be adapted to create an extensive range of components, as well as those with
intricate shapes and complex details. Forging can be utilized in addition to improving
the strength and durability of metal parts. Diffusion bonding is a solid-state joining
process in which materials were united by atomic diffusion at raised temperatures
and pressures. It is a versatile process that can be applied to join a wide range of
materials, including metals, plastics, and composites. Diffusion bonding is often used
to produce composite parts because it can create strong, lightweight bonds without
the requirement of adhesives or fillers. This can improve the strength, durability, and
performance of composite parts. The semi-solid processing (SSP) is a production
technique that uses a material in its semi-solid state to develop parts with intricate
shape and high strength. The semi-solid state is achieved by heating the material to the
temperature below its melt point but exceeding its solidus temperature. This causes
Production of Al/MWCNT Nanocomposite by Powder Metallurgy … 225
the material to solidify into a mushy state with a high percentage of the liquid phase.
SSP can be utilized to produce a broad variety of composite parts, including those
made from metal matrix composites (MMCs), ceramic matrix composites (CMCs),
and polymer matrix composites (PMCs). The method is particularly well-suited for
production of parts with complicated geometry and internal features, such as turbine
blades, gears, and brake rotors. Powder metallurgy is a production technique, which
involves the fabrication of parts from powdered metals or metal-matrix composites.
The process begins with the extraction of metal powders, which are then blended
and compacted into the preferred shape. The next step is sintered, which employs
heat to fuse the particles together after they have been compacted. The sintered parts
are then heat treated to improve their properties. Powder metallurgy is a versatile
process, which can be employed to produce a spacious variety of parts, as well as
those with difficult shapes and intricate details. The process is also well-suited for
producing parts from materials, which are hard to machine, such as titanium and
tungsten. Of these techniques and their variants, powder metallurgy has emerged
as the most suitable one due to its inherent advantages relative to other processing
methods such as near-net shape casting, microstructure control, high production rate,
and excellent dimensional accuracy.
Multiple reinforcement materials in standalone and in combination have been
researched to study their effect on wear. Ceramics from the popularity of such
elements. The materials also range in size from micro to millimeters to nanometers.
All the reinforcements added to Al have shown increased wear resistance as they
would inevitably enhance the hardness of the composites developed. Aluminium
matrix composites reinforced with silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3 N4 ),
titanium carbide, titanium oxide, titanium boride, boron carbide (B4 C), aluminum
oxide (Al2 O3 ), and fly ash, are some of the composites materials that have been
tried. Aluminium reinforced with different concentrations of SiC has also exhibited
improved Young’s modulus in addition to increased wear resistance. Al2 O3 reinforce-
ment has resulted in both wear properties and compression strength enhancement
relative to the base alloys used. However, hard B4 C reinforced into Al, which had
shown minimum wear resistance despite B4 C being one of the hardest substances.
Fly-ash has been employed as reinforcement in Al-based composites for the past
few years due to its inexpensive cost and ability to attain desired characteristics.
Prasad and Ramachandra [3] evaluated the factors affecting the wear behaviour of
squeeze-cast Al/fly ash (5–12.5 wt%) reinforced composites. Their findings demon-
strated that the weight fraction of fly ash and casting pressure had an impact on the
composite’s wear resistance. Their hardness plots showed linear relation of hardness
with the applied pressure during casting and the fly-ash content used. However, the
investigation does not present any information regarding the dimension of the fly-ash
particles utilized to form composites. Evaluation of wear behaviour with micrometer
sized reinforcements has yielded the following results. Mishra et al. [4] examined
the wear characteristics of 10.0 and 15.0 wt% SiC (150–160 µm) reinforced Al
6061 composite that was manufactured with the stir casting method. Their research
exhibited that the application of load majorly affected the co-efficient of friction
[COF]. Their research revealed that the major factor that leads to the increased rate
of wear was the distance traversed for the 10.0 wt% SiC reinforcement whereas
for the 15 wt% SiC composite it was applied load. Singla et al. [5] conducted a
dry sliding wear investigation of Al–SiC composites with increasing reinforcement
concentrations at a uniform speed. Their investigation confirmed that the rate of wear
was the least and the COF was the highest with 20 wt% SiC reinforcement. Their
reported plots showed a linear relationship between the rate of wear and COF with
the applied load. The COF was observed to reduce and the rate of wear was seen
to increase with increased load. The rate of wear of LM6 Al alloy reinforced with
37 µm sized SiC (5, 7.5, and 10 wt%) produced via the stir casting route was investi-
gated by Ghosh et al. [6]. Experimentations were conducted with different SiC wt%,
applied loads, sliding durations, and distances. ANOVA outcomes clearly disclosed
that the rate of wear was majorly subjected by the SiC contents (41.50%) followed
by speed (31.40%) and load (20.66%). Their findings clearly demonstrated that the
loss of material reduced with an increase in the SiC content. Further, the wear rate is
augmented with the increase of applied load and speed. Radhika et al. [7] investigated
the tribological characteristics of the stir-cast Al–Si alloy reinforced with 9.0 wt%
Al2 O3 (average grain size 15–20 microns) and 3 wt% graphite (average grain size
50–70 microns) composites by varying load, velocity, and distance. Their findings
specify that the influence of sliding length (around 47%) is more on the wear of the
composite in comparison to the load applied and velocity. SEM images of the worn
surfaces showed an increased amount of grooves and uncovered reinforcements with
the increase in traversing velocity. They reported that at higher applied load, the pin
materials smeared on the rotating disk. In their study, friction, and wear were found
to decrease because of the self-lubricating nature of the graphite. The rate of wear
tested in Al 6061T6/10 wt% SiC/10 wt% Al2 O3 /5 wt% graphite composite that was
fabricated via stir casting. The developed composite materials were most predomi-
nantly affected by applied load, followed by traversing distance and speed [8]. These
results imply that a high loading fraction with moderate to low external applied load,
shorter distance traversed and moderate speed is the preferred condition to reduce
wear.
The large reinforcement size of micro and millimeter reinforcement though bene-
ficial in improving wear eventually does lead to excessive material loss owing to
the 3 body friction. This limitation is overcome by using nanomaterials. Nanocom-
posites are a class of materials that are reinforced using nano-sized (1–100 nm)
materials. Such materials have a higher surface-to-volume ratio. Another advan-
tage is improved interaction between the nano reinforcements and matrix leading
to better properties even at an elevated temperature. Metal matrix composite can
be reinforced with nanomaterials such as nano oxides (Al2 O3 , WO3 , ZrO2 , B2 O3
and Y2 O3 ), nano-nitrides (Si3 N4 , WN, ZrN, BN and AlN), nano-carbides (TiC, WC,
ZrC, B4C and SiC), nano-hydrates (TiH2 ), nano-borides (TiB2 , WB and ZrB2 ) and
nano Ni–Al, Al3 Ti intermetallic compounds, nano-scaled carbon black, graphite
(Gr), GNP, Single-walled and multi-walled carbon nanotubes [9–12]. An excellent
review of the production techniques to incorporate nanomaterials to form composites
was presented by Muley et al. [13]. The production techniques discussed were PM,
mechanical alloying, high energy mechanical sphere milling, spark plasma sinter
(SPS), pressure less infiltration, laser deposition, and casting. The study empha-
sized that the disintegration of nanoparticles occurs to varying extents in each of
the processes. The primary hindrance to the successful integration of nano reinforce-
ments within the matrix was their density, which differed significantly in comparison
to the matrix. This in turn led to the heterogeneous scattering of the nanomaterial
in the matrix. Choi and Awaji [14] showed the importance of managing thermal
stresses during nanocomposite production. The investigation showed higher residual
stress generated in the matrix material due to differential thermal expansion between
reinforcement and matrix during cooling after sintering. A focus area to explore
in nanocomposites is Carbon nanotubes (CNTs). CNTs possess excellent electrical,
mechanical, and thermal properties. Their novel properties motivated the researchers
to develop new MMCs using CNTs as reinforcement [15, 16]. Tribological charac-
teristics of composite depend on the characteristics of reinforcement and matrix
constituents when two surfaces slide on each other. CNTs have higher surface areas
and are harder than Al this improves the mechanical behaviour of the developed
composite. Kim et al. [17] fabricated Al/CNT (1.0, 3.0 and 5.0 wt%) composites
via SPS and hot pressing (HP) techniques. They reported minute amount of CNT
addition was sufficient to pack the space among the aluminium particles and the
higher addition of CNT caused the agglomeration of reinforcement molecules inside
the matrix phase. Noguchi et al. [18] adopted a nanoscale dispersions technique to
produce Al/MWCNT (13 nm) composites under the melting point temperature of Al.
In SEM analysis, few voids were found in the fabricated composites. Liao et al. [19]
developed Al/ CNTs (0.5 wt%) of 1.5 mm thickness material. The findings disclosed
that the disconnection of CNT was mainly dependent on the particle blending and
secondary process. The different grain shapes and sizes were noticed for sintered, hot
extruded, and rolled composites. Bakshi et al. [20] reported mechanical ball milling
as an efficient technique to obtain a homogeneous distribution of CNTs with reduced
clustering. To enhance the homogeneity of nanomaterial dispersion in the matrix,
sonication followed by compaction and sintering process was carried out to produce
Al/CNTs composite. The microstructure and grain size of reinforcements depend on
the ball milling duration. The incorporation of more than 1.0 wt% CNTs resulted in a
reduction in strength, stiffness, and ductility because of the CNTs cluster. The reduc-
tion of MWCNT and Al powders diameter limits the agglomeration during mechan-
ical alloying. In this method, the homogeneous dispersion occurred within the ductile
matrix, due to collides and fractures among the powder particles. The implementation
of ball milling and sonication processes before mechanical alloying limits agglomer-
ation. Long CNTs dispersed uniformly in the aluminium matrix over the short CNTs
were reported. Ali and Rubel [21] mentioned Al/MWCNT composite was produced
successfully through PM, followed by a hot extrusion process. The alignment of
MWCNTs in the Al matrix can be attained using the hot extrusion process. The
shortening in the length of CNTs and formation of aluminium carbide was revealed
in the matrix and grain boundary when Al/CNT composites were prepared via the
stir casting route. The improved mechanical characteristics were noticed even when
a small volume of MWCNT was reinforced into the aluminium matrix. An important
aspect to be considered during the production of nanocomposites is controlling the

dispersion and avoiding agglomerations which can be done using the PM technique.
The following sections present the production, characterization, materials used,
experiments conducted, important results, and conclusions of research work on the
assessment of wear resistance of MWCNT-reinforced Al nanocomposites.
2 Production and Characterization of Composites
2.1 Nanocomposite Production Procedure
PM technique employed to prepare MWCNT reinforced Al nanocomposites spec-

imen for the present research work. The schematic diagram (Fig. 1) shows the
procedure adopted to fabricate nanocomposite specimens.
2.1.1 Matrix and Reinforcement Materials
To synthesize the test samples Al with 200-mesh size was purchased from M/s Metal
Powder Co., Chennai, Tamilnadu, India. MWCNT nanoparticles were procured from
M/s Sigma Aldrich, Bangalore, Karnataka, India, and were produced using the CVD
technique. The properties of as-received MWCNT from the suppliers are as shown
in Table 1.
The obtained MWCNT was chemically treated by immersing it in concentrated
nitric acid, filtered followed by washing with de-ionized water, and were dried at
120 °C to remove impurities.
MWCNT Powder
Al particles Compaction
Particles Blending
Composite Extrusion
Material Process Sintering
Fig. 1 Fabrication steps for preparing composites

Table 1 Properties of MWCNT (as tested and specified by the provider)

Sl. No. Properties Remarks
1 Purity Carbon > 95% (trace metal basis)
2 OD × ID × L 7–15 nm × 3–6 nm × 0.5–200 µm
3 Total impurities Amorphous carbon, none detected by TEM
4 Melting point 3652–3697 °C
5 Density ~ 2.1 g/mL at 25 °C
2.1.2 Blending
To obtain nanocomposite, 35 g of the metal powders was taken with the necessary
quantity of MWCNTs nanomaterial in a ceramic mortar as shown in Fig. 2.
Using a pestle the blend was hand mixed for about 2 h for each batch. The powder
mix thus obtained was added to ethanol, and the metal powder—MWCNT mixture
was ultrasonicated in a shaker for 30 min to attain a homogeneous mixture. Finally, the
mixed powders were dried at 120 °C under a vacuum (less than 10−2 Pa). The mixed
composite materials were then introduced into a high energy ball mill to split the
clusters produced in the powdered mixture stage. This was done using a high speed/
energy planetary ball milling apparatus. This process of breaking agglomerates was
accomplished for 10 min at 200 rpm to achieve uniform distribution of MWCNT in
the matrix. A ratio of 1:10 in terms of the weight of the mix and the weight of the
balls was maintained in the steel jar during ball milling. To explore the properties of
developed composites, four samples were prepared with different wt% of MWCNTs
in Al. Table 2 shows the proportion of MWCNT reinforcement for the production of
nanocomposites.
Fig. 2 Ceramic mortar and

pestle with LM6 Alloy
powder and MWCNT
Table 2 MWCNTs weight for different concentration percentages

Sl. No. Percentage of MWCNT (%) Weight of MWCNT (g)
1 0.25 0.0875
2 0.50 0.175
3 0.75 0.2625
4 1.0 0.35
2.1.3 Compaction
The compaction arrangement used consisted of a plunger, a compaction die, and a

base plate that was made from EN31 steel. A cylindrical die having a hole of 25.4 mm
diameter and 65 mm length was utilized to form circular cross-sectioned specimens
as per ASTM B-92503 standard. Universal Testing Machine (UTM) was used for
applying the compaction load. A photograph showing the compaction die setup and
the compaction operation performed with the help of UTM is shown in Figs. 3 and
4 correspondingly.
Fig. 3 Compaction die
Fig. 4 Compaction die

setup kept on UTM setup
Fig. 5 Compacted specimen
Prior to compression, the plunger, compaction die and bottom plate were cleaned
with cotton. To minimize the friction between the mating surfaces of the die, plunger,
and bottom plate, acetone, and zinc stearate solution were applied. The matrix and
reinforcement blended mixture was transferred into the die cavity which was placed
on the base plate. After that, the plunger was inserted into the die cavity. Then the
die setup was placed on the UTM table. Loads at the rate of 10 kN/min were applied
using the UTM. The base plate was removed and the die setup was placed on the
wooden base block having the hole to aid in removing the compacted billet from the
die.
Pure Al powder size of 200 meshes was compacted in the die setup, the compacted
specimen used in the density test is shown in Fig. 5.
Compaction of the composite was achieved using a universal tensile testing
machine by compressing the Al/MWCNT composite according to the procedure
detailed in ASTM B-925 03 standard. During compaction, the load was increased
from 60 to 160 kN in steps of 20 kN. The density of the green compact was considered
after every step of loading.
Figure 6 represents the deviation in density with applied load. A monotonous
increase in density is observed with increasing compressive load. A higher rate of
increase in the density of the composite was observed till 120 kN. A relatively
negligible increase in the density of the prepared composite was witnessed beyond
the load applied of 120 kN. Hence, 120 kN was considered as the optimum load for
the fabrication of green compacts.
2.1.4 Sintering
Sintering of the compacted test samples were carried out at Bhatt Metals, Bangalore,
Karnataka, India. The green compacts thus acquired were sintered at a particular
temperature for 1 h. Under this process, bonding took place between the porous
aggregate particles, and on cooling, the powder particles bound to form a solid billet.
Fig. 6 Compactionload 2550

versus density for Al material
2500
2450
Density in Kg/m 3
2400
2350
2300
2250
Al
2200
2150
60 80 100 120 140 160
Compaction Load in kN
Fig. 7 Sintering process a samples kept inside the furnace and b outer view of the furnace
The sintering process was carried out under vacuum conditions to avoid oxidation.
Figure 7 shows the sintering apparatus used with samples placed in the furnace.
A pressure of 10–2 bar was maintained inside the furnace while heating and
cooling. The sintering temperature of 580 °C (0.8 times of melting temperature
of the matrix) was used Al nanocomposite. The sintered specimens were allowed
to chill to room temperature in a nitrogen atmosphere. No evidence of melting was
noted in the sintered components. Minute microscopic cracks were present on the
specimens containing higher wt% of MWCNT.
2.1.5 Extrusion Process
Extrusion is a secondary process in which component diameter is reduced and its

length elongated. The extrusion procedure was done with the help of a hydraulic
Fig. 8 Hot extrusion setup
Plunger
Heating coil
press. During extrusion, the metal was squeezed through a closed cavity known as
a die. Figure 8 shows the extrusion setup, it consists of an extrusion die, plunger,
10 mm diametric circular eyepiece, dummy piece, and a heating coil.
At the onset of the extrusion process, the die and plunger were lubricated by
applying a zinc stearate-acetone solution. The eyepiece was inserted at the bottom
of the die to obtain the required size of the specimen. A sintered sample was placed
in the die cavity. The dummy bar was placed between the plunger and the sample.
The heating coil was arranged around the die to maintain the essential tempera-
ture required for smooth extrusion. The sample was heated up to a recrystallization
temperature of around 600 °C. Hydraulic pressure of 21 N/mm2 was applied through
the plunger for extruding the specimen extrusion at an extrusion rate of 1.2 mm/s.
2.1.6 Characterization
To assess the chemical stability of the MWCNT during the sintering operation, an
analysis of X-ray diffraction patterns was undertaken. Figure 9 shows the X-ray
diffractometer (JEOL-JDX-8P) plots for the produced nanocomposite materials. The
diffraction pattern is a graph of intensity versus diffraction angle. There is a marked
similarity between the diffraction pattern obtained for the aluminium powder and
those of the nanocomposites. This clearly shows that there was no chemical reaction
between MWCNT and aluminium matrix after sintering and hot extrusion. Had there
been a shift in the peaks with respect to the diffraction angle and or a change in the
intensity of the peaks between the patterns for the composites it would indicate a
change in the phase which would alter the properties significantly.
Fig. 9 XRD pattern for Al/ 1-Al-powder

MWCNTnanocomposites Al 2-Al-billet
(1 1 1) 3-Al+0.5 wt. % MWNT-powder
4-Al + 0.5 wt. % MWNT-billet
5-Al + 1.0 wt. % MWNT-billet
6-Al+1.5 wt. % MWNT-billet
Al
(2 0 0) Al
Al
(2 2 0) (3 1 1)
Intensity
6
5
4
3
2
1
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Diffraction angle 2θ (deg)
3 Result and Discussion
3.1 Density and Tensile Measurement
The density of aluminum is 2.70 g/cm3 . The density of multi-walled carbon nanotubes
(MWCNTs) is about 1.35 g/cm3 . The density of MWCNT is half of that of Al. This
implies that as the fraction of the MWCNT is increased in the nanocomposites the
density of the nanocomposites will be decreased. This fact is also clear from the plot
of density versus weight concentration of MWCNT (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10 Density versus Al/

MWCNT composite
The density of the nanocomposite is further exaggerated by the degrees of

compression that it has been subjected to different loads.
The density of the nanocomposite is not significantly influenced by the sintering
temperature. The graph shown above was obtained for sintering at a temperature of
580 °C under an inert nitrogen atmosphere (10–2 bar pressure). Approximately a 5%
higher density is recorded for the Al and its composites on sintering. This is less than
the density changes observed when the compression load applied was raised from
zero to 120 kN. However, the extent of bonding between reinforcements and the
matrix is affected by the sintering temperature. In all the cases the plot clearly shows
that the post-sintered density was found to be higher compared to the pre-sintered
one.
Tensile strength is an important consideration in developing materials for engi-
neering applications. A post-sintering step involving extrusion was implemented
prior to testing the ultimate strength of the developed composites. The extrusion
operation was conducted at a temperature of 600 °C. During the process of extrusion,
a constant pressure of 21 N/mm2 was maintained. To conduct the uniaxial tensile test
the extruded composites were machined to standard dimensions in accordance with
the ASTM E -8 standard. The modulus of elasticity of the Al and nanocomposites of
Al was measured (Fig. 11). Young’s modulus was found to increase slightly when the
MWCNT concentration of 0.25 wt% was added to Al. Further improvement in the
modulus (by approximately 3.5%) resulted when the concentration of the MWCNTs
was increased by 50–0.5 wt%. At this concentration, the modulus of elasticity was
at its highest (63.8 GPa). On increasing the concentration of the MWCNTs rein-
forcements to 0.75 and 1.0 wt% the modulus was observed to decrease implying
deterioration of bond strength between the reinforcement (MWCNT) and the Al
matrix phase. At these two concentrations, the modulus was lower than that obtained
from the bare aluminium matrix material used. Such a behavior of the modulus with
reinforcement concentration is unseen and is distinct from the behavior exhibited by
conventional composite materials. A plausible reason for the distinct behaviour in
composites could be due to the clustering and entanglement of the MWCNT during
processing.
The SEM micrographs of the fractured surfaces are exhibited in Fig. 12. The
dimple-like structures were fashioned on the Al material as shown in Fig. 12a indi-
cating ductile failure. Al + 0.5 wt% MWCNTs composite deformed more when
compared to the pure matrix material. The MWCNTs bonded strongly with the
matrix and shared the applied force in the cases of composite. The MWCNTs act
as obstacles to dislocation motion and delayed the early fracture in composite mate-
rial. Figure 12b shows the MWCNTs present on the fractured surface. Clusters and
pulled-out MWCNTs in the Al—1.0 wt% MWCNTare observed (Fig. 12c). Agglom-
erated MWCNTs and their non-uniform distribution were the reasons for the easy
slip in the material.
Fig. 11 Young’s modulus

versus Al/ MWCNT
composite
MWCNTs on
Dimples fractured surface
(a) (b)
MWCNTs Cluster
Pull out of MWCNTs
(c)
Fig. 12 SEM of tested sample surfaces of a Al, b Al + 0.5 wt%, and c Al + 1.0 wt% MWCNTs
composites
3.2 Wear Investigation
Experiments to study the wear behaviour were conducted as per ASTM G 99-95a
standard. Debris material from the surface was removed with acetone. Specimen
weight was considered prior to and after each trial using an electronic weighing
machine. The variables such as MWCNT composition, applied load, rotation speed,
and distances were selected at 3 levels (Table 3). For 3 levels and 4 factors, L9
Taguchi’s design was chosen for the dry sliding wear investigation.
The design of the experiment (DOE) and analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
conducted using the Minitab software. The relationship between the independent
factors and their effect on wear was discovered. The analysis findings were converted
into a signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. The lower the rate of the S/N ratio smaller would
be its influence on wear. The S/ N ratio was determined using the following Eq. (1).

1
S/N ratio = −10Log10 y2 (1)
n
where “y” refers to the response value and “n” is the number of observations.
Table 4 indicates Taguchi’s design of the experiments (DOE). The wear investi-
gation was investigated as per DOE and the rate of wear (mm3 /m) was calculated by
considering volume loss. The S to N ratio was calculated using Eq. (1). The smaller
S/N value is the better one for wear resistance.
Table 3 Process variables and their levels

Level MWCNT composition Load (N) Sliding speed (rpm) Sliding distance (m)
(wt%)
1 0 10 250 500
2 0.5 15 500 1000
3 1.0 20 750 1500
Table 4 L9 Taguchi’s design and wear rate

Sl. No. Material Load (N) Speed (rpm) Distance (m) Wear rate × 10–3
1. 0.0 10.0 250 500 1.443
2. 0.0 15.0 500 1000 2.660
3. 0.0 20.0 750 1500 150.220
4. 0.5 10.0 500 1500 1.320
5. 0.5 15.0 750 500 1.400
6. 0.5 20.0 250 1000 3.270
7. 1.0 10.0 750 1000 1.982
8. 1.0 15.0 250 1500 5.030
9. 1.0 20.0 500 500 9.729
60 60
55
50 50
Wear Rate mm3/m X 10-3

45
40 40
35
30 30
25
20 20
15
10 10
5
0 0
10 15 20
0.0 0.5 1.0
Applied Load (N)
MWCNT (wt %)
(a) (b)
60 60
55 55
50 50

45 45
40 40
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
250 500 750 500 1000 1500
Sliding Speed (RPM) Sliding Distance (m)
(c) (d)
Fig. 13 Main effect plot for means of wear rate versus a MWCNT wt%, b applied loads, c sliding
speeds, and d sliding distances
The main effect plots for the mean of the rate of wear are shown in Fig. 13. The
higher rate of wear was recorded for the pure Al compared to MWCNT/Al composite
in Fig. 13a. The maximum resistance to wear was noted at 0.5 wt% MWCNT/Al
composite. A large difference concerning the rate of wear was noticed between Al
and Al/MWCNT composite. The rate of wear was higher at increased load and speed
(Fig. 13b, c) [2, 22].
Gradual wear was witnessed when the load increased from 10 to 15 N at speeds
ranging from 250 to 500 rpm. Further, the highest wear occurred at 20 N and 750 rpm
due to plastic deformation [23]. The wear behavior against sliding distance is shown
in Fig. 13d. Wear was found to gradually reduce as the distance traversed increased
from 500 to 1000 m. However, an increase in wear occurred when the sliding distance
was increased to 1500 m. MWCNT in the Al matrix enhances material properties.
MWCNT characteristics such as higher strength, higher thermal conductivity, and
solid film self-lubrication provide resistance to wear. The lubrication nature of the
MWCNT minimizes friction generation and dissipates the contact surface temper-
ature [24, 25]. So, the wear is decreased in the uniformly dispersed MWCNT/Al
composite.
The SN ratio plot (Fig. 14), indicates the independent factor’s optimum values to
enhance wear resistances. The 0.5 wt% MWCNTs reinforcement had the best S/N
ratio for 10 N, 250 rpm, and 1000 m of sliding distance. Higher slopes were obtained
on an increase in the reinforcement concentration from 0.0 to 0.5 wt%, between the
applied load of 15–20 N, at speeds from 500 to 750 rpm, and distances ranging from
1000 to 1500 m [26]. The slope is indicative of the amount of impact on the material
loss.
The outcome of the S/N ratio (the smaller the better) is shown in Table 5. The
number of delta values for variables that influence the impact on the rate of wear and
ranks was represented based on parameters causing more wear in ascending order.
The load was an important parameter for wear followed by material, distance, and
speed.
0
-5
-5
Means of SN ratio
Means of SN ratio
-10 -10
-15
-15
-20
-25
-20
0.0 0.5 1.0 10 15 20
MWCNT (wt %) Applied Load (N)
(a) (b)
-9 -8
Means of SN ratio
Means of SN ratio
-12 -12
-15 -16
-18 -20
250 500 750 500 1000 1500

Sliding Speed (RPM) Sliding Distance (m)
(c) (d)
Fig. 14 Means of SN ratio versus a MWCNT wt%, b applied loads, c sliding speeds, and d sliding
distances
Table 5 Response table for signal to noise ratio

Level Material Load (N) Speed (rpm) Distance (m)
1 − 18.406 − 3.846 − 9.169 − 8.623
2 − 5.208 − 8.484 − 10.223 − 8.244
3 − 13.245 − 24.529 − 17.467 − 19.992
Delta 13.197 20.683 8.298 11.749
Rank 2 1 4 3
4 Conclusion
The experimental analysis of Al/MWCNT nanocomposites leads to the following

conclusions:
• The optimum compaction load was found to be 120 kN for the development of
Al/MWCNT nanocomposites through the PM process.
• The density of the nanocomposite was lower compared to the aluminium material.
• XRD analysis showed the chemical stability of MWCNT in the composites.
• Al + 0.5 wt% MWCNT nanocomposite showed the highest tensile strength and
wear performance owing to the excellent reinforcement behavior.
• DOE analysis revealed that wear depends strongly on the factors in the hierarchy
of load, reinforcement, distance, and disk speed.
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Machining Challenges of Ceramic Matrix
Composites
A Review on Conventional Machining
Challenges of Ceramic Matrix
Composites
Abstract Ceramic matrix composites (CMC’s) are presently an undeniably well-

known selection of materials castoff to produce basic parts for an assortment of
designing ventures. CMC’s are presently a rising material decision for a few high
worth parts, that has as of late started the need of understanding the impact of few
machining methods. Because of the intricate idea of CMC’s—for example hetero-
geneous construction, machining become very testing as the cycle can relent higher
mechanical and thermal loads. The heterogeneous design of CMC’s prompts us to
think about the complex machining, that may eventually lead to extraordinary surface
deformities. An overview pertaining to exploration carried out in the traditional and
non-traditional machining of CMC’s on basically assessing what various machining
strategies mean for the machined surfaces is thoroughly discussed. Because of the
upgraded properties, these materials have higher potential for use in novel and high-
performance applications. This is accomplished by investigating the various mate-
rial portrayal methods as of now, used to notice and measure the mechanical and
subsurface defects.
Keywords CMC · Ceramic · Machining · Composites
1 Introduction
The ability of composite structures to improve the strength to weight ratio while
being contrasted to non-strengthen materials has piqued the interest of several indus-
trial approaches. Composites are often classified based on the material forming the
S. Dayanand (B)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Government Engineering College, Gangavathi 583227,
India
e-mail: samueldayanand@gmail.com
S. B. Boppana
Bengaluru 560064, India
matrices [1]. Each of these composites is important in today’s technology because of

its super physical, thermal and mechanical properties. MMC’s are usually flexible and
provide excellent high flexibility, strength, dimensional stability and toughness, with
aviation components being the most common application [2–4]. Ceramic Matrix
Composites (CMC’s) have come out as viable options out of to their magnificent
physical, chemical and mechanical properties. CMC’s are a new and favorable mate-
rial for high-tech engineering ventures. Because of superior properties, for example
low thermal conductivity, heat resistance, high strength, corrosion resistance, low
density and wear resistance, they can perform under tough conditions. When collated
to conventional and ceramic materials, these properties come up with a remarkable
increase in service life [5, 6]. CMC’s were heterogeneous materials in which the
second phase was distributed throughout the ceramic base matrix. Because of their
nature as a reinforcement material, CMC’s have characteristics such as hardness, self-
healing and functionality [7]. CMC’s are classified based on the ceramic matrix’s
nature: oxide like SiO2 , Al2 O3 , or non-oxide like C, BN, SiC, AlB2 , TiB2 , and ZrB2
[8–15]. Because of their mechanical robustness at higher temperatures, non-oxide
CMC’s are presently the most commonly used materials; particularly SiC reinforced
based CMC’s, which are a popular material option for high end accomplishment
such as aeronautics engines [9, 10]. This review focuses on the most commonly on
non-oxide CMC’s, which are C/C, C/SiC, and SiC/ZrB2 [11, 12]. Because of their
enhanced oxidation and lowering resistance in the combustion surroundings, oxide-
oxide CMCs are used and are covered in this review, despite the fact that there is a
limited amount of literature available at the moment. Advanced ceramics, includes
silicon nitride (Si3 N4 ), have the unique properties of maintaining high hardness at
elevated temperatures encountered in machining/grinding, and also good corrosion
and wear resistance and chemical stability. These materials are useful in applications
involving abrasion, high temperatures, and maintaining hardness at high tempera-
tures [13, 14]. Biocompatible implants such as dental prostheses, refractory and wear
parts such as valve seats and guides, precision bearings in the nuclear power industry,
and automobile components such as insulators, sensors, pistons, and valve linings are
examples of typical applications [15]. To defeat the issues while requesting necessi-
ties for materials ventures in the present years in different crucial ventures running
between engineering, energy and transportation, there will be an impending need to
make special chain and more unbending primary materials.
In any case, machining of ceramic production, keeping up with wanted surface
completion is a moving errand because of their extremely high strength and low
break sturdiness. Utilization of traditional coolants is likewise impractical because
of their low thermal conductivity and shock made by use of low temperature coolant
at a restricted region. Silicon carbide (SiC) fibers have been used broadly to build up
the greater part of CMC’s because of their higher flexible modulus and high strength.
The expansion of stubbles with the shorter fiber CMC’s works on its hardness and
break opposition. The long fibers have high sturdiness that keeps load in any event,
when the ceramic matrix breaks and decreases the crack. The short fibers and bristles
are utilized to work on break opposition [16, 17]. The constant monofilament fibers in
the scattered stage are produced utilizing synthetic fume with SiC in the underlayer
A Review on Conventional Machining Challenges of Ceramic Matrix … 247
which is made out of element tungsten in addition to carbon(C) fibers, conveying the
most essential reinforcing. The fortifications work on the durability and, now and
again, make the material thermally and electrically conductive. Because of the better
sturdiness and related to conductivity, the impeding impact of coolant causing surface
and subsurface breaks is hindered. Notwithstanding the benefits referenced above for
the high-level and artistic lattice composites, there are constraints of these materials
as well. The super regrettable part of these materials is that they are truly challenging
to machine owing to their higher hardness and strength, which confines their modern
double-dealing [9–11, 18–20]. The main choices for machining/grinding these mate-
rials are by a CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride) or a precious stone grating grinding wheel.
Since these materials are utilized in high innovation applications, the parts made from
them ordinarily require great layered control and surface completion. Thus, in prac-
tically all applications, some completing activity is required which is normally the
grinding [18, 19]. The significant issues engaged with grinding of ceramic production
and ceramic framework composites (CMC) are high extraneous and typical trimming
powers, grinding temperature, surface unpleasantness, surface breaks and subsurface
harms. A blend of ideal upsides of these reaction boundaries are looked for while
keeping a decent removal rate of material. To keep away from high device wear,
abrasives like CBN and precious stones are utilized [20, 21].
Regarding the actual machining of composites, a lot of exploration has been
drained and recalled in a few surveys [20, 21]. Most of the ceramic materials are
made by the sintering process. CMC’s parts are processed to rigid resilience for
aspects and nature of machined composite surfaces. In any case, in the wake of
sintering, the parts go through extensive shrinkage, that makes ensuing machining
undeniable. The actual hardness of the sintered processed CMC’s essentially restricts
material to be removed by various machining. The grinding operation with required
instruments and ensuing it getting done while cleaning is the most often involved
strategies for accomplishing layered exactness. The expense of machining interac-
tion can arrive at 60–80% and once in a while even up to can reach 90% of the
all-out creation cost [5–8, 22, 23]. It leads that in spite of the multitude of previously
disclosed benefits, the utilization of CMC’s is hindered by the significant expense
of their respective machining. Increasingly newer CMC’s with special possessions
are being fostered consistently. A significant number of these newer materials are
undeniably challenging to process with conventional innovations, and that implies
working on the current cycle (or making new strategies) for handling is vital and
critical. Subsequently, as the field of long fiber built up CMC’s has not been exhaus-
tively considered and due to the new development sought after, the material for higher
temperature primary applications (for example aviation, car and atomic businesses)
is in demand. It is accepted that the ongoing comprehension in machining CMC’s is
of vital logical importance [5–8, 10–17, 19, 22, 24, 25]. Moreover, the impact that
various machining methods prompt to the surface respectability and the comparing
assessments methods expected to portray these are not talked about either in the previ-
ously mentioned literature. Consequently, as the machined surface is most certainly
an essential viewpoint in underlying parts, for example, the ones that CMC’s are
be intended for, this survey targets gathering and basically examining the various
outcomes accomplished such a long way regarding the surface uprightness. A few
literatures have concentrated on how the handling temperature and CTE influences
the lingering stresses in the composite by utilizing Raman Spectroscopy equipment
[5–8, 10–19, 22, 26]. Contingent upon CTE alongside working temperature, elevated
degrees of decrease in residual stresses were noted in the composite’s morphology
which might influence and likewise get impacted by the way in which machining
is done. CMC’s are thought of as hard to be machined because of their exceptional
nature. Thus, fully intent on giving an actual clarification of reason they are viewed
as the hardest to machined composites, the primary material associated properties
influence the machining system [6–17, 19, 22, 27, 28].
• Hardness (Hv): This tends to be connected with the nearby obstruction
that an instrument finds the indent. Thus, harder material build have raised
mechanical properties which bring about a hindering impact to the machined
surface. In CMC’s, extensively hard materials (contrasted with various compos-
ites) are usually utilized as a support (for example SiC strands, Al2 O3 )
[5–9, 13, 19, 22, 29].
• Crack durability: Addresses how much energy is expected to break a material.
Subsequently, lower upsides of crack sturdiness will be normal for materials
tending to experience a weak expulsion system. Notwithstanding, to look at the
meaning of these qualities in a trimming situation amid various materials, the hard-
ness and break strength ought to be utilized together. Subsequently, the proportion
Hv/KIC for enormous qualities mean a more prominent propensity of happening
fragile break. In this way, it tends to be seen that composites having reinforce-
ments like SiC ought to be thought of as very challenging to get the materials
machined that might yield high powers of metal removal (brought about by high
hardness) and will be more inclined to experience weak break during the trimming
system (brought about by higher upsides of Hv/KIC proportion [19, 22, 30–32].
Consequently, it very well may be inferred that among every one of the compos-
ites, CMC’s carrying SiC particulate or potentially aluminium oxide will show the
most noteworthy machining powers and could often experience a fragile evacuation
system. This mix is basic for the surface age, particularly while thinking about avia-
tion and atomic applications, where little breaks can prompt a horrendous disappoint-
ment. In this process not just mechanical and customary machining cycles will be
thought about yet in addition non-ordinary ones, for example, laser removal, grating
waterjet and electrical release machining need to be considered [19, 22, 33–35].
2 Significance of the Surface Finish
CMC’s are intended to oppose unforgiving circumstances like thermal loads and
cyclic mechanical in extreme ventures (for example in aviation and automobile
sector). Consequently, the surface and subsurface harms made amid the machining
methods should be described to assess the part’s life. Moreover, the progressive
construction of nano oxide CMCs (particularly SiC based CMC’s) is intended to

likewise oppose in debasing conditions (for example O2 , H2 O fume, hydrocarbon or
debasements like Na+) [13, 32, 36, 37]. In case safeguarding surface layers fizzle, the
interior construction can experience a sped-up process prompting a weak and disas-
trous disappointment of the part. Subsequently, a cautious comprehension of the
impact of the machining system into the outer layer of CMCs is of basic significance
for the modern local area [19, 22, 23, 38].
2.1 Surface Integrity
The trustworthiness of the material surface subjected to machining depends on the

proportion of the impact that has happened during the removing of material [18–20].
Surface uprightness has been a significant examination field while machining elite
execution metals, for example, Titanium (Ti) and Nickel (Ni) based compounds.
By and large, three fundamental viewpoints are considered while examining surface
trustworthiness [19, 22, 23, 39].
2.2 Surface Roughness
The surface roughness incorporates the portrayal of surface structure like unpleas-
antness and waviness. Normal qualities for the whole surface (for example normal
harshness, Ra) are utilized for statistical correlations as immediate correlation with
the weakness execution have been accounted for [19, 22, 23, 40].
2.3 Surface Metallurgy
It incorporates the modifications on the surface alongside its underlayer surface.

By and large, electron magnifying instrument procedures (for example TEM and
SEM) combined with electron beam dispersed diffraction and XRD are utilized
to notice the morphology subjected to metal removal while evaluating the strains
initiated at underlayer surface. While considering materials involving harder metallic
combinations, a machining-prompted coagulation surface is formed in such ceramic
composites. The material density is usually utilized as a quality assurance boundary
[19, 22, 23, 41, 42].
2.4 Mechanical Attributes
Changes in the hardness pertaining to material because of the machining actuated

miss happening are measured commonly by XRD and SEM. Ordinarily, a profile
inside and out of these two stuffs is given to grasp the subsurface mechanical
modifications [19, 22, 23, 43].
Because of the unique and one of a kind sorts of CMCs, the material through
which it is removed is totally unique to purely metallic materials and thus its surface
trustworthiness. In addition, the reality of managing varying ceramic particles with
more modest grain sizes, formless parts and a few connection points, obliges to
investigate new techniques for portrayal, as the ordinary ones (for example XRD)
probably won’t be suitable for estimations [19, 22, 41–43].
3 Traditional Machining Process
Since CMC’s are usually utilized for getting complex parts (for example air motor
vanes), regular machining is tried to change the shape of the material. In this part, the
various machining methods which depend on using a regular mechanical method of
material removal process with a device need to be examined. To begin with, the basics
are introduced by taking a gander at the work done through removal of material and
scratch surface tests. Subsequently, the cycles of boring and grinding processing are
made sense of in discrete segments [19, 22, 44, 45].
3.1 Material Removal in Orthogonal Cut and Scratch

Surface Tests in Machining of CMC’s
In machining (like processing, boring, turning) utilizing state of the art devices,
ortho cutting is the most usually utilized essential trial to concentrate on the removal
of material. To investigate the removal of material, authors [27, 44] led few tests
on three normal fiber directions of carbide made composites. The material that was
removed was altogether unique through various fiber directions and in various cutting
profundities. While the cutting force is little, the cut is overwhelmed by the shear
conduct of composites while the action leads through lengthy strands and the shear
conduct of matrix during trimming through filaments and crossover strands, like the
pliable expulsion. The slicing thickness increments to a specific worth, the cutting was
overwhelmed by the inception and spread of the fiber matrix orientation broke during
the machining through longitudinal strands and across filaments and the bowing
incited crack of strands in the process of trimming through cross over strands. On this
premise, a logical machining model in view of the inelastic way of behaving and crack
mechanics of anisotropic and orthotropic, weak composites has been incorporated,
which is useful to grasp about the surface roughness during machining operations
[19, 22, 34, 35, 45–48].
Scratch tests are usually utilized as a worked-on situation fully intent on catching
the essential peculiarities in the removal of material process happening in machining.
Ortho based cutting is usually absorbed to machining processes with characterized
forefronts (for example boring, processing), while scratch tests will generally be
read up for the comprehension of the impact of a solitary molecule in a rough based
cutting cycle. A few edges of the high-speed imaging framework got fully intent on
understanding the various machining system that orthotropic and weak materials, like
CMC’s, can introduce. The material harm that shows up for huge whole chip thickness
that was driven by a shaky break arrangement, was found to in line with the interface
of fiber-matrix as it is the course with a lower crack strength. By the by, for little whole
chip thickness, the translaminar break strength for cross over strands and the inelastic
shear conduct for equal filaments were viewed as the ruling element in the machining
system. Authors [49, 50] reported under dry grinding operation and scratch surface
tests at various fiber directions and various angles from (0°− 30°− 45° and 90°)
which it was observed that the scratched surface for 30° and 45° was more seriously
harmed than for 0°. Owing to strands situated at various 30°, 45° and 90°, the filaments
were not totally taken out because of the huge twisting during the development
of the matrix. Regardless of whether the support of CMC’s is mostly founded on
lengthy strands, the investigation of the impact of ceramic matrixes built up with
ceramics particulates is of higher importance as some higher temperature CMC’s are
molecule built up. Also, in a few long strands CMC’s, the actual matrix can be a short
particle ceramic [51]. Regardless of whether the primary goal of the work was not
to grasp about the removal of the material but rather to fathom the effect opposition,
likenesses in the outcomes can be gotten as tiny whole chip thickness are regularly
utilized while machining hard CMCs. It was accounted for that microcracking is
observed and microplasticity were ruling the scratch conduct prompting the end that
both, pliable and weak peculiarities could seem while machining harder ones at little
greater chip thickness. Generally, the particle nature prompted a grain break system
in the silicon carbide molecule locales and slip planes in the particulate zirconium
diboride regions. Moreover, the harshness of the machined surface was demonstrated
to be profoundly subject to micro-cracking systems of the particulates. The impact in
the leftover chips was assessed in a similar material by utilizing Raman Spectroscopy
equipment in the silicon carbide particulates, showing an increment of pressure while
rising the load during scratch tests [19, 22, 26, 33, 51, 52].
3.2 Drilling Operation
It tends to be gained from the machining that, while involving machining tasks for
which the device turns through its hub (for example boring or processing), a mix
of the various cutting systems brings about various impacts in the surface profile.
Thus, it is vital to stress that normal or nonexclusive upsides of microstructural
or mechanical hardness qualities probably won’t be important while portraying the

machined surface in the biaxial materials like CMC’s [3, 19, 21, 23, 24, 26, 53].
The research in CMC’s has mostly centered around the examination between
regular boring and turning and ultrasonic machining utilizing rough devices; this
isn’t shocking exploration, since ordinary drills wear quickly in harder designs like
CMC’s [53].
Authors [54–57] likewise concentrated on what the harder heterogeneous nature
of SiC based CMC’s means for boring while machining little openings (somewhere in
the range of 0.8 and 5 mm width) with standard drilling operation. It was accounted
for that, due to this novel nature of particulate silicon carbide reinforced CMC’s,
untimely device breakage occurs while machining with tinier widths (for example
0, 8 mm width). This was logically and tentatively realized in view of a spiral power
estimated during the boring preliminaries, not seeming while machining other hard
materials, for example, solid SiC reinforced [3, 21, 23, 24, 26, 36, 54–57].
3.3 Grinding Process
3.3.1 Material Removal by Scratching Test
During machining like grinding operation, scratch tests are many times used to
concentrate on the machining process. To concentrate on the grinding qualities of
silicon carbide reinforced composites in various fiber directions, researchers [56–59]
did a solitary rough scratch test through various things with a specific indenter on
the grinding process and examined the grinding operation. Inside the surface scratch
profundity range (10–50 µm), the weak expulsion joining the layered fragile break of
carbon strands and the breaking of silicon carbide reinforced matrix was the process
of material removal [19, 22, 60–65].
3.3.2 Material Removal Mechanisms
The material expulsion system in grinding can be extensively sorted in two kinds:
(a) Indentation break mechanics (b) Machining approach. The main methodology
depends on connections among rough and workpiece similar to distortions created
by an indenter. In the subsequent methodology, shearing of the material in pliable
mode is considered as is seen in machining tasks [19, 22, 46–49, 66, 67].
3.3.3 Problems in Grinding of Ceramics and Ceramic Matrix

Composites
In sintered ceramic based materials, 90% expense of the item is caused in the phase
of grinding. Thus, failure in grinding as lower material expulsion rate unfavorably
influences the business feasibility of the thing.
Tool Wear
High hardness and high strength (ceramic matrix composite) materials are chal-
lenging to machine due to extreme wear. CBN wheels are utilized for grinding these
materials [68].
Surface Roughness
Grinding with prevalent weak break of material causes surface and subsurface breaks
and low quality of surface completion. Silicon Carbide (SiC) created by utilizing
3 µm size powder sintered at higher temperatures had a thickness of 3.17 gm/cm3 .
Subsequent to grinding this material in various circumstances by changing various
parameters, they reasoned that prevalently pliable material expulsion is vital for high
part quality [19, 21, 22, 69].
Surface/Subsurface Damages
Grinding of ceramic matrix composites create surface and subsurface harms and
twisted surface. Grinding with prevalently pliable disappointment will help in
possibly lessening these deformities. It is feasible to further develop the reaction
boundaries like grinding powers and surface harshness [19, 22, 46, 48, 49, 60–65].
Utilization of Coolants
Grinding liquids are utilized to cool the workpieces, carry out and moves the chips,
grease up the grinding zone to lessen grating and clean the grinding wheel. In any
case, involving coolant in grinding of nonconducting ceramic matrix composites
reduces thermal shock because of cooling of the cutting region. Method of least
amount oil (MQL) can be utilized to deal with the intensity created in grinding. The
utilization of MQL worked on the nature of the sample workpiece and decreased the
grinding process temperature [19, 22, 33, 64, 70, 71].
3.3.4 Variations in Input and Response Parameters
Test analysts shifted input conditions in grinding and noticed varieties. Input bound-
aries in grinding are cutting pace, table feed rate, profundity of cut, rough coarseness
size or nonattendance of a trimming liquid. The reaction boundaries can be trim-
ming powers, grinding temperature, surface harshness, surface and subsurface harms.
Conditions of reaction boundaries on input boundaries were viewed as follows [34,
35, 72, 73]; expansion in fringe wheel speed caused decline in unrelated and typical
grinding powers; surface harshness diminished with speed up; explicit grinding
energy expanded with diminishing chip thickness which is called size impact. A
speed up caused decrease of chip thickness which brought about decrease in grinding
power and decrease in wheel wear. The surface completion was improved by utiliza-
tion of coolant. The surface harshness diminished with table feed, coarseness size
and coarseness thickness. The grinding power diminished with decline in table feed,
coarseness size and coarseness thickness [19, 22, 34, 35, 56–65, 74].
3.4 Milling Process
Also, to what has been accounted for in boring, the majority of the examinations
in processing of CMC’s have been centered around the correlation among regular
processing. Not many analysts dealt with force forecast models, while others assessed
the surface wrap up by taking a gander at the harshness and the structure of the
machined surface [75]. It was inferred that, for entrance profundities more prominent
than 4 µm, the surface harshness unexpectedly expanded, introducing bigger number
of scores and pits (because of a weak crack). Then again, for more modest upsides of
entrance profundity, the Carbon strands would in general be more nonstop without
huge broke regions. Comparable ends were drawn while processing carbon—carbon
composites, where a somewhat better surface completion was gotten with regular
processing. Proof of a pliable to-weak change during the machining was seen in the
matrix, while a takeout system was ruling the fiber expulsion component [76].
To lessen the cycle incited powers and device wear and further improve the
surface completion, examinations have been embraced to dissect the possibility of
utilizing machining to relax the material in front of the device prior to cutting. In
spite of the method, it has been demonstrated to be savvy, lessen the machining
powers and device wear; little part of work has been tracked down in the writing
regarding characterization of the surface profile subsequent to processing of CMC’s
[72, 75, 76].
4 Applications
CMC’s are utilized in numerous high temperature processes. They have a high creep
opposition, which empowers plans with huge mechanical loads. Hot gas valves are
made from the same that are used to control the gas stream in gas terminated high
temperature heaters. Contrasted with metallic valves, the life of the CMC’s parts
is significantly longer and over-repays their higher buying costs. Various uses of
CMC’s in high temperature processes are fire tubes, heat exchangers, defensive tiles,
and various high temperature holders. The high wear opposition and the good rubbing
properties of CMC’s lead to applications like sliding contact course, brakes and grip
plates [7, 10, 12, 15, 16, 19, 21, 35, 39, 77–100].
5 Conclusions
Because of the novel nature that these ceramic materials present (for example hard,
diverse and orthotropic materials) they are viewed as truly challenging to-machine
and thus a few regular and non-ordinary machining methods are considered. The
uncommon characteristics of high hardness, strength and sturdiness (in the event of
composites), great erosion opposition and low unambiguous weight make them the
most impending material for future advances. In any case, the troubles experienced in
machining these materials present serious difficulties in fostering these materials. The
deformities created in grinding these materials, normally as the completing activity,
are surface/subsurface breaks, plastic twisting of the surface. These deformities, in
the event that not controlled at assembling stage, can deliver them ill-suited for the
modern capabilities to be performed by them. The above challenges in grinding of
ceramic matrix composites can be met by enhancement of grinding info boundaries,
utilization of proper trimming liquids and strategies like MQL and cryogenic cooling.
Unique methods can likewise be utilized, for example, pliable system grinding.
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Polymer Matrix Composites: Machining
Challenges
Machining Challenges of Polymer Matrix
Composites
K. S. Lokesh, C. G. Ramachandra, G. Ravindra Babu,

Abstract Numerous sectors benefit from the usage of fiber-reinforced composite

materials for structural purposes. Delamination is regarded as the main issue in
the production of the components. In the production process, drilling is frequently
utilized in materials have an impact on chip deformation and drilling behavior. By
carefully choosing the tool, method, and operating circumstances, both conventional
and unconventional drilling procedures are capable of producing small holes for
composite materials. This article reviews the approach to drilling composite mate-
rial without delamination. The main scenes are shown, along with the analytical
approach’s elements and the application of unique drill bits in practice. The current
review is to maximize the process variables, particularly the drilling process’s cutting
parameters and milling of various types of polymers reinforced with different fibres.
The acquired experimental data were examined using analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Keywords Machining challenges · FRP composites
K. S. Lokesh (B)
India
C. G. Ramachandra
G. Ravindra Babu
Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Karavali Institute of Technology, Mangalore 575029,
India
D. Shrinivasa Mayya
1 Introduction
Combining two or more different materials results in a composite material. They are
mixed together in a way that gives the resulting composite materials better qualities.
It cannot be produced using a substance with only one component [1]. The best
attributes of its constituent parts are bone [2]. Glass fibre reinforced plastics (GFRP),
which are created from plastic and glass fibre, are the most popular type of synthetic
composite material [3]. The separate parts are completely distinct from the GFRP
composite material in terms of their characteristics. Plastics may be easily molded
into any complicated shape and are lightweight, strong, and have great corrosion
resistance. However, due of insufficient strength, stiffness, and dimensional stability,
they are unsuitable for applications requiring weight bearing. As opposed to that,
glass fiber is suitably rigid and strong, with a very high strength. It is similarly
unsuitable Because of their brittleness and fibrous nature; plastics are not suitable
for load-bearing applications. However, when these two are joined in the right ratios
and with a certain arrangement of glass fibres, we are left with GFRP, which has
superior mechanical capabilities and other characteristics suited for load bearing
applications [4]. Composite materials are taking the place of many conventional
engineering materials in a number of different application sectors. A variety of items
including domestic and among other industries, use a family of materials known
as glass fiber reinforced composite materials. Since the days of the Bible, when
brick and chopped, straw was combined to create construction materials, composite
materials have been used. In the early 1900s, thermoset phenolic was reinforced with
fibre or particle material, the era of modern composite materials officially began. In
the USA, glass fibre was first produced for commercial use in 1937. Since then,
new matrix materials, reinforcing materials, and production techniques have all seen
significant development glass fibre reinforced fibre reinforced plastics (GFRP). As
can be observed [4], plastics are able to meet the strict technological and economic
criteria of numerous industries. Figure 1 Factors affecting machining characteristics
in turning of PMC’s.
2 Drilling of Composite Materials
Fiber-reinforced plastics present a number of issues during the drilling process due to
their geometry and other characteristic defects [5]. Because of their distinctive qual-
ities, including Fiber-reinforced composite materials have experienced a substantial
growth in application in the automotive and aerospace industries recently due to their
high specific stiffness and strength, great damping, superior corrosion resistance, and
low thermal expansion. For these applications, hole-making techniques are mostly
used. For instance, a tiny single-engine aircraft has over 100,000 holes while a huge
transport aircraft has millions of holes, the majority of which are for fasteners like
rivets, bolts, and nuts [6].
Machining Challenges of Polymer Matrix Composites 265
Fig. 1 Factors affecting machining characteristics in turning of PMC’s
Aircraft assembly accounts for over half of the total cost of producing an airframe.
The quality of the drilled holes may have a substantial impact on the life of the riveted
joints for which they are used. The axial straightness, roundness, and waviness of
the hole’s cross-section may place a lot of strain on Revit and cause it to malfunc-
tion [7, 8]. For repairs and/or assembly work, traditional drilling techniques are
frequently utilized in the automotive and aerospace sectors. One of the major issues
with drilling traditional or composite materials is drill wear, which results in changes
to the properties of the created holes and cutting tool failure. Linking process variables
such stresses [9, 10], surface polish [11–13], delamination [14], vibration [15], and
acoustic emission [16, 17] in order to understand how tools wear, numerous experi-
mental methodologies have been used. A lot of effort has been spent in recent years to
developing due to the challenges associated with the dependability, calibration, and
expense of using these experimental detection approaches. Numerous works have
been carried out in adding filler to thermoset bonded fibres with enhanced mechanical
features [18–26]. In many cases, delamination is what prevents composite materials
from being used in structural applications. In the aviation sector, delamination-related
drilling was the cause of 60% of all parts that were rejected during final assembly of
an aircraft structure. Delamination analysis in composite material drilling is a serious
issue that needs to be kept to a minimum. Many studies have studied the drilling of
GFRP composite material. Natural fibres play greater role in enhancing stiffness and
UTS which in turns directs the utility of NF’s to consider for machinability aspects.
When drilling GFRP composites, the effects of various drill types, such as, candle-
stick on thrust force and delamination are discussed [27]. They contrasted the twist
drill with the significant thrust force just before delamination began [28]. The signal
to noise ratio delamination analysis was also evaluated when drilling GFRP compos-
ites. [29]. The results proved that a very low feed rate and a quick speed of cutting
favor the least amount of delamination [30]. Experiments show that the delamination
size reduces as the feed is decreased, but that the delamination size is not significantly
affected by the cutting speed. Mechanical studies reveal the potentiality of bio-fillers
in enhancing the cutting parameters of bio-based materials [31]. Results show that
drilling thrust force, which depends on feed, speed, and cutting-edge condition,
directly correlates with delamination. Drilling infringement is a significant issue that
needs to be examined, according to the studies mentioned above. When discussing
the drilling of polymer matrix composites using ordinary equipment, many authors
have shown that the drilling parameters have a substantial impact on the quality of
the cut surfaces. For usage in load-bearing components, glass fibre reinforced poly-
mers (GFRP), particularly in the aerospace industry, have gained more and more
attention in recent years, however, if these parameters are not chosen properly [32].
Numerous outstanding qualities exist in this material, including exceptional corro-
sion resistance, high specific strength, high specific elastic modulus, and low weight
[33]. As the domains of application expand, turning, drilling, milling, and cutting-off
processes are being employed increasingly frequently in GFRP production. However,
the glass fibre component frequently makes machining GFRP challenging. In order to
obtain accuracy and efficiency while machining composite materials, one must have
a deeper understanding of cutting processes [34]. Drilling is a particularly stochastic
process because polymeric composites are anisotropic and inhomogeneous. It is
difficult for traditional drilling technologies to increase the caliber of holes drilled in
composites. Therefore, finding new drilling techniques is crucial. Vibration assisted
cutting includes vibratory drilling as a subset, this differs from conventional drilling
fundamentally. The innovative vibratory drilling method has attracted a lot of atten-
tion recently [35]. Multiple potentially appealing features exist for matrix compos-
ites with several forms of fibre reinforcement [30]. The bulk composite’s tribological
and mechanical characteristics can be significantly enhanced by reinforcing polymer
with fibres [31, 32]. By including the mica particles, the compressive strength and
hardness both the tribological properties of UD fibre composite [36] were enhanced.
Researchers looked into the surface damage properties of polyamide group rein-
forced with cross orientation of fibrous structures [37, 38] showed how increasing
the amount of glass fibre tends to increase the hardness of the bulk composite. while
very slightly increasing the friction coefficient. The friction coefficient is decreased
as the applied loads are increased. Numerous researchers looked into how the orienta-
tion of the fibres affected the various composites’ varying wear rates and coefficients
of friction.
3 Wearability Factors Considered for the Tool
Cutting cannot go on forever using a tool. It has a set lifespan. If a cutting tool is
to have a long lifespan, its face must be as smooth as possible. The amount of time
a tool may be used productively before getting worn out is known as its tool life.
A dull tool increases cutting forces and power consumption, leads to poor surface
smoothness, chatter during milling, and overheats the tool. Tool wear is the gradual
deterioration of the cutting edge’s sharpness with use. There are five different forms
of tool wear: Wear from adhesion (a) This method of wear involves welding the tool
material to the workpiece. High cutting forces, high temperatures, and softer tool
material are all factors in this form of tool wear. (b) Abrasion wear: The frictional
force causes this form of wear created when chips move across the tool’s face. (c)
Diffusion wear: Tool wear is caused by the solid-state diffusion phenomenon. This
is determined by the temperature and surface area at which the tool and work are in
contact. As temperature increases, the rate of diffusion exponentially increases.
4 Experimental Results and Discussions
Several publications on creating and evaluating methods for foreseeing the Studies
on the machinability of similar work groups were discussed. Experiments reported
the work have the primary goal of is to look at how some factors may affect the thrust
force, torque and other operations. According to the findings, the torque cycle’s start
point starts sometime after the push force (depending on the feed value).
The following results were drawn from the experimental work: during full drill
engagement, the once the cutting lips and the chisel edge had both left the laminate,
the thrust force was gradually lowered until it was zero. In contrast, the torque
increased when the drill emerged from the laminate and continued to climb until the
cycle was complete before abruptly increasing to a number that was around 10 times
the peak value. The cutting speed and feed barely make a difference to how harsh the
epoxy glue is on the surface. On the other hand, raising the cutting speed and fibre
volume fraction for (GFRP) improved the surface roughness.
Several parameters for drilling and milling operations conisidered by several
researchers on recent studies for different polymers are discussed. Two types
of majorly used adhesives such as Epoxy and polyester based polymer composites
are detailed in Table 1.
The machinability factors were thrust force, torque, peel-up and push-out delami-
nation, and surface roughness of drilled holes. They ultimately came to the conclusion
that drill pre-wear had a significant impact on the behavior of driving force during the
drilling process. High feed and cutting rates intensify this effect, which also raises
surface roughness and delamination. Increased drill pre-wear destroys microcracking
at the ply interfaces due to the matrix, degrading the surface’s texture. Low transi-
tion temperatures and a low coefficient of heat conduction for (GFRP) composites
Table 1 Parameters of drilling and milling operations [39]

1. For epoxy based composites
Parameters Drilling operation Milling operation
Fibre type Sisal and Screw Rice Camellia Jute Kenaf Flax fibre
E-glass pine husk sinensis fibre
fiber, fiber and
flyash + Ananas
graphene comosus,
glass
fiber
Geometry HSS 3, 4, HSS Drill bit TiAlN-coated HSS A
of the drill/ twist 5 mm drill bit of 6 mm cemented high-speed
tool drill bit dia carbide (WC) steel
material of end mill (HSS) end
diameter mill
of
12 mm
Speed of 700, 900, 600, 500, 300, 600, 25, 50, 75 m/ 509, 1000,
the spindle 1200 rev/ 852, 800, and 900 min 1019, 764 2000, 3000
min 1260 1250 rev/min rev/min rev/min
rev/min rev/min
Feed rate – 0.1 mm/ 0.02, 0.02, 0.04, 0.08, 204, 0.1, 0.2,
rev 0.04, 0.04, 0.12 mm/rev 713.5, 0.3 mm/
0.06 m/ 0.06 m/ 1223 mm/ rev
min min min
Depth of – – – – 2 2 -
cut
(milling)
2. For polyester based composites
Parameters Drilling operation Milling operation
Fibre type Sisal fiber Hemp fiber Jute fiber Hemp, jute, Woven
banana, glass natural jute
Geometry of HSS M2 -drills 4 mm drill dia Brad and spur Carbide end 7 mm,
the drill/tool of 8 mm Ø drill tool dia 5, mill 4-fluted end
material with three 7, and 10 mm mill made of
different high-speed
º-90°, 104° steel
and 118°
Speed of the 500, 100, 1500 800, 2800, 355, 710, and 16, 24, 32 rev/ 210, 660,
spindle rev/min 4800 rev/min 1400 rev/min min 1750 rev/min
Feed rate 10, 15, 20 mm/ 0.07, 0.17, 50, 108, 0.1, 0.2, 0.04, 0.06,
min 0.27 mm/rev 190 mm/min 0.3 mm/rev 0.15 mm/rev
Depth of cut – – 1, 1.5, 2
(milling)
help to reduce the generated temperature, which in turn causes significant surface
roughness is produced during high-speed drilling and drill pre-wear. Major findings
noted the growing use of composite materials made of glass fiber-reinforced plastic
(GFRP) in structural, automotive, and aeronautical applications. Due to its propensity
to delaminate, drilling is a complicated operation used to attach composite structures.
Within the factors and their constraints that are explored, the created GFRP
composites’ delamination during drilling can be predicted using a model. As a result,
while the impact of the fibre orientation angle was less noticeable, the amount of
the delamination grew along with the feed rate and drill diameter. The spindle speed
when drilling GFRP composites has very little bearing on delamination. Owing to
a larger drill’s increased drive force diameter, drilling composite materials has a
higher delamination factor. Similar smaller holes could be utilized in place of larger
ones [39]. Glass-polyester composites were subjected to drilling experiments using
conventional HSS tools; drilling was halted at the current depth to examine harm
growth when drilling. The samples, which had undergone metallographic polishing
method, were checked for damage using optical microscopy. The data are helpful in
characterizing the history of damage and in designing drill designs intended specifi-
cally for composite machining. The following are the main findings from the earlier
analysis. The type of drilling-related damage to composite materials is significantly
influenced by the feed rate. Failures are primarily caused by delamination that starts
close to where the hole’s cylindrical surface meets the conical surface made by the
primary cutting edges if it is set to suitably low values. Most delamination’s at low
feed rates are produced when the tool exit edge is near. The average length of the
delamination closest to the sample’s back face is greater, which suggests a stronger
inclination to grow. Damage determined as indicative of the observed defect condi-
tion from micro analysis. In fact, attaching fasteners to laminate composites during
assembly drilling is one of the most popular manufacturing procedures. The material
anisotropy brought on by fibre reinforcement has a significant impact on how machin-
able a material is. Therefore, accurate machining is required to assure dimensional
stability and increase component productivity. Within the bounds of the experiments,
the following can be deduced from the study of drilling GFRP composite plate find-
ings utilizing conceptual S/N ratio method, response surfaces, and ANOVA. (1) The
Taguchi approach provides a strategy for designing process parameter optimization
that is systematic and efficient and yields the least, as demonstrated in this study.
(2) The delamination impact is seen to be primarily influenced by the feeding rate,
cutting rate, and thickness of the material The least amount of delamination at the
entry and exit of the drilling favors fast cutting speed and low feed, which enhances
surface polish and tool life. (3) Using conceptual S/N ratio and ANOVA techniques
to data analysis, similar outcomes are discovered [40]. The findings majorly claim
that because of better mechanical qualities, lightweight materials are utilized in a
variety of industries. In order to place fasteners for the construction of laminates,
drilling is a highly common machining activity.
Compressive residual strength, corrected delamination factor, and thrust force of
unit-directional glass/epoxy resin were all examined in relation to drilling param-
eters’ impact. To increase the drilled laminates’ compressive residual strength, the
results emphasize the significance of feed rate [41]. Investigation into how the drilling
process’s chip generation and thrust force are impacted by the anisotropy of fiber-
reinforced polymers (FRP) was done by S. Arul et al. in 2005. One of the main
reasons for damage to fibre reinforced plastics during drilling is delamination, it
potentially leads to long-term performance decline in addition to compromising
the structural integrity. By using a traditional drilling technique, it is challenging
to generate holes of excellent quality and efficiency. This study on drilling poly-
meric composites attempts to develop a technique that will guarantee fewer flaws
and longer tool life. Waste glass and rubber derived thermosets proved to be higher
wear resistance hence difficult to machinable [42, 43]. Composite material drilling
is a delicate and crucial process where materials delaminate when subjected to the
forces associated with drilling operations. While the trials were being conducted. The
exit hole of the drilled area was scanned to determine the amount of delamination
factor. The acquired experimental data were examined through means of analysis of
variance (ANOVA). The results demonstrated that the delamination factor increased
at both low and high levels within the parameters’ selected experimental range. The
ideal parameter values for minimizing delamination were ultimately established.
The recent investigation depicted that the diameter affects the thrust force and the
feed rate affects the torque. Nonlaminated composites are frequently employed in
ballistic applications because they have better mechanical qualities than laminated
composites. An inquiry was conducted to evaluate the Using coated tungsten carbide
twist drills because there is little information on the machinability of nonlaminated
composites. The pultrusion process with a high fibre weight percentage was used to
create the GFRP composite rods. Using a coordinate measuring machine, the drilled
holes’ ovality (hole diameter inaccuracy) was evaluated. ANOVA method is used
to investigate how process variables like feed and spindle speed affected the ovality
of the drilled holes. In order to drill pultruded GFRP composite rods defect-free,
the optimal level of process parameters towards lowest ovality was attained. Statis-
tical software MINITAB 16 was used to determine a correlation between ovality and
process parameters. On ovality, speed had little of an impact. The feed had a big
impact on how novel the holes were that were bored [44]. Major findings of recent
works reported on optimizing drilling of GFRP composites, namely cutting speed,
feed, point angle, and chisel edge width. A L9 orthogonal array was used for testing in
this work to assess the effects of various combinations of process parameters on hole
quality. These studies followed the Taguchi experimental strategy. An analysis of
variance (ANOVA) test was conducted to determine the significance of each process
parameter on drilling. The results show that speed, chisel edge width, and point angle
are the other important variables that have a substantial impact on the thrust force;
This research is helpful in determining the best values for kinds of process factors
that would lower the delimitation, improve the drilling hole’s quality [45].
5 Conclusion
In order to satisfy the need of classifying the issues under consideration, successful
review completed in producing with neat validation of various factors which are
enumerated in different papers. The cutting speed and feed barely make a difference
to how harsh the epoxy glue is on the surface. GFRP, on the other hand, raising
the fibre volume fraction and cutting speed reduced surface roughness. Increased
drill pre-wear causes an increase in thrust force, which destroys the matrix and
damages the surface finish by causing microcracking at the ply interfaces. Because
of a rise in thrust force caused by a larger drill diameter, drilling composite materials
has a higher delamination factor. A superior surface polish, longer tool life, and a
high cutting speed and low feed result in an increase in the delamination within
the experimental known range of the parameters. The ideal parameter values for
minimizing delamination were ultimately established. Additionally, it has been noted
that in all sandwich composites, as feed rates and speed are reduced, it is discovered
that the drill profile rupture is escalating. The ovality of the drilled holes is affected
by process variables including feed and spindle speed. In order to drill pultruded
GFRP composite rods defect-free, the optimal level parameters near to lowest ovality
was attained. In addition to the acquired experimental data. The present review also
concludes the optimized process parameters, particularly the drilling and milling
parameters for several types of polymers reinforced with various fibres, including
the feed, cutting speed, and drill bit diameter.
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Processing of Composites: Challenges
Challenges Faced in Processing
of Composites
Abstract Composites made of fiber-reinforced resin are being used more and more
in the aerospace and auto industries. However, owing to the complex physical and
chemical characteristics of the constituent materials moulding techniques, making
composites presents highly difficult hurdles. As a result, while assessing the quality
of composites, knowledge on how to spot production-related issues is crucial. The
matrix of composites’ residual stress development, Vacuum flaws and resin-rich
flaws are first summarised. This chapter describes many resin-related processes,
such as the curing of heat responsive resins. Resin penetration during hot pressing,
RTM and 3D printing, and resin-rich flaws during the moulding process. Second,
the method by which fibre reinforcement flaws such fibre waviness and wrinkle
occur in composites is introduced, and the impact of such flaws on the creation of
the composite structure is underlined. Supporting structure modulus, strength, and
stability may be significantly reduced by fibre misalignment defects, according to
several research reports. Finally, difficulties brought on by interfacial defects, like
layer peel ups and unbinding are elaborated at the interface between reinforcements
and matrix. By combining the different difficult aspects that cause manufacturing
flaws in laminated and additively made structures so that the inculcated information
may provide a prognosis for composite manufacturing.
Keywords Challenges in PMC processing · Defects in manufacturing
K. S. Lokesh (B)
India
C. G. Ramachandra
D. S. Mayya
1 Introduction
It is not well known how characteristics of the manufacturing process have an

impact on structural strength, durability, and damage tolerance. The fatigue-critical,
flight-critical performance and service life of thick carbon/epoxy and glass/epoxy
composite fatigue-critical components are particularly affected by the consequences
of insufficient design methods and manufacturing processes, which appear as flaws
like wrinkles and porosity. Such flaws impair matrix-dominated characteristics,
resulting in weaker structural behaviour and fatigue resistance. In order to deter-
mine the state of the product and prevent making assumptions about the worst-case
scenario, accurate measurements to quantify manufacturing flaws are crucial [1].
Accurate 3-D measuring skills are needed since the wrinkling shape and porous
dispersion are three-dimensional. To demonstrate computed section representation
capacity for precise 3-D scaling, characterisation of composite structural flaws, it’s
clear that it is possible to measure porosity and wrinkling in dense structural details.
Additionally, the requirements for advancements to transform the defect profile infor-
mation into FE models for evaluating the consequences of the faults are covered.
Though the parts are naturally more sensitive to fluctuations in production over
metals, composite designs now employ use the metal design philosophy and the same
factor of safety to calculate the ultimate design load from the limit load. Differences in
the part fabrication process, such as operator skill, tooling setup, humidity fluctuation,
equipment control, and so on, are common causes of part quality variation, in addition
to material variations in resin content, bulk factor, and fibre alignment [2]. Production
yields are reduced as a result of the increasing susceptibility of composite component
quality to material and process variables. Composite manufacturing communities
must comprehend and manage their actions in order to maximise production yields.
Majority of the portion remain non-trackable in defining the accuracy of the yield.
2 Various Challenges in Processing of Composites
2.1 Matrix Defects of Composites
The Compressive strength, interlaminar shear performance, and impact resistance

are mechanical qualities dominated by resin matrix in composites would be reduced
by the flaws of resin matrix at many sizes, including meso scale to macro scale, which
are challenging to regulate. Additionally, residual stresses and curing deformation
caused by the crystallisation of the matrix will influence the precision and security
of using engineering composite structures, which will result in the early failure of
composites. As a result, the three topics of stress due to residual loads with voids
and excess resin defects in materials are explored in depth in this section’s research
of resin matrix. The common challenging factors which arise during processing of
composite structures are represented in Fig. 1.
Challenges Faced in Processing of Composites 279
Fig. 1 Common challenges from the constituents of composites
Numerous studies have documented the most significant and frequent flaws that
occur when processing metal matrix and polymer matrix composites with a variety
of natural and mineral fillers and both synthetic and natural fibre. Consolidated report
of the same has been highlighted in Table 1.
Table 1 Challenges faced during the processing of FRPs with various filler combination
Type of Type of Fillers used Challenges faced
reinforcement production
method
Fibre Hand-lay-up Casio3 , waste Voids and bubble formation occurs
reinforced-woven method rubber, E-waste if layup is not done properly [1–4]
E-glass and chopped glass, mineral
fibres filler
Particulate Stir casting Red mud particles, Requirement of reinforcement
reinforced-micro method graphite particles, particles counts more than
and nano particulate Sic calculated due to vaporization
with Al-alloys during the preparation [5–9]
Fibre Hand lay-up Mineral Non-uniform dispersion of fillers in
reinforced-fibre method fillers-waste and matrix leads to agglomeration due
orientations fibres, scrap glass to fine grains [9–14]
fibre mat
Fibre Hand lay-up Fish scale, Improper binding of fillers with
reinforced-jute/silk/ method Cocopeat powder, binder due to random sizing of
CSM fibre waste rubber fillers which overcome by sizing
them to maintain uniformity in
blending with resin [15]
2.2 Induced Residual Stress
Resin undergoes physical and chemical changes throughout the solidification or

crystallisation process, which results in repairing deformity and residual strains in
adhesively bonded composites. Dry-out distortion refers to a degree of discrepancy
between the structure’s final shape and the absolute geometry specified in the archi-
tecture. The engineering application of composites may suffer greatly from these
dimensional variances [16, 17]. Induced distortion that remain in the composites for
post dry-out are referred to as curing residual stresses. Their presence will impact
the fibre and resin interface, decreasing the structural stability and durability of
composites. Residual stresses and deformation brought on crystallisation, therefore
significant basic issues for the production of these Light structures. The application
through composites in engineering would be hampered by a lack of research.
2.2.1 For Thermoset Based Matrix
There are two types residual stresses at the macro- and microscales in thermoset-
ting resin matrix composites [18]. Hygroscopicity, chemical resin shrinkage during
polymerization, and an imbalance in the thermal expansion of the resin and the fibre
are the main causes of micro-scale residual strains. Chemical shrinkage during poly-
merization, consolidation, variations in crystallinity or degree of cure throughout
thickness, distribution of the volume fraction of the fibres, and component interac-
tion, non-thermoelastic residual stresses also have an irreversible creation mechanism
[19]. Recent research results have examined the issue of thermosetting resin curing
in great detail. Three factors, to accurately mimic the resin curing process, one needs
have a complete understanding of the reaction kinetics, heat conduction, and thermal
behaviour.
2.2.2 For Thermoplastic Based Matrix
Different processes of residual stress production are brought about by the manufac-
turing of thermoplastic composites [20], for instance, shrinkage caused by crystalli-
sation in semi-crystalline thermoplastics as contrasted to shrinkage caused by curing
in thermoset matrices. This could lead to more demands being placed on the experi-
mental techniques, such as their applicability for non-transparent matrix composites.
In this case, the overall crystallinity is typically utilised to describe internal structure
macroscopically.
2.3 Existence of Voids
As seen in Fig. 2, void flaws are a common occurrence in composite materials. The
flow rate of resin, the temperature at which it cures, and the consolidation pressure
are examples of manufacturing process variables that can be used to regulate void
formation [21]. The next sections of this section cover the mechanisms by which
voids develop in composite produced via advanced manufacturing methods.
2.3.1 Existing Voids for Specific Manufacturing Methods
The laying up and curing processes are when void flaws in advanced manufacturing
methods are primarily created [22]. During impregnation [23] or laying up [24], air
can become trapped results in flaws that cause entomb and in between laminar defects
is one of the main causes of voids. Some parameters, including hot-pressing process
of composites, surface roughness, laying up environment, laminate thickness, ply
orientation, internal ply, drop-offs, and tooling all contributed to void formation [25].
Based on the results of thermogravimetry and mechanical spectrometry experiments,
it is possible to determine the best curing pressure settings to reduce void content
and the parameters in the curing cycle that affected the size, shape, and distribution
of voids. The surface tension was taken into consideration in the resin voids in
composites diffusion model, which was able to predict the resin’s entrapped voids’
collapse [26]. In autoclave moulding and hot pressing of composites, pressure plays
a critical in preventing voids. Additionally, pressurized compression void formation
will be impacted by curing factors including residual humid nature, and residual
solvent content. To reduce the number of void defects, all of the aforementioned
elements should be taken into account.
2.3.2 Challenges in RTM Method
Composites with intricate interior structures can frequently be produced using resin
transfer moulding (RTM). Here preformed layer must be soaked with liquid resin.
Fig. 2 Void formation in

produced FRP laminate
During RTM, resin bubbles that have grown because to the non-uniform flow will
deform, migrate, and combine. The dominating features of materials, which are
directed by the resin and include resistance to axial compression, toughness and shear
response are impacted by void defects. As a result, work on the causes of vacuum
defects in matrix transfer mold is a scientific issue that must be resolved in the field
of structural development. The void-content is determined by the air entrapment. The
void defects can be categorised into three groups based on the shape and location
of the stuck air. Dry macro voids develop if fibre bunch is not un-filled. Such gaps
will be created by both unequal penetration and early resin gelation. Mesoscopic and
microscopic voids are the two main categories of voids. The micro gaps are cylindrical
while the mesoscopic spaces are spherical. Therefore, as matrix accelerates ahead
and the pressure alters, the void defects that were created at matrix discharge will
distort. Investigation of the void distribution in 3D braided composites led to the
development of the probability density formula [27]. The meso-/micro-scale voids
in RTM were statistically predicted [28, 29] established the correlation between the
gaps and capillary number. Internal resin of the structure is cured, causing the internal
components of composites to crystallise and changing the void pressure. According
to the simulation’s findings, a composite material’s void flaws would diffuse more
readily as temperature rose, and the dry-out flow would accelerate the model’s load
and cause void defects to shrink in size.
2.3.3 Challenges in Additive Manufacturing
The 3D printing of composites is gaining popularity because to its benefits, including

adaptability and compatibility for creating complicated structures. Due to the layer-
by-layer coating manufacturing process, there exists developing flaws in Addi-
tive Structures. Furthermore, the interlayer shear strength of composites produced
through 3D printing will be directly impacted by the interfacial contact. The inner
surface characteristics of additive structures made out of carbon with PLA were thor-
oughly examined with an emphasis on how thermal affect the adherence of beads
[30]. When the nozzle was heated to between 200 and 230 °C, it was discovered
to achieve the mixing of specific matrix with fibre bunches and also guarantee the
binding between laminates. The performance of interlayer bonding in 3D printed
composites was examined, and it was discovered that interlayer performance would
deteriorate as interlayer thickness increased [31]. Researchers also discovered from
the results of experiments that better strength for UD-composites and fewer inside
flaws than other corresponding categories [32]. Theoretical frameworks and numer-
ical simulation techniques have been offered by several academics for the anal-
ysis of 3D printing void flaws. The investigation also revealed that valve dimension
is the primary feature influencing the dispersion of defects in Additively manu-
factured structures [33]. The discussion is meant for to know how voids occur in
composite materials produced by advanced techniques. The interface and matrix of
the composite will become weaker as a result of such flaws. Additionally, when the
structure is experienced with outside load, the void defects will cause a concentra-
tion of stress, causing the surface to exceed the internal barrier to regulate earlier
than expected and compromising the composite material’s overall strength. Table 2
depicts Nature of damage incurred while processing of Composites with types of
various Processing Tasks.
Table 2 Nature of damage incurred while processing of composites with types of various
processing tasks
Type of Nature of Nature of effect
defect defect
Residual Residual The inner space availability for the adhesive reduces drastically as
stresses stresses in the the random link of molecules are regenerated Microscale residual
matrix of stresses will result in matrix cracks, but Robust scale cured
thermosetting transformation results as macroscale left out stresses because of its
resin prime importance [33]
Residual The clubbed molten structure of thermoplastic likely changes to an
stresses in the arranged neat non-amorphous segment as it cools from the molten
matrix of state volatiles produced by resin as it cures
thermoplastic
resin
Void Formation of Void flaws can also result from moisture that has dissolved in the
defects void defects in resin. The void development during curing, which asserted that
hot pressing thermal expansion and diffusion could cause void sizes to fluctuate.
and autoclave Moisture-based voids’ dissolution and development during resin
curing [34]
At low curing pressure, a sizable no of big blows created in the
single layer interfaces, and as the pressure was raised, the size and
number of these voids considerably decreased [35]
Formation of Due to the uneven resin flow during this procedure, air stuck with
void defects in blows produced near the flow front [36]
RTM Multiple causes, including uneven dry-out can result in void
defects in RTM [37]
Mesoscopic voids will form between fibre bundles if the discharge
rate of matrix is less than that of fibre bunches [38]
On the other hand, micro-voids form b/w each segment in the
bunch of fibres [39]
The resin flow velocity and pressure will also be impacted by the
creation of voids in composites [29]
Formation of The interlayer bonding performance of composites produced by
void defects in additive production method was examined, and it was discovered
3D printing that interlayer performance would deteriorate as interlayer
thickness increased. Void builds due to lean binding with matrix
interface [31]
Additionally, the void defects will cause a concentration of stress,
results in compromising the composite material’s overall strength
[33]
2.4 Excess Resin Consumption
Resin-rich zones, which are a common occurrence in composites are defined as

the regions where fibres are locally deficient [40, 41]. Localized fibre splitting
and fibre bunches can result in excess matrix regions when composites are being
made. Additionally, excess matrix flaws are challenging to regulate while structure
moulding. The attributes of flaws that are excess matrix have been researched by
several academics. RTM U-beam performance and production were investigated
[42]. The reinforcement had a tendency to draw tightly around corners when the
mould closed, removing these areas from the resin-rich area. In order to determine
the compositional link in correlation with layer segments, the examination of excess
matrix region of 0 unidirectional and cross-ply composites [43]. In braided or woven
composites in particular, faults rich in resin are more common. There are micro-scale
and minute scale resin-rich defects in these types of structures as per the reports [44,
45] on the distribution of excess matrix flaws in woven fiber-reinforced composites.
When the fibre count binder was low, the resin-rich flaws were reduced. Mechan-
ical carbon fiber/epoxy composites will be affected by the existence of resin-rich
flaws, and it was discovered that these defects would lessen the strain at which
a composite would fail. The demonstration of shearing and plasticity of compos-
ites were not significantly affected by micro-sized resin-rich flaws [46]. Large sized
excess matrix flaws, would result in localized stress leads to early failure of a material
[47] as a result, capability and operation cycle of structure will both be significantly
impacted by excess matrix, the primary fault of composites. Resin rich defect in
cured composite laminate is shown in Fig. 3.
3 Fibre Wrinkle and Local Mis-alignment Defects in Cured

Composites
Considering the structural applications of composite member, the key element is

fibre, which functions as a type of reinforcement. It serves as core member and
hold up the load transfer structure. As a result, the scaffold of the entire composite
material will become unstable due to manufacturing flaws in the fibre, which will
Fig. 3 Resin rich defect in

composite laminates
Fig. 4 Wrinkles in fibre
significantly diminish the material’s strength, modulus, stability, and lifetime [48].
It is simple to manufacture fibre curling, which results in localized distortion in fibre
alignments with the issues denoted as wrinkles in fibres, because the fibre shrinks
when the binders cure during the moulding of material structures. The main cause of
fibre wrinkle and waviness faults has been shown to be buckling of fibres, tows, and
plies [49]. At various stages of production, the creation of fibre misalignment given
the wide variety of manufacturing techniques and composite structures. For instance,
in RTM, dry fabric deposition could result in fibre misalignment. Additionally, resin
penetration during the injection stage may exacerbate this misalignment [50]. As a
result, dry textile materials’ drape and shear locking angles have an impact on fibre
wrinkling [51]. The impact of the layers of materials with barrier inside results in
the interlayer friction coefficient, which directly affects wrinkle formation [52], was
considerably influenced by the interaction of numerous parameters, including the
kind of thermoplastic modifier, fibre volume fraction, and moulding temperature.
Fibre Wrinkles in the cured sample is represented in Fig. 4.
The influence of stacking sequence of layers during development of composite
structure was revealed and demonstrated that co-stacking essential layers could boost
layer buckling resistance and prevent wrinkle formation [53]. Generation of local mis-
alignment of fibres has been shown to be influenced by various plies stacked inter-
nally within the system which supports the importance of manufacturing parameters
includes several curing factors which aims to reduce production flaws majorly [54].
Due to their effect on the structural features and dimensions of the composite, fibre
misalignment faults are particularly significant. This frequently causes assembly-
stage disruptions, resulting in expensive surface shaping steps [55]. The mechanical
properties of composite constructions are significantly harmed by wrinkle faults,
which frequently develop in numerous neighbouring layers and cause the structure
to break early [56]. These fibre misalignments present an additional risk and are
challenging to identify [57], which has a direct influence on quality, safety, and
economic efficiency. Interface flaws in composite materials. Different types of inter-
faces in composite structures, including those in between laminates and those in
between fibre and matrix. Interfaces are a distinctive structural form of composites.
Interfacial flaws may exist as a result of issues including unequal wetting and cures.
These flaws will weaken the entire structural properties of materials by exposing two
components that make up the interface to outside pressures independently.
4 Delamination Defects
Delamination is one of the major life-limiting failure types in composite laminates.

Advanced composite laminates are incredibly prone to delamination because of their
poor inter-ply shear and tensile strengths. The fracture toughness, is the amount of
external energy needed to cause a fracture and is connected to the onset of delam-
ination damage in composite laminates. The structural properties of composites
will be significantly impacted by delamination damage, leading to an early failure
under operating conditions [58]. The phenomena of delamination may occur due to
flaws production or the influence of outside elements throughout operational span of
composites. The insufficient curing techniques create uneven pressure on the various
locations, which results in delamination faults. Matrix cracking typically begins
before delamination and grows as a result [59]. This failure is also influenced by the
high interlaminar stresses, which are typically linked to the lowest through-thickness
strength. This happens because the composite must rely on its relatively weak matrix
to carry loads in that direction because the laminate plane’s fibres cannot support the
thickness [60]. The use of these materials could result in substandard functionality
due to this form of failure. Inadequate curing methods cause irregular pressure in
different spots, which causes delamination there. These delaminated patches have
the potential to significantly reduce the compressive strength of composite materials.
This happens as a result of the buckled laminated structure.
5 Other Challenges
The risk of making too many crucial design decisions during production before taking
the manufacturing process into account. It gets harder to execute design changes
without harming component performance or cost as design maturity rises. Reliance
on geometrically constrained isotropic material-based digital design technologies
that restrict the design optimization domain to material thickness and geometry. This
method ignores the main benefits and drawbacks of various production processes,
which has material/defects probability and shape limits because of continuous fibre
engaged in the process. Briefly, the black metal design methodology. Engineers use
the black metal design method for a variety of reasons. One benefit of the defined
rules is that the design process is simple. The difficulty lies in the fact that determining
a composite structure’s strength is more difficult than determining the strength of a
metal structure. This is due to the fact that the layered composites are constructed from
a number of plies, each having unique spatial extents and angles. Designers currently
use techniques and technologies that are either focused on metal manufacturing
processes or inadequately take into account composite manufacturing, making them
a deceptive solution. As a result, present tools either have an approach that is too
general or too component-specific. Basically, the black metal design philosophy.
Engineers use the black metal design method for a variety of reasons. One benefit of
the defined rules is that the design process is simple. The difficulty lies in the fact that
determining a composite structure’s strength is more difficult than determining the
strength of a metal structure. This is due to the fact that the layered composites are
constructed from a number of plies, each having unique spatial extents and angles.
5.1 Design for Manufacturing; New Challenge
Two issues for composites result from the DFM method’ need that manufacturing
restrictions be known at the time of design generation. Creating for innovative manu-
facturing methods: if the production restrictions are not well understood and the
design uses a novel manufacturing material or technique. Best practises when using
digital tools: if the design was produced using digital tools intended for use with a
different method or material. In the framework of DFM, a strategy for using digital
design tools is necessary. Understanding the aforementioned difficulties gives the
current issue a solid foundation. We will delve deeper into the most cutting-edge
response to such difficulties in the next blogs.
6 Conclusion
By combining the different difficult aspects that cause manufacturing flaws in lami-
nated, woven, braided, and additively made composites, this chapter provides a prog-
nosis for composite manufacturing. The occurrence of residual stress, the develop-
ment of voids in fibres reinforced with various categories of polymers, and their
impact on cured samples are discussed as manufacturing flaws. The risk of making
too many crucial design decisions during production before taking the manufacturing
process into account. It gets harder to execute design changes without harming
component performance or cost as design maturity rises. Reliance on geometri-
cally constrained isotropic material-based digital design technologies that restrict
the design optimization domain to material thickness and geometry. This method
ignores the main benefits and drawbacks of various production processes, which has
material/defects probability and shape limits because of continuous fibre engaged
in the process. In the study that develops the alternative model to assess perfor-
mance based on density compensation while comparing the modified fibres with
neat reinforcements and also with defects associated with 3-D printing of compos-
ites, resin rich content in the manufacturing of composite structures also encountered.
The main problems are the possibility of delamination, the extremely shortens the
tool lifespans, and the extraction of emerging dust particles. The entire composites
manufacturing process chain must be addressed to find a solution to these issues,
starting with the machine concept, process parameters, component quality, and tools
involved.
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Composites Science and Technology

Satish Babu Boppana

K. Palani Kumar S. Ramesh

ISSN 2662-1819 ISSN 2662-1827 (electronic)

Paper in this product is recyclable.

Introduction to the World of Composites

Case Study and Applications of Composite Materials in Various

Various Methods of Processing MMCs, PMCs and Ceramic

Manufacturing Particulate and Fiber Reinforced Composites

Evaluation of Mechanical Properties of Composites Involving

Synthesis and Characterization of Al/MWCNT Composites

Machining Challenges of Ceramic Matrix Composites

Polymer Matrix Composites: Machining Challenges

Processing of Composites: Challenges

Mithun Vinayaka Kulkarni and Satish Babu Boppana

Keywords Composites · Carbon fibres · Corrosion resistance · Coatings · Case

2 Composite Manufacturing Processes

Thermoplastic resins are not cross-

Fig. 1 Types of resins

Reinforcements may be orientated to match end-product loads and user design

Fig. 2 Reinforcement types [7, 10]

3.2.1 Reinforcement Forms

Reinforcements come in different shapes and sizes to accommodate several manu-

3.3 Additives and Fillers

To increase the utility of polymers, improve their processability, or lengthen the

3.3.2 Initiators, Promoters and Inhibitors

Composites may be used in places where traditional materials would deterio-

5 Applications of Composite Materials

5.2 Space Application

a ceramic matrix in ceramic matrix composites. Of these materials, carbon–carbon

5.4 Biomedical Composites

These composites have found application in healthcare. Their medical applica-

6.1 Boeing 787 Dreamliner

The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is a twin-engine, long-range aircraft with a wide-body

6.2 Biomaterial for Tissue Engineering

6.3 Sandwich Composites in Boat Building

35. Nagavally RR (2016) Composite materials—history, types, fabrication techniques, advantages,

Satish Babu Boppana and N. Gopalakrishnan

Keywords Structural composites · Applications · Natural fibers · Carbon fibers

A structural composite usually relates to the combination of both homogeneous and

A laminar composite has 2 dimensional sheets which possess high strength as in

2 Various Types of Composites Used in Structural

2.1 Carbon/Glass Fibre Reinforced Composites

2.2 Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composite for Repair,

2.3 Green Composites Being Used as Structural Composites

2.4 Hybrid Composites for Structural Applications

2.5 SiC-Matrix Composites for Thermo-Structural

2.6 Composites in Structural Automotive Applications

Leaf springs made up of composites can be found to successfully take up fatigue.

2.7 Energy Storage in Structural Composites

S. M. Sanjay Kumar and S. Tilak kumar

Keywords Natural composites · Mechanical properties · Sandwiched layer · Jute

A composite material is built from combination of two or more distinct materials

S. M. Sanjay Kumar (B) · S. Tilak kumar

Researchers [1–6] have made eco-friendly natural fabric sandwiched laminated

3 Materials and Methodology

Table 1 Comparison between natural and synthetic fibers

Table 2 Properties of sisal fiber