# The basic communications system has:-Transmitter: The sub-system that takes the information signal

and processes it prior to transmission. The transmitter modulates the information onto a carrier signal,
amplifies the signal and broadcasts it over the channel. Channel: The medium which transports the
modulated signal to the receiver. Air acts as the channel for broadcasts like radio. May also be a wiring
system like cable TV or the Internet. Receiver: The sub-system that takes in the transmitted signal from
the channel and processes it to retrieve the information signal. The receiver must be able to discriminate
the signal from other signals which may using the same channel (called tuning), amplify the signal for
processing and demodulate (remove the carrier) to retrieve the information. It also then processes the
information for reception (for example, broadcast on a loudspeaker).

#Modulation Method Classification :- Modulation is the process of converting data into electrical signals
optimized for transmission. Modulation techniques are roughly divided into four types: Analog
modulation, Digital modulation, Pulse modulation , and Spread spectrum method.Analog modulation is
typically used for AM, FM radio, and short-wave broadcasting.Digital modulation involves transmission of
binary signals (0 and 1).Digital modulation involves transmission of binary signals (0 and 1).This method
is divided into single carrier modulation, by which the carrier occupies the entire bandwidth (i.e.
amplitude, frequency, and phase), and a multicarrier scheme that modulates and transmits different
data on multiple carriers.In addition, there is a pulse modulation technique used to change the pulse
width and spread spectrum method that spreads the signal energy over a wide band.

#Modulation Method Definitions :- In wireless communication, information is transmitted by encoding

#What is Modulation? :- Two signals are involved in the modulation process. Message signals are also
known as baseband signals. Baseband signals are the band of frequencies representing the original
signal. This is the signal to be transmitted to the receiver. The frequency of such a signal is usually low.
The other signal involved in this is a high-frequency sinusoidal wave. This signal is called the carrier
signal. The frequency of the carrier signals is almost always higher than that of the baseband signal. The
amplitude of the baseband signal is transferred to the high-frequency carrier. Therefore, modulation can
be defined as , The process of superimposing a low-frequency signal on a high-frequency carrier
signal.or,The process of varying the RF carrier wave in accordance with the information in a low-
frequency signalSuch a higher frequency carrier wave can travel farther than the baseband signal. But
that’s not the only advantage of modulation. In the next section, we will discuss the various advantages
of modulation.There are three types of modulation: 1 Amplitude Modulation, 2.Frequency Modulation,
3.Phase Modulation

#What is TDM? :- The term TDM is an acronym for Time Division Multiplexing. It is a type of multiplexing
technique. It deals with digital signals (which are like analog signals). The synchronization pulse is very
crucial in TDM. For all the signals TDM works with, it shares the timescale for them. There are mainly
two types of TDM: - Asynchronous TDM , Synchronous TDM.

#What is FDM?:- The term FDM is an abbreviation for Frequency Division Multiplexing. It is a type of
multiplexing technique that one can use in various analog systems. We require a guard band in the case
of FDM. Its spectral efficiency is also pretty low. The bandwidth (B) in an FDM gets committed to various
sources.
#Theory of Amplitude Modulation:- Transmitting information directly with a signal is a complicated task.
Because several factors degrade the quality of message signal over transmission, resulting in a highly
degraded signal to the receiver. That is why modulation was introduced.The easiest way of modulating a
message signal is amplitude modulation. In this, only the carrier wave amplitude is modified. It will not
change the frequency and phase, etc.In amplitude modulation, the modulating signal and the message
signal need to be transmitted. After modulation of these two signals, we get an amplitude modulated
wave. This wave has a time-varying amplitude, having a similar shape as a message signal, called an
envelope.
Amplitude Modulation:- A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is the
baseband message signal, which contains the information. This wave has to be modulated.According to
the standard definition, “The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal.” Which means, the amplitude of the carrier signal containing no
information varies as per the amplitude of the signal containing information, at each instant. This can be
well explained by the following figures.
he first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal. The next one is the carrier wave,
which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. While, the last one is the resultant
modulated wave. It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave, are
interconnected with an imaginary line. This line helps recreating the exact shape of the modulating
signal. This imaginary line on the carrier wave is called as Envelope. It is the same as that of the message
signal.

Modulation:-The information signal can rarely be transmitted as is, it must be processed. In order to use
electromagnetic transmission, it must first be converted from audio into an electric signal. The
conversion is accomplished by a transducer. After conversion it is used to modulate a carrier signal.A
carrier signal is used for two reasons: To reduce the wavelength for efficient transmission and reception
(the optimum antenna size is ½ or ¼ of a wavelength). A typical audio frequency of 3000 Hz will have a
wavelength of 100 km and would need an effective antenna length of 25 km! By comparison, a typical
carrier for FM is 100 MHz, with a wavelength of 3 m, and could use an antenna only 80 cm long.To allow
simultaneous use of the same channel, called multiplexing. Each unique signal can be assigned a
different carrier frequency (like radio stations) and still share the same channel. The phone company
actually invented modulation to allow phone conversations to be transmitted over common lines. The
process of modulation means to systematically use the information signal (what you want to transmit) to
vary some parameter of the carrier signal. The carrier signal is usually just a simple, single-frequency
sinusoid (varies in time like a sine wave).

The basic sine wave goes like V(t) = Vo sin (2 p f t + f) where the parameters are defined below:-V(t) the
voltage of the signal as a function of time.Vo the amplitude of the signal (represents the maximum value
achieved each cycle)f the frequency of oscillation, the number of cycles per second (also known as Hertz
= 1 cycle per second) the phase of the signal, representing the starting point of the cycle.

To modulate the signal just means to systematically vary one of the three parameters of the signal:
amplitude, frequency or phase. Therefore, the type of modulation may be categorized as either

AM: amplitude modulation

FM: frequency modulation or

PM: phase modulation

#AM:-Amplitude modulation is the simplest of the three to understand. The transmitter just uses the
information signal, Vm(t) to vary the amplitude of the carrier, Vco to produce a modulated signal,
VAM(t). Here are the three signals in mathematical form:- Information: Vm(t)

Carrier: Vc(t) = Vco sin (2 p fc t + f )

AM: VAM(t) = { Vco + Vm(t) }sin (2 p fc t + f)

Here, we see that the amplitude term has been replaced with the combination of the original amplitude
plus the information signal. The amount of modulation depends on the amplitude of the information
signal. This is usually expressed as a ratio of the maximum information signal to the amplitude of the
carrier. We define:Modulation Index :- m = MAX(Vm(t) )/ Vco.If the information signal is also a simple
sine wave the modulation index has a simple form:m = Vmo/Vco The interpretation of the modulation
index, m, may be expressed as: The fraction (percentage if multiplied by 100) of the carrier amplitude
that it varies by. If m = 0.5, the carrier amplitude varies by 50 % above and below its original value. If m=
1.0 then it varies by 100%.Here is a typical AM signal, showing the parts. Note that the information
modulates the envelope of the carrier signal.
Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver TRF :-

or
#Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):-It is the simplest form of Pulse Modulation. In this type of
modulation, each sample is made proportional to the amplitude of the signal at the instant of sampling.
The PAM signal follows the amplitude of the original signal, as the signal traces out the path of the whole
wave. Here a signal which is sampled at Nyquist rate can be reconstructed by passing it through an
efficient Low Pass Filter (LPF) with exact cutoff frequency. It is very easy to generate and demodulate
PAM. This technique transmits the data by encoding in the amplitude of a series of signal pulses.

#There are two types of PAM.

1]Single Polarity PAM: A fixed DC level is added to the signal so that the signal is always positive.

2] Double Polarity PAM: Here the pulses are both positive and negative.
What is the Sampling Theorem?:- The sampling theorem states that a continuous-time signal needs to
be uniformly sampled at a minimum rate in order to recover or reconstruct the original signal.

Sampling Theorem Formula :- If x(t) is a low-pass continuous-time signal with a band limit such that
𝑥(ω)=0 for ω≥ωmax is represented in the form of its samples.Then x(t) can be recovered in its original
form if the sampling frequency is greater than or equal to twice the maximum frequency of the message
signal x(t).If ωs≥2ω𝑚𝑎𝑥 (Nyquist sampling rate condition);x(nTs) = x(t), n=0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ……Here Ts is the
sampling period (sec/sample).The Nyquist sampling rate condition can also be written as
𝑓𝑠=1𝑇𝑠≥𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥𝜋 ..Here fsis the sampling frequency (sample/second).If the Nyquist sampling rate
condition is satisfied, then the original signal x(t) can be recovered by passing the sampled signal through
an ideal low pass filter with the frequency response H(ω)=Ts; when -ωs/2<ω<ωs/2and equal to zero
elsewhere.

What are the Types of Sampling?:- To convert the continuous-time analog signal into the appropriate
discrete signal the initial step is to consider the samples of the given analog signal x(t) at uniform times
𝑡=𝑛𝑇𝑠x(nTs) = x(t)|t=nTs; n is an integer Here Ts is the sampling period.We can do the sampling in
different ways like 1] Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), and 2]Ideal impulse sampling.