Lecture 4: Semiconductor

Lasers

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.1

Semiconductor Optical Sources
 The optical sources practically used in optical communications are based on
semiconductor devices
 The generated optical signal is to be efficiently coupled to the output optical fiber
 Other kinds of sources (non-semiconductor) and/or free space coupling is sometimes
done in R&D labs, but only for advanced and prototypal research
 All commercial sources comes in very compact packages, and are fiber pigtailed in the
factory
 Pigtailing and packaging is one of the most critical and expensive issues for these
devices
Fiber Pigtail

Laser Package

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.2

Semiconductor Optical Sources

Light Emitting Diode (LED) Multimode Laser Diode Single Mode Laser Diode

λ λ λ
λ0 λ0 λ0

Δλ ≈ 30-100 nm Δλ ≈ 10 nm Δλ ≈ .01 nm

The linewidth, Δλ, is often measured at the full width half maximum point (FWHM)

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.3

Characteristics

Characteristic Description
Number of longitudnal Number of optical frequencies laser emits. Plays a key role in both
modes laser cost and how fiber dispersion will limit link bit rate.
Side Mode Suppression A measure of how good a single mode laser is.
Ratio (SMSR)
Threshold current The minimum current required to turn on the laser. Low values are
key to decrease transmitter power dissipation
Laser Noise A measure of how random the optical laser output is. This
characteristic can determine the ultimate performance of a link.
Linewidth A measure of how noisy the laser. Plays a key role in how dispersion
and crosstalk limits the transmission bit rate and capacity.
Wavelength Determines the dispersion and loss operating points in the fiber and
other network components.
Modulation Bandwidth Determines the bit rate that can be attained by current modulation.
Chirp A measure of how the optical output frequency changes with current
modulation. Impacts transmission bit rate.
Linearity Ability to reproduce and analog signal with low distortion.
Fiber Output Power Power launched into fiber to achieve high signal-to-noise ratio.
Wavelength Tunability The ability to tune the output wavelength over a wide range.
Long Term Stability In terms of wavelength, output power and other key factors.

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.4

 Basic Laser Theory

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.5

 Optical Emission
 E2 is the bottom of the conduction band and E1 is the top of the valance band

Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

E2 E2
hν
hν hν
hν
E1 E1
•Radiative recombination •Incident photon causes
radiative recombination
•Photon spontaneously
emitted with energy •Two photons with
Ephoton= hν= E2 - E1 same characteristics
created

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.6

Forward Biased Semiconductor p-n Junctions

Barrier has been

reduced by forward bias

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.7

Optical Gain in Semiconductors (1)

 For plane wave propagation in a complex medium, with k0 the free space wave
vector and n’ and n’’ the real and imaginary part of the refractive index
respectively
! = " 0 ( n# + jn## )
$ 2%
"0 = =
c &
 The optical gain (loss) for a plane wave propagating in a semiconductor in
the z-direction can be approximated by
1 dI
g = !" = = 2# 0 n$$
I dz

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.8

Optical Gain in Semiconductors (2)
 The band structure and electron probability distribution is given by

!1
( " E ! EFc % +
Wc (E) = *1 + exp $ '& -
) # k B T ,
!1
( " E ! EFv % +
Wv (E) = *1 + exp $ '& -
) # k B T ,
2 /
N = N c 0 Z c ( E )Wc (E)dE
. Ec
2 Ev
P = N v 0 Z v ( E )[1 ! Wv (E)] dE
. !/
Density of states
Carrier density

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.9

Optical Gain in Semiconductors (3)

 Optical gain by stimulated emission for a photon of energy hν exceeds

band to band absorption if
EFc ! EFv " h# = E2 ! E1 " Eg

 The gain is wavelength dependent with a peak gain that shifts as a function
of carrier density.

Can approximate
gp as a function of
N over small
range
g p = a ( N ! N tr )

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.10

Optical Gain in Semiconductors (4)

 The injected carrier density N is determined by the laser current I, the

recombination rate R(N) and the active region volume V
I = qR(N )V
N
R(N ) = + BN 2 + CN 3
!s
N
!n =
R(N )
where A=N/τs is the linear non-radiative recombination rate, B is the
radiative bimolecular (band-to-band) recombination rate and C is the non-
radiative Auger recombination rate
 Note: We will see that while the gain is coupled to the carrier density, the
carrier density is coupled to the photon density and therefore to the gain.
This coupling will lead to nonlinear gain or gain saturation, as will be
discussed later in the carrier rate equations.
ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.11
Coupling between Optical Gain and Phase

 The Kramers-Kronig relations tell us

that changes in the in the imaginary (Δ
g) and real parts of the refractive index
(Δn) are related by

c & !g(# " )

!n" (# ) = P' 2 2
d# "
$ 0 #" % #
 The coupling between gain and phase
is described by the linewidth
enhancement (or alpha) factor

#n$
!H = " #N
#n$$
#N

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.12

Optical and Carrier Confinement
➯ A heterostructure is a p-n junction between materials with dissimilar bandgaps
➯ Used to confine: Carriers (efficiency) and Photons (waveguide)

P-type N-type
Injected electrons
Γa = % overlap between
------ optical mode and active
Electron
Energy

waveguide
+++++++

Injected holes
Active
Bandgap

Waveguide
Energy

Optical Mode

n1
Refractive

Δn
Index

n2 n2

Optical Mode

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.13

Laser Rate Equations
➯ Define the laser output power P(t), the current I(t), the active gain volume V, and
the carrier and photon densities N(t) and S(t) respectively.
➯ The dynamics of carrier and photon density in the semiconductor laser cavity is
governed by couple rate equations

Carrier density Optical gain

Nonlinear gain
dN I N
= ! ! G(N ) # (1 ! $ # S) # S Spontaneous emission factor
Photon density dt qV " n
dS S % a & sp N
= % a # G(N ) # (1 ! $ # S) # S ! +
dt "p "n
Optical confinement factor
Carrier lifetime
Photon lifetime

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.14

Nonlinear Gain (Gain Compression)
➯ Gain saturation (recovery) is governed by the rate that carriers can be replenished.
➯ Band to band is governed by (τr)
➯ Carriers cool from levels within band to band-edge by giving up energy to phonons (τDCH)
➯ Carriers scatter off one another, changing momentum and energy along the band-edge (τSHB)

1 1 1
!= + +
" r " DCH " SHB
" r : 1ns, " DCH : 650 fs, " SHB : 50 fs
Pout

linear nonlinear

Slope = G0
Pin
τr τDCH τSHB

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.15

Steady State Solutions to Rate Equations
➯ Setting the rate equations equal to zero ➯ At and above threshold, with non-zero S and
assuming linear operation (ε = 0)
dN dS
= =0
dt dt I R(N th ) I ! qVR(N th ) I ! I th
S= ! = =
➯ and the cavity photon density S=0, we get the below qVG(N th ) G(N th ) qV " total qV " total
(at) threshold condition
I th N th
=
qV ! n S N
qVN th Slope = ΔS/ΔI
I th = = qVR(N th )
!n
➯ using the linear gain relation, and at threshold
gain = total losses
Nth

g p (N )
N = N tr +
a
g p (N th ) ! total
N th = N tr + = N tr + Sth
a a I
Ith
LED Region Lasing Region

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.16

Small Signal Modulation
➫ Relaxation oscillation: Is due to an interaction between the carrier and photon density

Interaction dN I N
Carrier Photon = ! ! G(N ) # (1 ! $ # S) # S
density (N)
dt qV " n
density (S)
Stimulated dS S % a & sp N
emission = % a # G(N ) # (1 ! $ # S) # S ! +
dt "p "n
➫Define the relaxation frequency
&G
P
2 2
! r = ! n " # $ 2% &N
➫ Where : 'p
➫ α = damping constant. Increases with increasing photon density in steady state.
➫ ωr increases with increasing bias current.
S EO ( f ) Increasing bias current

1
!
"H

f
" r / 2!
ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.17
Large Signal (Digital) Modulation
 Pulse response of a directly-driven semiconductor laser
 Laser turn-on delay τD is determined
by drive circuit/laser combination. I in (t )
 Determined by the “zero” current
level (below or above threshold)
t
2 # Pon &
! on = % ln ( Envelope is determined
2" fr %$ Poff (' by laser damping
coefficient γ
 Want α to dampen out relaxation
oscillation well within the bit
Ringing at
interval. relaxation
 Choose Ibias to set frequency and oscillation
magnitude of relaxation oscillation frequency ωR
relative to bit period t
"# P0 τon
! =
V $h%

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.18

Laser Chirp
 Another important parameter is the laser frequency chirp (frequency shift)
 Chirp will limit the bit-rate-distance product that a link can support
 Chirp occurs when directly driving a laser, the change in carrier density changes
the effective index of refraction, and thus the oscillation optical frequency
 This can be interpreted as a bit-synchronous phase or frequency modulation

Optical Intensity
(field envelope)

t
Actual Optical
Field Example of
increasing
frequency

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.19

SC Laser direct modulation

➫ As the laser current is changed between the low and high states, the laser carrier density
changes and there is a resulting time dependent phase change.
➫ The time dependent phase changes leads to an instant frequency shift called frequency
chirp. 2

$ ) 1 dP 2&' , 1.5
!" (t) = # + !P(t) Normalized output optical pulse power
4% +* P dt V (h" .-
1
(1) (2)
0.5 Blue
(1) Dynamic chirp: wavelength Shift
shift associated with on-off 0
modulation Red
-0.5
Shift
(2) Adiabatic chirp: Steady-
state emission frequency Normalized frequency chirping
difference between on and -1
off states
-1.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Time (ns) Lecture 4, Slide.20

 Multi- and Single-Mode Lasers

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.21

Fabry-Perot Cavities (1)
➱ The equivalent of an electronic comb filter, but for optical frequencies, the Fabry-Perot (FP)
cavity is used for feedback in lasers and as optical filters
➱ For wavelength dependent mode gain (Γga) and ➱ Defining the total cavity loss as ! total = ! i + ! m
internal optical losses (αi), define net gain gnet = Γ ➱ Then gc = geff - αtotal = 0
ga- αI. ➱ And the resonance condition for the cavity is
➱ The propagation constant for a plane wave ! =
2 n" ( ! ) L
eff n

propagating in the cavity is ! = " 0 neff# + j gnet

n
N
2 ! N2
➱ The forward and backward propagating waves #!m = !n $ !n +1 ;
+ + g z
2ng,eff L
can be written as S (z) = S (0)e net
ng,eff = effective group index
S ! (z) = S ! (0)e! gnet z
Cavity material
➱ The phase matching condition for steady state with index of
oscillation requires all amplitudes and phases for Pin(λ) refraction n
each round trip to constructively interfere r1r2 e!2 j " L = 1
1 1
➱ For end mirror loss ! m = ln Pout(λ)
2L R1 R2

➱The oscillation condition becomes

2 j ! L + " m L = 2 j# N, where N is an integer denoting longitudnal mode number L

➱ Defining cavity roundtrip gain gc = gnet - αm Partially Partially

reflecting mirror reflecting mirror
➱The real part of oscillation condition gives gc = 0 (R1) (R2)
➱And !ga " # i " # m = 0
ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.22
Fabry-Perot Cavities (2)

δλ = c2/2nlν2
0
-5
Power Transfer Function (dB)

-10
R=0.75
-15
-20
-25
R=0.95
-30
-35
-40
R=0.99
-45
l = 100µm, n = 3.511
-50
1.545 1.55 1.555
Wavelength (µm)

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.23

Multimode Fabry-Perot SC Lasers
Ibias

Light Light

n≈3.5
l
FP cavity modes SC optical gain
0 0

-5 -5

Relative Output Power

-10 -10

-15 -15

-20 -20

-25 -25

-30 -30

-35 -35

-40 -40

-45 -45

-50
1.535 1.54 1.545 1.55 1.555 1.56 1.565 -50
wavelength (µm) 1.535 1.54 1.545 1.55 1.555 1.56 1.565
x 10-6 wavelength (µm) x 10-6

ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.24

FP Laser Output Characteristics

•1.3 µm multimode lasers are good for bit rates < 2Gbs and distances up to 100 km.
ECE228B, Prof. D. J. Blumenthal Lecture 4, Slide.25